Knowles Theory of Andragogy 1

Running head: KNOWLES THEORY OF ANDRAGOGY

Malcolm Knowles Theory of Andragogy: Key Concepts and Implications
Carlos G. Cenzon
George Mason University





Knowles Theory of Andragogy 2
Abstract
Based on a theoretical model for adult learning developed in Europe, Malcolm Knowles
introduced andragogy into the U.S. in 1968. Adult education is grounded on the premise that
adult learners are different from non-adults. In his theory of andragogy, Knowles identified 6
primary assumptions about adult learning: the need to know, learners self-concept, role of
learners experiences, readiness to learn, orientation to learning, and motivation. From these
assumptions, Knowles presented 7 implications for program design: climate setting, mutual
planning, diagnosing own needs for learning, designing learning plans, carrying out learning
plans, and evaluating learning. For the past 30 years, the andragogical framework has been used
successfully in several settings. Still, andragogy is a relatively new theory that needs more study
and refining.

Knowles Theory of Andragogy 3
Malcolm Knowles Theory of Andragogy:
Key Concepts and Implications
The differences between an adult and a little child are quite obvious. From the point of
view of learning, children are more prone to wonder at new things and new insights. It is natural
for children to focus on the physical world which they are slowly discovering. Adults, on the
other hand, who for the most part already know what things are, tend to look for meaning and
deeper insight. Most instruction, by necessity and tradition, has been focused on children to
young adultselementary to college education. From a teachers perspective, how does one
approach an adult when it comes to instruction? It is only logical to think that adults have a
different outlook and needs from children, hence the need for a different approach. For centuries,
there was no distinction between the education of adults and of children, although the content
may have been a little different. Everyone was taught in the same manner regardless of age, prior
experience, or developmental level. The scant literature or investigation in adult education has
led to the notion that the adult learner is a neglected species (Knowles, 1981, p. 27).
During the middle of the last century, experience and research has shown the need for an
alternative approach in the practice of adult education (Cyr, 1999). It was in Europe that the term
andragogy was first used to refer to some form of adult learning. According to J ost Reischmann,
Chair of Andragogy at Bamberg University in Germany, the term andragogik was coined by a
German educator by the name of Alexander Kapp in 1833 (Reischmann, n.d.). Malcolm
Knowles, who is considered to be the central figure in US adult education during the latter half
of the 20
th
century, learned of the term from a Yugoslavian adult educator and introduced it into
American adult education literature in 1968 (Cyr, 1999). Knowles defined andragogy as the art
and science of helping adults learn (Cyr, 1999, p. 2). This paper will focus on the key concepts
Knowles Theory of Andragogy 4
and principles of the theory of andragogy as presented by Knowles. It will also discuss the
implications of the theory, including its applications to instruction, its strengths, and its
weaknesses.
Literature Review
There have been several studies made on Knowles theory of andragogysome to
elaborate on his views, others to criticize it. Cyr (1999) made a comprehensive study of the
assumptions, theories, principles, and practices related specifically to adult learners, for the most
part focusing on Knowles work on andragogy.
In an earlier study, Imel (1989) examined whether teachers use a different style when
teaching adults. The study was based on Knowles andragogical model that adult learning differs
from pre-adult learning (Imel, 1989). Her results show that teachers spend less time on discipline
and giving directions, that teachers provide less emotional support, that they structure
instructional activities less tightly, and that they vary teaching techniques more (Imel, 1989).
In a case study involving seniors learning computer use, Redding, Eisenman, and Rugolo
(1998) applied Malcolm Knowles theory of andragogy and the concept of self-directed learning.
They were able to demonstrate that certain instructional styles were very effective like
emphasizing that the course is just a starting point, standardizing the use of terms, keeping the
level of presentation simple and direct, and using a consistent strategy (Redding, Eisenman, &
Rugolo, 1998).
There are, on the other hand, a number of studies critical of andragogy. Citing the work
of Tisdell and Rachal (n.d.), St. Clair (2002) quotes that the application of andragogy is limited
to certain types of learning at certain times. St. Clair believes that Knowles is mistaken in his
belief that his andragogical framework can be applied to any adult learning situation. More
Knowles Theory of Andragogy 5
concretely, Roberson (2002) attests that some view Knowles concept of andragogy as reflecting
only a white, male, and a Western orientation on life and learning.
