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THDL Tibetan Reference Grammar
This is a provisional version of the Grammar Reference, which is currently being
revised.
The THDL Tibetan Reference Grammar is an open-ended collaborative proect to
document Tibetan grammar from multiple points of view, though its initial structure and
content has been created by !icolas Tournadre. "ubmissions are welcome from the
scholarly community, from single line notes to e#tensive analysis$ however,
submissions will be peer reviewed and are not automatically accepted. %ll submissions
are credited to the author, and independent home pages will be created for authors with
e#tensive contributions. &lease contact us at thdl'virginia.edu.
Table of Contents
THDL Tibetan Reference Grammar
(verview
)erbs and )erb &hrases
o *lasses of )erbs
o )erb *onstructions
o *opulas
o )erb inflection
o %u#iliary verbs
o "econdary )erbs
!ouns
o +ntroduction
o &re-nominal ,odifiers
o %dectives
o Determinatives
o *ase
o !ominali-ers
&ostpositions and &ostpositional &hrases
o .ord order and postpositions
%dectives and adectival phrases
o &osition
o %dectival suf/#es
o 0#pressive adectives and adverbs
o %dectival constructions
%dverbs and adverbial phrases
o %dverbs with
o The adverbs and 1 how.2
o 0#pressive %dverbs
*lauses and sentences3 propositions
o *onnectives
"peech acts and types of sentences
o 4uestions
o +mperatives
o +nterections
Verbs and Verb Phrases
CLASSES ! VER"S
5,"T 6.7.89 Tibetan verbs fall into two main classes3 #olitional #erbs and non$
#olitional #erbs. )erbs of the first group are concerned with controllable action, and are
compatible with intentional au#iliaries such as 5see ,"T 8:.;9 and 1ussive2
suf/#es that convey an order or a suggestion 5such as or 9. ,oreover, these verbs
sometimes have a special in<ected form for the imperative.
The verbs in the second class imply non-controllable processes which do not depend on
the subect=s volition, and are compatible neither with intentional au#iliaries nor with
imperative mar>ers. .ith non-volitional verbs, non-intentional au#iliaries such as or
must be used. +n ,"T, volitional verbs are mar>ed as 1?vol.@,2 while non-volitional
verbs are identi/ed as 1?inv.@2
0#. of volitional verbs3
1+ loo>ed.2 1Loo>A2
1+ went to bed.2 1Go to bedA Lie downA2
0#. of non-volitional verbs3
1+ saw.2 1+ recovered.2
Thus the following forms are incorrect because they combine a non-volitional verb with
an intentional au#iliary3 B, B $ so, too, are the following imperatives3 ?8@
B, B.
The grammar of 0uropean languages does not ma>e the opposition volitionalCnon-
volitional. However in their vocabulary, they do differentiate between hear, see 5non-
volitional9 and listen, look 5volitional9.
%s in other languages, a distinction is made between transiti#e #erbs 5or polyvalent
verbs9 ?D@ and intransiti#e #erbs 5or monovalent verbs9. Transitive verbs reEuire an
obect, whereas intransitive verbs do not.
Ex.: 1to loo>2 and 1to see2 are transitive whereas 1to go to bed, to lie down2
and 1to recover 5from an illness92 are intransitive.
+n ,"T, whether a verb is transitive or intransitive will be indicated indirectly3 for each
verb, the case reEuired for the subect and, where relevant, of the direct or indirect
obect will be speci/ed. Thus if an obect is reEuired, the verb must be a transitive one
5see ,"T 6.7.D below, 1The ergative construction,2 as well as section F.79.
There are, then, altogether four basic classes of verbs3 non-volitional intransitive,
volitional intransitive, non-volitional transitive and volitional transitive.
+n the case of transitive verbs, a distinction may be made between those which reEuire
two participants 5bivalent verbs9 and those which reEuire three 5trivalent verbs9.
S%mmary of the fo%r categories
" 50rg.9 ( 5%bs.9 ) 5ergative construction9
1Tsering saw the horse.2
VER" C&STR'CT(&S
)erbs that govern this type of construction will be identi/ed as3 inv5oluntary9,
05rgative9 %5bsolutive9.
Ex.: 1to see2 ?inv., 0%@
+n affecti#e constr%ctions, the subect is in the absolutive and the obect in the dative.
The construction is governed mainly by verbs of feeling such as 1to li>e,2 1to be
afraid,2 1to get angry,2 1to be ama-ed,2 etc.
" 5%bs.9 ( 5Dat.9 ) 5affective
construction9
1Tsering was afraid of the
horse.2
)erbs that govern this sort of construction will be identi/ed as3 inv5oluntary9,
%5bsolutive9 D5ative9.
Ex.: 1to be afraid2 ?inv., %D@
+n )ossessi#e constr%ctions, the subect is in the dative and the obect in the absolutive.
They are governed mainly by verbs relating to belonging or acEuisition, such as 1to
get,2 1to /nd, acEuire,2 1to be born,2 ! 1to dream,2 etc.
" 5Dat.9 ( 5%bs.9 ) 5possessive construction9
" 1Tsering found the horse.2
)erbs governing this >ind of construction will be identi/ed as3 inv5oluntary9, D5ative9
%5bsolutive9.
Ex.: " 1to /nd2 ?inv., D%@
CP'LAS
ESSENTIAL AND EXISTENTIAL VERBS
5,"T G.7.79 Tibetan has several stative verbs or copulas corresponding to the verbs 1to
be2 and 1to have2 in 0uropean languages. Two main categories may be distinguished3
essential copulas, which denote an essential Euality of the person or thing$ and
e#istential copulas, which e#press the e#istence of a phenomenon or a characteristic
with the implication of an evaluation by the spea>er. ?7@ Hurthermore, these 1essential2
and 1e#istential2 stative verbs are associated with various evidential moods, as we shall
see presently.
Note: these verbs may be used for both the present and the past. ?;@
THE ESSENTIAL COPULAS: , ,
5,"T G.7.79 These e#press the nature or essence of the subect 5eEuative meaning9, or
else an inherent Euality of it 5attributive meaning9. They differ only in terms of the
evidential mood that they convey 5assertive, egophoric, testimonial, etc.9.
THE *ASSERT(VE+ CP'LA A&D (TS &EGAT(& ,
5,"T G.7.79 The copula is usually translated by the verb 1to be,2 and corresponds to
an obective assertion or af/rmation 5see ,"T I.;9. The attribute of the subect, which
immediately precedes the verb, may be a substantive 5eEuative meaning9 or an adective
5attributive meaning9. %ge is also e#pressed with the use of .
#$ 1This is ThubtJn.2
% & 1He isn=t a nomad.2
' 1!yima is seven.2
() "he=s pretty.2
% * 1He isn=t mad.2
% 1He=s >ind.2
+n rare cases, may also be used to e#press an essential property or an inalienable
possession of the subect, in which case it corresponds to the 0nglish 1to have.2
% + 1He has great Eualities.2
,, 1"he has small eyes.2
% -++ 1He has big ears.2
THE *EGPHR(C+ CP'LA- A&D (TS &EGAT(& ,
5,"T G.7.79 The copula functions as an essential stative verb, normally associated
with the /rst person 5see ,"T 7.;9, and is generally translated by 1+ am.2 The attribute
of the subect may be a substantive 5eEuative sense9 or an adective 5attributive sense9.
#$ 1+ am ThubtJn.2
& 1+ am a nomad.2
1+ am /ne.2
+n rare cases, they may e#press an intention or an insistence on the part of the spea>er.
. / 1+t=s your tea ?that +=m intending to give you@.2
0 1That=s my >ey.2
THE *REVELATR.+ CP'LA A&D (TS &EGAT(& ',
5,"T G.7.79 The copula functions li>e an essential stative verb, implying that the
spea>er has ust discovered or become aware of whatever he or she is asserting. +t may
often be translated by the verb 1to be2 preceded by some e#clamation such as 1.hyA2
or 1HeyA2
#$ 1HeyA +t=s ThubtJn.2
& ' 1!o, he isn=t a nomad.2
* 1.hy, he=s madA ?+=ve ust reali-ed it@2
THE EXISTENTIAL COPULAS ' , ,
5,"T G.7.79 These verbs e#press e#istence, locali-ation, or a circumstantial feature of
the subect, often implying an evaluation on the spea>er=s part. The various stative verbs
differ only in terms of the evidential mood that they convey 5assertive, testimonial,
egophoric, etc.9.
THE *ASSERT(VE+ CP'LA A&D (TS &EGAT(& ,
5,"T G.7.79 There are two other ways of writing , but the pronunciation is the
same in each case3 or , as well as a literary form . ?I@ The negative
form of the au#iliary is , for which there are also two other written forms3
and , as well as a literary form .
The copula implies a de/nite assertion or af/rmation by the spea>e and is used for
the second and third persons singular and plural. %ccording to the conte#t, it may be
translated as 1there isCare2 5e#istential sense9 or 1to be at 5a certain location92
5situational sense9, or by the verb 1to have2 5possessive sense9.
1 1There are airplanes in Tibet.2
#$-59 1ThubtJn is here.2
% 1He has many boo>s.2
2 1Tsering has a car.2
31 1+n the past, there were no airplanes in Tibet.2
' 2 1%t that time, Tsering had a car.2
Remember that constructions e#pressing possession are identical to e#istential
constructions.
The copula may also be translated by some form of the verb 1to be2 5attributive
sense9. This reEuires that the attribute of the subect that precedes the verb should be a
Eualifying adective.
() 1This is pretty.2
1This is clear.2
4 1This is hot.2
+t may not, however, be used with a noun3 B%5 1He is *hinese.2
THE TEST(/&(AL CP'LA- ' A&D (TS &EGAT(& '
5,"T G.7.79 This copula indicates a past or present testimony on the spea>er=s part and
implies that the spea>er is or has been a direct witness to whatever he or she is
asserting.. +n 0nglish, it is translated by the same e#pressions as for , i.e.,
according to conte#t as 1to be at2 5situative sense9, 1to be2 5e#istential sense9, 1to have2
5possessive sense9, or by the verb 1to be2 5attributive sense9. The latter applies only
when the verb is preceded by a Eualifying adective. Thus the only difference between
' and lies in the different evidential moods they e#press 5these moods have
been described above9. The translation of the following phrases would therefore be
e#actly the same as those given above3
1' 1There are airplanes in Tibet.2
#$59' 1ThubtJn is here.2
% ' 1He has many boo>s.2
()' 1This is pretty.2
' 1This is clear.2
4' 1This is hot.2
However, e#actly as in the case of the assertive copula, it is impossible to say3 B% 5
' 1He is *hinese.2
THE *EGPHR(C+ CP'LA A&D (TS &EGAT(&
5,"T G.7.79 This copula is always associated with the /rst person and refers to
information that directly concerns the spea>er, and is generally translated as 1+ have2
5possessive sense9, or as 1+ am 5at92 5locative sense9. +n certain rare cases, it may also
indicate a personal or intimate acEuaintance by the spea>er, and should accordingly be
translated by the verb 1to be.2
1+ have many boo>s.2
5 1+ am in *hina.2
/ 1This tea is good 5in my opinion9.2
Chart of the copulas
af/rmative interrogative
5without
pronoun9
interrogative
5with pronoun9
negative interronegative
C

' ' ' '

' ' ' ' '

Remar>3 .hen used with interrogative pronouns, the copulas 5and the corresponding
au#iliaries9 , , ' are pronounced with an opened vowel , , '.
However, this small phonetic variation is not traditionally recorded in Tibetan
orthography.
1.hat is itK2
6' 1How many people are thereK2
THE ESSENTIAL AND EXISTENTIAL VERBS TO BE AND TO HAVE IN
THE PAST
5,"T L.7.79 The forms of the imperfective are eEuivalent to those of the present 5see
,"T G.79. Hor the perfective ?G@ past however, there are special forms. The following
full verbs are used in the construction of the 5perfective9 past3 + 1to become,2 1to
do,2 7 1to stay,2 1to happen, to obtain.2 %ll these verbs correspond to the
5perfective9 past tense of the verbs 1to be2 and 1to have.2 Hor the sa>e of
convenience, we may distinguish between essential and e#istential statements.
ESSE&T(AL STATE/E&TS
5,"T L.7.79 .hen the complement of the subect is a substantive 5eEuative meaning9,
Tibetan uses the verb3 1to do2 5in the past stem ?L@ 3 9 or the verb + followed by
past au#iliaries 5in association with the various evidential moods3 assertive, testimonial,
egophoric9.
% *+ 1He became cra-y.2 5assertive9
% *+ 1He became cra-y.2 5testimonial9
% 8+ 1He became a doctor.2
8+ 1+ became a doctor.2
Note: +n the case of the imperfective past, the same form as the present is used3
'%8+ 1He was a doctor2 5lit. 1at that time he is a doctor29.
E0(STE&T(AL STATE/E&TS
5,"T L.7.79 &ossession and e#istence are constructed with the use of the verb in the
5perfective9 past tense 5in association with the various evidential moods3 assertive,
testimonial, egophoric9.
