Messen Und Pruefen

Transparency 1 von 81
Manufacturing Technology I
Lecture 2
Measuring Measuring and and Testing Testing in in Production Production
Prof. Dr.-Ing. F. Klocke
! Measuring and Testing in Manufacturing Technology
! Geometrical Manufacturing Errors
! Metrology
! Surface Properties
! Conclusion
Structure of the Lecture on Measuring and Testing
WZL
Manufacturing Errors by Disturbances
WZL
static disturbances
- mounting errors
- deflection
- ...
dynamic
disturbances
- self controlled vibrations
- seperatly excited vibrations
e. g. fundament
- ...
thermal
disturbances
- internal heat sources
- expansions
- process heat
- ambient influences
- ...
tool wear
- cutting edge offset
- relief face wear
- relief face roughness
- grinding wheel wear
- ...
process
Types of Manufacturing Errors
WZL
systematic errors
system conditional
reproduceable under equal circumstances
corrigible- resp. compensable
examples:- geometrical errors of machine guides
- lacking stiffness of machine structure
cannot be described systematically
to seperate sytematic fromrandomerrors the use of
statistisc methods is necessary
examples:- process caused vibrations
- tool wear
- mannerism of examiner
stochastic errors
Measuring resp. Testing in der Production
there is no absolute accuracy
there are always deviations resp. faults
deviations of an attribute from set point are tolerated for functionality
and are to be checked
securing the functionality of a workpiece
minimisation of error potential in production
goods receipt
during manufacturing
after assembling
random sampling
statistically
100 %-verification
WZL
why
when
how
Measuring and Testing
WZL
experimental procedure to determine of a measured value and/or a
physical measurand. This value is indicated as multiple of a unit
and/or a reference value. From the conjunction of several measured
values results the measurement.
the measurement result comprises the circumstances and the
measurement deviation.
determination whether a fulfills demanded conditions fulfilled, in
particular, if margins of errors or tolerances are kept.
testing can be objective but also subjective
measuring
testing
Source: Pfeifer, WZL
! Form Error
! Dimension Fault
! Prosition Error
! Surface Roughness
! Metrology
! Conclusion
WZL
Geometrical Production Errors and their Definitions (by Kienzle)
Source: DIN 7462 WZL
roughness form error
deviation of
cylindricity
f
z
= d
a
- d
i
d
i
d
i d
a
shaft bore
d
i
d
a
d
i
d
a
location error
e
size error
tolerance
Influence of a Change of Passive Power on the Workpiece Diameter
WZL
1000
600
400
200
N
10
5
0
m
Workpiece material Ck 55 N
Cutting material HW P10
Cutting speed v
c
= 160 m/s
Feed rate f = 0,25 mm
Body geometry:
!
0
= 6
"
0
= 5
#
S
= 0
$
r
= 70
%
r
= 90
r
%
= 0,8 mm

n
o
m
i
n
a
l

d
i
a
m
e
t
e
r
p
a
s
s
i
v
e

p
o
w
e
r

F
P
d
e
f
e
c
t

o
f

s
i
z
e
feed rate direction
feed direction
feed direction
Examples for Surface Irregularity (DIN 4760)
WZL
Surface irregularity
(as a contoured cut presented reinforced)
Examples for the kind
of deviation
Examples for the
reason of formation
1
st
Order: Deviation of form unevenness
noncircularity
Error in the gui dance of the machine
tool, deflection of the machine or of
the workpi ece, chucking error,
hardening di stortion, wear
2
nd
Order: Waviness waves Eccentric clampi ng or form defect of
a cutter, vibrati on of the tool machine
or of the tool
3
rd
Order: grooves/scratches Form of the tool cutting edge, feed
rate or infeed of the tool
4
th
Order: ridges
ripples
knobs
Process of the chip formation, (tear
chip, slear chip, built-up edge), material
deformation whil e sand blasting,
gemnation during the galvanically
treatment
5
th
Order: structure Process of crystall izati on, modification
of the surface through chemical affecti on
(e. g. pickl ing), corrosi on mechanism
6
th
Order: lattice structure
of the
materi al
Physical and chemical process in the
synthesis of the matter, tensions and
shear within the crystal lattice
R
o
u
g
h
n
e
s
s
Superposition of the surface irregularities
1
st
- 4
th
order
i mpossible to visuali ze i n a simple manner
impossible to visualize in a simple manner
Realization of the Surface Irregularity throgh Surface Cuts
WZL
A
B
G
H
L
C
D
F
E
A
B
E
F
C
D
"
A
B
C
D
profile
profile
profile
vertical section
veritcal section
sloped section

