Rev Port Cien Desp 6(Supl.

1) 1317 13
FUNDAMENTAL HYDRODYNAMICS OF SWIMMING PROPULSION.
Arellano R
1
, Terrs JM
2
, Redondo JM
3
1
Faculty of Physical Activity and Sport Science
2
Wind Tunnel Laboratory, University of Granada, Granada,
3
Applied Physics Dept. Politechnic Univ. of Catalunya, Barcelona,
Spain.
INTRODUCTION
The study of human swimming propulsion is one of the most
complex areas of interest in sport biomechanics. Over the past
three decades research in swimming biomechanics has evolved
from the observation subjects kinematics to a basic flow
dynamics approach, following the line of the scientists working
on this subject in experimental biology (1, 2).
The understanding of swimming propulsion based on steady-
state flow mechanics left many questions unanswered, leading
us to apply unsteady mechanisms of force production to
resolve them. However, this approach needs to analyze the flow
behaviour around the propulsive limbs to identify the phenom-
ena, a difficult task in a swimming pool.
Vortices, circulation, vorticity, delayed stall, stroke reversal,
wake, Strouhal number, CFD, PIV and so on are some terms
and concepts that have recently been included in the vocabu-
lary of swimming biomechanics and have opened up new ways
of research.
METHODS
A compilation of flow visualization methods applied in human
swimming research will be presented including: natural or
spontaneous bubbles, tuft method, shadowgram, injected dye,
reflective small particles, injected bubbles and bubble wall.
Simultaneously, some researchers are using Computer Fluid
Dynamics to simulate the water and hand and forearm interac-
tions. To quantify the information gathered thanks to the flow
visualization methods it is necessary to apply a tool called
Particle Image Velocimetry, which gives a velocity vector map
of the flow around the propulsive element. This useful tool has
been extensively used by biologists to study the wake of the
propulsive movements of water animals, but very few studies
have been developed in human swimming.
Our work has been oriented during the recent years to apply-
ing different flow visualization methods during simple and
complex propulsive movements, developing new tools to visu-
alize the wake generated by the human propulsive limbs.
Vortices are generated in different magnitude and position after
the hand or feet, depending on limb velocity, angle of attack
and change of direction of the propulsive path and compared
with some water animals.
A clear Karman vortex street was observed after the underwa-
ter undulatory swimming of top performers combined with a
more efficient Strouhal number. Complex wake structures were
observed after simple sculling movements where the lift force
is the primary source of propulsion, suggesting the use of
stroke reversal to combine the forces generated in both direc-
tions. The application of the methods referred to above in nor-
mal stroke mechanics seems less clear and more complex. The
3D pulling swimming path increases the difficulty of obtaining
clear water wakes around or behind the hand and only inciden-
tal vortices are found after very restricted conditions, in spite
of the clear wakes generated by the hands in laboratory tests.
CONCLUSIONS
The analysis of vortices generated and 3D analysis of the
pulling path seems the most adequate method to develop a
new understanding of swimming propulsion in the near future.
REFERENCES
1.Dickinson M.H., et al. (2000). How animals move: an inte-
grative view. Science, 288: 100-106.
2.Videler J.J., U.K. Muller, and E.J. Stamhuis (1999). Aquatic
vertebrate locomotion: wakes from body waves. The Journal of
Experimental Biology, 202(23): 3423-3430.
THE USE OF CRITICAL VELOCITY IN SWIMMING?
A PLACE FOR CRITICAL STROKE RATE?
Dekerle J
1,2
1
Human Movement Studies Laboratory, University of Lille 2, Rochin,
France
2
Chelsea School, University of Brighton, Eastbourne, United Kingdom.
For any swimmer, a hyperbolic relationship links velocity (v) to
time to exhaustion (t) (Figure 1). The asymptote of the rela-
tionship is called Critical Velocity (CV) and this particular v
could be maintained, at least in theory, indefinitely. Stroke rate
(SR), changes in a similar manner with time (Figure 1), the
asymptote of this relationship being called Critical Stroke Rate
(CSR; 2). This comes from the original work of Monod and
Scherrer (1), authors of the original Critical Power concept
(CP).
Figure 1: Velocity-time and stroke rate-time relationships
Numerous studies have been conducted on the CP and CV
parameters in order to test their reliability, better understand
their physiological meanings (3) and validate their use for
training. Whilst most of the studies have been conducted in
laboratories, mainly on ergometers, some studies have been
undertaken in swimming. While being aware of the several
assumptions underlying the application of the CP concept in
swimming (4), coaches should appreciate the ease in using the
CV model to predict performance, set training loads, discrimi-
nate effects of training, and establish energetic potentials of
swimmers.