1"he had twins.2
% -9 1He got some money.2
" : 1There were some problems.2
" : 1He had 5or, there were9
": 1+ had problems.2 5egophoric9
.hen the complement of the subect is an adective, the verb in the 5perfective9 past
is also used 5in association with the various evidential moods3 assertive, testimonial,
egophoric9.
; 1+t was easy.2
1+t was pleasant.2 5testimonial9
1+t was pleasant 5for me9.2 5egophoric9
To convey a locative meaning, the verb 7 1to stay,2 or its honori/c < is used in
the 5perfective9 past 5in association with the various evidential moods3 assertive,
testimonial, egophoric9.
% =>< 1He has been in Lhasa for three years.2 5lit. stayed9
=>7 1+ have been in Lhasa for three years.2 5lit. stayed9
Note: +n the case of the imperfective past, the same form as the present is used3
'%= 1%t that time he was in Lhasa.2 5lit. is in Lhasa9
VER" (&!LECT(&
5,"T 8:.7.D9 +n *lassical Tibetan many verbs have up to four different root forms 5see
,"T %ppendi# 89. "po>en Tibetan ma>es indiscriminate use of verb stem forms that
correspond to the 1future2 and the 1present2 in Literary Tibetan, and at the most only
distinguishes between two tenses3 the )ast and the )resent$f%t%re. .hile some verbs
also have a distinctive imperative stem, in most cases this stem resembles either the
present-future or the past. )ery often, the verb is Euite simply in#ariable 5see ,"T
%ppendi# 8, section D.69.
The large number of invariable verbs means that in<ection is practically redundant in
the spo>en language. Tenses are formed by using a system of au#iliaries. +n ,"T, the
present-future stem form will be mar>ed by the number 589, the past by 5D9 and the
imperative by 579.
A'0(L(AR. VER"S
THE AUXILIARY VERB AND ITS NEGATION
5,"T 8.7.D9 The au#iliary is similar to the verb 1to be2 in 0nglish. +t can function
either as an autonomous verb 5or 1copula29, or as the au#iliary of another verb. This is
comparable to the 0nglish 1to be2 or the Hrench 1Mtre,2 which are both copulas 5e.g.,
1he is mad,2 1il est fou29 and au#iliaries 5e.g., 1he is wor>ing,2 1il est arrivN29.
Li>ewise, in the following Tibetan sentences is a copula in the /rst and an au#iliary
5associated with the nominali-er pa9 in the second3
% * 1he is cra-y2
% ? 1he came2 5literally, 1he is come29
%s a copula, e#presses the nature or the essential Euality of the subect. !ote that
1to be2 is used to e#press people=s age 5see also ,"T G.;9, ust as in 0nglish.
The verb is generally pronounced rO= 5with a more open vowel9 in sentences that
have an interrogative pronoun. However, the Tibetan spelling remains unaffected.
4uestions are constructed by using the /nal interrogative particle 5see ,"T D93
1is itK,2 1isn=t itK2
Li>e other au#iliaries, the verb and its negation are used to signify 1yes2 and
1no.2 They may be preceded by the polite mar>er .
TENSE AND ASPECT
THE PAST TE&SE
5,"T L.7.D9 The past tense ?6@ is formed by placing after the verb the e#pressions
5assertive9, 5intentional egophoric9 or 5testimonial9.
+n 0nglish these forms can be translated by the past or sometimes by the present perfect.
The forms C are composed of the suf/# followed by the essential copula
or . The intentional form may only be used with volitional ?F@ verbs in the /rst
person.
+n interrogative sentences which contain no interrogative pronoun 5where, who, why,
what, etc.9, the egophoric form is replaced by $ in sentences where there is an
interrogative pronoun, is replaced by .
The au#iliary is used in narratives and stories, which is why it is sometimes
described as the 1narrative past.2 The various forms are presented in the following table.
7 1+ stayed at home2
+ home P Loc. stay-&ast P egophoric
7 1!yima stayed at home2
!yima home P Loc. stay-&ast P assertive
7 1!yima stayed at home2
!yima home P Loc. stay-&ast P testimonial
Table of the )ast tense
af/rmative interrogative
5without
interrogative
5with pronouns9
negative interronegative
pronouns9
P ) BB P ) P

P ) P
BB
P ) P
N.B.: The negative forms that are mar>ed in the table with a BB3 P ) or P ) P ,
as well as the corresponding interronegative forms, are rarely used, and other forms are
usually preferred 5see the perfect tense-aspect in ,"T 8:9. The simple past forms may
be used to emphasi-e the subect=s refusal to perform the action3 1+Che didn=t go 5even
though +Che was supposed to9.2
@ 1!yima did not go2
@ 1+ did not go2
!'T'RE A'0(L(AR(ES
5,"T 6.7.79 The future is formed by placing after the verb the particles3 5assertive9
or 5intentional egophoric9. These are composed by adding the essential copula
or to the suf/# . +n written Tibetan, has several possible variants according to the
/nal consonant of the preceding syllable. The pattern of these variants is the same as in
the case of the genitive 5see ,"T ;.7.D9 e#cept for vowels and the letter 3
after vowels and , , Q
after , , and the second crypted sufx Q A
after , , , Q B
+n "po>en Tibetan, the suf/# is pronounced >i in all cases.
The intentional form may be used only with volitional verbs in the /rst person. +n
interrogative sentences, the egophoric form is replaced by if the statement
contains no interrogative pronoun, and by otherwise.
The different forms are given in the following table3
The f%t%re a%1iliaries
af/rmative interrogative
5without pronoun9
interrogative
5with pronoun9
negative negative
interrogative


1Tomorrow + shall ma>e momos.2
1Tomorrow heCshe will ma>e momos.2
THE RECEPT(VE EGPHR(C PAST TE&SE A'0(L(AR.
5,"T 6.7.I9 The 1receptive2 au#iliary is used only in the past tense. This au#iliary is
associated with the /rst-person pronoun, whether this be the subect 51+29, the obect
51me29, the indirect 51to me29 or an adverbial 51at my place,2 etc.9.
1+ fell ill.2
% % 1He phoned me.2
-C/ 1+ met our uncle.2
% D? 1He came to my place.2
PRESE&T TE&SE A'0(L(AR(ES
5,"T F.7.;9 The present tense is formed by placing after the verb the particles3
5assertive9, ' 5testimonial9 and 5egophoric9. These are formed by adding an
e#istential copula to the suf/# . The resulting au#iliaries have the same evidential
value as the e#istential copulas. +n modern conversational usage, the form ' is often
abbreviated to .
+n 0nglish, these forms may be translated either by the progressive or the simple present
depending on the conte#t.
The various forms are presented in the following table3
Chart of the )resent tense a%1iliaries
af/rmative interrogative
5without
pronouns9
interrogative
5with pronouns9
negative negative
interrogative

' C ' ' ' '

Ex.:
% 1+ am preparing the meal.2 or 1+ prepare the meal.2 5egophoric9
& 1+ am writing a letter.2 or 1+ write letters.2 5egophoric9
E% 1Lob-ang prepares food.2 or 1Lob-ang is preparing food.2
5assertive9
E%5'9 1Lob-ang is preparing food.2 or 1Lob-ang prepares food.2
5testimonial9
F ) & 1Dore writes letters.2 or 1Dore is writing a letter.2 5assertive9
F ) &5'9 1Dore is writing a letter.2 or 1Dore writes letters.2
5testimonial9
THE &T(& ! VER" ASPECT
5,"T 8:.7.89 The notion of aspect is essential for learning the system of verb 1tenses2
in most of the world=s languages. +n view of the importance of aspect in Tibetan, it may
be good to have a wor>ing de/nition of the term, following a reminder of what we mean
by 1tense.2
Tense is de/ned most immediately with respect to the moment of speech utterance.
.hatever precedes this moment is the past$ everything that coincides with it is the
present$ and whatever follows it is the future.
%spect is concerned primarily with whether the action has or has not been completed
with respect to a given point of reference 5past, present or future9. %ccording to the
chosen perspective, the process is regarded as )erfecti#e, that is completed, or else as
im)erfecti#e, meaning that it is still going on or is a habitual event. 5+n either case the
point of reference need not be the present.9 This e#plains why, in many languages, the
imperfective bears a strong resemblance to the present3 both the present and the
imperfective past are non-completed. ?8:@ The action is regarded as still going on, and is
seen as being incomplete from a given point of reference 5respectively, the present and
the future9. +n Tibetan, the present and the imperfective past are identical, whereas the
perfective past is entirely different 5see ,"T G.;9.
(nly conte#t ma>es it possible to distinguish between present and the past imperfective.
Hor e#ample, the sentences below convey a present meaning.
548+ 1GyJntshJn is a doctor.2
% A 1He practices a lot.2 ?88@
% = 1He is in Lhasa.2
G%HA 1Tsering wor>s in the library.2
However, if each of these sentences were preceded by ' 51at that time29 or 3 they
would correspond to the past imperfective 5without any transformation of the verb9.
'548+ 1%t that time, GyJntshJn was a doctor.2 5same as3
GyJntshJn is a doctor9
'%= 1%t that time he was in Lhasa.2 5same as3 is in Lhasa9
'%A 1%t that time, he used to practice a lot.2 5same as3
He practices a lot9
3 G%HA
1&erfective2 means that an action is regarded as being /nished 5from a present, past or
even future point of reference9. ?8D@
The last two e#amples become in the perfective past3
% 1He practiced a lot.2
IG%H 1Tsering wor>ed in the library.2
The perfective aspect may be subdivided into perfect and aorist 5or non-perfect9. The
perfect signi/es that the effects of an action performed in the past are still present at the
moment the statement is made, while in the case of the aorist, the past action being
referred to bears no relationship to the present moment. ?87@
+n Tibetan, as in 0nglish, there is a grammatical opposition between aorist and perfect.
+n 0nglish, the aorist is mar>ed by the preterit while the perfect is mar>ed by the
1present perfect.2 ?8;@
% 1+=ve prepared the meal.2 5it=s ready, we can eat9
% 1+ prepared the meal.2 5last time, some time ago, etc.9
The perfect aspect will be described in detail below in 8:.7.7.
THE PER!ECT A'0(L(AR(ES
5,"T 8:.7.79 , 5or '9 and are directly connected to the past tense form
of the main verb. These au#iliaries respectively represent the three evidential moods3
assertive, inferential and egophoric.
%5 1,any new houses have been built.2
%5 1Loo>A ,any new houses have been built.2
/ 1+=ve made the tea.2
The range of the perfect forms is presented in the following table3
Table of the perfect tense auxiliaries
af/rmative interrogative
5without
pronouns9
interrogative
5with pronouns9
negative negative
interrogative

C ' ' ' ' '

5,"T 8:.7.79 The au#iliary is sometimes spelled , but here we shall use the
former spelling for etymological reasons3 the word is derived from the verb , which
means 1to put, leave.2
%s a general rule, the use of the form 5or its variant '9 implies that the spea>er is
ma>ing an 1inference2 or a deduction in discovering the result or the enduring traces of
a past action. ,ost of the time, the inferential mode may be translated into 0nglish by
adding 1Loo>A2 or 1.hyA2 to the beginning of a statement in the past tense. +n the
e#ample given above, it=s upon discovering a construction site in a sector of Lhasa that
the spea>er says 1.hy, they=ve built a lot of new housesA2 +n certain conte#ts, the form
may have another, purely resultative connotation3 the spea>er may use it to
emphasi-e the enduring presence of a past action, even if he or she has been able to see
not ust these traces but the entirety of the action that is being described.
E< 1Lob-ang is here 5lit. has stayed here9.2
+n this statement, the spea>er has ust discovered Lob-ang=s presence either by seeing
him directly or from various clues 5his hat, for e#ample9. %lternatively, he might have
been aware of his presence for some time but is emphasi-ing the fact that he is still
around.
5,"T 8:.7.79 Rnli>e the inferential perfect 5and to a certain e#tent the assertive9, the
egophoric perfect au#iliary is not widely used. The use of this au#iliary is a comple#
matter, and it is restricted to a small class of volitional verbs. Hor e#ample, with the non-
volitional verbs 1to be sic>2 or 1to see,2 the egophoric perfect aspect may not be
used. 0ven some volitional verbs such as 1eat,2 1loo>2 are not compatible with the
egophoric perfect. +n this case, one must instead use the perfective forms.
1+ fell ill, + have fallen ill.2 and not B
1+ saw, + have seen.2 and not B
% 1+ ate, + have eaten the food.2 and not B%
@ 1+ have gone 5there9.2 and not B@
However with some volitional verbs ?8I@ such as 1prepare,2 & 1write,2 7 1stay,2
etc. the egophoric aspect freEuently occurs.
% 1+ have prepared the food.2 5the food is here, ready9
& 1+ have written the letter.2 5the letter is here9
7 1+ have stayed at home.2 5+ am still there9
Note: The negative forms of the egophoric and assertive perfect au#iliaries are more
widely used than the af/rmative forms. They are often even preferred to the simple
perfective, and may occur with non-volitional verbs. Thus, negation in the past tense
blurs the distinction between the perfect and perfective aspects.
Hor e#ample, @ 1+ haven=t gone2 is more commonly heard than @, and
similarly, % ? 1He hasn=t gone2 rather than %?.