tangential section planes
tangential plane
cross section parallel to
the tangential plane
Vertical cuts Bevel cuts
Tangential section at a plane
A
B
C
D
tangential section plane
cross section
parallel to the
tangential
plane
tangential section lines
real surface
geometrically
perfect
surface
Tangential section at a cylinder
Basic Terms in Surface Texture Measurement
Source: nach DIN 4762 / ISO 4287/1 WZL
geometrically ideal profile
actual profile reference profile
m basic profile
R
y
R
p
F
oi
F
ui
X
l
l
v
l
n
y
i
T
H
h
i
h
i
R
m
y
i
= profile excursion
y
p
= profile crown height
y
v
= profile valley depth
F
oi
= material-filled parts
F
ui
= material-free parts
l = reference length
l
t
= total sampling length
l
v
= pre-sampling length
l
n
= after-sampling length
m = middle profile line
l
t
R
y
= maximum profile height
R
p
= maximum profile crown height
R
m
= maximum profile valley depth
H = highest point of the profile
T = deepest point of the profile
h
i
= distance between actual profile and middle profile
y
p
y
v
Definition of the Average Peak-to-Valley Height R
Z
Source: DIN 4768 WZL
Z
1
Z
2
Z
3
Z
4
Z
5
l
e
5 x l
e
= l
m
l
n
l
v
l
t
l
v
pre-sampling length
l
e
individual-sampling length
l
m
assessment length
l
n
post-sampling length
l
t
total-sampling length
Z
i
individual peak to valley height
R
max
maximum peak to valley height
R
Z
average peak to valley height
middle
profile line
1
5
R
Z
= Z
i
&
5
i=1
Determination of the Carrying Length
WZL Source: DIN 4762
l'
c1
l'
c2
l'
c3 l'
cn
c
geometrical perfect profile
real profile
basic profile
l
n
l
c1
l
c2
l
c3
l
cn
!Measuring and Testing in Manufacturing Technology
!Geometrical Manufacturing Errors
!Metrology
! Basics of Measuring
! Measurement Faults
! Measuring- and Testing Equipment for Length- and Form Errors
! Methods and Devices for J udging Technical Surfaces
!Surface Properties
!Conclusion
WZL
Measurement Chain - Information Flow
WZL
measurement
object
detection of measurand
measurement device
sensor
...
signal processing
measurement circuit
measurement amplifier
computer
...
output of measured
value
display
storage
...
measurand
measurement
signal
value
d
i
s
t
u
r
b
a
n
c
e
s
a
m
b
i
e
n
t

