The Influence of General Perceptions of

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Journal of Management
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DOI: 10.1177/014920639502100101
1995 21: 1 Journal of Management
Kudisch
Jeffrey D. Facteau, Gregory H. Dobbins, Joyce E.A. Russell, Robert T. Ladd and Jeffrey D.
Motivation and Perceived Training Transfer
The influence of General Perceptions of the Training Environment on Pretraining
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Journal of Management
1995, Vol. 21, No. I, 1-25
The influence of General Perceptions of
the Training Environment on Retraining
Motivation and Perceived Training Transfer
Jeffrey D. Facteau
Gregory H. Dobbins
Joyce E. A. Russell
Robert T. Ladd
Jeffrey D. Kudisch
l%e University of Tennessee
The present study was conducted to determine whether trainees
general beliefs about training affect pretraining motivation and transfer
of training in a large-scale training curriculum. I n addition, the
influence of social support for training from four organizational
constituents (top management, supervisors, peers, and subordinates)
and task constraints in the work environment on pretraining
motivation and training transfer were evaluated. Nine hundred sixty-
seven managers and supervisors completed a questionnaire that
assessed 14 constructs. Structural equations analysis with LI SREL VI I
indicated that the overall reputation of training, intrinsic and
compliance incentives, organizational commitment, and three social
support variables (subordinate, supervisor, and top management
support) were predictive of pretraining motivation. I n addition,
pretraining motivation and subordinate, peer, and supervisor support
were predictive of managersperceived training transfer. Thesefindings
suggests that previous theory and research (e.g., Noe, 1986; Noe &
Schmitt, 1986) serve as a useful heuristic for predicting the effects of
general beliefs about training on training effectiveness. I mplications of
the-findings for future research and practice are discussed.
Recently, it has been estimated that organizations spend as much as $200 billion
annually on workforce training (McKenna, 1990). In the 1970s, the average
training expenditure per employee was approximately $75 to $100. Today, some
large corporations (e.g., IBM) budget as much as $2,000 annually per employee
on formal education and training (Wexley & Latham, 1991).
Not only do organizations today rely extensively on training, there is
considerable reason to believe that the significance of training for organizations
will continue to increase in the future. Several projected changes in the U. S.
Direct all correspondence to: Jeffrey D. Facteau, The University of Tennessee, Department of Management,
408 Stokely Management Center, Knoxville, TN 379964545.
Copyright Q 1995 by J AI Press Inc. 0149-2063
I
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2 FACTEAU, DOBBINS, RUSSELL, LADD, AND KUDISCH
labor force and work place are expected to account for this increased
importance. First, it is estimated that the proportion of entry-level youth will
decline and that middle-aged workers will represent a greater percentage of the
U. S. workforce. Second, there will continue to be a decline in the manufacturing
sector of the economy with a corresponding increase in the high technology,
service, and information sectors. Also, rapid technological development will
place greater demands on workers. In addition, the increased emphasis on
improving quality of services and products due to global competition is expected
to continue to change the way work is accomplished (e.g., more self-managed
work teams). Taken together, these changes will result in greater competition
for qualified entry-level employees and a need for organizations to better utilize
available labor. As such, organizations will need to enhance their recruitment
efforts to attract qualified entry-level employees and continually train and
retrain their current employees (c.f. Goldstein & Associates, 1989; Johnston &
Packer, 1987; London, 1989). Recently, some organizations have begun to takes
these initiatives (Ford, Major & Seaton, 1991).
Training Effectiveness
Given the significance of formal training programs for organizational
effectiveness, it is imperative that organizations design and implement training
programs in the most effective manner, and that they understand the factors
that contribute to training effectiveness. This is especially important given the
finding that only ten percent of training expenditures have been shown to result
in behavioral changes back on the job (Georgenson, 1982). In addition, a
frequent criticism of training practice and research is its susceptibility to fads
and its generally atheoretical approach (c.f. Campbell, 1971). For example,
some practitioners have attempted to increase the effectiveness of training by
utilizing sophisticated training techniques without regard for their actual need.
Others have focused on arranging the best training environment (e.g., Wexley,
1984). Without a theoretical basis for studying these techniques and training
environments, however, practitioners and researchers are often at a loss to
explain why training programs are effective or to predict their effectiveness in
other settings or for other trainees (Baldwin & Ford, 1988; Noe, 1986; Wexley
& Baldwin, 1986). Recognizing this situation in the training and development
literature, Tannenbaum and Yukl called for a paradigm shift to research
designed to understand . . .why, when, and for whom a particular type of
training is effective (1992, p. 433).
Recent attempts to understand the factors that influence training
effectiveness have suggested that pretraining motivation may influence
important training outcomes. For example, Baldwin, Magjuka and Loher
(1991) found that pretraining motivation was related to actual learning in a
training program designed to improve skills in conducting performance
appraisals and in providing feedback. Another study revealed that pretraining
motivation was related to performance in a classroom environment (Baldwin
& Karl, 1987). Finally, Mathieu, Tannenbaum, and Salas (1992) found that
JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT, VOL. 21, NO. I, 1995
PERCEPTIONS OF THE TRAINING ENVIRONMENT 3
pretraining motivation for a proofreading skills program predicted learning and
subsequent performance on a work sample test.
These studies indicate that pretraining motivation has an important
influence on the extent to which trainees actually learn the material presented
to them during a training program. Furthermore, the amount of learning that
occurs during training may influence other indicators of training effectiveness,
such as trainees behavioral changes on the job and other organizational criteria
(e.g., absenteeism, productivity) (c.f. Goldstein, 1993). Thus, because of its
relationship to these training outcomes, pretraining motivation appears to be
an important antecedent to training effectiveness.
While pretraining motivation may influence training effectiveness,
relatively little research has examined the factors which contribute to trainees
pretraining motivation. The purpose of the present study was to examine the
extent to which employees attitudes and beliefs about training influence their
pretraining motivation, and their perceptions of the extent to which they are
able to transfer training back to their job. Several predictors of these variables
were examined in the study, including training attitudes, individual attitudes,
and social support for learning and transfer.
