Geographic Information System(GIS)

Introduction
A geographic information system is a system designed to capture, store,
manipulate, analyze, manage, and present all types of geographical data. The
acronym GIS is sometimes used for geographical information science or
geospatial information studies to refer to the academic discipline or career of
working with geographic information systems. In the simplest terms, GIS is the
merging of cartography, statistical analysis, and database technology.
Defnition
In common parlance, a geographic information system or GIS is a
conguaration of computer hardware and software specically designed for the
ac!uisition, maintainance and use of cartographic data."
#. $ana Tomlin
A geographic information system%GIS& is an information system that is
designed to work with data referenced by spatial or geographic coordinates. In
other words, a GIS is botha database system with specic capabilities for
spatially'referenced data, as well as a set of operations for working data. In a
sense, a GIS may be thought of as a higher'order map."
(e)ery Star and *ohn +stes
GIS is A powerful set of tools for collecting, storing, retrie,ing at will,
transforming and displaying spatial data from the real world for a particular set
of purpose."
-eter A..urrough ,/012
GIS is a computer based system that pro,ides for sets of capabilities to handle
georeferenced data3 data input, data management%data storage and retei,al&,
manipulation and analysis and data output."
Arno), /010
4inally, we can say, A geographic information system %GIS& integrates
hardware, software, and data for capturing, managing, analyzing, and
displaying all forms of geographically referenced information.
Components of GIS
The GIS is constitute of five key components, namely, Hardware, Software, procedure, data and
users. These fiv components need to be in balance to function information system satisfactorily.
Computer Hardware :
The general hardware component of a geographical information system is the computer or central
processing unit. It is linked to a disk drive storage unit, which provides space for storing data and
programs. digiti!er, scanner and other device is used to convert data from maps and documents
into digital form and send them to computer. digiti!er board is a flat board used for vectorisation
of any map ob"ect. plotter or other kind of display device is used to present the result of the data
processing and a tape device is used for storing data or programs on magnetic tape.

Fig: Key components of GIS
Computer Software:
The GIS software includes the programs and the user interface for driving the hardware. GIS
software is essential to generate, store, analy!e, manipulate and display geographic information or
data. good GIS software re#uires user friendliness, functionalities, compatibilities, updatability,
documentation, cost effectiveness. The following is a list of GIS software producers and their main
products.
$nvironmental Systems %esearch Institute &$S%I': rcInfo, rc(iew.
utodesk: uto)* +ap
)lark ,abs: I*%ISI
International Institute for erospace Survey and $arth Sciences: I,-IS
+apinfo )orporation: +apinfo.
.entley Systems: +icrostation.
/)I Geomatics: /+/
T0*) Inc. : S/1S
Data:
*ata is the most important component of a GIS. Geographic data and related tabular data can be
collected in house, compiled to custom specifications and re#uirements, or purchased from a
commercial data provider. GIS can integrate spatial data with other e2isting data resources, often
stored in a *.+S. The integration of spatial and tabular data stored in a *.+S is a key
functionality afforded by GIS.
People:
GIS technology has limited value without the people who manage and develop plans for applying it
to real world problems. GIS user range from technical specialists who design and maintain the
system to those who use it to help them perform their everyday work. The identification of GIS
specialist3s vs. end users is often critical to the proper implementation of GIS technology. This is
what called 3brain ware3 which is e#ually important as the Hardware and software. .rain ware refers
to the purpose and ob"ectives, and provides the reason and "ustification, for using GIS.
Procedure:
successful GIS operates according to a well designed implementation plan and business rules,
which are the models and operating practices uni#ue to each organi!ation.
4or many years, though GIS has been considered to be too difficult, e2pensive, and proprietary. The
advent of graphical user interface &G5I', powerful and affordable hardware and software, and
public digital data has broadened the range of GIS application and brought GIS to mainstream use.