i
n
f
l
u
e
n
c
e
s
auxiliary
energy
Signal Flow between Measured Quantity and Indication/Display
WZL
measured quantity
display
translator transformer amplifier
transmitter transformer
auxiliary energy supply
Measurement Category Conversion and underlying Effects
WZL
Input parameter Effect/Principle Example
mechanic lever/gear/thread-path measurement micrometer screw
dial gauge
elektric pitch variation causes change of capacity capacitive pitch sensor
of a condensator
change of Resistance due to conductor deformation strain gauge
magnetic change of inducti vity of a coil inductive pi tch sensor
resp. des magn.flow according to pi tch variation
Hysteresis for detecction of Barkhausen-noise Barkhausen-noise
thermic beam intensity; thermal effect on R, L, C thermal element
pneumatic change of flow rate according to Bernoulli pneumatic bore
becaus of change of cross section measuring rod
optical interference, diffraction, reflection (Michelson-)interferometer
Vibration Forms of Light Waves
WZL
'
2
'
3
#
3
#
1
#
2
#
'
2
'
3
#
time
a
m
p
l
.
a
m
p
l
.
time
a
m
p
l
.
time
time
a
m
p
l
.
time
a
m
p
l
.
interference of two coherent light
rays with equal phase position
(addition of the light intensity)
interference of two coherent light
rays with opposite phase position
'
phase shift
#
wave length
light mixture of various wave lengths
# )
const
' )
0
monochromatic light
# *
const
' )
0
monochromatic coherent light
# *
const
' *
0
Interference of the Light
WZL
z = 0, 1, 2 .....
z = 0, 1, 2 .....
n =
sin
"
sin
+
d = z
2n
#
d = ( + z)
2n
#
1
2
,
= 2d n-sin
"
+
#
2
L
V
1
2
F
E
1'
2'
d
A
C C'
B
2'' 1''
"
+
A
B'
B
F
P
P
1
L
Interference at plane-parallel plates
(Fraunhofer Interference)
Interferometer according to Michelson
z ordinal number of the interference
n refractive index
path difference
amplification (
"
= 0)
cancellation (
"
= 0)
Interference of the Light
WZL
z = 0, 1, 2 .....
z = 0, 1, 2 .....
n =
sin
!
sin
"
d = z
2n
#
d = ( + z)
2n
#
1
2
$
= 2d n-sin
!
+
#
2
L
V
1
2
F
E
1'
2'
d
A
C C'
B
2'' 1''
!
"
A
B'
B
F
P
P
1
L
Interference at plane-parallel plates
(Fraunhofer Interference)
Interferometer according to Michelson
z ordinal number of the interference
n refractive index
path difference
amplification (
!
= 0)
cancellation (
!
= 0)
Inductive Position Encoder
WZL
L
1
L
2
s
r
4
r
3
U
A
U
B
U
A
U
B
C
C =
0
%
r
%
A
d
position encoder
measuring element
position encoder
exit to the
measuring amplifier
output voltage of
the gap bridge
U
A
=
jumper voltage U
B
=
C = capacity
dielectric constant
0
=
%
r
=
%
s = measured displacement
permittivity
A =
plate surface
d =
distance between the plates
Fundamental Terms for the Pneumatic Measurement Principle
WZL
d
m
&
h
A
min
flow channel
reference pressure p
s
atmosphere pressure p
a
measuring nozzle
measuring gap
annular gap surface = d
m

.