Training Attitudes
Perceived training reputation. Prior to actually taking a training course,
an employee often has an expectation about the quality of the course and its
job relevance. Such expectations may be based upon past experiences with a
specific training program or may actually come from comments made by
coworkers who have already completed the training. If training is perceived as
a waste of time, employees may lack pretraining motivation irrespective of the
actual quality of the training program. In other words, the reputation of a
training program or training department should affect an employees pretraining
motivation. While other researchers have acknowledged the importance of
developing an understanding of factors that affect training motivation (e.g.,
Noe, 1986; Tannenbaum, Mathieu, Salas & Cannon-Bowers, 1991), research
has not examined the influence of the general reputation of training on
pretraining motivation. The first purpose of the present study was to test the
prediction that training reputation affects pretraining motivation.
Training incentives. Training motivation should be affected by the extent
to which training is rewarded in the organization. Noes (1986) model of training
effectiveness proposed that rewards resulting from successful completion of
training influence individuals motivation to attend training and to learn from
it. In the present study, we assessed three types of training incentives: intrinsic
incentives (the extent to which training meets internal needs or provides
employees with growth opportunities), extrinsic incentives (the extent to which
training results in tangible external rewards such as promotions, pay raises, and
higher performance evaluations), and compliance (the extent to which training
is taken because it is mandated by the organization).
Based upon the work by Noe (1986), we expected that intrinsic incentives
and extrinsic incentives would be positively associated with pretraining
motivation. However, compliance should be negatively related to training
motivation. That is, individuals attending training because they are required
to may be less motivated to learn in training. For example, Hicks and Klimoski
(1987) studied the effects of pa~icipation in a training decision. They found
that subjects who voluntarily participated in training had stronger beliefs that
the training was appropriate, were more committed to the decision to be trained,
and were more satisfied with the training than subjects who were required to
participate in training. More recently, Baldwin et al. (1991) found that subjects
who were able to attend the type of training that they had requested reported
higher motivation to learn than did subjects who were not assigned to the type
of training that they had selected.
I ndividual Attitudes
Career exploration andplanning. Employees who are exploring various
career options and are planning for future career accomplishments should be
motivated to learn during training. Individuals who are more career oriented
should recognize the importance of developing different skill sets and refining
their current skills. As a result, career exploration and career planning should
be positively related to pretraining motivation. This prediction was made by
Noe (1986) and has been supported by Williams, Thayer and Pond (1991).
However, in Noe and Schmitts (1986) and Mathieu et al.s (1992) studies,
career planning was positively, but not significantly, related to training
motivation, The discrepancies among these studies may be due to the manner
in which career planning was operationalized. Specifically, in the Williams et
al. study, a composite variable consisting of the two career measures and job
involvement was used, and thus the positive findings may have been due to
the contribution of any one of these three variables or some combination of
them, In the remaining two studies, career planning was directly assessed with
Goulds (1979) scale. Furthermore, Noe and Schmitts study utilized a sample
of only 44 individuals and hence probably had inadequate statistical power.
One goal of the current study was to resolve the conflicting findings from these
studies by directly examining the relationship between career planning and
pretraining motivation on a large sample using Goulds measure of career
planning.
Organizational commitment. Organizational commitment is the
relative strength of an individuals identification with and involvement in a
particular organization (Mowday, Porter & Steers, 1982, p. 27). Employees
who are more committed to the organization should be more motivated to
learn during training and to transfer skills back to the job since such behaviors
are consistent with the goals and mission of the organization. Consistent with
this orientation, Tannenbaum et al. (1991) found that organizational
commitment was highly correlated (r = S3) with motivation to learn during
training. The present study attempted to replicate this finding and examined
the relationship between organizational commitment and perceived training
transfer.
JOURNALOF MANAGEMENT, VOL. 21, NO. 1, 1995
Support for Learning and Training Transfer
No& (1986) model proposed that environmental favorability should
affect pretraining motivation and transfer of training skills. Environmental
favorability is comprised of task constraints (e.g., lack of resources) and the
perceived social support for training. The social component is concerned with
employees perceptions of the extent to which the social context at work
supports training transfer. According to Noe, a supportive social context is
one in which employees believe that others provide them with opportunities
and reinforcement for practicing skills or for using knowledge acquired in
training.
Rouillier and Goldstein (1990) (cited in Goldstein, 1991) conceptualized
transfer climate in a similar manner by suggesting that it consists of two
components. The first, situational cues, refers to the extent to which aspects of
a situation encourage employees to use what has been learned in training (e.g.,
goal-setting, reducing employees workload so that they may become familiar with
new skills). The second, consequences, refers to the degree to which employees
are rewarded for applying what has been learned in training. These two views
(i.e., Noe, 1986; Rouillier & Goldstein, 1990) suggest that the social context at
work might support training in two ways, either by eliciting trained skills via a
host of antecedent variables (e.g., opportunities, situational cues), or by rewarding
these behaviors via a host of consequent variables (i.e., reinforcement).
In addition to the type of social support that exists for transferring trained
behaviors (i.e., antecedents, consequences), a variety of different sources of
social support may exist. An examination of the training literature suggests that
there are several potentially important sources of social support for training.
These include top management, supervisors, peers, and subordinates (c.f.
Baldwin & Ford, 1988; Goldstein & Musicante, 1986; Noe, 1986; Noe &
Schmitt, 1986). It seems likely, however, that the various sources of social
support may have differential effects on important training outcomes. For
example, peer support may be more important for predicting training transfer
than is top management support. Hence, the present study will determine the
independent and possibly differential effects of subordinate support, peer
support, supervisor support, and top management support on training transfer.
The task component of environmental favorability refers to the extent to
which characteristics of the work environment (e.g., tools and equipment,
materials and supplies, financial resources, etc.) facilitate or constrain
employees ability to transfer the skills learned in training back to their job.
Mathieu et al. (1992) found that task constraints were marginally related to
training motivation. Other researchers (e.g., Noe & Schmitt, 1986; Williams et
al., 1991) have employed separate measures of social support and task
constraints, but collapsed the scales to form a single variable, which was labeled
environmental favorability. From a theoretical standpoint, it may be that task
constraints have a different effect on transfer than social constraints. For this
reason, measures of task constraints and the different facets of social support
were analyzed separately in the present study.