!evertheless, perfective forms may be used to emphasi-e the subect=s refusal to
perform the action3 59@ 1+ didn=t go 5even though + was supposed to9.2 ?8G@ .
?deontic modality@
THE PRESE&T C&T(&''S V2 J R
5,"T 8L.7.D9 The continuous is more restricted than the 0nglish progressive, and
signi/es that the subect is actually in the process of carrying out an activity. 5+n
0nglish, by contrast, we might say 1+=m writing a letter2 even when we have ta>en a
brea> from doing so.9 The present continuous is formed by ta>ing the past tense form of
the main verb and adding J 5lit. 1on29 followed by the appropriate au#iliary.
&J 1+=m 5in the process of9 writing a letter.2
% @J 1He=s 5in the middle of9 wor>ing.2
THE A'0(L(AR. ! GE&ERAL R HA"(T'AL TR'TH-
5,"T D;.7.D9 Tibetan very commonly uses the future to indicate a habitual action or
process. +t is only from the conte#t that we can determine whether it signi/es the future
or the generic present 5also called 1gnomic29.
55&A 1Rice is grown 5lit. will be grown9 in +ndia and
*hina.2
+5 1+n Tibet, most people practise 5lit. will practise9 s>y
burial.2
%A K 1"ome people have 5lit. will have9 picnics.2
LH'=,MM 1.hen the spring comes, a lot of people go 5lit.
will go9 to the ban>s of the Syichu River.2
THE C&STR'CT(& V 2 2 V 2
5,"T DF.7.D9 The construction ) P P ) P conveys the sense of a present
gerundive, that is, two actions that are ta>ing place simultaneously.
59M 1They=ll go bac> home
singing.2
%MM% 1+t isn=t good to eat while you=re
wal>ing.2
MOOD
EV(DE&T(AL /D
5,"T I.7.D9 These moods are conveyed by au#iliary verbs 5or by copulas9, and have the
function of specifying the so%rce of information on which a statement is based. There
are basically four moods3 ?8L@ egophoric, testimonial, assertive and inferential. These
moods all correspond to any statement that conveys a given item of information.
The assertive au#iliary verbs and specify that the information being transmitted
may be a general tr%th or a s)eci3c fact, but is something that is considered by the
spea>er to be certain. +n general, the assertive implies that the spea>er is letting it be
>nown that while the assertion is certain, he or she has not personally witnessed it.
Typically, the information has been obtained second-hand from some other source
5reported speech, a boo>, the radio, etc.9 or else forms a part of the spea>er=s general
>nowledge.
However, it may happen that even though the spea>er can personally testify to the
validity of the assertion, he or she may use the assertive in order to present the statement
as an obective or well->nown fact.
N.B.: The assertive mood should not be confused with the mar>er of reported speech,
which may be used in combination with any of the four moods 5see ,"T 8I9 and
implies a measure of uncertainty 5cf. 1it would seem thatT29.
Testimonial or 1sensorial2 au#iliaries such as ' signify that the spea>er has
)ersonally obser#ed the fact or event he or she is reporting. The evidence is usually
derived from the senses, most commonly sight or hearing, but occasionally also from
the other three, as in the case of a pain suffered by the spea>er. ?86@ +n other words, the
spea>er is, or has been, a direct witness to what he or she is describing. Thus in ,"T I,
the use of the constative ' suggests that DrUl>ar has actually been to Lada>h and
witnessed the things she is tal>ing about. The assertive and testimonial moods could be
described as respectively obective and subective, but as far as the spea>er is concerned
they are eEually certain.
The egophoric mood is lin>ed to a )ersonal 4no5ledge or intention on the spea>er=s
part, and has been described above 5see ,"T 7.;9.
Hinally, the inferential mood 5see ,"T 8:.;9 indicates that the basis of the spea>er=s
assertion is an inference or a concl%sion that is being dra5n from the traces or the
present results of a past action.
N.B.: %u#iliary verbs almost always come after the main clause, at the end of the
sentence. (n rare occasions they may be placed after subordinate clauses.
5,"T 7.7.D9 *ertain au#iliary verbs are associated only with the 3rst )erson 5singular
or plural9, irrespective of the function of that person in the sentence 5subect, obect,
indirect obect, or complement9. The use of an 1egophoric2 ?8F@ au#iliary e#presses the
spea>er=s >nowledge or personal intention, often directly implied in the event that is
being described. .hereas this type of au#iliary does not occur in *lassical Literary
Tibetan, it plays an important role in the spo>en language. The /nal au#iliaries include
several >inds of egophorics3 intentional, receptive, habitual, e#periential 5see ,"T 8I9
and allocentric 5see ,"T D79. The egophoric au#iliaries 5and copulas9 are3
N
+n contrast, all the remaining au#iliaries are neutral with respect to person3
'
F ) 1+ am Dore.2
1+ was happy.2
1+ have many boo>s.2
,MN 1+ have been 5lit. gone9 to !agchu.2
1?+@ sent many letters.2
+n all the above sentences, it is possible to dispense with the pronoun 1+,2 in view of
the fact that the /rst person is indicated by the au#iliary 5or the copula9.
+n the following sentences, the egophorics do not agree with the subect but with a
complement3
0 1This >ey is mineA2
% ? A 1He ?generally@ comes to my place.2
O;PM 1,y daughter goes to school.2 5cf. 0nglish 1+=ve got my
daughter in school.29
% 1He sent me a letter.2
./ 1This is your tea 5the tea that + made for you or that + intend
you should drin>9.2
.hen the /rst person appears as a peripheral complement 5other than as a subect or
obect9, the use of an egophoric au#iliary usually stresses the personal intention or the
certainty of the spea>er. .here there is no such emphasis, egophoric au#iliaries may
always be replaced by neutral au#iliaries. Hor e#ample, some of the above sentences
may be rephrased as follows3
0 1This >ey is mine.2
O;PM 1,y daughter goes to school.2
./ 1This is your tea 5this is the tea that=s yours9.2
.hereas egophoric au#iliaries need not always be used with the /rst person, it is
incorrect to use egophorics in statements that neither contain the /rst person nor e#press
the spea>er=s personal involvement.
Hinally, it should be noted that egophoric forms are used only when an au#iliary verb
features in the main clause, but usually not in subordinate clauses.
Hor the time being, the important thing to remember is that the au#iliary is used
mainly for the /rst person, whereas the au#iliary is used for the second and third
persons.
5,"T 8:.7.I9 These imply that the subect-spea>er is performing an action deliberately
and may be used only with volitional 5or controllable9 verbs. The intentional au#iliaries
are3 5future9, 5present9, 5perfective9, 5perfect9.
D 1+=ll buy some tsampa.2
D 1+=ve bought some tsampa.2 5perfect9
D 1+ bought some tsampa.2 5perfective9
OK%M 1+ go 5(R + am going9 to the !orbuling>ha palace.2 5now or
habitually9
1+ ate some meat.2
O 1+=ve >illed an insect.2 5intentionally9
5,"T 8:.7.I9 The 1receptive2 5non-intentional9 au#iliary , which is used only in the
perfective past, implies that the subect-spea>er has undergone the action, perceived it
5involuntarily9 or has been the recipient of it. This au#iliary is associated with the /rst
person pronoun, whether as a subect 51+29, direct obect 51me29, indirect obect 51to
me29 or adverbial 51at my place,2 etc.9. +t may also signify that the action is directed
5actually or metaphorically9 towards the spea>er. Thus we can=t say3 BQ 1+=ve
lost 5it92 but rather Q since the verb 1to lose2 implies a 1distancing2 from the
spea>er.
1( fell ill.2
% % 1He phoned me.2
/> 1( saw three rainbows.2
% R%: 1He too> me to the hospital.2
+t is sometimes possible to replace the receptive egophoric au#iliary by the testimonial
as shown below, with a subtle distinction in their meaning.
1( understood.2 or 1+ have understood.2
1( have understood.2 5ust right now9
The use of indicates that the verbal action 5or process9 may have happened some
time before the moment of speech, while the use of the testimonial suggests that it
has ust happened ust now.
5,"T 8:.7.I9 The au#iliary is used with reference to habitual facts that involve the
spea>er3
1+=m never ill.2
3 1&reviously, + used to see well.2
O;PM 1,y daughter goes to school.2
% ? A 1He often comes to my place.2
The testimonial speci/es that the spea>er is personally a witness to what he or she is
stating to be the case. The authority is usually visual, but may also be aural or derived
from any of the other senses 5touch, smell or taste9. +n the present tense, this mood
appears only in the present with ' and in the past with . +t does not appear in
future constructions because of the impossibility of witnessing what hasn=t already
happenedA
1+t snowed.2 5+ saw it snowing9
' 1+t=s snowing.2 5+ can see it snowing9
()S& 1He drew a pretty picture.2 5+ saw him drawing it9
.ith volitional verbs and most non-volitional verbs, the testimonial mood is used
essentially for the second and third persons 5singular and plural9, e#cept in special
instances of self-observation 5loo>ing in the mirror, dreaming, watching a video
recording of oneself, etc.9 or performing involuntary actions.
OKM' 1+=m going to the !orbu ling>a.2 5+ see myself going there in
a dream, in a /lm, etc.9
15Dammit9 +=ve eaten meat.2
O 1+=ve >illed an insect.2 5accidentally9
These sentences are usually constructed with intentional au#iliaries.
(n the other hand, when the testimonial mood is associated with certain non-volitional
verb forms, particularly of perception 5such as to hear, to see, to be ill, etc.9 and
affect 5such as love, fear9, it appears naturally with the /rst person, and more
rarely with the second and third 5in which case reported or inferential speech is
preferred9. The perception of certain feelings or sensations is accessible only to the
speaker. .e refer to this as the endopathic function of the testimonial mood.
' 1+=m ill, +=m in pain.2 5+ feel it9
B' 1+ rememberA2 5+ can testify to it9
M%A' 1+=m hungry.2 5+ feel hunger9
B% '
B% M%A'
The last two sentences are normally not acceptable because the spea>er cannot have
direct access to this sort of information V that is, he cannot perceive the state of pain or
hunger e#perienced by the sufferer. ?D:@ The two sentences would be correctly
e#pressed, using the inferential mood 5e#plained immediately below9, as3
% 1He=s ill, he=s in pain.2
% M% 1He=s hungry.2
The statement in each case corresponds to an inference based on an observation of the
sufferer=s symptoms.
The assertive corresponds to a de/nite item of information, or else a historical or
general truth 5see ,"T I.79. This mood may be used in all the tenses3 future ,
present and past . !ote that the present includes forms similar to the future
that denote a habitual state of affairs or a general truth 5see ,"T D;.79.
1+t=s going to snow.2
1+t=s snowed.2 or 1it snowed.2 5a de/nite fact9
= 1+n Lhasa, it doesn=t snow much.2 5general fact9
% ()S& 1He drew a pretty picture.2 5de/nite fact9.
TUVU WJ5 1+n 8FGF, man wal>ed on the moon.2 5historical
fact9
The inferential mood implies that the authority for what is said is derived from the
enduring traces or results of a past action. 0ven if the spea>er has not ta>en part in the
event being described, he or she considers it to be de/nitely factual.
1Loo>, it=s snowedA2 5+ can see the traces9
()S& 1He=s drawn a pretty picture.2 5+=ve ust come across it9
XY 1They=ve put up a lot of prayer-<ags.2
ZZ 15Loo>A9 they=ve burned a lot of incense.2 5we can smell it, and
see the ash9
The inferential is rarely used with the /rst person. However, it may be used when the
subect has not been aware of performing the action and only later has discovered he
actually did it.
O 1.hy, +=ve >illed an insect.2
HEARSA.
5,"T 8I.7.89 Reported speech is indicated by the mar>er which corresponds to
closing Euotation mar>s. This mar>er , derived from the verb 1to say,2 is used for
both direct and indirect speech. ?D8@ There is a special form to convey hearsay. The
distinguishing feature of reported speech in Tibetan is that it is inserted between the
author of the Euotation and the verb of speech. .hen Tibetans read or Euote a te#t, they
often conclude the citation with an to ma>e it clear that these were not their own
words.
5,"T 8I.7.89 Reported speech begins by /rst mentioning the source and then, where
applicable, the intended recipient, respectively in the ergative and dative cases. The
Euotation is concluded by the sound , which corresponds to closing Euotation mar>s,
followed immediately by a verb of speech. Direct speech reproduces a statement in the
original words. !ote that Euotation mar>s are actually used in certain modern writings,
whereas traditional Tibetan literature uses no punctuation at all.
source P ?P goal P @3 1citation2 P P verb of speech
[A;P6\ > The teacher said to the students,
1+=ll come bac> immediately.2
% 8+ He said, 1+=m a doctor.2
08+ He said, 1&JndJn is a doctor.2 or He said that
&JndJn was a doctor. ?DD@
.8+ > He said to me, 1Wou=re not a doctorA2
1A DhUndrup said, 1+ didn=t receive the letter.2
5 Tsering replied, 1+ sent the letter.2
5,"T 8I.7.89 +f it happens that the source of a Euotation is the same person as someone
who is mentioned in it, or else is the actual spea>er, Tibetans prefer to substitute
1hybrid2 reported speech for direct speech. Hor e#ample, in the statement 1He said X+=m
a doctor=,2 the two pronouns 1he2 and 1+2 refer to the same person 5and are therefore
1coreferents29. The same is true of the statement 1He said to me, XWou=re not a doctorA=2
in which the pronouns 1me2 and 1you2 are coreferents. +n such cases, Tibetan generally
uses a particular form of reported speech that has the following features3
%. The pronouns ?D7@ of the original Euotation and the register 5honori/c, humili/c or
ordinary9 are reform%lated to suit the spea>er=s current situation. This is similar to the
reported speech of 0uropean languages.