.
h
'
Pneumatic Sensors
Source: Nieberding, Neu WZL
air supply
valve
tactile pin
workpiece
guide body
measuring
nozzle
bore
contact measurement
contactless
measurement
! Methods and Devices J udging Technical Surfaces
!Surface Properties
!Conclusion
WZL
Causes for Measurement-Variances within Measurements
WZL
WZL
C
sources of
errors within
measurements
measurand:
type of measurand,
type of error
measuring method:
unconsidered
interference, qualification,
"cosine"-error
measuring device:
measurement inaccuracy,
suitability, installation,
measuring forces
preparation:
cleanliness,
calibration
malfunction:
mistake, reading error,
false interpretation,
impatience
operator:
capability, training,
visual acuity, estimation,
concentration
environment:
temperture, air pressure,
humidity, vibrations,
illumination, disturbances
!Surface Properties
!Conclusion
WZL
Taylors Principle Concerning Gauges
Source: Kienzle WZL
reject-gauge reject-gauge
reject-gauge reject-gauge
acceptance-
-gauge
bore hole shaft square-bore hole serration
acceptance-gauge
acceptance-gauge
acceptance-
-gauge
Acceptance-Gauge and Reject-Gauge
WZL
should test the complete measuring surface at one time
has to fit to the acceptance workpiece
record any dimension seperatly
size for reject-gauge is lower deviation (shaft)
size for reject-gauge is upper deviation (bore hole)
size for acceptance-gauge is upper deviation (shaft)
size for acceptance-gauge is lower deviation (bore hole)
must not fit to any part of the acceptance workpiece
Acceptance-Gauge
Reject-Gauge
Relation between Input and Output Quantity of a Measuring System
WZL
AB
PB
FB
factors
measured quantity
signal
measurement result
input output
Basic function characteristic
functional area FB
proportional band PB
operating range AB
transmission ratio
amplification factor
converter constant
o
u
t
p
u
t
input
Micrometer
WZL
A B C D E F G
H
C
1
A measuring anvil
B spindle
C scale case
C
1
distortion nut
D graduated collar
E instep cone
F coupling
G ratchet
H frame
Dialgauge Principle
WZL
special design, shock-proof, keeping
almost a constant measuring force
return spring
biasing spring
case
scale
tactile pin
absorber,
built as a
rack on the
outside
Optical Lever (Form A)
Source: DIN 879 WZL
tolerance marks
clamping shank
measurement bolt
fine adjustment
28
h6
6
h6
1
8
m
i
n
i
m
u
m

s
i
z
e
4
5
m
a
x
i
m
u
m

s
i
z
e
8
5
m
i
n
i
m
u
m

s
i
z
e
seating bore for the
clamping shank
28 H7
seating bore within
the measurement top
6 H7
1 m
Schematical Sketch of the Mikrokator
Source: CE Johannson WZL
adjustment
scale
pointer
angle lever helical compression spring case tactile pin
Comparator
WZL
scale case measuring surface swinging follower
biasing spring
needle is moved by swinging
follower and rack by pinion
rack
fine adjustment
scale
Measuring Principle of the Autocollimating Telescope
WZL
X'
2
!
2
!
!
fine measuring eye-piece
measuring plane
movable
gap
light source
reversing mirror
convergent lens
crosshair plate
optical axis
objektive lens
plane mirror
Pneumatic Distance Measurement
Source: Dolezalek WZL
1 2
3
4
s
s
1
2
h
6
3
4
5
Scheme of the volume measuring procedure
1 air filter
2 pressure regulator
3 flow meter
4 measuring nozzle
Scheme of the speed measuring procedure
1 air filter
2 pressure regulator
3 venturi meter
4 flow off valve
5 measuring nozzle
6 differential pressure meter
Transducer Characteristic of a Pneumatic Measurement Device
WZL
supply-nozzle
indicator
measuring-nozzle
workpiece
p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

p
distance s
D
1
D
2
p
$
s
$
p
s
p
0
Pneumatic Test Mandrel
WZL
test piece
measuring nozzle
Examples for Pneumatic Measuring
WZL
2.) indication diameter
3.) indication
face-untrueness
1.) indication
face-untrueness
Face-untrueness and diameter measuring
Distance measuring Bevel measuring
A-scale B-scale
3-D Coordinate-Measuring Machine
WZL Source: Zeiss
! Devices for Surface Checking
!Surface Properties
!Conclusion
WZL
Profile Cuts of Metal-Removing Machined Surfaces
Source: Mahr WZL
rough and
fine turned
planed
honed
ground
Surface Comparison Cluster
Source: Rubert WZL
1
0
6
,
0
3
,
0
1
,
6
1
,
0
0
,
5
5
0
,
0
5
0
,
1
0
,
2
0
,
4
0
,
8
1
,
6
2
,
5
8
,
0
4
,
0
1
6
3
2
5
0
N
7
N
6
N
5
N
4
N
3
N
2
N
1
0
N
9
N
8
N
7
N
6
N
5
I
S
O