The social and task support measures may also affect pretraining
motivation. If employees believe that training will not transfer back to the
job due to either nonsupportive peers, subordinates, supervisors,
management, or a lack of resources (task constraints), they should be less
motivated to attend and learn from training. Hence, the present study
examined the effects of task constraints and the four social support variables
(subordinate, peer, supervisor and top management) on training motivation
and perceived training transfer.
Overview of the Study
In summary, the present study was conducted to determine the effects of
employees attitudes and beliefs about training in general on pretraining
motivation and perceived training transfer. Training motivation was the
primary criteria since recent research has shown that trainees who enter training
with high levels of pretraining motivation learn more and are more likely to
complete training than their less motivated peers (e.g., Baldwin et al., 1991;
Hicks & Klimoski, 1987). Figure 1 summarizes the predictions of the study.
While researchers have not recognized that the general reputation of training
may exert strong effects of training motivation, we expected such a relationship
in the present study. In addition, consistent with past research, we expected
incentives, career exploration and planning, and organizational commitment
to affect pretraining motivation. Furthermore, we differentiated the social
support construct into four predictors. Specifically, new scales were developed
for examining employees perceptions of different sources of social support (i.e.,
top management, supervisors, peers, subordinates) within the organization.
These scales allowed for an examination of the possibility that different sources
of social support have unique or differential effects on employees pretraining
motivation and training transfer.
The results of the study should have important theoretical and applied
significance. From the theoretical perspective, the findings may serve to
support several links in Noes (1986) model of training effectiveness. In
addition, several additional variables (e.g., training reputation) were postulated
to predict training motivation. Finally, the study explored whether the various
social support factors differentially affect training motivation and training
transfer.
The study also has implications for organizational practices. For example,
if training reputation affects training motivation, then organizations should be
concerned about general impressions of available training programs and the
training department prior to actual training. Irrespective of the actual quality
of training, employees may not be motivated if they perceive training programs
as ineffective and irrelevant to theirjobs. Similarly, if the various support factors
have independent influences on pretraining motivation and training transfer,
then organizations may be able to target organizational development efforts
at the support factors that are most critical.
JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT, VOL. 21, NO. 1, 1995
PERCEPTIONS OF THE TRAINING ENVIRONMENT
Note: The nature of the relationship expected among constructs is indicated by a -t or -.
Figure 1. Hypothesized Model
Methods
Subjects
Subjects consisted of 967 managers and supervisors employed by a
southeastern state government. These subjects, 61% of whom were male, held
management positions in 37 different departments within state government (e.g.,
Education, Finance and Administration, Labor, etc.). Eighty seven percent of
the subjects were Caucasian and nine percent were African-American. The
remaining four percent either represented another racial group (e.g., Native
American, Asian) or did not report their racial background. Fifty one percent
of the sample held first-line supervisory positions, while 31% and 15% of the
sample held middle-level and upper-level management positions, respectively.
Subjects average tenure with state government was 16.34 years (SIX8.16) and
average job tenure was 6.51 years (SD=5.44). Subjects average age was 45.5
years (SDx8.7). Finally, subjects responses to an item asking them to report
their highest educational attainment were as follows: high school degree (150/o),
trade/technical degree (5%), some college (20$@1), Associate degree (5%), four
year college degree (23%), some graduate work (90/o), and graduate degree (18%).
The remaining subjects (5%) did not respond to this item. The median
educational level was the completion of a four year college degree.
Procedure
The current study was conducted as part of a large scale training needs
assessment to identify the training needs and curricula for all levels of
management within state government. As part of the needs assessment, a
comprehensive survey was distributed to a random sample of 1,700 supervisors
and managers. The survey requested managers to provide information about
their perceived training needs, training preferences, and their attitudes about
training, the organization, and their job. Managers completed the surveys at
work and were assured of anonymity and confidentiality of their responses.
Completed surveys were returned directly to the researchers. Of those sampled,
1,089 managers returned usable surveys (64% response rate). Because the current
research focused upon managers attitudes and perceptions of the states
management training curriculum, only those who had taken one or more of
the courses in the curriculum were included in the analyses. Based upon this
criterion, 122 managers who had not yet taken any training in the curriculum
(because they were new to their position) were eliminated from the sample.
Hence, the results of this study were based on a total sample of 967 supervisors
and managers.
Measures
In order to test the hypotheses of interest in this study, measures of fourteen
distinct theoretical constructs were included on the questionnaire. These
constructs were measured with a total of 85 items. The number of items
comprising each scale and a sample item are presented in Table 1. Responses
to all of the items on the questionnaire were made on five point Likert-type
scales (l=Strongly Disagree, 5=Strongly Agree). Unless indicated
otherwise, higher scores indicated greater levels of the variable measured.
Many of the constructs were assessed with scales that have been used in
previous research. Four items from Porter and Smiths (1970) scale were used
to assess Organizational Commitment. Career Exploration was measured with
scales from Stumpf, Colarelli and Hartmans (1983) career exploration survey.
Career PZanning was assessed with a modified version of Goulds (1979) career
planning scale. Pretraining Motivation was assessed with items drawn from
several scales used in previous research (Baldwin & Karl, 1987; Hicks, 1984;
Noe & Schmitt, 1986). Finally, Task Constraints were assessed with a scale
based upon Peters and OConnors (1980) taxonomy of the situational factors
that may constrain individual performance.
Several constructs used were measured with scales that were designed
specifically for the current study. These include measures of training reputation,
training incentives, social support for training, and perceived training transfer.
Training Reputation. It was expected that the overall reputation of state
supervisory and managerial training would influence managers pretraining
PERCEPTIONS OF THE TRAINING ENVIRONMENT
Table 1. Description of Scales Used in the Study
9
Scale
Number of
I tems Sample I tem
Pretraining Motivation
Perceived Training Transfer
Training Reputation 6
Intrinsic Incentives 9
Compliance
Extrinsic Incentives
Career Exploration
Career Planning
Organizational Commitment
Subordinate Support
Peer Support
Supervisor Support
Top Management Support
Task Constraints
9
9
10
5
10
I try to learn as much as I can from training
courses.