A more biting criticism comes from an article review by Davenport. Davenport (1987)
labels andragogy as morass (which he uses in his title). Davenport argues that there is much
confusion about what andragogy is all about and that Knowles added all the more to this
confusion with his paradoxical definitions of andragogy and pedagogy as well as with his
underlying assumptions, which Davenport claims lack clarity and solid empirical support.
Despite its criticisms, andragogy has helped focus the issues concerning the need for a
different approach to teaching adults. The underlying foundation of the theory is that adults are
different and so a different style of teaching and of learning should be studied.
The Adult Learner
Who Is an Adult?
The term adult can mean different things to different people. Knowles (1981) clarifies
what we mean by the word adult from four different perspectives: biological, legal, social, and
psychological. The biological definition of being an adult can be seen as that age when the
person has the capacity to reproduce, i.e., bear offspring. Most people, regardless of race or
culture, reach this age sometime during adolescence. The legal definition of adult, on the other
hand, varies from place to place. It is defined as that age when we can marry without consent,
vote, get a drivers license, etc. (Knowles, 1981). Socially, we become adults when we start
performing mature roles such as that of a full-time worker, a breadwinner for the family, a
spouse or a parent, a voting citizen, etc. (Knowles, 1981). Finally, we are considered adults
psychologically when we arrive at a self-concept of being responsible for our own lives, of
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being self-directing (Knowles, 1981, p. 55). For Knowles, it is this last definition that is most
important when it comes to understanding adult learning.
Characteristics of the Adult Learner
In her study on various authors on adult education, Cyr (1999, p. 3) summarized how
Knowles differentiated adult learners (non-dependent or member role) from non-adults
(dependent or student role) into 10 items: (a) Adult learners are increasingly independent
whereas non-adults are strongly dependent, (b) adult learners are more self-directed, self-
disciplined, and self-operating while non-adults are more other-directed, need external discipline,
and have little self-operation in effect, (c) adults are active learners (student-centered learning)
while non-adults are passive learners (teacher-centered learning), (d) adults usually find no
correct answer for most problems studied/lived while non-adults usually have a correct
answer for most classroom problems studied, (e) for adults, correctness of behavior is more
rigid and associated closely with cultural/social stereotypes or tradition while, in non-adults,
behavior is not as rigidly bound by correct stereotypes and tradition, (f) adults are more aware
of the influence and effects of decision-making or problem-solving processes and, therefore, less
likely to implement theoretical solutions in real-life settings whereas non-adults are not as
aware of the effects of decision and are more prone to implement solutions studied in class to
real-life situations, (g) adults have more-developed views and a value system which may differ
from the teacher leading to conflict in the learning setting while non-adults are less likely to have
strongly-developed value systems or points of view, (h) adults naturally have more and varied
life experiences which may be organized differently that could block, modify, or affect
perception, problem-solving, and decision-making while non-adults have less and fewer kinds of
life experiences and are, therefore, less likely to be influenced in perception, problem-solving,
Knowles Theory of Andragogy 7
and decision-making, (i) for adults, investment of time in a learning activity may be as important
a part of decision for involvement as investment of money or effort; for non-adults, investment
of time in an activity is not usually an important part of decision for involvement in learning
activity, and (j) active learning is usually practiced in areas of interest and, therefore, there may
be less varied learning activity involvement for adults while with non-adults, varied learning is
more common.
Andragogy
Knowles Assumptions
The heart of Knowles theory of andragogy is based on originally four key assumptions.
Two additional assumptions were added later. In his book, The Adult Learner: A Neglected
Species, Knowles (1981) writes that the andragogical model is based on the following six
assumptions: (a) the need to know, (b) the learners self-concept, (c) the role of the learners
experience, (d) readiness to learn, (e) orientation to learning, and (f) motivation.
The need to know. Knowles believes that adult learners need to know the reason why they
need to learn before they make the first step to learn it (Knowles, 1981). The question adults
initially ask is how the new knowledge or skill would benefit them. Ones grandmother would
more willingly learn how to use a computer and e-mail if she is told that she can communicate
with somebody half a globe away and even be able to receive digital pictures which she can print
right then and there. Another way of looking at it is that it would be more difficult for adult
learners to learn something when they do not understand why they have to learn it. It is a totally
different case for young children who have to accept whatever the teacher presents for learning.