Alongside the CV/CP concept, a SR concept has been pro-
posed, CSR being the SR spontaneously chosen by swimmers
at CV (2). Knowing the CV and CSR of a swimmer would
enable valuable technical work performed around CV.
Further research is required investigating these concepts.
However, current available knowledge suggests there is merit
in using the parameter for training.
INVITED LECTURES
Rev Port Cien Desp 6(Supl.1) 1317 14
REFERENCES
1. Monod H, Scherrer J (1973). Equivalence between positive
and negative Muscular Work. In: Eds E, Jokl, K (eds.) Medicine
and Sport, vol.8: Biomechanics III. Lexington, 261-267.
2. Dekerle J, Pelayo P, Delaporte B, Gosse N, Hespel JM, Sidney
M (2002). Validity and reliability of critical speed, critical
stroke rate and anaerobic capacity in relation to front crawl
swimming performances. Int J Sports Med 23 : 93-98.
3. Hill DW, Ferguson CS (1999). A physiological description of
critical velocity. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 79: 290-293.
4. di Prampero P E (1999). The concept of critical velocity: a
brief analysis. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 80: 162-164.
STATE OF THE ART ON SWIMMING PHYSIOLOGY AND COACHING
PRACTICE: BRIDGING THE GAP BETWEEN THEORY AND PRACTICE.
Keskinen, KL
Finnish Society for Research in Sport and Physical Education,
Helsinki, Finland.
INTRODUCTION
The description of the art of swimming dates back to 5000 y
BC by Egyptian hieroglyphs and paintings. Kahein papyrus
3000 y BC mentioned medical findings related to protection
against Schistosomiasis while swimming (Clarys, 1996). The
modern history of Swimming Physiology dates back to early
1900s where we recall pioneering work of e.g. Du Bois-
Reymond (1905) and Liljenstrand & Stenstrm (1919) in car-
diovascular and metabolic aspects of swimming as well as Hill
(1923) who explored the basic relationships between the maxi-
mal performance and maximal oxygen consumption describing
also the role of lactic acid in the muscle after exercise. Holmer
& strand laid the basics for physiological testing of swimmers
in 1970s. Since then the literature has accumulated rapidly.
The aim of the present paper was to survey the state of the art
on swimming physiology as related to coaching practice in
order to help bridging the gap between theory and practice.
METHODS
Systematic literature searches were performed through the
years 1990 2006 utilising EBSCOhost Research Databases
and SportDiscus. Ovid Medline was used to scan materials for
randomized controlled trials (RCT). The searches were done in
three steps using both key words and thesaurus decodes. In the
first phase, Swimming without any limitations was fed to the
system and again with animals excluded, second, Swimming
and Physiology was used and third, subdivisions were con-
nected to the precedents.
RESULTS
When the time line was kept unlimited a total of 22.192 hits
by key words (16.362 by thesaurus decode) were observed
with Swimming. When animal experiments were excluded
21.882 (16.067) hits were found. During the 1990 2006
there were 9.778 (7.092) papers in English including 2.212
(1.451) in advanced and 688 (507) in intermediate category.
When Swimming and Physiology (no animals) were connected
1.975 hits were found, out of which 833 (557 advanced, 110
intermediate) appeared during 1990 2006. When the subdivi-
sions were added to the searches the number of papers
remained at reasonably low levels to enable content analysis.
RCT was found in 61 papers, none with population based sam-
pling. Materials concerning data to be utilised by practitioners
in sports coaching and fitness training were well represented in
all subdivisions.
DISCUSSION
The major finding was that all subdivisions of swimming phys-
iology included studies that could be considered valid for
sports coaching and fitness training. Previous findings of
Keskinen (1991) reported 539 items (peer reviewed, books
chapters and books) on Swimming Physiology through the
years 1893 1990. Clarys (1996) reported that by the mid
1990s there were 685 peer reviewed papers on Swimming out
of which 18 % were on Swimming Physiology. When these
data are connected to the present one, an expansion of scientif-
ic approaches in swimming literature can be observed.
CONCLUSIONS
The body of knowledge for the improvement of sports coaching
and fitness training in Swimming is large and well represented
in all subdivisions of Swimming Physiology.
REFERENCES
1. Clarys JP (1996). The historical perspective of swimming
science. Foreword to Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming
VII. London: E & FN SPON, xi-xxiv.
2. Keskinen KL (1991). Bibliography on Aquatic Sports.
Reports of Physical Culture and Health, vol. 74. Jyvskyl:
Foundation for Promotion of Physical Culture and Health.