R

1
3
0
2
-
1
9
7
1
1
2
,
5
6
,
3
3
,
2
1
,
6
0
,
8
0
,
4
flat lapping
rubbing
flat
grinding
horizontal
milling
face milling longitudinal
turning
r
o
u
g
h
n
e
s
s

R
t

(
m
)
m
e
a
n

r
o
u
g
h
n
e
s
s
R
a

(
m
)
r
o
u
g
h
n
e
s
s

s
i
g
n
a
t
u
r
e
f
i
n
i
s
h

m
a
r
k

D
I
N

1
4
0
m
e
a
n

r
o
u
g
h
n
e
s
s
R
a

(
m
)
r
o
u
g
h
n
e
s
s

R
t

(
m
)
Surface Examination with the Blade Ruler
WZL
!
r
(
100 m
light source
blade ruler
view A
gaps up to 1 m visible
view A
workpiece
eye
Surface Examination by Marking
WZL
black digit
(marking paste)
light digit
(lowest points)
gray glittering
digits
(supporting points)
iron straightedge
workpiece
marking paste
Pneumatic Surface Examination Procedure
WZL
nozzle
measuring chamber
manometer
pressure
differential
measuring nozzle
workpiece
overcurrent
tube
compressed air
Condenser Procedure to Examine the Surface
WZL
electrode dielectric
workpiece
indication
Principle of the Detection of Dispersed Light
WZL
surface
observation
plane
t
r
a
n
s
m
it
t
e
r
r
e
c
e
iv
e
r
WZL
!Surface Properties
!Conclusion
Construction of the Interference Microscope
WZL
eye
eye-piece
light source
illumination
lens
plane
plate
objective
objective
work piece
division
prism
comparison
mirror
Construction of the Interference Microscope
WZL
eye
eye-piece
light source
illumination
lens
plane
plate
objective
objective
work piece
division
prism
comparison
mirror
Photos Taken by the Interference Microscope
Source: Zeiss WZL
Ball surface
Copy of a steel surface
Measuring the Workpiece Roughness with the Light-Slit Microscope
WZL
f = 0,16 mm
f = 0,20 mm
f = 0,25 mm
f = 0,315 mm
45
45
cutting speed v
c
= 150 m/min
workpiece material steel Ck 45
cutting material HM P 15
exposure t = 1/125 s
microscope enlargement 400 times
Light-slit pictures
feed f = 0,125 mm
light pencil
irradiation
direction
visual
direction
workpiece
border lines
Workscheme of the light-slit method
Principle of the Surface Measuring
Source: Mechau WZL
a
b
c
d
e
f
illumination
microscope
prism
test piece
visual field
a Brass turned with a cemented carbide tool.
feed 20 m
b Brass turned with diamond.
feed 15 m
c Brass turned with diamond.
feed 50 m
d Gudgeon pin lapped with crack.
e Lapped gudgeon pin.
f Finepolished glass cylinder.
Tracing Device and Tracing Principles
Source: Wiemer WZL
exciter for the
needle stroke oscillator
spring and weight
for the oscillator
absorbtion of the oscillator
search unit
spring
workpiece
tactile pin
principle "Woxen"
feeling-procedure
Measuring Principles for Stylus Profilers
WZL
piezoelectric optoelectric
slit
light
source
inductive
spool
soft iron
body
mechanical
crystal body
evaporized
metal layer
Laboratory Stylus Profiler
Source: Mahr WZL
Various Surface Tracing Systems
WZL
!
! !
/2
h
!
2 h
tracer skid
table
tracer
tracer skid
tracer
guiding skid
tracing arm
tracer
guiding skid
half-rigid system pendulum tracer system reference plane system
various surface tracing systems
causes of failure with various half-rigid tracing systems
tracer
tracer
guiding skid
guiding skid
surface finish trace
Separation of Waviness and Roughness throgh Wave Filter
WZL
1

