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CIE616- Experimental Methods in Structural Engineering A.M.
Reinhorn
Lecture 7

Instrumentation (2)

Motion Measurement (Time)

1. Acceleration, velocity, and displacement instruments

2. Referenced transducers

3. Non-referenced transducers

4. Noise and noise elimination

5. Initial data processing

Motion Characteristics

Displacement
( )
it
-
1
t ()= (t)e dt
2

Velocity ( )
t ()=+i()

Acceleration ( )
2
t ()=- ()

Lecture 7-2-1
CIE616- Experimental Methods in Structural Engineering A.M.Reinhorn
Lecture 7

Instrument types

Active vs. Passive

Analogue/ Digital Instruments

Analogue output is in the form of a continuous current or voltage
Digital output is in multiples of quantified voltage

Static Characteristics of Instruments
Accuracy ( error, this is random)
Tolerance (maximum acceptable error)
Range/span (maximum-minimum values)
Bias (constant error over full range)
Linearity (output ~ measured quantity over all range)
Sensitivity ( calibration factor)
Sensitivity to environment (zero or sensitivity drift)
Hysteresis
Dead space
Resolution (lower
limit of measured
quantity)
Lecture 7-2-2
Lecture 7

Dynamic Characteristics of Instruments

n n-1
o o o
n n-1 1 0 o
n n-1
d q d q dq
a +a +..........+a +a q =b q
dt dt dt
0 i

q
i
= measured quantity

q
o
= output reading

a
i
= calibration constants

Zero Order Instrument
0 o 0 i
a q =b q

0
o i
0
b
q = q =Kq
a
i
K = calibration factor or instrument sensitivity

First Order Instrument

o
1 0 o
dq
a +a q =b
dt
0 i
q
i

1 o 0 o 0
a Dq +a q =b q

( )
0
i
0 i
o i
1
0
b
q
a Kq
q = = =K t q
l+D
a
l+ D
a

= a
0
/a
1
time constant at 63% final reading

Lecture 7-2-3
Lecture 7

Example I: Thermocouple

t
-
15
T=Ce

Example II: Piezoelectric Displacement Transducer

Second Order Instruments (non-reference motion transducer)

2
o o
2 1 0 o
2
d q dq
a +a +a q =b
dt dt
0 i
q
0 0
K=b a

;
Lecture 7-2-4
0
2
a
=
a
;
1
0 2
a
=
2a a

o
2
i
2
q K
=
D D q
1+ +2

Lecture 7
Displacement Transducers Referenced

Resistive Potentiometer

Lecture 7-2-5
out AC i
e AB
V R AC R
= = =
V AB R R
t

out e
AC
V = V
AB

out e
1
V =V d
AB

Note that the voltage reading V
out
is dependant on the resistance of the
voltmeter (R
m
).

Assume V
M
measured by voltmeter

V
out
result of displacement

( )
( )
( )
2
i t i
0 M
2
t i t m t i
R R -R
V -V = V =
R R R +R R - R
; R
t
= R
AB
, R
i
= R
AC

( )
( )
( )
2
i t i
0 M
2
t i t m t i
R R -R
V -V = V =
R R R +R R - R

to reduce (V) to zero or very small requires (R
m
/ R
t
) large
(See potentiometers pages.)
Lecture 7
Linear Variable Differential Transducer

s s
V =Vsint

( )
A a
V =K sin t-

( )
B b
V =K sin t-

K
a
and K
b
are proportional to the number of
windings around the iron core.

( ) ( )
out A B a b
V =V -V = K -K sin t-

( )
a s start core
K =V x -x
( )
b s start core
K =V x +x

out s
V V position

Note that this system requires an alternating current/voltage supply, as well
as noise isolation.

It works on the principle of mutual inductance; an AC voltage across the
terminals of the primary coil induces a voltage of the same frequency in each
of the two secondary coils. When centered the secondary voltages are equal,
but a positive displacement of the core leads to one voltage being greater
than that of the secondary coil.

i.e.: The change in voltage is proportional to the change in displacement.
(See LVDT cutaway page)

http://nees.buffalo.edu/docs/labmanual/SEESLLabManual.pdf
Lecture 7-2-6
Lecture 7
Ultrasonic Transducers

Pulses of acoustic energy
are transmitted at high
frequency, the reflections
off a target object are
detected and the time of
flight is used to determine
the distance.

The target must not touch the rod such that a sufficient acoustic reflection is
produced, hence the target being magnetic so that it can slide on the rod
without touching it.

Ultrasonic transducers can work over a wide frequency range, from below
8kHz to 200kHz.

Other range sensors include:

Piezoelectric Transducers

Capacitive Transducers

Laser Sensors

Lecture 7-2-7
Lecture 7
Non-reference Sensors:
Accelerometers: Seismometers:
2
1
0
1 0 1
2
2
2 2
1 1
0 0
x =x

1- + 2

1
-1 0
2
1
0
=tan
1-

Displacement Response of Instrument

For 0.7 /
0
2
Lecture 7-2-8
Lecture 7

Accelerometers-Seismic and else

Acceleration Response of Seismic Instrument
= 0.7 /
0
< 0.5

In Linear Scale

Lecture 7-2-9
Lecture 7
Ranges of Operation

Displacement Measurements

Acceleration Measurements

Resistive Accelerometers

Calibration:
Upside down 2g

Piezoelectric Accelerometers

Lecture 7-2-10
Calibration:
Need reference and vibrator

Lecture 7
Piezoresistive Accelerometers
(See manufacturers information-PCB, Kiesler Instruments)

They have the advantage that they can be conditioned by a strain gauge
conditioner.