ENERGETICS IN COMPETITIVE SWIMMING AND ITS APPLICATION
FOR TRAINING.
Ogita F
National Institute of Fitness and Sports, Kanoya, Japan.
INTRODUCTION
Competitive swimming events consist of different distances
from 50m to 1500m. The exercise intensity and the relative
importance of aerobic and anaerobic energy processes vary
depending on the exercise time (and thus swimming distance).
Therefore, determining time dependent metabolic profile
would provide important information for developing effective
training program.
TIME DEPENDENT METABOLIC PROFILE
To determine the time dependent metabolic profile of arm
stroke (A), leg kick (K) as well as whole body (S) swimming,
the accumulated O2 uptake (AOU) and the accumulated O2
deficit (AOD) were determined at six different water flow rates
in a swimming flume, which were estimated to cause exhaus-
tion in 15 s, 30 s, 1 min, 2-3 min, 4-5 min, and 8-10 min, with
each stroke. As the results, the AOU increased linearly with
exercise time in all strokes, and the increased rate of AOU in A
and K corresponded to 70, and 80% in S, respectively. The
AOD in A and S significantly increased until 2-3min of exercise
time, while the AOD in K more rapidly increased and the AOD
INVITED LECTURES
Rev Port Cien Desp 6(Supl.1) 1317 15
at 30 s was not significantly different from those at 1 min and
2-3 min. The relative importance of anaerobic energy process
in three strokes decreased from 78-85% for 15 s to 50 % for 1
min, 30% for 2-3 min, 5% for 8-10 min duration, and it was
greater in K than those in A and S until 30 s duration. These
findings suggest that the coach should design specific training
programs to improve the metabolic capacity for each stroke,
and those results concerning time dependent metabolic profile
in A, K, and S, gives helpful information to plan training suc-
cessfully.
ENERGETICS IN SUPRAMAXIMAL SWIMMING UNDER
HYPOXIC CONDITIONS
The changes in aerobic and anaerobic energy release in supra-
maximal swimming lasting 2-3 min were determined under dif-
ferent levels of hypobaric hypoxic condition (a normal condi-
tion; 999hPa, 800 m; 912hPa, 1600 m; 836hPa, and 2400 m
above sea level; 751hPa). All measurements were done in a
chamber where the atmospheric pressure could be regulated.
The water flow rate of the supramaximal swimming decreased
with decrease in atmospheric pressure. However, when these
water flow rates were expressed as percentage of VO
2
max
determined in each condition, no significant differences were
observed among conditions. Mean oxygen uptake determined
every 30 s also decreased with effective altitude. Conversely,
no significant differences were observed in mean AOD deter-
mined every 30 s. Consequently, mean maximal AOD were not
significantly different among conditions, either. These results
suggest that during supramaximal swimming, rate of aerobic
energy release diminished with increase in hypobaric hypoxia,
while not only AOD but also rate of anaerobic energy release
throughout the exercise were unaffected despite the decreased
O
2
demand caused by diminished exercise intensity due to
hypobaric hypoxia.
ALTITUDE TRAINING AEROBIC OR ANAEROBIC?
Training at altitude has been primarily performed for the pur-
pose of improving O
2
transport system, i.e. maximal aerobic
power (VO
2
max). On the other hand, several studies recently
reported that maximal accumulated O
2
deficit (MAOD) and
buffering capacity increased after altitude training, and a new
possibility that the altitude training may also improve effective-
ly anaerobic energy releasing system was suggested. Therefore,
to examine the effects of altitude training on metabolic capaci-
ty, two groups (normal group; N and hypoxic group; H) had
high-intensity-training 2 times/day, 5 days/week, for 3 weeks
under a normal or hypobaric hypoxic condition. Before and
after the training period, VO
2
max and MAOD were deter-
mined. After the training, VO
2
max significantly increased in
both N and H, and no significant difference was observed in
the increase ratio of VO
2
max between N (12%) and H (12%).
MAOD also significantly increased in both groups, however,
the increase ratio of MAOD was significantly higher in H
(29%) than N (14%) (P<0.05). These results suggest that the
high-intensity training could contribute to induce a large
improvement of metabolic capacity in both conditions but that
the hypoxic training would be favorable for the improvement of
the ability to supply anaerobic energy such as MAOD rather
than VO
2
max.
CONCLUSION
We conclude that metabolic capacity can be improved more
effectively if you understand time dependent metabolic profile
and you can tax an appropriate training stimulus to the aimed
energy system.
BIOPHYSICS IN SWIMMING.