Y. Yy contrast, when the /rst person pronoun 1+,2 1me,2 etc. appears in the original
citation, the ego)horic au#iliary 5, , etc.9 that is associated with it is preserved in
the 1hybrid2 reported speech.
*. (nce a sentence has been transformed into reported speech, if it contains
coreferential nouns or pronouns one of the two forms is dro))ed.
1Euotation P %RZ 5ego92 P P verb of speech
Hor e#ample, the sentence 1He said, X+=m a doctor=2 is transformed into the hypothetical
stage %93 B%% 8+ . Hollowing the rule set out in Y9, the sentence
preserves the egophoric au#iliary $ and as a result of eliminating the /rst pronoun, we
end up with3 % 8+ 1He said he was a doctor.2
Here are some other e#amples of indirect reported speech3
% 8+> 1He told me + wasn=t a doctor.2
1A 1DhUndrup said he hadn=t received a letter.2 Note:
in this case, the subect could also be in the dative.
[\?> 1The teacher said he would come bac>
immediately.2
5 1Tsering replied that he=d sent the letter.2
1Hearsay2 is formulated directly without introducing a spea>er, citing and closing the
assertion with the mar>er 1it is said that,2 or B. 1Z is said to have said thatT,2 1Z
allegedly said thatT2
% 8+ 1They say he=s a doctor.2
1There=s said to be a lot of gold in Tibet.2
]5?B 1%pparently he said that Trashi had gone to
+ndia.2
5,"T 77.7.79 ,"T G introduced au#iliaries 5or copulas9 corresponding to the 0nglish
verbs 1to be2 and 1to have.2 %part from these, there are so-called 1self-corrective2
au#iliaries 5or copulas9 that are used much more rarely. They imply that the spea>er has
ust reali-ed that he was mista>en or that he was hitherto unaware of what he is
asserting. "tatements using these au#iliaries often begin with - 1.ell, wellA (h, +
seeA2
%s in the case of other mediatory au#iliaries and copulas, a distinction may be made
between 1essential2 and 1e#istential.2
5,"T 77.7.79 This is used instead of the au#iliary 5or copula9 .
#$ 1%h, it=s ThubtJnA2 ?+ hadn=t reali-ed@
& 1(h, it=s a nomad.2 ?+ hadn=t thought so@
-* 1"o, he=s cra-yA2 ?+ didn=t >now that@
5,"T 77.7.79 These are used instead of the coplas ' and . There is a subtle
difference between the two. The verb is generally used following a
modi/cation or recti/cation made by the spea>er=s interlocutor, whereas is used
after the spea>er has ust corrected himself or herself.
% 5 1%h, + didn=t >now he was in *hinaA2
^H_` 1"o, DrUl>ar has two childrenA2
- 2 1.ell well, so Tsering has a carA2
5,"T 77.7.;9 Rsing this au#iliary implies that the spea>er has only a vague recollection
of what he is saying. +t may be translated by 1+ seem to remember thatT2 or 1+ vaguely
remember thatT.2
AaW5 1?+ seem to remember that@ the harvest
festival ta>es place in %ugust.2
;M+%`%' 1?+ vaguely recall that@ the
university summer vacation lasts seven wee>s.2
EP(STE/(C /D
5,"T 88.7.89 +n addition to /nal au#iliary verbs that convey various tenses and
evidential moods, there is also a set of 1epistemic2 /nal copulas and au#iliaries that
e#press different degrees of certainty or )robability. These correspond to the
epistemic adverbs of 0uropean languages, such as 1perhaps,2 1probably,2 1apparently2
and to modal verbs such as 1must,2 1may,2 1can,2 etc. % distinction may be drawn
between, on the one hand, stative verbs or copulas that /gure as independent verbs and,
on the other hand, au#iliary verbs that 5li>e evidential au#iliaries9 go at the end of the
sentence after the main verb. These au#iliaries are also associated with different tense-
aspects, and for the most part involve the same verbs as the evidential au#iliaries, but
combined in a different way 5see Table G of ,"T %ppendi# G, which summari-es the
use of these au#iliaries in relation to tense-aspect9.
5,"T 88.7.89 Tibetan contains an important set of epistemic stative verbs 5or copulas9.
These do not vary in relation to tense-aspect. %s in the case of declarative stative verbs,
a distinction is drawn between e#istential and essential copulas. The former are derived
from the verb and the latter from the verb .
The e#istential copulas and their negatives are3
A
A
The essential copulas and their negatives are3
A
A
These copulas e#press a high degree of probability and according to the conte#t may be
translated by the use of adverbs such as 1surely,2 1probably2 or the modal verb 1must.2
1There must be a lot of people.2
& A 1There must be some nomads.2
% 5 B 1He must be *hinese.2
There is a slight difference between the au#iliaries formed with and those formed
with . The former suggests that the spea>er=s inference is based on his direct
observation of the evidence, while the latter indicates that the spea>er=s inference is
based on logic or on factual information not borne out by observation.
(ther au#iliaries such as M, , - are presented in ,"T 86, D6 and DF.
5,"T 88.7.89 These au#iliaries are effectively similar to copulas and may also be
translated by the same devices. How they are used depends on the tense of the verb.
"ee the tables in ,"T %ppendi# G.
M 1+t must be all right.2
% ? A 1He will probably come.2
bA A 1?heCshe@ probably lies.2
5,"T 86.7.D9 These imply that the spea>er regards his or her assertion as a probability,
not a certainty.
The au#iliaries M, M, are based on the verbs and , which correspond
respectively to essential and e#istential formulations. They are used either as copulas
5lin>ing verbs9 or as au#iliaries and occur in the same position as and , 5see Table
G in ,"T %ppendi# G9.
They may be translated in 0nglish by the adverb 1probably.2 Their negative
counterparts M, M, ?DI@ e#press a similar meaning with a slightly wea>er
probability ?DG@ , but they occur more freEuently than the positive au#iliaries.
%M 5M9 1That=s maybe the bedroom.2
% M 1That=s probably the bedroom. +t must be the bedroom.2
cM 1There=s probably a place to buy mutton.2
dM 1,aybe there isn=t enough butter.2
% /%?M 1He may have gone to the teashop.2
@[ M 1The teacher may have this boo> pecha!2
Note: The negative forms M and M are usually used in a positive sense, as the
above e#amples indicate. However, e#ceptionally, with a falling intonation, they may
also e#press a negative udgement corresponding to 1probably not,2 in which case they
are similar to and 5see ,"T 889.
@[ M 1The teacher probably doesn=t have this boo> pecha!.2
5,"T D6.7.D9 These two au#iliaries e#press a high degree of certainty and relate to a
future event.
The spea>er ma>es an inference from available evidence or from previous >nowledge.
These au#iliaries may be translated by 1undoubtedly2 or 1surely,2 or by some such
e#pression as 1+ thin> that.2 The form ' is neutral, whereas is egophoric, and
implies an event about which the spea>er is privy to certain information. The au#iliary
may be translated in 0nglish by 1from what + >now,2 or 1+ >now that in principleT.2
% 1)' 1He=ll certainly arrive in time for his <ight.2
8+S$' 1+t would surely be better to visit a doctor.2
+' 1Do you thin> it will rain this eveningK2
+' 1+t=s probably going to rain this evening.2
% 6'? 1+ >now he should be coming to the meeting
tomorrow.2
5,"T DF.7.79 These commonly-used au#iliaries 5and copulas9 indicate that the spea>er
has serious doubts about what he or she is asserting. These three au#iliaries consist of
the interrogative particle - 5or 8 in Literary Tibetan9 and the copulas , , or 5cf.
the e#amples below9.
&- 1+ doubt that there are nomads near here.2
/a- 1+ doubt if there=ll be time to ma>e tea.2
8+S- 1+ doubt that we=ll /nd a doctor.2
5,"T 78.7.89 There are two main ways of conveying the idea of 1of course.2 .e=ve
already seen the very common construction . "ometimes a verb other than
may be used in the same construction3 )P P). The same idea may be conveyed by
using in association with a verb in the present-future.
@efM 1,ay + use this penK2 f
1"ure, go ahead.2
. ;ghDA ' 1,y, you study very enthusiasticallyA2
;g+ 1"tudying is certainly very important.2
B'i 1+f + ma>e a mista>e, please correct me.2 <
< 1*ertainly + will.2
D5'jkA M 1Don=t you need L: pounds of tsampa for thatK2
1(f course you doA2
OTHER MODALITIES
THE E0PER(E&T(AL A'0(L(AR. N
5,"T 8I.7.D9 This signi/es that the subect has already, at least once, e#perienced the
action to which N refers. The verb preceding the au#iliary N must be in the present
tense. .hen N isn=t followed by anything, the implication is egophoric. +n this case, it
is used with the /rst person, which may be either the subect or the direct or indirect
obect. +n other cases, N again becomes a full verb and must be followed by an
assertive past au#iliary3 , . +n 0nglish it may be translated by 1hasChave
everT2
lmMN 1+=ve been 5lit. gone9 to Yhutan.2
% nN 1He has 5previously9 hit me.2
% D?N 1He=s been 5lit. come9 to my place.2
% lm? N He has been 5lit. gone9 to Yhutan.2
THE ALLCE&TR(C !'T'RE R + R
5,"T D7.7.D9 The 1allocentric2 future implies that the spea>er intends to perform the
action on behalf of his interlocutor. +t can be used only in the rst person singular 5and
occasionally plural9 with volitional verbs. +n this conte#t the verbs and + have
practically the same meaning. The form + is used in a rather more formal register.
.ith this type of future, the verb must be in the past tense.
<+ 1+=ll tell him 5for you9.2 but not B<+
1+=ll ma>e it 5for you9.2 but not B
D 1+=ll buy some tsampa 5for you9.2
o%p 1+=ll post this letter 5for you9 straight away.2
+f the subect is stated, it must be in the ergative even it is used with intransitive
volitional verbs3
@ 1+=ll go there 5for you9.2 but not B@
1+=ll come 5for you9.2but not B
7 1+=ll stay 5for you9.2 but not B7
The au#iliary is used when the action implies movement3 1+=ll go and buy
it2 is therefore eEuivalent to @.
THE D(RECT(&AL A&D ASPECT'AL A'0(L(AR(ES A&D M
5,"T ;8.7.89 )erbs of movement are often formed by using directional au#iliaries that
specify whether an action is coming towards or going away from the spea>er 5or the
point of reference9.
% + 1He=s coming umping.2 5he=s umping this way9
% +M 1He=s going umping.2 5he=s umping away9
M 1+=m going bac> home 5away from the interlocutor9.2
1+=m coming bac> home 5towards the interlocutor9.2
The two au#iliaries may also be used with non-volitional verbs to indicate the beginning
of a process 5inchoative sense9. The au#iliary is used with the /rst person 5singular
or plural9, whereas M is used with the second and third persons 5singular or plural9.
C 1+=m starting to fall asleep.2
% CM 1He=s starting to fall asleep.2
. 1+=m starting to feel cold.2
% .M 1He=s starting to feel cold.2
DE&T(C
5,"T 88.7.G9 .hen combined with modal verbs, the main verb must go in the present-
future. The past form is incorrect.
" iA 1There may be problems 5later9.2
!#B' 1This grandmother can=t get up.2
C M# 1+ couldn=t go to that area.2
5+n this case it would be incorrect to say BC@#
# is compatible with most non-intentional au#iliaries3 #A, #A , #A, #,
#, # , #, #. +t is usually incompatible with the following egophoric
au#iliaries B# , B#, B#A. The compatibility of i with au#iliary verbs is
relatively restricted. %s a rule, only the forms iA and i are encountered.
5,"T 8G.7.89 The verb 1to need, to have to2 is used both either as the main verb of
a sentence or as the modal verb. Hinally, it is also used as an au#iliary in future tense
constructions 5see ,"T D7.7.D9.
Li>e many other languages, Tibetan has certain defective modal verbs. This is the case
with verb , insofar as there are certain restrictions about how it can be combined
with au#iliaries. %s a main verb it means 1to need2 or 1to want,2 and occurs only with
the following au#iliaries. ?DL@
0gophoric 1+ need2 neg.3
1+ want2 neg.3
Testimonial ' 1you, he need5s92 neg.3 '
%ssertive 1you, he need5s92 neg.3
The suf/# A may be inserted between the modal and the au#iliary3 5A 9
5A 9' 5A 9 , but it is usually dropped in conversation. %s shown above, the verb
may occur alone without au#iliary or ?D6@ and may then be best translated as
1+ 5do not9 want,2 while with the au#iliary it may be translated as 1need.2
The subect of used as a main verb must be in the dative and the obect in the
absolutive. ?DF@
% 1+ need offering-scarves.2
/ 1+ don=t want any tea.2
% +' 1He needsC wants water 5H9.2
"ee also the modal verb 1to want, desire2 in DG.7.D.