Children normally do not ask how something is applicable in their lives before learning it.
Knowles Theory of Andragogy 8
The learners self-concept. The self-concept of adults revolve more around being
responsible for their own decisions and for their own lives (Knowles, 1981). Adults have a better
self-directionthey can choose where to go, what to know, when to start, etc. According to
Knowles, this can often pose a dilemma in teaching adults. How does one teach, which implies a
certain authority, self-directing adults? Normally, adults agree to learn because they are aware
that they need to know something. The teacher is seen as one who has that knowledge or skill.
Hence, adults sometimes feel a conflict between a dependency (on the teacher) and the deeper
psychological need to be self-directing (Knowles, 1981). After acknowledging this problem,
which according to Knowles might be one reason for the high dropout rate in most voluntary
adult education, adult educators have worked at creating learning experiences that help adults to
make the transition from dependent to self-directing learners (Knowles, 1981). One method is
involving them in the planning and design of instruction.
The role of the learners experience. Adults not only have much more experience than
children, their experiences are also of a different quality. Naturally, adults have more experience
due to time. However, the quality of adults experiences is also different in that there are certain
things that only adults can experienceworking full-time, seriously falling in and out of love,
trying to make ends meet financially, etc. Adults have a qualitatively much wider set of
experiences. For adults, the quantity and quality of experiences they bring are in themselves rich
resources for learning and reflection. With their little experience, children normally rely on the
experiences of the teacher, on books, audio-visuals, and other materials.
Readiness to learn. According to Knowles (1981), adults become ready to learn those
particular things they need to know and do so they can cope effectively with their real-life
situations. In short, it is easier for people to learn when they are developmentally capable of it
Knowles Theory of Andragogy 9
and feel the need to learn it. This is the reason why sex education is a hot topic in high school.
For children, their role is more passive in that they become ready to learn whenever and
whatever the teacher presents to them else they will fail in the exams.
Orientation to learning. This assumption is very much related to the previous one
although on a more general level. Adults are more life-centered in that they are motivated to
devote energy to learn something to the extent that they perceive that it will help them perform
tasks or deal with problems that they confront in their life situations (Knowles, 1981, p. 59).
Experience teaches adults what to expect from life and they are more willing to prepare for
future needs. Moreover, for adults, the process of learning is in itself important. This is an
outlook or orientation that is proper to adults. Children, on the other hand, are more focused on
subject matter for learning. They see and experience learning more as an accumulation of content
or an added skill. Younger ones are also more likely to whine about tedious processes as they are
more interested in final results.
Motivation. Adults are motivated to keep on growing, developing, and learning. The fact
that there is such a thing as adult education is proof enough that they have this desire to learn
more when they often do not actually need to. With children, it is often a battle with grades,
acceptance, approval, and rewards.
These assumptions reveal an epistemology that is heavily influenced by pragmatism and
a little of interpretivism. The fact that experience and reason play a key role as sources of
knowledge makes andragogy lean more towards pragmatism. On the other hand, there is also a
tint of interpretivism in that each learner will have his or her own assumption of what reality is
based on the uniqueness of each ones set of experiences. This mixture makes andragogy quite
unique which may also be one of the reasons why some of its critics cannot make much sense of
Knowles Theory of Andragogy 10
it. St. Clair (2002) argues, for example, that one of drawbacks of the andragogical model is that it
provides little insight into learning other than a set of assumptions about learners.
Nevertheless, these assumptions still provide a summary and a clearer picture of who
adults are and where they are coming from. Even for andragogys critics, these assumptions are
considered the most rational aspect of andragogy. In fact, the assumptions can be generalized
into other domains and not just in learning. The assumptions demonstrate how the theory lays
out a humanist view of learners and their potential for growth, with implications for teaching,
social philosophy, and human relationships (St. Clair, 2002, p. 3).
Implications for Learning
Based on the six assumptions just mentioned, Knowles lays out a design for learning
according to seven elements: (a) climate, (b) planning, (c) diagnosis of needs, (d) formulation of
objectives, (e) design, (f) activities, and (g) evaluation.