Pendergast DR
1
, Capelli
2
C, Craig Jr AB
3
, di Prampero PE
2
,
Minetti A
4
, Mollendorf J
1
, Termin II A
1
, Zamparo P
2
1
University at Buffalo, NY, USA,
2
University Udine, Italy,
3
University of Rochester, NY, USA,
4
University Milano, Italy.
INTRODUCTION
Swimming performance is judged by the time to cover specific
distances (50m to 1500m) or velocity (v = d/t). The velocity
can be quantitatively analyzed: 1) as a function of the stroke
rate (SR) and the distance the body travels per stroke (d/S)
that are determined by biomechanics (1) and 2) the energy
cost to swim at that velocity (Cs) and the time dependent max-
imal metabolic power (2). These two factors have to balance
and together they explain performance; and they can be affect-
ed by training to improve performance (3).
DEVELOPMENT OF THE TOPIC
Craig in 1979 showed that there are specific characteristics of
the relationship between v, SR and d/S for each competitive
stroke and that these characteristics related these to swimming
performance. Termin has demonstrated that the SR-v relation-
ship can be shifted (increased 16% d/S
max
and 8% SR
max
at
v
max
) by biomechanical training, independent of strength train-
ing, and these changes result in improved performance. The
biomechanical factors influence drag and efficiency, that are
interrelated, and they in-turn determine the metabolic require-
ments. Drag forces can be evaluated during actual swimming
or while being towed. It is comprised of friction, pressure, and
wave retarding forces, and at competitive v of 2.2 m/s are ~
55, 24 and 23% respectively. Drag reduction can be achieved by
training and to a lesser extent by special swim suits. Efficiency
and the work/time determine the Cs. They are influenced by
drag (Wd), water accelerated away from the swimmer (Wk)
and acceleration and deceleration of the limbs (Wint), which
in-turn are influenced by SR-v relationships (4). The Cs and v
determine the metabolic power required to swim at that veloci-
ty (3). The total power increases as expressed by E
tot
= kv
1.83
,
is highly variable among swimmers, and decreases with train-
ing (3). E
tot
= E
an
+ kV
O2max
t
p
kV
O2max
(1- e
-(tp/
), where
E
an
= anaerobic (rate of blood lactate increase), V
O2max
= max-
imal oxygen consumption, k = O
2
equavilent, = time con-
stant for V
O2max,
t
p
= performance time (3). At competitive
velocities Cs was least in front crawl and greater in backcrawl,
butterfly and breaststroke, respectively, at competitive veloci-
ties and are associated with the SR-v curves. For most strokes
in longer distance races (v = 1.6 m/s) the division of aerobic
(E
ae
), anaerobic lactic acid (E
anla
) and anaerobic alactic acid
(E
analac
) sources are 37.8, 43.0, and 19.3%; while for shorter
distances (v = 2.0 m/s) they are 19.4, 54.2, and 26.4%, respec-
tively (2). V
O2max
in over-distance trained (moderate v) swim-
mers is low and not very variable, while high velocity training
INVITED LECTURES
Rev Port Cien Desp 6(Supl.1) 1317 16
increases it 48%, along with 35% in E
anla
, and resulted in a
27% increase in v
max
.
CONCLUSION.
The biophysics of swimming can be quantified as v
max
= SR x
d/s and Cs x (Eae + Eanla + Eanala) (Etot). These biomechan-
ical and metabolic factors are greatly variable and each compo-
nent is changed by training, even in elite swimmers.
REFERENCES
(1) Craig AB Jr and Pendergast DR (1979). Relationships of
stroke rate, distance per stroke, and velocity in competitive
swimming. Med Sci Sports 11(3):278-283.
(2) Capelli C, Pendergast DR, Termin A II, di Prampero PE
(1998). Energetics of swimming at maximal speed. Eur J Appl
Physiol. 78:385-393.
(3) Termin A II and Pendergast DR (2001). Training using the
stroke frequency-velocity relationship to combine biomechani-
cal and metabolic paradigms. J Swim Res. 14:9-17.
(4) Zamparo P, Pendergast DR, Mollendorf J, Termin A II,
Minetti AE (2005). An energy balance of front crawl. Eur J
Appl Physiol 94:134-144.
ANALYSIS OF SWIMMING TECHNIQUE: STATE OF THE ART:
APPLICATIONS AND IMPLICATIONS.
Sanders, R
Centre for Aquatics Research and Education, The University of
Edinburgh, Scotland, U.K.