m
250 m
1

m
250 m
1

m
250 m
without wave filter
low-pass filter
high-pass filter
limitating wave length:
!
= 0,75 mm
tracing system: HT 25/6
tracing distance: 10 mm
machining process: superfinishing
arithmetic mean roughness R
a
= 0,75
W-profile (waviness)
P-profile (waviness and roughness)
R-profile (roughness)
Profiles of a Surface in Various Presentation Scales
WZL
A
1
0

m
250 m
s
w
25
1
=
A
1
0

m
10 0 m
s
w
10
1
=
A
1
0

m
25 m
s
w
2,5
1
=
A
1
0

m
10 m
s
w
1
1
=
magnification ratio
s
w
vertical
horizontal
=
arithmetic mean roughness R
a
= 2,1 m
employde tracer
for plotting
Differentiation of a Surface Profile from ist Reflection
WZL
R
p
1
R
p
1

=

R
t
2
R
t
2
basic profile
real profile
fundamental profile
medium profile
maximum roughness
mean roughness
c. l. a. surface roughness
smoothing depth
R
t1
= R
t2
R
a1
= R
a2
R
z1
= R
z2
R
p1
R
p2
Mesurement Example: Detection of Cutting Edge Offset
WZL
tactile system: blade calliper
blade width 0,6 mm
bade angle 60
blade radius 5 m
measurement
output:
250 m
5

m
Developement of Cutting Edge Offset
WZL
Tool
K10
(Ti,Al)N
reground
d
0
= 110 mm
!
F
= -10
"
F
= 3
Workpiece
16MnCr5
800HV10
d
2
= 65 mm
#
s = 0,1 mm
Process parameters
v
c
= 100 m/min
f
a
= 2,54 mm/WU
N = 1 mm
-1
h
cu max
= 50 m
parallel feed
with coolant
5 m
250m
Schneidkantenrauheit in Spanflchenebene
relief face form deviation
no. of cuts
3.000
5.000
1.000
0
500 m
60
33
Measurement Example: SEM-Analysis
WZL
Tool
K10
(Ti,Al)N
reground
d
0
= 110 mm
!
F
= -10
"
F
= 3
Workpiece
16MnCr5
800HV10
d
2
= 65 mm
#
s = 0,1 mm
Process parameters
v
c
= 100 m/min
f
a
= 2,54 mm/WU
N = 1 mm
-1
h
cu max
= 50 m
parallel feed
with coolant
300 m
3
0
0