Climate. In contrast to the climate in a traditional setting where there is a lot of formality
and the teacher is an authority figure, adult learning should be characterized by mutuality,
collaboration, respect, and informality (Knowles, 1981). Since the adult learner is self-directed
and internally motivated, it would be beneficial for both teachers and learners to regard each
other more as peers helping one another. According to Knowles (1984), for many kinds of
learning in adult education, peers are considered one of the richest resources for learning and that
any form of competition stifles the access to those resources.
Planning. In our elementary and high school years, we did not have a say on the what and
how of learning. It should be a different case for adults who have a more mature self-concept and
far richer experiences. A cardinal principle of andragogy (and, in fact, all humanistic and adult
education theory) is that a mechanism must be provided for involving all the parties concerned in
Knowles Theory of Andragogy 11
the educational enterprise in its planning (Knowles, 1981, p. 123). A more concrete example on
this point is the use of learning contracts. Learning contracts provide a vehicle for making the
planning of learning experiences a mutual undertaking by letting learners participate in the
process of diagnosing their needs, formulating objectives, identifying resources, choosing
strategies, and evaluating their accomplishments (Knowles, 1981). According to St. Clair (2002),
the notion of adults working together to design the educational process encapsulates the core
values of andragogy in many ways (St. Clair, 2002, p. 3). Again, it reinforces the adults self-
direction. They are masters of their own destinies.
Diagnosis of needs. To the cognitive, humanistic, and andragogical theorists, the adult
learners perception of what they want to become, what they want to be able to achieve, and at
what level they want to perform, is the starting point in building a model of competencies
(Knowles, 1981). Then, after knowing what they want to become or achieve, the learners can
look at their current state and work on steps on how to get to their objectives. This stage involves
self-assessment and the teacher must provide the learners with tools and procedures for obtaining
data and making responsible judgments about their level of development and competencies
(Knowles, 1981). From an honest assessment of their current state, they can move on to the next
step which is to formulate goals.
Formulation of objectives. The adult learner needs to be a part of this process in line with
the climate of mutuality and collaboration mentioned in the first step and the involvement of the
learner in the overall planning of his or her education stipulated in the second step. The adult
learner should have an opportunity to exercise self-direction in making the objectives. This gives
the adult learner a sense of control.
Knowles Theory of Andragogy 12
Design. Knowles (1981) borrowed some concepts from Houles (1972) educational
design in that a suitable format takes into account the available resources, methods, schedule,
sequence, social reinforcement, individualization, roles and relationships, criteria for evaluation,
and clarity of the design. Again, this reinforces the adult learners self-direction and makes use
of his or her experiences in the process of learning. The design also takes into account adult
learners physical and mental conditionsproper scheduling (no 3-hour sessions without
breaks!).
Activities. The activity should be focused on experiential techniques, making full use of
the adult learners vast experiences. Then, in the actual operation of the activities, the teachers
role becomes sort of an administrator merely overseeing the adult learner progressneedless to
say, without any hint of authority. The learner usually has enough motivation and self-direction
to do the activity with little supervision unless he or she needs help or guidance.
Evaluation. This step should be like a mutual re-diagnosis of needs and how they have or
have not been met. For Knowles, if every learning experience is to lead to further learning, as
continuing education implies, then every evaluation process should include some provision for
helping the learners re-examine their models of desired competencies and reassess the
discrepancies between the model and their newly developed levels of competencies (Knowles,
1981, p. 136.). Adults are mature enough to honestly see their achievements and possible areas
of weakness.
Applications of Andragogy
In his book, Andragogy in Action, Knowles (1984) presents a collection from various
authors of how his notion of andragogy has been applied in various settings: business, industry,
government, colleges and universities, education for the professions, continuing education for the
Knowles Theory of Andragogy 13
health professions, religious education, elementary and secondary education, and remedial
education. The following are two examples: one from an application in college and universities,
and a second one from an application in religious education.
Helping adults reenter college. Coe, Rubenzahl, and Slater (1984) believe that adults
who have been out of school for a long time experience tremendous anxiety when they reenter
college. This radical shift is not easy and may trigger in adults a sense of helplessness which may
affect their ability to self-direct. One of the goals set forth in the objectives of the orientation
course was to help students become self-directed learners (Coe, Rubenzahl, & Slater, 1984).