INTRODUCTION
Methods of analysing motion have advanced greatly in recent
years due to improvement in technology as well as application
of scientific approaches. However, analysis of swimming con-
tinues to be very challenging compared to many other sport
activities due to the fact that swimming is performed at the
interface of two media. This paper provides an overview of
some of the methods currently used to provide feedback for
swimmers and coaches as well as to address scientific ques-
tions to understand more about how swimming performance is
optimised. The presentation includes methods of collecting
data, analysing data, and presenting results for different levels
of analysis including qualitative analysis and simple quantita-
tive analysis for immediate feedback, two-dimensional (2D)
and three-dimensional (3D) quantitative analysis of kinemat-
ics, and deriving forces from the whole body centre of mass.
Examples of specific applications and implications are
described.
QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS AND SIMPLE QUANTITATIVE
ANALYSIS FOR IMMEDIATE FEEDBACK
Various programs provide immediate feedback to swimmers
and coaches. The program at the Centre for Aquatics Research
and Education (CARE) features outstanding under-water and
above-water video equipment controlled from poolside. The
data are replayed as digital avi movies in slow and stopped
motion on large plasma screens. Other centres, for example,
the Centre for Aquatics Research at the University of Granada,
and Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, have developed sophisti-
cated automated reporting systems. Several portable systems
for quantifying fractional race times and distances of all swim-
mers in a competition have been developed, for example, the
Australian system by Mason and Cossor at the Australian
Institute of Sport.
TWO-DIMENSIONAL (2D) AND THREE-DIMENSIONAL
(3D) QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS FOR RESEARCH
Staff and postgraduate students at CARE regularly conduct 2D
and 3D data collection and analysis. 2D approaches include the
quantification of passive drag and added mass from digitised
video data of subjects performing inclined glides, and quantifi-
cation of movement rhythms and inter-joint coordination in
various modes of swimming. 3D approaches are being used to
quantify body roll and fine changes in temporal and spatial
movement patterns across conditions such as swim speeds,
stages of a simulated race, and preferred race distance.
DERIVING FORCES FROM THE WHOLE BODY CENTRE
OF MASS
Researchers at CARE have developed a PC version of Jensens
elliptical zone digitising program to yield accurate body seg-
ment parameter data. This enables the centre of mass of a
swimmer to be calculated accurately so that derived net forces
provide an indication of the interplay between propulsion and
resistance. This is leading to an improved understanding of
how propulsive and resistive forces are produced and how
swimming technique can be optimised.
TECHNOLOGY APPLIED TO OPTIMISE TRAINING FOR IMPROVE-
MENT OF FRONT-CRAWL SWIMMING PERFORMANCE.
Huub M. Toussaint
1,2
1
Vrije Universiteit, Faculty of Human Movement Sciences, Amsterdam
2
University of Professional Education, Academy for Physical Education,
Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
Peak performances in sport require the full deployment of all
powers an athlete possesses. The development of those powers
require years of hard training. It may be argued that training-
time will be especially efficient when devoted to the enhance-
ment of those performance factors that are weak links in the
individual performance chain. Developments of measurement
technology (with special reference to the MAD-system) have
aided the sport scientist in identifying several factors as deter-
minants of performance. These include drag, propulsion tech-
nique, and mechanical power (2). The development of this
knowledge provides the modern coach with some guide-lines
how to design training programmes. However, it may be
argued that training-time will be especially efficient when
devoted to the enhancement of those performance factors that
are weak links in the individual performance chain. This implies
that on an individual level it is necessary to identify in what
phase of the process the performance system first becomes
insufficient. Those factors when improved would immediately
contribute to overall performance and, consequently, training
time allotted to these factors would be well spent.
In the training process it is rather challenging for coaches to
determine which training load is sufficient to induce the
INVITED LECTURES
Rev Port Cien Desp 6(Supl.1) 1317 17
required adaptation without risk of overtraining. More insight
in the individual relation between training dose and adaptation
response is necessary to optimise this training process.
Training dose and changes in performance capacity can be
modelled (1). In this model performance is a systems output
varying over time according to the systems input; the training
dose or training impulse (TRIMP), quantified from exercise
intensity and volume. The subject is represented by a system
with a daily amount of training as input and performance
capacity as output.
It is possible to use heart rate recordings as indicator for the
training dose while simple time trials can be used to monitor
the development of the performance capacity (see Figure 1). A
sketch will be given how technological developments leading to
instrumented swimming wear could be put to use to optimise
the training process.
Figure 1: Bars represent TRIMPs; line represents predicted
performance; dots represent criterion performance.
REFERENCES
1. Banister E.W., J.B. Carter, and P.C. Zarkadas (1999). Training
theory and taper: validation in triathlon athletes. European
Journal of Applied Physiology. 79:182-191.
2. Toussaint, H.M. and M.J. Truijens (2005). Biomechanical
aspects of peak performance in human swimming. Animal
Biology. 55:17-40.
INVITED LECTURES