m
~

6
0
0
cracks
60 m
60 m
cracks
cutting edge after 5.000 cuts
WZL
!Surface Properties
! Basics
! Properties of Surfaces
! Edge Layer Inspection
!Conclusion
Ranges of Use and Stress for Technical Surfaces
Source: H. Czichos WZL
Types and functions
of technical surfaces
Surface stresses Variations and
damages of the surface
exterior surfaces of all kinds of
technical products (visual-, cover-,
signal surfaces,...)
surfaces in contact with fluids
(container, car-body parts,...)
surfaces in contact with moving
bodies (bearings, brakes, gears,...)
surfaces in contact with
microorganisms
not mechanically
stressed (climatic- or
environmental stress)
stress caused by
radiation, temperature
and electricity
absorption
soiling
weathering
passivation
oxydation
surface cinder
electrochemical
stress
corrosion
electrolysis
streaming stress
tribological stress
(frictional stress)
biological stress
cavitation
erosion
deformation by contact
wear
biological damage
surfaces exposed to heat, radiation
or electricity (isolating surface,
electrical contact,...)
surfaces in contact with streaming
fluids (pipes, valves,...)
Peripheral Zone Parameters
WZL sourcee: Brinksmeier
Quelle: Brinksmeier, E.
Randzoneneigenschaften
Lunker, Poren,
Risse
Aufwerfungen,
Schollen,
Abl agerungen
Formnderungen
durch Eigen-
spannungen
Spannungen
Di chte
elasti sche
Konstanten
linearer Aus-
dehnungs-
koeffi zient
Wrmeleit-
fhigkeit
Wrme-
kapazitt
spezifischer
elektrischer
Widerstand
Brechungs-
i ndex
Absorptions-
grad
Reflexions-
grad
Permeabili tt
Induktion
Remanenz
Koerziti v-
feldstrke
magnetisches
Rauschen
Magneto-
stri kti on
Phasenan-
ordnung im
Werkstoff
Korngre
Korngrenzen
Textur
Versetzungs-
dichte
Hrte
elementare
Bestandtei le
Stchiometrie
Periodizi tt
Ordnungsgrad
Gittertyp
I FW
geometrisch
chemisch
mechanisch thermisch elektrisch optisch magneti sch Gefge Stoffaufbau
physikalisch
Formation Structure of Metallical Surfaces
Source: Schmaltz, Degener WZL
outside boundar layer
Reaction layer of the
inner boundary layer
with the surrounding
atmosphere
inner boundary layer
inhomogenity concerning
stability, hardness,
forming dearce, residual
stress, texture
fundamental structure
outside boundary layer
grease- / oil layer 10 ... 100 m
absorption layer 3 ... 5
oxide layer 10 ... 100
elastically deformed
inner boundary layer > 5 m
plastically deformed
and hardened
elastically and plastically
deformed
Plastic Deformation of the Edge Zone while Drilling
WZL
variation new worn
cutting material: HM-coated
material: C15
v
c
: 200 m/min
f: 0,1 mm/U
material: C15
v
c
: 100 m/min
f: 0,1 mm/U
material: C15
v
c
: 60/30 m/min
f: 0,2 mm/U
Edge Zone and Heat-Treatment Data of a Carburizing Steel
WZL
800
HV1
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0,0 0,5 1,0 1,5
2,0
3,0 mm
1,6
1,2
1,0
0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
0,0
%
0 2 4 6 8 h 12
C
1050
950
900
850
800
750
700
650
1,0
% C
0,6
0,4
0,2
0,0
T
c
p
0,0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0 3,0 mm
carbon gradient
v
i
c
k
e
r
s

h
a
r
d
n
e
s
s
edge distance a
c
a
r
b
o
n

l
e
v
e
l

C
time t
t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

T
c
a
r
b
o
n

c
o
n
c
a
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n
Process data:
gas: CO = 23% / H
2
= 46%
carbonizing depth At: 1,40 mm bei C = 0,35 %
oil-quenching at
$
= 60 C
quenching intensity: 25
grain size: 5
Mn
1,15
C Si Cr Ni Mo V Al Cu P
0,16 0,30 0,95 0,00 0,00
0,00
0,04 0,10 0,02
chemical analysi s (L.E. i n %)
hardening gradient
time-temperature gradient
edge distance a
Vergleich von Hrteeindrcken bei Verfahrens- und Prflastvariation
WZL
HV 10
Testwerkstck
Randhrte > 800 HV
16MnCr5
Eht
550
= 0,4 + 0,2 mm
Aufma
#
s = 0,1 20 m
Vickers Eindruck:
#
s
0,1 mm
Oberflcheneindruck
bei 800 HV 10
(136 Spitzenwinkel)
(Tiefe ~ 0,3
.

#
s)
HV 0,02
HV 0,1
Rockwelleindruck
entsprechend fr
64 HRC
(120 Spitzenwinkel)
(Tiefe ~ 0,8
.

#
s)

d

2
2
HV =
0,102
.
F
.
2
.
cos(22)
d
Structure Parameters
WZL
peripheral zone after case hardening
(etchant: 1 % -ige alk. HNO
3
)
30 m
30 m
structure before case hardening
hardness (-tiefenverlauf)
grain size
phases
- martensite
- retained austenite
segregations
- carbides
texture
grain size
phases
- ferrite
- perlite
segregations
- carbides
- sulfides
texture
hardness
WZL
!Surface Properties
! Basics
! Properties of Surfaces
! Edge Layer Inspection
!Conclusion
Interference of a Hardened Zone by Process Interactions
WZL
mechanic thermal
F
Q
basic structure
interference of peripheral zone
tempered zone
white layer
Effects of Thermal Damaged Peripheral Zones
WZL
LF
200 m
RF
1000
800
700
600
500
400
300
0 0, 2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1
Distance to surface [mm]