Principal Functions of GIS
The functions of GIS hardware and software can be divided into several basic groups:
Fig: -rincipal 4unctions of GIS
Data Capture:
$ata used in GIS often come from many types, and are stored in di)erent
ways. A GIS pro,ides tools and a method for the integration of di)erent data
into a format to be compared and analysed. $ata sources are mainly obtained
from manual digitization and scanning of aerial photographs, paper maps, and
e5isting digital data sets. 6emote'sensing satellite imagery and G-S are
promising data input sources for GIS.
Dataase !anagement and "pdate 3
After data are collected and integrated, the GIS must pro,ide facilities, which
can store and maintain data. +)ecti,e data management has many denitions
but should include all of the following aspects3 data security, data integrity,
data storage and retrie,al, and data maintenance abilities.
Geographic #nalysis:
$ata integration and con,ersion are only a part of the input phase of GIS.
7hat is re!uired ne5t is the ability to interpret and to analyze the collected
information !uantitati,ely and !ualitati,ely. 4or e5ample, satellite image can
assist an agricultural scientist to pro(ect crop yield per hectare for a particular
region. 4or the same region, the scientist also has the rainfall data for the past
si5 months collected through weather station obser,ations. The scientists also
ha,e a map of the soils for the region which shows fertility and suitability for
agriculture. These point data can be interpolated and what you get is a
thematic map showing isohyets or contour lines of rainfall.
Presenting $esults:
8ne of the most e5citing aspects of GIS technology is the ,ariety of di)erent
ways in which the information can be presented once it has been processed by
GIS. Traditional methods of tabulating and graphing data can be supplemented
by maps and three dimensional images. 9isual communication is one of the
most fascinating aspects of GIS technology and is a,ailable in a di,erse range
of output options.
Data Capture an Introduction:
The functionality of GIS relies on the !uality of data a,ailable, which, in most
de,eloping countries, is either redundant or inaccurate. Although GIS are being
used widely, e)ecti,e and e:cient means of data collection ha,e yet to be
systematically established. The true ,alue of GIS can only be realized if the
proper tools to collect spatial data and integrate them with attribute data are
a,ailable.
!anual Digiti%ation:
;anual $igitizing still is the most common method for entering maps into GIS.
The map to be digitized is a:5ed to a digitizing table, and a pointing de,ice
%called the digitizing cursor or mouse& is used to trace the features of the map.
These features can be boundary lines between mapping units, other linear
features %ri,ers, roads, etc.& or point features %sampling points, rainfall stations,
etc.& The digitizing table electronically encodes the position of the cursor with
the precision of a fraction of a millimeter. The most common digitizing table
uses a ne grid of wires, embedded in the table. The ,ertical wires will record
the <'coordinates, and the horizontal ones, the ='coordinates.
The range of digitized coordinates depends upon the density of the wires
%called digitizing resolution& and the settings of the digitizing software. A
digitizing table is normally a rectangular area in the middle, separated from the
outer boundary of the table by a small rim. 8utside of this so'called acti,e area
of the digitizing table, no coordinates are recorded. The lower left corner of the
acti,e area will ha,e the coordinates 5 > ? and y > ?. Therefore, make sure
that the %part of the& map that you want to digitize is always 5ed within the
acti,e area.
Scanning System 3
The second method of obtaining ,ector data is with the use of scanners.
Scanning %or scan digitizing& pro,ides a !uicker means of data entry than
manual digitizing. In scanning, a digital image of the map is produced by
mo,ing an electronic detector across the map surface. The output of a scanner
is a digital raster image, consisting of a large number of indi,idual cells ordered
in rows and columns. 4or the #on,ersion to ,ector format, two types of raster
image can be used.
In the case of #hloropleth maps or thematic maps, such as geological
maps, the indi,idual mapping units can be separated by the scanner
according to their di)erent colours or grey tones. The resulting images
will be in colours or grey tone images.
In the case of scanned line maps, such as topographic maps, the result is
a black'and'white image. .lack lines are con,erted to a ,alue of /, and
the white areas in between lines will obtain a ,alue of ? in the scanned
image. These images, with only two possibilities %/ or ?& are also called
binary images.