The productivity of my subordinates has
improved due to the skills that I learned in
training courses.
Most supervisory and managerial training
courses are of the highest quality.
I take training because it provides me with
skills that allow me to be more effective on
the job.
I take training because it is mandated by state
government.
I take training because it increases my job
opportunities outside of state government.
I have often tried specific work roles just to
assess my skills and abilities.
I have a strategy for achieving my career goals.
I find that my values and the organizations
values are very similar.
My subordinates allow me to get accustomed
to using my new training skills on the job.
My peers encourage my efforts to incorporate
new procedures that I have learned in
training.
My supervisor is tolerant of changes that I
initiate as a result of learning new skills in
training.
Top management believes in the importance of
training for supervisors and managers.
Inadequate financial resources hamper my abil-
ity to apply new skills learned in training
back to my job.
motivation. A six item scale was developed to assess training reputation. The
items asked subjects to rate: (1) the overall quality of supervisory and managerial
training courses; (2) whether they would recommend these courses to their peers;
and (3) the extent to which these courses developed skills necessary for success
as a supervisor or manager in state government.
Training incentives. Trainees may perceive a number of reasons for
attending training programs (Nordhaug, 1989). Three constructs thought to be
particularly relevant in the context of this study included intrinsic incentives,
extrinsic incentives, and compliance. I ntrinsic I ncentives measured the extent
to which managers believed that a variety of intrinsic benefits or outcomes were
likely to result from successful completion of the training. Extrinsic I ncentives
measured the extent to which managers believed that training would result in
extrinsic rewards and benefits. Finally, Compliance assessed the extent to which
managers attended supervisory and management training in order to satisfy
organizational mandates or requirements.
Social support for training. Social support for training and transfer of
learned skills was viewed as a multidimensional construct. The extent to which
four different organizational groups were supportive of managers training
efforts was measured. These groups included the managerssubordinates, peers,
supervisors, and top management. Items were developed based upon a review
of relevant literature (Baumgartel & Jeanpierre, 1972; Baldwin & Ford, 1988;
Clark, 1990; Goldstein & Musicante, 1986; Noe, 1986). In general, these items
assessed the extent to which these sources: (1) provided opportunities for
managers to utilize trained skills; (2) were supportive of managers efforts to
apply trained skills back on the job (e.g., were tolerant of mistakes); and (3)
reinforced managers efforts to transfer skills to their job situation.
Perceived Training Transfer. This scale measured the extent to which
managers believed that a variety of desirable outcomes (e.g., improved
performance, reduced turnover, etc.) have occurred as a result of their ability
to transfer the skills they have learned in supervisory and management training
back to the job. Items for this measure were based upon a review of the relevant
training and development literature (Noe, 1986; Tziner, Haccoun, & Kadish,
1991; Wexley & Baldwin, 1986).
The items in the transfer measure are presented in the Appendix. They
were constructed to maximize the validity of self-reports of training transfer.
For example, Dunning, Meyerowitz and Holzberg (1989) found that self-ratings
made on ambiguous scale anchors were more inflated and less accurate than
self-ratings made on specific scale anchors. Farh and Dobbins (1989) reported
similar findings. Thus, self-report transfer items were constructed to be as
specific as possible (e.g., subordinates have told me that my behavior has
improved following a training course). Similarly, in order to improve the
accuracy of self-reports (and minimize potential inflation), all responses were
anonymous and all completed questionnaires were returned directly to the
researchers.
Analyses
The current research utilized a latent variable model to test the
hypothesized relationships among the constructs of interest. An advantage of
latent variable models is that they involve tests of the relationships among
constructs which are not attenuated by measurement error (c.f. Loehlin, 1987).
Analysis proceeded in two stages (Lance, Cornwell & Mulaik, 1988). First,
confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used to assess the fit of the
measurement model to the data. Second, the relationships among the constructs
of interest were estimated (i.e., structural model). Both of these analyses were
conducted using the LISREL VII computer program (Joreskog & S&born,
1989a).
Our primary purpose in this study was to examine the magnitude of the
relationships among the constructs of interest (i.e., path coefficients). A
secondary purpose was to determine the extent to which the data, in general,
PERCEPTIONS OF THE TRAINING ENVIRONMENT II
conformed to our predictions. To do this, a variety of goodness-of-fit indices
were utilized. Three indices calculated by the LISREL VII program, including
chi-square, the goodness-of-fit index (GFI), and the root mean square residual
(RMSR) were used. These indices provide a measure of the extent to which
the covariance matrix estimated by the hypothesized model reproduces the
observed covariance matrix (James, Mulaik & Brett, 1982).
In addition to these indices, the normed-fit index (NFI; Bentler & Bonett,
1980), and the relative normed-fit index (RNFI; Mulaik, James, Van Alstine,
Bennett, Lind & Stilwell, 1989) were used because they have certain desirable
characteristics relative to the other fit indices. First, both NFI and RNFI assess
a models fit in relation to the worst and best fit attainable rather than as a
sole function of the difference between the reproduced and observed covariance
matrices. Second, RNFI was used because it assesses the relative lit of a
structural model independent of assessing the fit of the measurement model,
thus providing a purer indication of the fit of a structural model. This is desirable
because the other fit indices are heavily influenced by the fit of the measurement
model and, to a lesser degree, the fit of the structural model (Mulaik et al.,
1989). In general, a good fit to the data is indicated by non-significant values
of chi-square, RMSR values which approach zero, and values of GFI, NFI,
and RNFI which approach unity.
Results
Measurement Model
Before considering the hypothesized relationships among the constructs
of interest, the accuracy of the measurement model with respect to the data
was examined. A confirmatory factor analysis of the a priori measurement
model was conducted. In this analysis, the variances for all of the factors were
fixed at unity and all of the constructs were allowed to intercorrelate.