V
i
c
k
e
r
s

h
a
r
d
n
e
s
s

[
H
V
0
,
0
5
]
900
right flank
left flank
gear
pinion
thermally damaged
by grinding
d
w
d
f
RF
LF
200 m
pittings
(right f lank loaded)
grinding burn
lef t f lank not loaded
Quelle: E. Brinksmeier
I FW
finished surface
HV
texture
structure cracks
%
&
%
''
residual stresses hardness

direction of processing
Manipulation after Processing
WZL Quelle: IFW, Hannover
yield point
l
o
a
d
r
e
l
i
e
f
deformation rate
t
e
n
s
i
l
e

s
t
r
e
s
s

(
+
)
p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

(
-
)
t
e
n
s
i
o
n

%
yield point
plastic deformation
%
E-
temperature
c
o
o
l
i
n
g
h
e
a
t
i
n
g
hot yield point
t
e
n
s
i
l
e

s
t
r
e
s
s

(
+
)

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

(
-
)
(
)
*
%
+
,
*
%
hot yield point
plastic deformation
%
E+
(caused mechanically)
compressive stress
(caused thermically)
tensile stresses
Origin of Residual Stresses
WZL Quelle: Hnscheid, Knig, Lowin
Typical Residual Stresses
WZL
0
+
-
depth
r
e
s
i
d
u
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s

%
E
0
+
-
depth
r
e
s
i
d
u
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s

%
E
origins of risidual stresses
influence of friction
influence of chipping
thermal
mechanic
thermal
mechanic
0
+
-
depth
r
e
s
i
d
u
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s

%
E
0
+
-
depth
r
e
s
i
d
u
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s

%
E
run of the residual stress
mR
mZ
tR
tZ
mR
mZ
tR
tZ
thermally caused
mechanically caused
Meaurement of Residual Stress by X-Ray Diffraction
WZL
m
o
n
o
c
h
r
o
m
a
t
i
c
r
a
d
i
a
t
i
o
n
s
e
c
o
n
d
a
r
y

r
a
d
i
a
t
i
o
n
0
1
0
2
P
1
P
2
P
3
A E
B D
$ $
atom
mesh level
distance
d
d
!-
CD=d
.
sin
$
CD=1/2.
!
Bragg:
!
= 2
.
d
hkl
.
sin
$
hkl
hkl: Miller indices
example for indicized
m
esh levels
( 0 1 0 ) ( 1 1 0 )
X-Ray Diffractometer for Structure Analysis
WZL source: Seif ert
x-ray tube
detektor
swing table
probe
swing table
WZL
! Metrology
! Conclusion
Questions
! Explain systematic errors and random errors and name two examples for each. How
can you minimize the effect of these errors on the work result?
! What disturbances influence the production process (one example each)?
! Explain the pneumatic measurement of cylindrical workpieces.
! Explain the measurment of lengths with a interferometer. What is the comparision
standard.
! Why must measurments of high accuracy and high reproducibility be done in an air
conditioned environment?
! Why can it be necessary to determinate the structure of the boundary layer? With what
parameters would you describe the structure (Phases, grain size,
texture-anisotropy)?
! What structure parameters can be determined with a light microscope?
! How are residual stresses caused and how can they be measured?
! Why is the structure of the workpiece affected by the production process (arbitrary
example)?
WZL

Messen Und Pruefen

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Messen Und Pruefen

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Transparency 1 von 81

Potrebbero piacerti anche