The raster image is processed by a computer to impro,e the image !uality and
is then edited and checked by an operator. It is then con,erted into ,ector
format by special computer programmes, which are di)erent for colour@grey
tone images and binary images.
Geodataase !anagement
The geodatabase is the common data storage and management framework for
ArcGIS. It combines AgeoA %spatial data& with AdatabaseA %data repository& to
create a central data repository for spatial data storage and management. It
can be le,eraged in desktop, ser,er, or mobile en,ironments and allows you to
store GIS data in a central location for easy access and management.
The geodatabase o)ers you the ability to
Store a rich collection of spatial data in a centralized location.
Apply sophisticated rules and relationships to the data.
$ene ad,anced geospatial relational models %e.g., topologies,
networks&.
;aintain integrity of spatial data with a consistent, accurate database.
7ork within a multiuser access and editing en,ironment.
Integrate spatial data with other IT databases.
+asily scale your storage solution.
Support custom features and beha,ior.
Be,erage your spatial data to its full potential.
The geographical data management system can be shown by
following gure3
Fig: geographical data management system
!ethods of integration of spatial data models into GIS
A few scenarios can be established to integrate ,arious data models into the
GIS. The basic le,el is represented by the standalone software application for
simulation of models, which is accompanied by data inputs and outputs .
Fig& The standalone simulation of data models with e5tended pre@post
processing software
All data can be used independently by other software systems . The indi,idual
programs form
heterogeneous data structures that re!uire the con,ersion of data into ,arious
data formats. 4ig. / illustrates an e5ample of steps carried out during the
simulation of data models that ha,e been ac!uired from ,arious sources of
data.8n the other side, a number of software applications ha,e been
de,elopedto integrate specic functions of the GIS, modeling and graphic
systems. ;ostly,they are determined to perform operations on data without
links to other softwareapplications. The GIS based software applications are
mostly based on spatialsoftware libraries. The missing functions %modeling,
,isualization tools& can becomplemented through the dynamicClink libraries.
The integrated specic data analysis systems, which o)er alternati,e ways of
using the specic data models together with selected functionality of the GISs,
are described by . A number of software applications are focused on design of
geodatabases and their interconnection with standard modelling systems
!#'IP"(#)I*' #'D )$#'SF*$!#)I*' *F SP#)I#( D#)#
The maintenance and transformation of spatial data concerns the ability to
input, manipulate, and transform data once it has been created. 7hile many
di)erent interpretations e5ist with respect to what constitutes these
capabilities some specic functions can be identied. These are re,iewed
below.
Coordinate )hinning
#oordinate thinning in,ol,es the weeding or reduction of coordinate pairs, e.g.
= and <, from arcs. This function is often re!uired when data has been captured
with too many ,ertices for the linear features. This can result in redundant data
and large data ,olumes. The weeding of coordinates is re!uired to reduce this
redundancy.
The thinning of coordinates is also re!uired in the map generalization process
of linear simplication. Binear simplication is one component of generalization
that is re!uired when data from one scale, e.g. /3D?,???, is to be used and
integrated with data from another scale, e.g. /3/??,???. #oordinate thinning is
often done on features such as contours, hydrography, and forest stand
boundaries.
Geometric )ransformations
This function is concerned with the registering of a data layer to a common
coordinate scheme. This usually in,ol,es registering selected data layers to a
standard data layer already registered. The term rubber sheeting is often used
to describe this function. 6ubber sheeting in,ol,es stretching one data layer to
meet another based on predened control points of known locations. Two other
functions may be categorized under geometric transformations. These in,ol,e
warping a data layer stored in one data model, either raster or ,ector, to
another data layer stored in the opposite data model. 4or e5ample, often
classied satellite imagery may re!uire warping to t an e5isting forest
in,entory layer, or a poor !uality ,ector layer may re!uire warping to match a
more accurate raster layer.