Computation of NFI for this model required the estimation of two comparison
models. These included a most-restrictive null model in which no factors were
assumed to underlie the questionnaire items, and a least-restrictive model in
which each of the items was allowed to load on each of the hypothesized
constructs.
Table 2 presents the goodness of fit indices for the a priori measurement
model. The results reported in this table indicate that while this model provided
Table 2. Goodness-of-Fit Indices for the A Priori and Revised Measurement Models
Measurement
Model Chi-Square
df
GFI RMSR NFI
A Priori 11,633.60* 3,394 .I4 ,062 .86
Revised 8,294.88* 2,983 .79 .055 .92
Notes: a GFI=goodness-of-fit index; RMSR=root mean square residual; NFI=normed-fit index.
* p < ,001
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a reasonable fit to the data, improvements could be achieved. Based upon these
results, the me~urement model was revised. These revisions were guided by
two considerations. First, the modi~cation indices for each of the items were
examined in order to identify aspects of the model in need of revision.
Modification indices represent the reduction in chi-square that would be
expected if a single fixed parameter in the model was freed and the model was
reestimated (Jiireskog & S&born, 1989b). Second, revisions to the model were
made only if a theoretical rationale could justify the revision. Based upon these
criteria, three revisions to the model were made.
The first revision involved deleting several items because they appeared
to be measuring three or more constructs. Specifically, three items were deleted
from the pretraining motivation scale, and two items were eliminated from the
perceived training transfer measure. The second revision to the measurement
model involved allowing the disturbance terms for four pairs of items to
intercorrelate. This was done because these items had nearly identical item
stems. For example, the disturbance terms for the following items were allowed
to intercorrelate: I have often tried specific work roles just to see if I liked
them, and I have often tried specific work roles just to assess my skills and
abilities. The final revision involved allowing two items to serve as indicators
of two distinct but related ~onst~cts. For example, the item I change my career
objectives frequently was allowed to load on career planning and career
exploration.
Based upon these revisions, a revised measurement model was formulated
and tested. Analysis of this model indicated that it more accurately reflected
the data. All of the estimated parameters in the model (i.e., scale items) had
statistic~ly signi~c~t factor pattern or lambda values @ < .OS) for their
respective constructs. Eighty two percent of these exceeded an absolute value
of .40 and the median estimated lambda value was .69. The goodness-of-fit
indices presented in Table 2 also indicated that this model provided a good
fit to the data. As such, this measurement model was used as the basis for
examining the hypothesized relationships among the constructs of interest in
the study. The intercorrelations among the constructs in the revised
measurement model are presented in Table 3.
Structural Model
The second stage of analysis involved estimating the relationships among
the constructs of interest. This involved a simultaneous regression of each of
the endogenous variables in the model on their predicted antecedents. The
results of this analysis are depicted in Figure 2. The strength of the relationships
among the constructs is presented by standardized path coefficients. Inspection
of these coefficients indicates that eight of the nineteen predicted relationships
were statistically significant in the predicted direction. Three other path
coefficients were sign~cant, but in an opposite direction to that predicted.
Training Attitudes. As expected, both training reputation and intrinsic
incentives were positively related to pretraining motivation. Furthermore, the
predicted negative relationship between compliance and pretraining motivation
JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT, VOL. 21, NO. 1,199s
Note: a Values are standardized path coefficients. Solid lines represent significant relationships among
constructs (p < .OS, two-tailed probability). Shaded lines represent non-significant relationships.
Figure 2. Results of the Hypothesized Model
was found. Thus, subjects who reported that they attended training to satisfy
state requirements also reported lower motivation to learn from training.
Contrary to predictions, extrinsic incentives were not significantly related to
pretraining motivation.
Individual Attitudes. For the three individual attitudes that were studied,
only the prediction about organizational commitment was supported. As
expected, individuals who were committed to the values and goals of the
organization had higher levels of pretraining motivation. Both career
exploration and career planning were not significantly related to pretraining
motivation.
Support for Learning and Transfer. Surprisingly, of the four social
support constructs, only the prediction that supervisory support would be
positively related to pretraining motivation was supported. Unexpected was the
finding that both subordinate and top management support were negatively
related to training motivation, and that peer support was not significantly
related. Furthermore, as predicted, both subordinate and peer support were
Table 4. Goodness-of-Fit Indices for the Structural Model
Chi-Square df GFI RMSR NFI RNFI
A Priori
Structural Model 8,440.22* 2,987 .79 .057 .96 .96
Notes: a GFI=goodness-of-fit index; RMSR=root mean square residual; NFI=normed-fit index;
RNFI=relative normed-fit index.
*p<.oo1
positively related to the perceived transfer measure. Unexpectedly, supervisor
support was negatively related to transfer, and top management support showed
no significant relationship. Finally, contrary to expectations, task constraints
were not significantly related to both pretraining motivation and perceived
training transfer.
Pretraining Motivation. As expected, pretraining motivation was
positively related to perceived training transfer. Thus, individuals who reported
higher levels of motivation to attend and learn from training were more likely
to indicate that they had benefited from this training.
Table 4 presents the goodness-of-fit indices for the structural model.
Computation of NFI and RNFI for this model required two comparison
models. These included a most-restrictive null model in which the latent
variables were not allowed to intercorrelate, and a least-restrictive model
represented by the revised measurement model. As can be seen in Table 4, the
goodness-of-fit indices for the structural model indicate that the model provided
a good fit to the data.
Supplemental Analyses
One limitation of the current study is that all of the data were collected
from a single source. As a result, spurious relationships among some of the
variables of interest may have emerged due to common method variance
(Campbell & Fiske, 1959). Thus, it could be argued that some of the observed
results could be interpreted as reflecting an artifact of the measurement
procedures as opposed to meaningful relationships among theoretical
constructs.
The seriousness of the method variance problem has been recently debated
in the literature. Spector (1987) analyzed data from several studies and found
little evidence that method variance biases observed relationships. However,
Williams, Cote and Buckley (1989) argued that Spectors conclusions were
incorrect because inappropriate analytical procedures were used. Using CFA
on the same data, they concluded that method variance accounts for
approximately 25% of the variance in the variables measured. Finally, in yet
another reanalysis of the data, Bagozzi and Yi (1990) concluded that method
variance is more prevalent than Spector concluded, but less of a problem than
Williams et al. asserted.