%s a modal verb it means 1to have to, need2 or even 1must,2 ?7:@ and goes with the
following au#iliaries3
Huture3 %ssertive A
&resent3 0gophoric 5A9
Testimonial 5A9'
%ssertive 5A9
&ast 5perfective93 0gophoric
Testimonial
%ssertive
+t is conugated in the same way as predicative adectives such as 1li>e, be fond
of.2 The forms B, " and B are usually not acceptable.
The subect=s case depends on the main verb.
5q 15.e9 have to ta>e binoculars.2
% 1+ have to buy offering-scarves.2
9r 1+ had to pay 5for it9.2
% ? 1He had to ta>e the train.2 5H9
5,"T 8F.7.D9 Li>e other modal verbs, this one goes after the main verb and before the
au#iliary. The tense of the main verb may be the present-future or the past V either will
do. The verb + is used mainly in with the future au#iliaries3 + for future and
present situations. However, other au#iliaries are sometimes used3 +' 5testimonial
present9, + 5assertive present9. The combinations are sometimes used in the past
but of course never occur with intentional egophoric au#iliaries The combinations are
sometimes used in the past but of course never occur with intentional egophoric
au#iliaries B+ or B+ .
The verb + has two meanings3 The /rst, and more usual meaning, is 1to be allowed,2
1may2$ secondly, it can also have the meaning 1to be able, can2 in which case it can be
substituted by #.
%:+ 1.e can buy >hata> in the mar>et.2
=%5+ 1%re we allowed to ta>e photos inside the templeK2
5,"T DG.7.D9 This verb, which means 1to want,2 reEuires the main verb to be in the
present-future.
+t appears only as a modal verb 5and not as a main verb9, and may be combined with the
following au#iliaries. +t functions in a similar way to the verb 1need.2
in the present3 5ego.9, ' or
in the past3 5ego.9, or
in the future3 A
The perfective past au#iliaries , , may not directly follow the verb
B B B
M 1+ want to go to Sailash.2
. 6? 1.ould you li>e to go to TibetK2
However, the verb ( and its honori/c form # have a regular conugation.
5,"T DL.79 The suf/#es s and are combined with the au#iliaries and to
ma>e the following au#iliaries3 s'
[&ast3 s, s, ,
[&resent3 s, s'.
%s we shall see below 5,"T D69, they may also be combined with the copulas and
to form future modal au#iliaries.
%ll these au#iliaries have a modal sense, and may be translated in 0nglish by the modal
verbs 1to be able to,2 1to have to.2
5,"T DL.7.89 These mean 1to have had the opportunity to2 and 1to have been able to.2
The preceding verb must be in the present-future.
%ts5Os9 1+ didn=t get a chance to offer a >hata>.2
% H<s 1.as he able to tal> to herK2
a 1+ was able to do some sightseeing.2
/Ms 1Have you been able to ma>e a pilgrimageK2
s 1+ was unable to go to sleep.2
5,"T DL.7.D9 This au#iliary, which is always in the negative, means 1to ought not.2 The
preceding verb goes in the present-future.
s 1Wou shouldn=t eat a lot of chiliA2
s 1Wou ought not to spea> in that wayA2
. :s ' 1Wou shouldn=t worry soA2
5,"T D6.7.89 These indicate the future, and are practically the same as , , but
with more of a sense of obligation. The forms s and are egophoric, whereas s
and are neutral. The verb that precedes the au#iliary should be in the present-
future.
';P5s 1!e#t year, we have to build a new school.2
4Bs 1.e have to /nd accommodation.2
? 1Do you have to leave immediatelyK2
+n certain conte#ts, the forms s and s may also imply that something that ought to
have been done already has yet to be accomplished. +n this case, it may be translated by
1hasn=t yet done Z2 or 1has still to do Z.2 The verb preceding the au#iliary must be in
the present-future.
%s 1+ haven=t eaten yet.2 5+=m about to eat.9
% -S= s 1He has yet to go to the opera.2
. o%? s 1Wou still have to go to the post of/ce.2
40s 1+ haven=t yet read today=s newpaper.2
Note: The suf/#es s and are usually interchangeable, but not in all cases. The
differences between them may be summari-ed here. % distinction must be made
between their function as nominali-ing suf/#es and as au#iliaries.
No#inali$ing sufxes:
the patient3 s 5future9 and 5present or future9
the instrument3 but not B s
the substance3 s and
The auxiliaries:
1one should not23 s but not B
1not yet23 s but not B
the imminent future3 s and
1to have had the opportunity23 s and . ?78@
5,"T 7:.7.;9 The constructions P ) P P ) and P ) H mean that the subect
has to perform an action and has no choice in the matter 5deontic modality9. They are
commonly used in "po>en Tibetan. Yoth may be followed by the verb .
u k<< 1"ince +=m not well, + have no option but
to leave.2
2k&D@@ 1"ince the car bro>e down, we had no choice but
to visit the nomads.2
SEC&DAR. VER"S
5,"T 88.7.I9 There are about twenty or so 1secondary2 verbs that go between the
principal and au#iliary verb3 )rinci)al ) P secondary ) P %RZ.
,ost of these verbs are modal #erbs
1to need, want, have to,2 # 1to be able,2 i 1to be possible,2 + 1to be allowed,2
1to >now,2 v 1to dare,2 1to want, wish,2 ( 1to wish,2 1to thin>,2 D
1to intend, plan.2
There are also a number of 1tense-aspect2 verbs3
4 1to /nish,2 7 1to stay,2 1to be time to,2 M 5M9 1to be about to,2 ++ 1to
be ready to,2 1to have the time to,2 as well as the directional verbs 1to
come25action towards9 and M 1to go2 5action away from9.
%s in 0nglish, the modal verbs are defective ?7D@ insofar as they are not compatible with
certain au#iliary verbs. Their compatibility will be e#amined as they are introduced in
the course of the lessons.
THE CONSTRUCTIONS TO BE ABOUT TO AND TO HAVE JUST
5,"T 87.7.79 The two constructions are e#pressed by placing M, which is derived
from the literary form M, after the main verb.
To say 1to be about to,2 Tibetan uses the e#istential au#iliaries , ', 3 M
5ego9, M', M .
1To have ust2 is e#pressed by using the essential au#iliaries or 3 M 5ego9,
M .
%nd /nally, the verb M3 5or its literary form M9 may be followed by the verb 1to
do2 to mean 1all but2 or 1almost.2
. +M 1%re you about to eatK2
% ,M 1He almost died in this river.2
;M 1.e=re about to arrive at the airport.2
lmM 1+=ve ust come from Yhutan.2
THE SEC&DAR. VER"S *T HAVE T(/E6+ A&D *T "E T(/E+
5,"T 7D.7.79 The verbs and are 1secondary verbs2 5see ,"T 889 that ta>e the
same place as modal verbs. The main verb, which precedes them, should be in the
present-future and not the past. +n the present, the verb is followed by the egophoric
au#iliary or the constative au#iliary '. +n the past, the verb is followed by the
au#iliary 5egophoric9 or 5constative9, in the future by the au#iliary .
The verb is generally used in the past with the following past au#iliaries3 or
and and sometimes in the present3 B'.
/# 1+ haven=t got time to drin> tea.2
w 1Have you got time to read this letterK2
/a- 1Wou probably haven=t got time to ma>e tea.2
CM 1+t=s time + went to the of/ce.2
THE SEC&DAR. VER" 4 *T !(&(SH+
5,"T 7G.7.D9 This belongs to the category of secondary verbs, which occupy the same
syntactic position as the modal verbs 5after the main verb and before the au#iliary9.
%part from its usual meaning of 1to /nish,2 it may also have the adverbial meaning of
1already2 or 1completely,2 according to conte#t. .hen it is used in the /rst person, the
verb may be used without an au#iliary.
x54 15+=ve9 already washed.2
x54 15He=s9 already washed.2
44 1Then 5he9 was completely cured.2
. *4' 1Have you really gone completely cra-yK2
Note: Depending on the conte#t, the adverb 1already2 may be translated by the au#iliary
N ?77@ 51to have e#perienced29 or by the au#iliary 4 51to /nish293
@4 1+=ve already been there.2 5ust a while ago, so + don=t need to go again9
MN 1+=ve already been there.2 5to +ndia V it=s something +=ve e#perienced9
THE ASPECT'AL !'&CT(& ! 7 *T STA.+
5,"T ;:.7.89 The secondary verb 7 1to stay2 has an aspectual sense. The main verb,
which is followed by 7, must ta>e the past tense. The connective may optionally
be placed between the main verb and the secondary verb3 ) P 59 7 P %RZ.
The secondary verb 7 indicates that an action that was begun in the past is in the
process of happening either in the present or from a past point of reference, or that the
state of affairs resulting from this action is still present. The secondary verb may be
followed by3
a9 perfective au#iliaries 7 5egophoric9, 7 5assertive9, 7 5testimonial9.
b9 perfect au#iliaries3 7 5egophoric9, 7 5assertive9, 7 5inferential9.
The former constructions 5a9 may be translated by the perfective, and the latter 5b9 by
the imperfective or the present perfect continuous according to the conte#t. The use of
adverbs such as 1still2 may help to convey the meaning of these constructions.
F ) '597 1.hen Dore got bac> home, !yima
was still reading a boo>.2
%:#' 597 1Westerday, when + met her in the mar>et,
she was buying butter.2
97 1"he=s been crying constantly.2
yPa+7 1He=s been tal>ing all the time in class.2
The construction may also indicate a resulting state.
% 7 1He=s still unwell.2
7 1"he=s up.2 5lit. she got up and she=s stayed up9 5*ompare this
with the sentence3 1she got up29
S(/PLE VER"S
C/P'&D VER"S A&D VER"AL(7ERS
5,"T 8;.7.89 +n "po>en Tibetan, compound verbs are more common than simple verbs
5verbs comprising only one syllable9. Hor the most part, these consist of a noun and a
1verbali-er.2 )erbali-ers 5Tib. $9 are verbs that do not convey a speci/c meaning
or else mean 1to do2 in a general sense. *ompound verbs of this sort generally comprise
two or three syllables, but some contain up to /ve.
The three basic #erbali8ers are3 C 5H9 1to do, act2$ 5 C 5H9 1to ma>e2$ and
C 5H9 1to send, do.2 ?7;@
(ther verbali-ers V some of them used only rarely V include3 1to ma>e,2 < 5h9 1to
say, to ta>e,2 1to ta>e,2 ; 1to lift,2 1to get up,2 M 1to go,2 1to let go,2
1to be caught or hit,2 % 1to circulate,2 etc.
The choice of verbali-er is determined partly by whether the verb is volitional or non-
volitional. The verbali-ers , M, and are used in the formation of non-
volitional verbs.
+5 1to marry2 x 1to marry2 5H9
H 1to wor>2 @ 1to wor>2 5H9
*ompound verbs retain a certain syntactic <e#ibility3 the noun can be separated from
the verbali-er by an adverb or a negation, and may also be mar>ed by a complement3
E 15.e9 have to give it a lot of thought.2
O(S 1The girl sang a lovely song.2
%' 1+f you=re not careful, it=s ris>y.2
The semantics of a verb offer no clue to the verbali-er that should be used. %s a general
rule, compound verbs ta>e only one verbali-er.
H 1to wor>2 but not BH or BH5
+5 1to marry2 but not B+ or B+
+n certain cases, however, there is a choice of which verbali-er may be used3
f or f 1to use2$ `5 or ` 1to move2
+n some e#ceptional instances, different verbali-ers may be used but the overall
meaning is different in each case.
a 1to call2 but a5 1to shout2
5 1to set /re2 but 1to light, ma>e a /re2
5 1to reply2 but 1to send a message2
Li>e all verbs, verbali-ers must be followed by au#iliaries. Here is a list of the
1conugations2 5in all the tense-aspects and moods9 with the au#iliaries we have
encountered so far. Snowing all these forms will enable you to conugate most verbs in
"tandard Tibetan.
)erbali-er )erbali-er 5 )erbali-er
59 5
59 5
59 5
S59' 5' A'
59 5 A
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
Note: The egophoric au#iliaries and the perfect au#iliaries are not compatible with all
verbs. Hor e#ample, for a verb such as a 1to call,2 depending on conte#t it is
possible to use either the intentional au#iliary or the receptive au#iliary3 a 1+
called,2 a 1+ was called, 5someone9 called me.2 (n the other hand, for a non-
volitional verb such as ! 1to dream,2 the intentional au#iliary is incorrect B!
and instead the receptive au#iliary must be used !.