(See accelerometers pages)


Piezoelectric Force Transducer (dynamic instruments)

Definition: Self-generating piezoelectric force transducers are stiff, elastic
structures that convert deflection caused by a force into electrical signals
more convenient for
recording.
Lecture 7-2-11

The quartz sensing elements
have a low thermal response
and a low frequency response.

Piezoelectric force
transducers are modeled as a
classical spring-mass seismic
system.

Lecture 7
Coordinate Tracking System Image technology


Lecture 7-2-12
Lecture 7

SEESL / NEES Coordinate tracking system: Krypton K600
Capabilities (abbreviated):

Measurement system / probes capabilities:

1 LED 3 degrees of freedom
3 (or more) LED 6 degrees of freedom

Sampling rate:

Rate = 3000 / # of LED (in samples per second)
i.e. for 20 active LEDs the Rate = 150 samples per second
for 50 active LEDs the Rate = 60 samples per second

Field of view for K600:

Minimum distance (D) from camera 1.5 m; Maximum distance (D)
from camera xx m.
The field of view is defined as noted below (H = height of image, W-
width of image, D = the distance from which the max view can be
captured). H and W can be interchanged. Here are the manufacturer
specified field views:

0 H=0.9m, W=0.5m D
min
= 1.5 m
I H=1.7m, W=1.8m D
max
= 3.5 m
II H=2.4m, W=3.3m D
max
= 5.0 m
III H=2.6m, W=3.6m D
max
= 6.0 m

Additional performance limitations see below:

Lecture 7-2-13
Lecture 7

Lecture 7-2-14
Lecture 7
Lecture 7

Lecture 7-2-15 Lecture 7-2-15
Lecture 7
Force Transducers (Load Cells: ) See Part 1 of Instrumentation

Strain Gauge Load Cell

Lecture 7-2-16

F ~
gauge

~ R
gauge

Definition: When subjected to a force, a str
easurement types:
Axial loads
Bending moments

Shear forces

heatstone bridge: ~ R across bridge
ain gauge network produces an
electrical signal proportional to the deflected shape ().

M

W

Lecture 7
Types of Load cell Shapes

Depends on desired force measurement:

Axial Tension / Compression (uniform normal strain);

Solid Cylinder

Tendons

Instrumented bar

Shear Forces

Thin-walled cylindrical tube without stress
concentrations (shear stress will be constant
across the cross-section)

A thick ring must be avoided, as shear stress
will not be evenly distributed.

Moments (linear normal strain)

Lecture 7-2-17
Lecture 7

Measurement Noise

noise
measured
V
small 60dB. or less
V

Elimination of High Frequency Noise

Use of low pass (or notch) filters.

Averaging signal in high frequency (filter or digital).

(integrate (for averaging) procedures)

The best filtering and noise elimination is done digitally.

Lecture 7-2-18
Lecture 7

Signal Conditioning

Provide electric source

Amplify signal

Provide balancing resistor

Provide shunt calibration (a calibrated resistor which produces a
simulated deviation as a given strain)

Provide filtering capabilities


Basic Electrical Circuits
Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp)

( )
0 1
V =A V-V
2

where A = Amplifier Gain (usually very large)
Current Input and Output is assumed negligible (0)
Lecture 7-2-19
Lecture 7
Inverting Operational Amplifier

Assume input inverting voltage = V
-

Assume negligible current flowing into and out of the op-amp

i f
- -
0 i
i f
i +i =0
V -V V-V
+ =
Lecture 7-2-20
0
R R

The Op-Amp ( )
+ -
0 d
V =AV =A V -V =-AV
-

where A = Operational Gain (Amplification)
Lecture 7
Substituting for V
-
= -V
o
/A

0 0
i 0
i f
V V
+V +V
A A
+ =
R R
0

i
0
f i f
1 1 1 1 V
V + + =-
R A R R R

i

f
0 i
CL
i
R
-
V R
A = =
1
V
1+
A
Amplification of circuit:
i
i f
R
=
R +R
where = feedback fraction

Assume A >> 1
f
CL
i
R
A -
R
Approximate gain
f
0 i
i
R
V - V
R

=

Voltage ratio

Example: Example:

i.e. V
i
= 2 mV, R
i
= 200 ohms, R
f
= 2,000 ohms, A = 100,000; i.e. V
Find , loop gain, closed loop gain, and closed loop gain with A
tending to zero.
Find , loop gain, closed loop gain, and closed loop gain with A
tending to zero.
i
= 2 mV, R
i
= 200 ohms, R
f
= 2,000 ohms, A = 100,000;
Feedback fraction: Feedback fraction:
i
i f
R 200
= = =0.09091
R +R 200+2000