Table 5. Results of Supplementary Analyses
Model Chi-Square
df
GFI RMSR NFI
1 (Null) 42,265.82* 3,160
2 (Single Method Factor) 23,387.39* 3,076 .45 ,101 Sl
3 (Measurement Model) 8,294.88* 2,983 .79 .0.55 .92
4 (Measurement Model -I
Method Factor) 7,114.05* 2,903 .83 .046 .95
Notes: GFI=goodness-of-fit index; RMSR=root mean square residual; NFI=normed-fit index.
*p<.oo1
A set of analyses was conducted to determine if method variance was a
concern in the present study. Using the procedures recommended by Widaman
(1985) and used by Williams et al. (1989), we used CFA to test four alternative
measurement models. Model 1 was a null measurement model (i.e., no factors
underlie the data). Model 2 posited that a single method factor explained the
data. Model 3 was the measurement model used in this study in which the 14
constructs (traits) of interest were posited to underlie the data. Finally, Model
4 posited that the data could be accounted for by the 14 traits in Model 3 plus
a single uncorrelated method factor.
If a method factor exists, Model 2 should fit the data significantly better
than Model 1, and Model 4 should fit the data significantly better than Model
3. In addition to relying upon overall fit indices to assess method variance, CFA
allows for the partitioning of variance accounted for by trait factors, method
factors, and unique sources. Specifically, for each item, the square of the trait
factor loading and of the method factor loading indicate the amount of variance
due to trait and method factors, respectively. Further, the sum of the squared
loadings can be used to index the total amount of variation in the data due
to trait and method factors (c.f. Williams et al., 1989). Variation not accounted
for by these sources represents unique variance.
The results of these analyses are presented in Tables 5 and 6. The first
important comparison necessary for assessing method variance involves Models
1 and 2. Inspection of Table 5 reveals that while Model 2 provides a significantly
better fit to the data than Model 1 ($(84)=18,878.43,p < .05), it fits the data
very poorly. Thus, while a model positing a method factor fits the data better
than a null model, the fit is very poor nonetheless. The second comparison
Table 6. Amount of Variance Accounted for by Trait,
Method, and Unique Componentsa
Trait Method Unique
Model 4 .42 .06 .57
Williams et al. (1989) .50 .27 .23
Note: a Tabled values for the Williams et al. (1989) study are average values
across eleven data sets.
involves Models 3 and 4. Model 3 (the measurement model) provides a good
fit to the data. Model 4, however, fits the data better than Model 3
(x*(80)=1,180.83, p < .05). However, while statistically significant, the gain in
fit achieved by this model is relatively small.
Table 6 presents the results of partitioning the variation accounted for by
Model 4 into trait, method, and unique components. Unique variance includes
item specific and random (i.e., error) variation (Mulaik, 1972). As can be seen
in this table, 42% of the variation in the data was accounted for by the 14 trait
factors while the method factor accounted for only 6% of the variance. This is
much less than the amount of method variance observed by Williams et al. (1989).
The results of these analyses suggest that the measurement model analyzed
here does benefit from the addition of a method factor. However, the gain in
fit achieved by adding the method factor is small. Furthermore, while it may
lead to a slight improvement in fit, the method factor appears to account for
very little variation in the data. Taken together, these results suggest that method
variance was not a serious problem in this study. Hence, we believe that the
relationships observed in this study represent substantive rather than artifactual
effects.
Discussion
The present study was designed to examine the effects of a number of
factors on supervisors and managers pretraining motivation and their
perceived transfer of training skills. Based on previous research in this area (e.g.,
Goldstein, 1991; Noe, 1986; Wexley & Latham, 1991; Williams et al., 1991),
it was hypothesized that training attitudes, individual attitudes, and
environmental support variables would be related to pretraining motivation.
In addition, it was hypothesized that pretraining motivation, organizational
commitment, and the environmental support variables would be related to
perceived training transfer.
A structural model was developed based upon these hypotheses. The results
indicated that this model provided a good fit to the data. Further, eleven of
the nineteen relationships examined were significant. However, three of these
significant relationships were in the direction opposite to that hypothesized.
Pretraining Motivation
Aside from the social support variables, the factors most highly related
to pretraining motivation included the attitudinal variables of intrinsic
incentives, training reputation, organizational commitment, and compliance.
Managers who perceived more intrinsic reasons to attend training, who had
a more favorable view of the .agencys training efforts, and who were less likely
to attend training because it was required, reported higher levels of motivation
to attend and learn from the agencys supervisory and managerial training
programs. To our knowledge, this is the first empirical study to demonstrate
the effect of employees perceptions of the overall quality of an organizations
available training programs on their motivation to attend and learn from them.
The finding that compliance and pretraining motivation were negatively
related is consistent with previous work on the effects of extrinsic incentives
on intrinsic motivation (Deci, 1975). It is also consistent with previous training
research which has shown that trainees tend to react more favorably to training
environments which allow them the freedom to choose the courses they will
attend (Baldwin et al., 1991; Hicks & Klimoski, 1987). While not strong, this
finding suggests that mandating or requiring individuals to attend training
programs could undermine the purposes of training. Specifically, mandates may
get employees to attend training, yet they may reduce employees motivation
to learn from it. Consequently, employees may learn less in training and, as
a result, be less likely to apply the skills presented in training to their jobs. If
this is the case, it suggests that rather than mandating training, organizations
should emphasize the intrinsic benefits of training to employees, and publicize
past training successes in order to increase the perceived reputation of training
programs. This suggestion is consistent with recommendations made by
proponents of adult learning models (i.e., Andragogy) who argue that trainees
should be viewed as capable of making their own decisions about participating
in training activities (Knowles, 1984). Given the potential importance of the
compliance variable, future research needs to examine its effects on motivation
and learning across a wide variety of training programs.