"ome verbs can ta>e a complement in the form of a direct or an indirect obect, whereas
others cannot. The verbali-er gives no indication as to whether a verb is 1transitive2 or
1intransitive.2 The following verbs all ta>e an obect3
% 55a9;g 1He studied 5*hinese9.2
% 5Kx%9f 1He used 5the computer9.2
[B5;9a 1The teacher called 5the student9.2
5. 9! 1+ dreamed 5about you9.2
[B5\9r< 1The teacher presented 5the situation9.2
% 5+9SA' 1He practices 5the Dharma9 a lotA2
Rnli>e the verb 1to study,2 the verb 1to wor>2 is not transitive, and we can=t say3 B%
59H 1He wor>ed the wood.2
Note: "everal 1intransitive2 compound verbs ta>e an ergative construction, whereas in
the case of 1simple2 verbs this construction occurs only with transitive verbs. This may
be e#plained by the fact that the noun that precedes the verbali-er can be assimilated to
an 1internal2 obect. +n other words, the verbali-er acts as if it were an autonomous
transitive verb.
CA'SAT(VE A&D RES'LTAT(VE VER"S
5,"T 7I.7.89 There is an ancient morphogical verb opposition in Tibetan which
corresponds to a causative derivation. This morphological opposition has generated verb
pairs3 a causative verb, both transitive and volitional, is derived ?7I@ from a basic verb
which is usually both intransitive and non-volitional. This basic verb stem is referred to
here as the resultative form.
The two verbs that comprise each pair are phonetically very close, and in most cases
their pronunciation differs only in terms of tone or aspiration.
The causative derivation is essential in many Tibeto-Yurman languages as well as in
*lassical Tibetan 5with over D:: verb pairs9 and in some archaic dialects of %mdo, but
in *entral Tibetan and in the "tandard "po>en language, it applies only to a few do-en
verbs.
Ex.: S 1to brea>2 5caus.9, + 1to brea>2 5res.9$ ( 1to lay2 5caus.9, 1to lie2 5res.9$
H 1to stop2 5caus.9, 1to stop2 5res.9$ ; 1to raise2 5caus.9, 1to rise2 5res.9$
1to scatter2 5caus.9, ,1to scatter, be scattered2 5res.9$ a 1to boil2 5caus.9, %
1to boil2 5res.9$ a 1to stir, turn2 5caus.9, % 1to stir, turn2 5res.9$ 1to ta>e out2
5caus.9, 1to go out2 5res.9$ ? 1to bring down, ta>e down2 5caus.9, 1to descend,
get down2 5res.9$ ^ 1to free2 5caus.9, M 1to be freed2 5res.9$ & 1to tear2 5caus.9,
1to tear2 5res.9$ S 1to cut2 5caus.9, + 1to be cut2 5res.9, etc.
*ompared to the basic resultative stem, the causative always has an additional argument
corresponding to an intentional agent performing the action.
+f the resultative is intransitive, the causative is transitive.
+f the resultative is transitive, the causative is ditransitive 5see the e#amples below9
+t emerges from the above that all the ca%sati#e #erbs are transiti#e and #olitional
since they imply an agent is intentionally performing an action on an obect or a patient.
Resultative verbs are usually intransitive and non-volitional.
+ resultative3 1The rope bro>e.2 ?the rope got cut by itself, without any
intentional cause@
% S causative3 1He cut the rope.2 ?an agent cut the rope
intentionally@
J+ resultative3 1The pane bro>e.2 ?the pane bro>e by itself, without any
intentional cause@
_`6JS causative3 1The children bro>e the pane.2 ?the children
intentionally bro>e the pane@
z% 7 resultative3 1The prayer wheel is still spinning.2 ?!obody is now
ma>ing it spin, it spins by itself@
RA za resultative3 1The old lady has turned the prayer wheel.2 ?%n
agent has intentionally turned the wheel@
resultative3 1The letter is torn.2
% & causative3 1He tore the letter 5intentionally9.2
*ertain resultative intransitive verbs may, in some cases, allow the use of an
unintentional agent.
% 1He tore ?res.@ the letter 5unintentionally9.2
_`6a+ 1The children bro>e ?res.@ the pane 5unintentionally9.2
However, this construction is rather rare in "tandard "po>en Tibetan. "ome spea>ers
prefer to use other constructions such as the sentence below which has a similar
meaning3
_`6ka+ 1Yecause the children were not careful, the
pane bro>e.2
The resultative verbs include a few intransitive volitional and transitive volitional forms.
+n such cases, the corresponding causative verbs have a supplementary actant that itself
acts on another agent.
_`%{ 1The child herself put on ?res.@ her chuba.2
-_`{a 1The mother put the chuba on ?caus.@ the child.2 ?7G@
5ditransitive9
!#A ' 1The old lady can=t get up ?res.@.2
!; 1+ helped the old lady to get up ?caus.@.2
*ausative and resultative verbs can appear in the same sentence. The causative puts
emphasis on the ca%se of the )rocess and the effort of the agent in performing the
action, while the resultative verb is concerned only with the res%lt or the conse9%ence
of that action. "uch constructions may therefore be translated by using the verbs 1to
succeed,2 1to manage,2 1can2 or other modal e#pressions.
These constructions which freEuently occur in the literary language also appear in the
spo>en language.
3+? 1%fter the ngagpa had 5performed a ritual to9
ma>e rain fall, rain did indeed fallA2
]:Z' 4&B ' 1This cloth is very strong, + can=t tear
itA2 5lit. however much + ?try to@ tear it it won=t tear9
The following e#amples are ta>en from literary te#ts3
&A |Aus' 10ven if one rubs, one cannot rub out the undrawn
lines on the heart.2 ?caus.3 | res.3 u@
u@cuS? 1+f you try to control your own mind
inside and you don=t succeed, then what=s the use of catching somebody else=s
body outside.2 ?caus.3 u res.3 @
% }B$m 1?(nce@, he ?saw@ a mouse
trying to move a turEuoise that was on his mandala. Yut the mouse could not lift
the ewel on its own, soT2 ?caus.3 res.3 @
&o%ns
(&TRD'CT(&
COMMON NOUNS
GE&DER
5,"T D.7.79 Grammatical gender 5masculine, feminine, neuter9 does not e#ist in
Tibetan.
%rticles, demonstratives, adectives and verbs are therefore invariable with respect to
gender. ,ale and female se# are, however, sometimes mar>ed within the le#icon 5by
distinct words9 or else by means of suf/#es 5 or for the male and or for the
female9 in the case of certain pronouns and substantives denoting animate beings.
1ya>2 5male9, & 1ya>-cow,2 1horse2 5generic9, [ 1mare,2 O 1boy,2 O 1girl,2
% 1man from Sham,2 % 1woman from Sham,2 ~ 1yogin,2 ~
1yogini,2 G 1ya>Ccow hybrid,2 G 1female d-o2
N.B.: some pronouns ma>e no distinction between 1he2 and 1she23 %{ 1HeCshe is
rich.2
PRONOUNS
PERS&AL PR&'&S
5,"T 7.7.89 There are three registers of personal pronouns3 ordinary, honori/c and high
honori/c. +n Literary Tibetan, as well as in some dialects 5Tsang9, a humili/c form
59 is used for the /rst person. This form is not used in "tandard "po>en Tibetan.
+n Literary Tibetan and in certain dialects 5including Sham and ,ustang9, there are
distinct forms for the e1cl%si#e and incl%si#e /rst person plural. This opposition, too, is
absent in "tandard Tibetan.
Hor the second person, it is safest to use the honori/c form . C . 6$ for the third
person, % C %6. The ordinary forms 1you,2 % 1he,2 % 1he2 and or 1she2
imply familiarity. The forms . and .6 1you2 carry peorative connotations in
"tandard Tibetan, whereas they are the normal terms in Literary Tibetan and certain
dialects 5Sham, Hor, %mdo9.
+n "tandard Tibetan and many other dialects, as well as in Literary Tibetan, there is a
special dual form for both personal pronouns and demonstratives3 1we two,2 .
1you two,2 % 1the two of them2 1those two.2
5,"T 8D.7.I9 The number S 1one2 has several meanings. .e have already come
across 5in ,"T 8:9 the pronominal use of S. +t means both 1someone2 and
1something.2 (n the other hand, in certain conte#ts, S means 1once2 or 1a little.2
S? 1"omeone came here.2
9SB 1Lend me a little money.2
%Sy 1+=m going to have a bit of a Euarrel with him.2
(&TERRGAT(VE
5,"T 8G.7.D9 Tibetan has several e#pressions that mean 1why23 , .
% A' 1He=s afraid$ whyK2
1,y leg=s hurting$ 5+ wonder9 whyK2
9 1.hy are you cryingK2
F< 1.hy did you throw stonesK2
There is also the formulation3 )P or )P . +t may be translated as
1.hat do you mean by P gerundive.2 +t often /gures in reproaches3
H SH 1.hy did you brea> the cupK2
F <H 1.hy did you throw stonesK2
HH 1.hy didn=t you do any wor>K2
PRE$&/(&AL /D(!(ERS
SPECIAL CASES: ADJECTIVES IN FOCUS
AD:ECT(VES
DETER/(&AT(VES
NUMERALS
THE CARD(&AL A&D RD(&AL &'/"ERS
5,"T L.7.;9 !umbers come after the noun. Rnli>e Yurmese, *hinese, and several other
%sian languages, Tibetan has no classi/ers.
D 5D:9 57:9 5;:9 5I:9 5G:9 5L:9 B 56:9 5F:9
Remembering these particles is made easier by the fact that, with the e#ception of D,
they are all derived from the term for the set of ten in Euestion. Hor e#ample, , the
particle for the thirties, is derived from > 1three.2 The same is true of the forties,
where is a modi/cation of 1four,2 and so on.
1D:2
T DS 1D82 through U D` 1DF2
>j 17:2
T >jS 1782 through U >j` 17F2
j 1;:2
T j S 1;82 through U j ` 1;F2
j 1I:2
T jS 1I82 through U j` 1IF2
V j 1G:2
VT jS 1G82 through VU j` 1GF2
'j 1L:2
T 'jS 1L82 through U 'j` 1LF2
5j 16:2
T 5jBS 1682 through U 5jB` 16F2
U `j 1F:2
UT `jS 1F82 through UU `j` 1FF2
5 1hundred23 +5 1one hundred,2 5 1two hundred,2 >5 1three hundred.2
Yetween 8:: and 8FF, the number 1hundred2 is followed by the connective 1and.2
?7L@ Hor e#ample3 5j 18I:.2
$ 1thousand23 +$ 1one thousand,2 $ 1two thousand,2 >$ 1three thousand.2
: 1ten thousand23 +: 1one myriad,2 : 1twenty thousand 5two myriad9,2 >:
1thirty thousand.2
O 1hundred thousand23 +O 1one 5unit of a9 hundred thousand,2 O 1two
hundred thousand,2 >O 1three hundred thousand.2
%fter 1million,2 the numbers are treated as substantives and must be followed 5not
preceded9 by the number of units.
1million23 S 1one million,2 1two million,2 etc.
1ten million23 S 15one unit of9 ten million,2 1twenty million,2 etc.
'{ 1hundred million23 '{S 1one 5unit of a9 hundred million,2 '{ 1two
hundred million,2 '{j 1one billion.2
Hrom a hundred up to a hundred thousand, units may be placed afterwards, and the
number is therefore treated syntactically as a substantive. +n the case of 1thousand,2 the
suf/# is added3 $ 1two thousand,2 :> 1thirty thousand,2 O> 1three
hundred thousand.2
Hrom one hundred up, when there is a -ero in the tens, hundreds or any higher column,
as in 8:6 or 8:8I, the column name 58:, 8::, etc.9 is followed by 1without.2 This
e#pression is optional3 +$ 5j' 18;:L,2 +$5j 18:8G.2
Note: The numbers 8, D, 7 and 8: are spelled differently according to the other numbers
with which they are combined, as in the case of 8I 58:PI9, 86 58:P69, D: 5D#8:9, 7:
57#8:9, etc. The written variants represent a formali-ation, from the classical period, of
different pronunciations of the numbers in Euestion.
j Q S in S 18I2 and S5 1862
j Q in 1D:2
j Q j in >j 17:2 and in j 1G:,2 etc.
S Q + in +$ 18:::2
Q in 1D:2
Q in $ 1D:::2
> Q > in >j 17:2
!ote that round tens and hundreds may be followed by . Hor e#ample3 5 1a
hundred,2 >j 1thirty.2
(rdinal numbers present no dif/culties. .ith the e#ception of 1/rst,2 which has a
special radical, they are formed simply by adding the suf/# . Hor e#ample3 1/rst,2
1second,2 > 1third,2 j 1tenth,2 jS 1eleventh,2 etc.
The percentages and fractions are formed by using the word + 1part.2 Thus3
(ne hundred percent 5+5 18::\2
Hifty percent 5+j 1I:\2
(ne third >+S 18C72
Three Euarters +> 17C;2
DEMONSTRATIVES
PR0(/AL;/ED(AL;D(STAL
5,"T 8.7.79 The demonstratives function both as adectives and as pronouns. %s
adectives, they always come after the noun 5or after the noun phrase9, and carry a case
or plural mar>er as appropriate.