!ap Pro+ection )ransformations
This functionality concerns the transformation of data in geographic
coordinates for an e5isting map pro(ection to another map pro(ection. ;ost GIS
software re!uires that data layers must be in the same map pro(ection for
analysis. Accordingly, if data is ac!uired in a di)erent pro(ection than the other
data layers it must be transformed. Typically D? or more di)erent map
pro(ections are supported in a GIS software o)ering.
Con,ation - Sli.er $emo.al
#onEation is formally dened as the procedure of reconciling the positions of
corresponding features in di)erent data layers. ;ore commonly this is referred
to as sli,er remo,al. 8ften two layers that contain the same feature, e.g. soils
and forest stands both with a specic lake, do not ha,e e5actly the same
boundaries for that feature, e.g. the lake. This may be caused by a lack of
coordination or data prioritization during digitizing or by a number of di)erent
manipulation and analysis techni!ues. 7hen the two layers are combined, e.g.
normally in polygon o,erlay, they will not match precisely and small sli,er
polygons will be created. #onEation is concerned with the process for remo,ing
these sli,ers and reconciling the common boundary.
There are se,eral approaches for sli,er remo,al. -erhaps the most common is
allowing the user to dene a priority for data layers in combination with a
tolerance ,alue. #onsidering the soils and forest stand e5ample the user could
dene a layer that takes precedence, e.g. forest stands, and a size tolerance
for sli,ers. After polygon o,erlay if a polygon is below the size tolerance it is
classied a sli,er. To reconcile the situation the arcs of the data layer that has
higher priority will be retained and the arcs of the other data layer will be
deleted. Another approach is to simply di,ide the sli,er down the centre and
collapse the arcs making up the boundary. The important point is that all GIS
software must ha,e the capability to resol,e sli,ers. 6emember that it is
generally much less e5pensi,e to reconcile maps manually in the map
preparation and digitizing stage than afterwards.
/dge !atching
+dge matching is simply the procedure to ad(ust the position of features that
e5tend across typical map sheet boundaries. Theoretically data from ad(acent
map sheets should meet precisely at map edges. Fowe,er, in practice this
rarely occurs. ;isalignment of features can be caused by se,eral factors
including digitizing error, paper shrinkage of source maps, and errors in the
original mapping. +dge matching always re!uires some interacti,e editing.
Accordingly, GIS software di)ers considerably in the degree of automation
pro,ided.
Interacti.e Graphic /diting
Interacti,e graphic editing functions in,ol,e the addition, deletion, mo,ing, and
changing of the geographic position of features. +diting should be possible at
any time. ;ost graphic editing occurs during the data compilation phase of any
pro(ect. 6emember typically 2? to G? H of the time re!uired to complete any
pro(ect in,ol,es data compilation. Accordingly, the le,el of sophistication and
ease of use of this capability is ,itally important and should be rated highly by
those e,aluating GIS software. ;any of the editing that is undertaken in,ol,es
the cleaning up of topological errors identied earlier. The capability to snap to
e5isting elements, e.g. nodes and arcs, is critical.
The functionality of graphic editing does not di)er greatly across GIS software
o)erings. Fowe,er, the user interface and ease of use of the editing functions
usually does. +diting within a GIS software package should be as easy as using
a #A$ system. A cumbersome or incomplete graphic editing capability will lead
to much frustration by the users of the software.
Conclusion
The term GIS describes any information system that integrates, stores, edits,
analyzes, shares, and displays geographic information for informing decision
making. GIS is a relati,ely broad term that can refer to a number of
technologies and processes, so it is attached to many operations, in
engineering, planning, management, and analysis.
Iowadays, GIS technologies ha,e been applied to di,erse elds to assist
e5perts and professionals in analyzing ,arious types of geospatial data and
dealing with comple5 situations. Io matter in ecology, agriculture, public
health, tourism, or transportations, GIS plays an essential role to help people
collect, analyze the related spatial data and display data in di)erent formats.