Contrary to expectations, extrinsic incentives, career exploration, and
career planning were not significantly related to managers pretraining
motivation. The findings pertaining to career exploration and career planning
appear to be consistent with those of previous research in this area. Specifically,
studies by Noe and Schmitt (1986) and Mathieu et a1.(1992) found that these
variables were unrelated to pretraining motivation. Our findings also appear
to resolve a discrepancy between these two studies and those of Williams et
al. (1991) who found that a composite career variable (consisting of career
planning, career exploration, and job involvement) was positively related to
pretraining motivation. It is likely that the discrepancy reflects differences in
the manner in which the career variables were operationalized. Career planning
was unrelated to pretraining motivation in each of the three studies that used
Goulds (1979) scale. Thus, it appears that career planning is not predictive of
pretraining motivation.
Despite these negative findings, we believe that it would be premature to
dismiss career variables from consideration in future training research.
Specifically, research in this area might benefit from examining potential
moderators of the relationship between career variables and pretraining
motivation. Noes (1986) model suggests that individuals who engage in career-
exploratory behavior are more likely to be aware of their skill weaknesses and,
as a result, be more motivated to attend training which addresses those
weaknesses. However, this may be the case only if they perceive that the
organizations training programs are of high quality (i.e., favorable training
reputation). The increase in pretraining motivation resulting from career
exploration and identification of personal weaknesses may be less likely to occur
if individuals believe that available training programs are of low quality. Based
upon this reasoning, future research in this area might benefit from exploring
potential interactions among the various predictors of pretraining motivation.
Mathieu et al.5 (1992) study, in which an interaction between pretraining
motivation and training reactions on learning was observed, provides an
example of the potential benefit of exploring moderated relationships in the
context of training effectiveness research.
The predicted relationship between managers perceptions of task
constraints in the environment and their pretraining motivation was not
supported. This null result is consistent with the findings of previous research
that has examined the effects of situational constraints on job performance.
In general, laboratory research has shown that the presence of situational
constraints has a debilitating effect on performance. However, studies
conducted in field settings suggest that these constraints do not consistently
hamper job performance (Peters, OConnor & Eulberg, 1985). In explaining
this inconsistency, Peters et al. (1985) noted that organizational contexts in
which situational constraints are strong are rare. They suggested that constraints
act as obstacles to effective performance only when they are severe. In the
current study, the mean and standard deviation of the task constraints measure
were 2.76 and .71, respectively. This indicates that most of the managers believed
that situational constraints had only a modest effect on their ability to transfer
the skills they learned in training back to their jobs. Thus, the failure of
situational constraints to affect pretraining motivation in this study appears to
reflect the fact that managers did not believe that severe constraints were present
in their work environments.
Perceived Training Transfer
Aside from the social support variables, three variables (pretraining
motivation, task constraints, and organizational commitment) were predicted
to be significantly related to perceived training transfer. Of these variables, only
pretraining motivation was significantly related to perceived transfer. Contrary
to expectations, organizational commitment and task constraints were
unrelated to perceived transfer. As described above, the failure to find a
relationship between task constraints and perceived transfer may reflect the fact
that managers did not believe that severe task constraints were present in their
work environments. In addition, while organizational commitment did not have
a direct effect on perceived transfer, it did appear to affect transfer indirectly,
through its effect on pretraining motivation. This suggests that individuals who
are highly committed to the organization may be more likely to benefit from
available training programs than less committed employees.
Social Support for Training
A central purpose of this study was to examine the extent to which the
favorability of the training environment influences pretraining motivation and
perceptions of training transfer. Previous theory (e.g., Noe, 1986) and research
(e.g., Noe & Schmitt, 1986) in this area have recognized that environmental
favorability consists of both social support and task constraints present in the
work environment. However, the influence of social support on training
effectiveness has not been established independent of the influence of task
constraints. This is because measures of these constructs have been collapsed
in previous research. Moreover, in past research social support has been viewed
as a unidimensional construct even though the training literature suggests that
social support for training activities may originate from a variety of
organizational constituents (e.g., subordinates, peers, supervisors, and top
management). In this study, the effects of social support from these different
constituents on pretraining motivation and perceived transfer were examined
independent of the effects of task constraints.
Of the four forms of social support, subordinate, supervisor, and top
management support were significantly related to pretraining motivation.
However, only the relationship between supervisor support and pretraining
motivation was in the predicted direction. This indicates that managers who
perceived a greater degree of support from their immediate superiors for training
reported greater motivation to attend and learn from training. In addition, only
subordinate and peer support were positively related to perceived transfer, while
supervisor support was negatively related. Thus, managers who believed that
their subordinates and peers were supportive of their training efforts were more
likely to perceive greater transfer of their training skills.
Taken together, these results suggest that to enhance employees
pretraining motivation, supervisors should actively support their employees
training efforts through activities such as providing them with opportunities
to use skills learned in training,. providing them with feedback about their
attempts to transfer trained skills, and rewarding successful skill transfer. The
results further suggest that in order to encourage effective transfer of training
skills, supervisors should strive to foster a climate in which employees training
efforts are supported by their peers and subordinates.
It is interesting that subordinate and top management support were
negatively associated with pretraining motivation, and that supervisor support
was negatively related to perceived transfer. Before interpreting these findings,
it is important to recognize that the path coefficients were opposite in sign to
the zero-order correlations between these variables and training motivation and
perceived transfer (see Table 3). This indicates that subordinate, top
management, and supervisor support functioned as suppressor variables. That
is, these variables suppressed variance in other independent variables that was
unrelated to pretraining motivation and perceived transfer (Lord & Novick,
1968; James & Jones, 1980).
While suppression is typically viewed as a rare phenomenon (e.g., Cascio,
199 1; Nunnally, 1978), certain characteristics of our research probably increased
the likelihood of obtaining these effects. First, complex relationships among
a large set of independent variables (i.e., 12) and the dependent variables were
studied. Cohen and Cohen (1983) suggest that suppressor effects are more
common in complex models than in simple ones. Second, in order for
suppression to occur, a certain degree of multicollinearity must exist among
the independent variables. The social support variables in this research showed
a relatively high degree of intercorrelation (i.e., their average intercorrelation
was .59). As a result, this may have set the stage for certain of these variables
to have suppressor effects in this research.