1.hat is thisK2 51This is whatK29
` 1.hat is this paperK2
`6 1.hat are these papersK2
The demonstratives proxi#al!, #edial! and ? distal! denote three degrees of
removal3 nearby, distant and far-off, corresponding to the 0nglish e#pressions 1here,2
1there2 and 1over there.2
The demonstratives , and ? function as pronouns and adectives. .hen used as
adectives, demonstratives always come after the noun 5or after the noun phrase9$ they
are given a case particle and, where appropriate, a plural particle.
The demonstratives and are employed not only to draw attention to somethingC
point outC show something 5deictic function9, but also to refer to elements previously
mentioned 5anaphoric function9 in a te#t or conversation. The e#pression ?, however,
is used only to indicate spatial distance.
The demonstrative is lin>ed to the present moment$ , on the other hand, is
associated with the past or the future, and with the notions of 1the beyond2 and the
invisible.
< 1+ said that2
< 1+=ll say this2
1this year2 5present9
1that year2 5past or future9
1this boo>2
1that boo>2
? 1that boo> over there2
The demonstratives , , and ? are used to form the adverbs , , and ? 1here,
there, and over there.2 +n the spo>en language they have undergone a small variation in
their pronunciation 59, ? 5? 9.
S(&G'LAR;D'AL;PL'RAL
QUANTIFIERS
&'/"ER A&D THE PL'RAL /AR<ER 6
5,"T D.7.D9 !umber is never mar>ed in verbs, adectives or the maority of nouns.
&lurality is usually implied either by conte#t, or by Euanti/ers such as 1many,2 4
1all,2 1some, certain,2 1two,2 etc.
However, there is a plural mar>er 6, ?76@ which appears with demonstratives and
personal pronouns3 6 1these,2 6 1those,2 ?6 1those, those over there,2 % 6 1they,2
etc.
The mar>er 6 by itself is used with nouns denoting people only when the people in
Euestion are speci/edCde/ned3 -6 1the mothers,2 [6 1the teachers,2 ;P6 1the
students,2 etc. 5but not Bmothers, Bteachers, etc.9. The non-speci/c plural is not mar>ed
with the plural particle3 - 1mothers,2 [ 1teachers.2
This suf/# is not used with animals or inanimate obects3 Bc6 1?the@ sheep,2 BSI6
1?the@ tables,2 BH6 1?the@ thangkas.2
*onseEuently, unambiguous renderings of the pluralCindications of plurality reEuire the
use of demonstratives3 c6 1those sheep,2 SI6 1those tables.2
!umber is only mar>ed once per noun or noun phrase$ the mar>er, which is placed at
the end of the group, is therefore never redundant.
O,,6 1those little girls2
6 1those high snow-mountains2
-6 1the young mothers2
6 1the other companions2
N.B.: the following demonstratives also occur in conversation3
B 1these2 5nearby9, B 1those2 5distant9
B 1all these,2 B 1all those2
These last two e#pressions are used to ma>e a selection from a group.
B 1all these boo>s2 5and not the others9
THE S(&G'LAR (&DE!(&(TE ART(CLE S
5,"T G.7.89 The article is not generally used in Tibetan.
Hor e#ample, according to the conte#t or the situation, e` may mean 1Have you
got aC theC any pen5s9K2
However, this statement ought to be slightly modi/ed3 /rst, as we saw earlier, the use of
the plural mar>er 6 implies that the 5human9 noun so Euali/ed is de/nite, and that it
should be preceded in the 0nglish translation by the use of the 5plural9 de/nite article
1the.2 "econdly, Tibetan does indeed have a singular inde/nite article S that is placed
after the noun, but that is used only when the noun is speci/c3
[S 1a 5certain9 teacher,2 ;PS 1a 5certain9 student2
but not when the noun is generic3
% [ 1he is a teacher,2 but % [S 1He=s one 5of the9 teacher5s92
The form of the inde/nite article S 1a2 should not be confused with that of the cardinal
number 1one2 S, although the pronunciation of the two is the same. +n Literary
Tibetan, the inde/nite article has three variants V S, , V depending on the /nal
letter of the preceding word.
after , , , and the Q S
after vowels and , , , , , Q
after Q
+n the spo>en language, only the form S is used.
Hinally, the demonstrative is often used in much the same way as a 5speci/c9 de/nite
article in the 0uropean languages.
' 1.here is thatC the new boo>K2
E_% 1He=s the brother of Lob-ang.2
CASE
GENERAL REMARKS ON CASES
5,"T ;.7.89 Yoth the spo>en and literary languages contain case-mar>ing particles that
specify the function of a noun within a sentence.
There are si# cases3 the absolutive 5unmar>ed9, the agentive , the genitive , the
obliEue , the ablative and the associative . The following lessons will discuss
each one in turn.
+n 0nglish, these cases are represented by prepositions such as 1to,2 1of,2 1in,2 1by,2 or
1for,2 or else are not translated at all.
The system of cases in Tibetan is Euite distinct from that of 0uropean languages such as
Latin, Gree>, German and Russian, for a number of reasons3
Hirst of all, contrary to the case of these languages, the no%n remains in#ariable. ?7F@
+nstead, it ma>es use of particles or s%f31es that #ary in form. "ome case suf/#es, for
e#ample, vary according to the /nal letter 5or sound9 of the preceding word.
Literary Tibetan and to a lesser e#tend the spo>en language show some features of
agglutinative morphology. That is, the case suf/#es and the other grammatical suf/#es
are added on in a series. Hor e#ample, the plural mar>er is mar>ed by a suf/# distinct
from the case 5unli>e the cases in Latin or Russian9. +n the following sentences in
Literary Tibetan, the head nouns c 1body2 and % 1learned2 are followed by three
suf/#es including a plural mar>er and then a case mar>er 5genitive or agentive93
%~A A
learned-plural%agentive%
additive
negation see
5H9
10ven the learned ones have not
seen 5it9.2
cS
body%possession sufx%plural%
genitive
>arma 1The >arma of those who have a
bodyT2
*ases have a range of functions that are not con/ned to the noun, but also relate to the
verb. Thus all case mar>ers have two basic functions3 a case-related function and a
connective function. ?;:@ The latter is comparable to a coordinating or subordinating
conunction in 0uropean languages. 5"ee the discussion on the ablative case in ,"T F.9
The following are the main case-related and connective functions3
, the agenti#e, traditionally referred to as ^, literally 1agent-sound,2 indicates the
agent of the action 51by29, the instrument 51with29, the cause 51because of,2 1by29, and
the manner 51with29$ it also mar>s causal subordinate clauses, in which case it may be
translated by 1since,2 1because,2 etc.
, the geniti#e, traditionally referred to as &^, literally 1lin>-sound,2 designates the
complement of the noun, and is translated by 1of2$ it may also correspond to the
conunction 1but2 5L9.
, the obli9%e, 5or dative-locative9, traditionally referred to as , literally 1meaning
of Xto=,2 indicates the person or goal to which an action is directed, as well as place and
direction, and corresponds to the 0nglish prepositions 1to2 or 1at2$ it may also mar> a
subordinate purpose clause, in which case it is translatable by 1to2 or 1in order to.2
], the absol%ti#e, traditionally referred to as k, literally 1ust the essence,2 or 1the
meaning in essence,2 is the unmar>ed case. +t denotes the patient, i.e., the person or
thing that undergoes the action 5in the case of transitive verbs9, and the single
participant 5in the case of intransitive verbs9.
, the ablati#e, traditionally referred to as CA^, literally 1sound of the source,2
indicates provenance 51from29$ it also mar>s causal or temporal subordinate clauses, in
which case it may be translated by 1because2 or 1after,2 or simply by 1and.2 %nother
ablative mar>er is also used in Literary Tibetan. However, this form is restricted to
the use of comparative mar>er in the spo>en language.
, the associati#e, traditionally referred to as ^, ?;8@ literally 1sound of Xwith=,2 has
the sense of 1with,2 1against2 or 1from2$ it may also mean simply 1and,2 and may
function as a temporal connective meaning 1as soon as2 5literary9.
There is no agreement on the basis of function within a noun group3 the case a))ears
=%st once6 at the end of the no%n )hrase, and there is conseEuently no redundancy.
Hor e#ample, if the noun is not followed by any Euali/cation such as adectives,
demonstratives and so forth, the case particle is suf/#ed directly3
1by the leader2 5agentive9
1to the leader2 5dative9
Yut if the noun is Euali/ed, the /nal element of the noun group is followed by a case
particle3
+A 1by these two great leaders2
+ 1to these two great leaders2
The case may be omitted in the literary language 5mainly in order to preserve the metre
in poetic writing9 as well as in the spo>en language, in circumstances that will be
discussed below.
THE ABSOLUTIVE
5,"T ;.7.79 The absolutive is mar>ed by the absence of any overt case particle3 it is
morphologically void. ?;D@ Yecause it lac>s a formal mar>, the absolutive in Tibetan
isn=t always easy to identify at /rst. Remember that a case mar>er is always to be found
at the end of any noun group 5or phrase9.
The absolutive indicates the grammatical role of )atient. This role typically refers to
the animate or inanimate participant that undergoes or suffers a given action performed
by an agent 5in the case of transitive verbs9, ?;7@ or a single participant in a process 5in
the case of intransitive verbs9.
+n syntactic or relational terms, it designates both the ob=ect of a transiti#e #erb and
the s%b=ect of an intransiti#e #erb.
/# 1Drin> the tea,2 /4' 1The tea is hot2
+n both these e#amples, the 1tea2 5/9 is in the absolutive case. However, in the /rst
sentence it is a direct obect, while in the second it is the subect of the verb. Yy
contrast, the subect of a transitive verb is mar>ed by the agentive case 5see ,"T 69.
THE AGENTIVE ( )
5,"T 6.7.D9 Traditional grammars refer to this mar> as ^ 5lit. agent-sound9. The
agentive is formed by adding an to the genitive. The variants follow the same pattern
as in the case of the genitive3 , B, A , S.
after vowels and Q
after , Q
after , , and the Q A
after , , , Q B
+n *lassical Tibetan, vowels may also be followed by the variant , or even by the
more archaic form .
+n conversation, the three particles , A, B are pronounced in e#actly the same way,
as an unstressed syllable3 C->i^C. Remember that adding the variant produces a glottal
stop 5or a modulated tone9 in the pronunciation, and that in the case of Ca, u, oC, an
umlaut is effectively added3 aPs Q CJ^C, uPs Q C_^C, oPs Q CU^C. The vowels Ce, iC do not
change3 ePs Q Ce^C, iPs Q Ci^C.
1sun2 Q
1drawing2 Q
, 1water2 Q ,
1man, person2 Q
1/re2 Q
1arrow2 Q
[ 1teacher2 Q [B
[ 1teacher 5H92 Q [A
1secretary2 Q
!'&CT(&S
5,"T 6.7.D9 The agentive particle has two case-related functions3 the ergative and the
instrumental3 ?;;@ The ergative function is used to mar> the grammatical role of agent.
+n transitive clauses, this role typically matches the semantic agent or causer who
performs an action on a patient, but also includes the agent of 1mental2 and 1verbal2
actions and the perceiver of a sensation. However, it does not refer to the e#periencer of
an emotion, which is mar>ed as the patient 5the absolutive or -ero case9. +n syntactic or
relational terms, the agentive particle generally mar>s the s%b=ect of transiti#e #erbs
governing an ergative construction. ,ost transitive verbs reEuire an ergative
construction but some non-volitional transitive verbs reEuire other constructions
5affective or possessive, see ,"T F.79.
5,"T 6.7.D9 Ergati#e constr%ctions may seem strange at /rst, to the e#tent that they
wor> in the opposite way to accusative constructions in 0uropean languages. However,
even though ergative-absolutive constructions are not familiar to spea>ers of 0uropean
languages, they are as logical as accusative constructions. %s discussed in *hapter ;, the
main point is that all languages need a mechanism or device to distinguish 1who does
what to whom,2 or, in other words, to distinguish between the "ubect and the (bect of
a transitive verb. +n nominative-accusative 0uropean languages, as well as in *hinese, it
is not the subect that is mar>ed, but the obect, either by using a distinct accusative case
mar>er 5as in Latin and Russian9, or by opposition in the sentence, i.e., being placed
after the verb 5as in Hrench, 0nglish and *hinese9 ?;I@ . +n 0nglish, for e#ample, word
order is used to distinguish between 1the police#an >illed the fugitive2 and 1the fugitive
>illed the police#an.2
Tibetan chooses to mar> not the obect, but the transitive subect, by using a distinct
case mar>er V the ergative. +t is called ^ 1main ergative2 in the traditional
grammars.
% subect that is mar>ed by the ergative is almost always a human or other animate. The
obect lac>s an overt formal mar>er 5]9$ in linguistic terminology this is >nows as the
1absolutive,2 and in traditional Tibetan grammars as k, 1ust 5the word9 in the
absolute.2
Here are some e#amples3
" 5erg.9 ( 5abs.9 ) 5ergative construction9

+ P 0rg. boo> P %bs. read-past 1+ read the boo>.2
+n YasEue, the only ergative language of 0urope, the structure is similar3
" 5erg.9 ( 5abs.9 )
ni-> liburu-a-] ira>urri d-u-t
+ P 0rg. Yoo>-def P %bs. Read %bs-%u#-0rg
(ther e#amples3
E / +
lama P 0rg. tea 5H9 P %bs. drin> 5H9-past 1The lama dran> the tea.2

Tsering P 0rg. horse P %bs. buy-past 1Tsering bought the horse.2
)erbs that ta>e the ergative construction will be identi/ed as3 05rgative9 %5bsolutive9.