Loop gain = A = (110
5
) (0.09091) = 9090.91
Exact gain =
( )( )
f
i
CL
5
R
2000
-
-
R
200
A = =
1 1
1+ 1+
A 110 0.09091
= -9.9989
Approximate gain
f
CL
i
R 2000
A =- =- =-10
R 200
V
o
= -10 * V
i
= -20 mV
Voltage at amplifier:
- -7
0.020V
V = =210 =0.002
100000
=2 mV
Lecture 7-2-21
Lecture 7

Effect on Input Resistance

r
d
open-loop differential input resistance

A differential gain (of the operational amplifier)

Output resistance 0
V
i
and i
i
are assumed:
i f
i
d
V-V
i =
r

i
i f
R
=
R +R

V
f
= (feedback voltage) = V
0

0
A
V = V
1+A
i (from previous sheet)

f i
A
V = V
1+A

( )
( )
i i
i i
d d
A
V- V
1+A
1
i = = V
r r 1+A

( )
i
in d
i
V
R = = 1+A r
i

Lecture 7-2-22
Lecture 7
Non-Inverting Circuit

V
i
= input signal ground (non-inverting)

Feedback circuit (which consists of R
i
and R
f
) is arranged as a voltage
divider between output and input.

V
0
= AV
d
= A(V
i
-V
f
)

V
f
= feedback voltage = fraction of output voltage appearing across R
i

At this point, the current in or out of the operational amplifier tends to zero.

i
f 0
i f
R
V = V =V
R +R
0
(where = feedback factor)

( )
i f
0
CL
i i
A V-V
V A
A = = =
V V 1+ A

( )
i
i f
A
=

1+AR
R +R

( )
( )
i f
i
i f
i
R +R
R
=
1+ R +R
AR
when A
( )
i f
i
R +R
R

Lecture 7-2-23
Lecture 7

Effect on Output Resistance
0
out
r
R =
1+A

where r
0
= open loop operational amplifier output resistance

( )
x f
x f
x 0
o o
V - -AV
V AV
i i = =
r r
+

Lecture 7-2-24

f 0
V =V =V
x

x x
0 x
o o
V AV 1 A
i = = V
r r
+ +

o x
out
x
r V
R = =
i 1 A
+
(smaller)

To obtain amplification without a sign change, you can also use the
following:

i i
0 i
V R
= =
V R

Lecture 7

Integration Circuit
0
1
-V
V =
A

Lecture 7-2-25

i 1
1
V-V
i =
R

( )
0 1
2
d V -V
i = C
dt

1 2
i +i =0

( )
0 1
i 1
d V -V
V-V
+ C
R dt
=0

0
0
0
i
V
V
d V +
V+
A
A
+C =0
R dt

0 i
V V
+
RC ARC
0
0
V
d
dV A
+ +
dt dt

=0

as A

0 i
dV V
+ =
RC dt
0

t
0 i
0
1
V =- Vdt
RC

Lecture 7
Differentiation Circuit

Lecture 7-2-26
0
1
-V
V =
A

( )
i 1
1
d V-V
i =C
dt

0 1
2
V -V
i =
R

1 2
i +i =0

( )
i 1
0 1
d V-V
V -V
C 0
dt R
+ =

0
0
i
0
V
V
d V-
V -
A
A
C 0
dt R

+ =

0 i
dV dV
dt Adt
+
0 0
V V
RC ARC
+ + 0 =

i
0
1 dV
V =-
RC dt

Lecture 7

Summation Circuit

0
1
-V
V =
A

A 1
A
A
V V
i =
R

B 1
B
B
V V
i =
R

0
C
C
V V
i =
R
1

A B C
i +i +i =0

0 0 0
A B 0
A B C
V V V
V + V + V +
A A A
+ +
R R R
=0

as A

0 A B
A B C
V V V
+ + =
R R R
0

C C
0 A
A B
R R
V =- V - V
R R
B
B

0 A A B
V =C V -C V

Lecture 7-2-27
Lecture 7

Design a circuit that gives as output the response V
x
of the following
equation

x x x
V +aV +bV =cV

i

(See Negative Feedback and Operational Amplifier Linear Circuits)
Lecture 7-2-28
Lecture 7
Filter Circuits
A filter circuit passes a specified range of frequencies

1. Low Pass

2. High Pass

3. Bandwidth (Notch)

Cutoff frequency: Response down 3dB

These filters provide analogue
Lecture 7-2-29
noise reductions!!

See following page for some circuits

Attenuation = non-passing frequencies (reduced undesired output)

Measurement of attenuation (Output/Input)
Decibels = dB = 20 log (V
0
/V
i
)
V
0
/V
i dB
10.00 20
100.00 40
1,000.00 60
10,000.00 80
100,000.00 120

See: Background Information on Filter Circuits:

Lecture 7

Commercial Conditioners Amplifiers

Provides: Excitation
Balance
Bridge Completion
Amplification
Filtering

See: Vishay Conditioners Amplifiers
Lecture 7-2-30

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(where = feedback factor)

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