The above rationale suggests that the three unexpected negative path
coefficients for subordinate, top management, and supervisor support most
likely reflect the presence of suppression and multicollinearity, as opposed to
substantive effects. That is, subordinate and top management support do not
appear to have direct negative effects on pretraining motivation. Nor does
supervisor support appear to have a direct negative effect on perceived transfer.
On the contrary, the zero order correlations presented in Table 3 suggest that
these variables positively influence pretraining motivation and training transfer.
Thus, we strongly recommend that future research should attempt to better
understand the manner in which social support variables operate in combination
with other types of support to affect training motivation and transfer.
The current research demonstrates the importance of viewing
environmental favorability for training as a multidimensional construct. By
recognizing that environmental favorability consists of a task component and
social support from different organizational constituents, the unique effects of
these different variables on pretraining motivation and perceived transfer were
examined in this study. We found that the social support variables were
differentially related to pretraining motivation and perceived transfer. Previous
research in this area has not simultaneously examined the independent effects
of these variables on pretraining motivation and transfer. The findings of this
study attest to the importance of empirically separating the effects of the
different aspects of the environmental favorability construct.
The findings reported here have implications for future research on training
motivation and training transfer. They suggest that the organizational context
in which training exists is important to examine. For example, subordinate and
peer support may affect training transfer. It may be that these groups provide
support for training by enabling trainees to utilize their training skills once they
are back on their jobs. The effects of other constituents (e.g., customers, work
team members, professional groups) on trainees learning and transfer should
be explored. Furthermore, additional contextual variables could be added and
investigated to determine their effects on other variables in the model. For
example, the effects of other trainee characteristics on training outcomes could
be examined. These might include traineesjob and organizational tenure, level
of skill obsolescence and plateauing, self-efficacy, and job satisfaction. In
addition, broader contextual variables germane to the organization or
environment could be added to assess the factors that may influence training
effectiveness. These factors might consist of organizations strategic plans, layoff
policies, emphasis on employee development and continual learning, creation
of self-managed work teams, and climate. As Ford et al. (1991) noted,
organizational variables play an important role in driving training efforts and
subsequent outcomes (e.g., trainees motivation, behavior change).
Limitations
Several limitations of the present study require comment. First, the data
in the study were collected from a single source, self-report of trainees. As was
noted earlier, the results of single source data may be affected by method
variance. The seriousness of this problem depends upon the research questions
being investigated. In Noes (1986) model, perceptions are of theoretical interest
and thus single source bias may not be as serious of an issue, For example,
extrinsic incentives refer to how the incentives are perceived by trainees, not
the objective characteristics of incentives per se. Furthermore, the supplemental
analyses suggest that method variance was not prevalent in the data.
Specifically, the measurement model fit the data almost as well as a model that
included the 14 scales and a method variance factor. In addition, the variance
accounted for by traits (constructs) was much larger than that accounted for
by the method factor. These factors together indicate that method variance was
not a serious problem in the present study.
A related limitation is that a self-report measure of training transfer was
used in the current study. We did take numerous steps in the present study to
increase the accuracy (and minimize potential inflation) of the self-report data
(e.g., highly specific items, anonymous and confidential surveys). In addition,
we are not aware of any research which indicates that trainees cannot accurately
self-report training transfer. In fact, previous research has employed similar self-
report measures of training effectiveness (c.f. Tziner et al., 1991; Wexley &
Baldwin, 1986). We do, however, encourage other researchers to obtain
additional measures of trainees skill transfer from other sources such as ratings
made by subordinates, peers, and supervisors. In addition, measures of learning
and behavior change resulting from training, as well as organizational results
measures (e.g., productivity, absenteeism) should be utilized. This information
should be collected at multiple intervals to assess the variables related to long-
term training effectiveness.
Summary
In summary, the results of the current study suggest that it is important
to examine factors related to training motivation and training transfer. The
present study significantly adds to previous research by using a large sample
of supervisors and managers from different organizational levels and functional
departments. Thus, the results are likely to be stable and generalizable.
Furthermore, the results suggest that the findings of previous research and
training effectiveness model (e.g., Noe, 1986) may generalize from the context
of a specific training course to large-scale training curricula. Finally, the current
study extends previous research by demonstrating the utility of operationalizing
environmental favorability as a multidimensional construct consisting of both
task constraints and multiple forms of social support. Future research seems
warranted to expand upon the nomological network of constructs related to
training effectiveness.
Acknowledgment: A shorter version of this article was presented at the Seventh
Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology,
Montreal, Quebec, May, 1992. We would like to thank Larry R. James, Carolyn
L. Facteau and two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments on an
earlier version of this article. This project was funded by a research contract with
the State of Tennessee Department of Personnel. We would like to thank them
for their assistance in the data collection stage of this research.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Appendix
Items Comprising the Measure of Perceived Training Transfer
Supervisors, peers, or subordinates have told me that my behavior has
improved following a training course.
The productivity of my subordinates has improved due to the skills
that I learned in training courses.
Absenteeism in my group has decreased due to the skills that I
developed in training courses.
Turnover in my group has decreased due to the skills that I developed
in training courses.
Morale of my work group is higher due to the skills that I developed
My subordinates are more committed to the mission of state
government due to the skills that I developed in training courses.
I am able to transfer the skills learned in training courses back to my
actual job.
I have changed my job behavior in order to be consistent with the
material taught in training courses.
My actual job performance has improved due to the skills that I learned
Notes
1. It should be recognized that suppressor effects may take a variety of forms. In the classical sense, a
suppressor is defined as a variable that has a zero, or near zero, correlation with the dependent variable
and a nonzero correlation with another independent variable (e.g., Pedhazur, 1982). However, suppressor
variables may also engender other patterns of relationship among independent and dependent variables.
For example, Lord and Novick (1968, p. 272) noted that a suppressor may be defined unambiguously
as a variable that satisfies the above conditions, or that has a partial regression weight that is opposite
in sign to its zero order correlation with the dependent variable. This latter form is the type of suppression
that appears to have occurred here.
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