Looking at how they were able to apply the assumptions and concepts from andragogy, Coe,
Rubenzahl, and Slater (1984), felt that:
Adults taking the orientation course begin to realize that they are capable of taking
responsibility for their own learning, just as they take responsibility for events in their
own lives outside the classroom. As this realization takes place, students want to take an
active, rather than a passive, role in deciding what they want to learn, how they want to
learn it, and how they will demonstrate their learning. (p. 129)
The result of this andragogical application can best be summarized by a comment from
one of the participants (Coe, Rubenzahl, & Slater, 1984):
What I liked best was the facilitative atmosphere which was introduced rather than the
perfunctory lecture. I felt that since I was taking on responsibility for part of my own
growth, I wanted to work up to my potential. I felt no pressure to meet deadlines, etc.
[sic], and so was free to work unharassed [sic] to my fullest potential. (p. 129)
The biblical andragogy clinic. In another more esoteric example, Trester (1984) describes
the rationale and procedures of an application of the andragogical model to religious education.
Knowles Theory of Andragogy 14
Since churches sometimes tend to be huge and impersonal, there has been a movement in most
church denominations to go back to the experiences of the small communities of early
Christianity like those found in the Pauline epistles. In this way, the faith of the members can be
nourished in a more personal way through the wealth of recent biblical studies. Tester (1984)
argues that if a major change in the landscape of adults abilities to grasp and assimilate modern
biblical scholarship in respectable depth is going to happen, it will happen only when we shift
the focus from the activity of the teacher, however qualified and gifted, and begin to refocus
attention on the learners, and what goes on when real learning happens in adults (Tester, 1984,
p. 345).
Based on the collaborative climate of seeing peers as valuable resources, Tester (1984)
quotes the following positive comment from one of the participants in his Biblical Andragogy:
We have participated in the development of a caring and respectful community. We were,
more than we realized, a group of persons constantly nourishing each other as faith
people. When we sang and prayed and reflected upon our studies, a sense of really being
a community in the Lord was established. This was a time when we all really relaxed and
unwound and were refreshed. Quite something when you also consider that our studies
were serious business. (p. 349)
Conclusion: Andragogys Future
From what Knowles considered was a neglected species until the early 20
th
century,
adults and the research on how their education must match their unique characteristics has been
gaining momentum since the 70s. Nevertheless, much still needs to be done. Even Knowles
himself acknowledged that his ideas have evolved from the time he introduced andragogy in
1968 to when he wrote The Adult Learner: The Definitive Classic in Adult Education and
Knowles Theory of Andragogy 15
Human Resource Development with Holton and Swanson in 1998. The kernel of his theory, the
assumptions and their implications, gives us enough quality material to work on.
Many of Knowles critics undermine the ongoing progress of andragogy as a learning
theory. Perhaps they fail to see that the theory itself is relatively so new, about 35 years old, so it
must be given time to ferment and age to fullness.


Knowles Theory of Andragogy 16
References


Coe, M., Rubenzahl, A., & Slater, V. (1984). Helping adults reenter college. In M. Knowles &
Associates (Eds.), Andragogy in action (pp. 121-130). San Francisco: J ossey-Bass
Publishers.
Cyr, A. V. (1999). Overview of theories and principles relating to characteristics of adult
learners: 1970s-1999. Unpublished manuscript.
Davenport, J ., III. (1987). A way out of the andragogy morass [Abstract]. Lifelong Learning,
11(3), 17-20.
Imel, S. (1989). Teaching adults: Is it different? (ERIC Digest No. 82). Columbus, OH: ERIC
Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and Vocational Education. (ERIC Document
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Knowles, M. (1981). The adult learner: A neglected species (3
rd
ed.). Houston, TX: Gulf
Publishing Company.
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Knowles Theory of Andragogy 17
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[Abstract]. Columbus, OH: ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and Vocational
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Trester, E. (1984). The biblical andragogy clinic. In M. Knowles & Associates (Eds.),
Andragogy in action (pp. 343-349). San Francisco: J ossey-Bass Publishers.