1to buy2 ?vol., 0%@
+t should be noted that there is also an indirect ergati#e in which the subect is in the
ergative and the obect in the dative 5indirect obect9.
" 5erg.9 ( 5dat.9 ) 5mi#ed
construction9

Tsering P 0rg. horsePDat. loo>-past 1Tsering loo>ed at the
horse.2
)erbs governing this type of construction will be identi/ed as3 05rgative9 D5ative9.
1to loo> 5at92 ?vol., 0D@
This construction appears mainly with compound verbs 5which usually have three
syllables9, such as q 1to be interested 5in9,2 1to be careful 5of9,2 %
1to ma>e a phone call 5to9,2 + 1to have faith 5in9.2
The ergative also appears with verbs involving three participants 5ditransitive93
" 5erg.9 ( indirect ( 5abs.9 )
5dat.9
6 % @S t
we P 0rg. he P Dat. boo> a P %bs. give 5h9-past 1.e gave him a
boo>.2
)erbs that ta>e this type of construction will be noted as3 05rgative9 D5ative9
%5bsolutive9.
t 1to offer2 ?vol., 0D%@
+n e#ceptional cases, the ergative may also be used to mar> the agent of volitional
intransitive verbs, especially verbs of movement 5see ,"T DL9. The effect of the
ergative in this case is to emphasi-e the agent or hisCher volition.
5,"T 6.7.D9 The instrumental is used to convey three main meanings3 the instrument or
implement$ the manner$ and the cause. +t may be used either with an agent 5e#plicit or
implicit9 or without one.
R6DRB 1These medicines are made with medicinal herbs.2
% e& 1He drew this picture with chal>.2
c .n 1The shepherd hit the dog with a stic>.2
% RB 1He got better than>s to the medicine.2
THE ABLATIVE ()
5,"T F.7.D9 This invariable case-particle indicates spatial or temporal provenance.
=+' 1from Lhasa to *hamdo2
,6>' 1from three to /ve o=cloc>2
N.B.: The ablative is often associated with verbs indicating acEuisition, such as " 1to
/nd,2 1to buy,2 1to obtain,2 1to borrow,2 1to get, /nd,2 and verbs of
movement such as M 1to go.2
: 1bought from the mar>et2
%" 1+ found it on ?lit. from@ the road2
M 1go through ?lit. from@ here2
.hen it follows an animate being, the ablative may also assume the role of the ergative,
and thus becomes a mar>er for the agent of the action. Rsed in this way, it is the same
as the agentive case. .hile this usage is common in Literary Tibetan, it is rare in the
spo>en language.
+H; 1Rinpoche ?;G@ gave a teaching.2
<%?65' 1.hat 5lit. how much9 salary does the government
give himK2
The particle may be used in the composition of postpositions and adverbs.
adverbali-er, 1in an Z way2
J adverbali-er 1in an Z way2
. 1absolutely 5not92
D 1absolutely 5not9,2 etc.
%s in the other cases, the particle may function as a s%bordinating con=%nction.
.hen used in this way it means 1after,2 1then,2 1because,2 or it may be used to form
gerundives 5see ,"T 8;.;9.
THE ASSOCIATIVE ( )
5,"T F.7.79 This particle, which we have met earlier, is used mainly as a coordinating
conunction 5or connective9 meaning 1and2$ however, it also corresponds to a case, the
associati#e, which is generally translated as 1with2 or 1against,2 or else is not translated
at all. +n the spo>en language, this case-related function is little used 5for the literary
language, see section 7.7 in %ppendi# 89.
*ontrary to normal practice in the 0uropean languages and in *hinese, Tibetan inserts a
pause 5when one is reEuired9 after, not before, the conunction. +n fact, the particle is
often followed by a punctuation mar>, the ., which indicates a pause.
-C - 1father, uncle, and aunt2
To reproduce the Tibetan rhythm, we would have to say3 1the father andT the uncle
andT the aunt.2
The conunction is distributive with respect to case and number. This means that the
noun group which precedes it has no number or case mar>er3 these mar>ers appear only
once, at the end of the whole group. Thus in the following e#amples, the plural mar>er
appears only once.
-_`6 1the mother and the children2 5Tibetan would not say3 B-6_`
69
+n the following e#amples, the case mar>er appears only once3
OO 6r 15They9 gave presents to the boys and 5to the9 girls.2
E- 1Tsering and Lob-ang dran> some alcohol.2
+n the spo>en language, the associative case applies to a very limited number of verbs.
Hurthermore, it may sometimes be replaced by other cases such as the absolutive or the
obliEue. Here are some verbs that still ta>e this case in oral usage3
# 1to get on with,2 1to brea> 5a law9,2 ) 1to e#change 5for9,2 1to mista>e
5for9,2 %% 1to separate 5from9,2 and certain adverbial constructions3 1with,2
etc.
D) 1+ e#change it for tsampa.2
E#' 1Tsering gets on well with Lob-ang.2
%%A 1+=m going to separate from her.2
THE GENITIVE ()
5,"T ;.7.D9 Traditional grammars refer to this mar>er as &^ 5lit. lin> sound, relation
sound9, and it is commonly translated in 0nglish as 1of.2
The genitive has several variant forms depending on the /nal letter of the preceding
word. These variants are3 , B, A,
after a vowel and Q
after , Q
after , , , and the Q A
after , , , Q B
+n *lassical Tibetan, vowels and the letter may be followed by the variant $ this is
especially true in poetry, to suit the reEuirements of the meter.
The genitive is used not only to form noun complements, possessive pronouns and
adectives, but also relative clauses. +n this case, it may be translated by a relative
pronoun such as 1that,2 1who,2 1where,2 etc. The complement that is mar>ed by the
genitive always precedes the noun to which it refers.
M 1my friend2 5lit. 1the friend of me29
% @e 1his pen2 5lit.3 the pen of him9
]AO 1Tashi=s son2
E; 1the lama=s disciple2
< 1government civil servant2
[B 1the teacher=s boo>2
1the photo that=s in the boo>2
THE OBLIQUE ( )
5,"T I.7.89 The obliEue particle has two main case-related functions3 as the locative
and as the dative. +n "po>en Tibetan there are two variants, ?;L@ one of which depends
on the /nal letter of the preceding word. These mar>ers are3 , V3
%fter vowels or Q V
%fter all endings 5consonants or vowels9 Q
+n the conversational register, the particle is sometimes pronounced or even .
!ote also that the variant V is rarely used with monosyllabic words for the dative
5e#cept in the case of personal pronouns, as well as demonstrative and interrogative
adectives9.
Thus 1to the mountain2 is used in preference to , and O 1to the boy2 in
preference to O.
LCAT(VE !'&CT(&
5,"T I.7.89 The locative is used to mar> complements of place 5with or without
movement9 or time 5date, time9, and is generally translated by 0nglish 1at,2 1to,2 1in2 or
1on.2
1toC in Lada>h2
- H 1toC in %merica2
5 1toC in +ndia2
,6 1at two o=cloc>2
S 1on the /fth ?of the month@2
` 1in winter2
DAT(VE !'&CT(&
5,"T I.7.89 The dative is used to indicate the grammatical role of goal, i.e., the person
or thing to which the action is directed, or the owner of something in possessive
constructions. This particle corresponds to 0nglish 1to,2 or else is not translated at all. +t
is also used to form adverbs.
% E 1He sent a letter to Lob-ang.2
% 9 1He has money.2
1clear2 Q 1clearly2
%s we have ust seen, possessive constructions in Tibetan are formed with the dative3
"ubect 5dat.9 P (bect 5abs.9 P )erb. This structure follows the pattern3 ?to Z there is
W@, and may be translated literally as 1to him there is money.2 ?;6@ +t has e#actly the
same form as constructions of e#istence.
Thus the sentence ;P' may mean both 1There are boo>s at the school2 and
1The school has boo>s.2
N.B.: Ye careful not to confuse this construction with the genitive3 ;P' 1There
are 5some of9 the school=s boo>s.2
&/(&AL(7ERS
OVERVIE
&/(&AL(7(&G S'!!(0ES
5,"T 88.7.D9 +n Tibetan, any verb may be followed by a nominali-ing suf/# 5or
1nominali-er29. !ominali-ation converts a verb or even an entire clause into a noun 5or
rather a noun phrase9. +t is an important and comple# feature of Tibetan grammar.
The most common suf/#es are3 , s, %, , $, \, i, 5BL9, and B 5BL9 ?;F@
.
,ost of these suf/#es are used for three main purposes3
8. They form nominal cla%ses >?@A functioning li>e any noun phrase as subect, obect,
complement, etc. The nominali-ed verb 5or the proposition9 becomes the head of the
noun phrase3 i.e., it operates as a noun and may be followed by a demonstrative and a
case mar>er li>e any other noun 5see ,"T 88.7.7 and ,"T 86, D:, DI, ;:9.
D. They form relati#e cla%ses >?BA functioning as modi/ers of noun phrases li>e an
adective 5see ,"T DG9.
7. Hinally, it may be noted that most of these nominali-ers may combine with /nal
au#iliary verbs to form Cectional endings3 5see ,"T L.7.D9, % 5see ,"T
D:.7.89, s and 5see ,"T D6.7.89, etc.
RELATIVE CLAUSES AND NOMINALI!ATION
RELAT(VE CLA'SES
5,"T DG.7.89 %s a general rule, we can agree with the observation by the linguist `mile
YenvNniste that 1however ?a relative clause@ may be attached to its head noun ?T@ it
acts li>e a Xdeterminate syntactic adective=.2
Tibetan forms relative clauses by nominali-ing the verb. Thus, instead of relative
pronouns such as we use in 0nglish, Tibetan uses nominali-ers 5see ,"T 88, 86, D: and
DI9 that follow the verb of the relative clause. Relative clauses are formed by using the
following nominali-ers3 , ?ID@ , s, %, .
The construction of relative clauses is a rather complicated matter in "tandard Tibetan
grammar, insofar as the nominali-er that is used depends not only on the function of the
head noun with respect to the verb of the relative clause 5subect, obect, indirect obect,
instrument, etc.9, but also on the tense and, in some cases, even the class of the verb.
?I7@
The following table offers a summary of the uses of nominali-ers that operate as
1relative pronouns.2
&'elative pronouns(
?"! P ") P no#inali$er P genitive@ P 1head noun2 P dem.
"tructure of following relative clause3
?"!@ P 1head noun2 P ?")P no#inali$er@ P dem.
0#amples of preceding relative clauses3
. $#' 1.here=s the new shirt that you boughtK2
aM6 1Those mountains that are famous are in Tibet.2
0#amples of following relative clauses3
. $#' 1.here=s the new shirt that you boughtK2
aM6 1Those mountains that are famous are in Tibet.2
Hollowing relative clauses are also referred to as 1head-internal,2 because the head noun
appears inside the clause. +f the verb comes after the head noun 5in the e#ample cited
above, , 1to buy,2 comes after the head noun $# 1shirt29, the latter can precede the
subect of the relative clause, and the head noun is embedded within the relative clause
5as in the e#ample .$#' where $# 1shirt2 is preceded by
the subect . 1you,2 which belongs to the relative, not the main, clause, 1where is
the new shirtK29.
+t should be noted that in most cases the verb in the relative clause stands by itself,
without an au#iliary, followed by the nominali-er. +n certain rare instances, however,
au#iliaries may be used to indicate the tense-aspect of the relative clause, in which case
they must be followed by the nominali-er .
) P present progressive
) P 7 present progressive
) P perfect
Yelow are some illustrations of the different functions of the head noun. The
nominali-ers have been selected in accordance with the rules laid out above in the table.
8. "ubect 5intransitive93 1who, which2
+n this case the nominali-er depends on the tense-aspect. Hor the present, the future and
the imperfective past, the nominali-er % is used, whereas for the perfective, it is the
form that is used.
@5M%B[> 1.ho is the teacher who is going abroadK2
@5@[> 1.ho is the teacher who went abroadK2
'@5M%B[> 1.ho is the teacher who went abroad at that
timeK2
6 1Those are carpets that have been produced in ?lit. have
come out of@ Tibet.2
@5Ms[> 1.ho is the teacher who will be going to TibetK2
D. "ubect 5transitive93 1who, which2
The subect of a transitive verb can always be mar>ed by the nominali-er %
irrespective of the tense-aspect. However, in the case of benefactive verbs in the past
tense, the nominali-er is usually used.
%B&dd 1!omads who are literate are few.2
%^(%B%B 1Do you >now the Shampa who played the
lute yesterdayK2
M-;P?mS 1The student who too> /rst place
in the competition is from the same village as + am.2
7. Direct obect3 1whom, that, which2
+n this case the nominali-er depends on the tense-aspect. Hor the present, the future and
the imperfective, the nominali-er is used, whereas the perfective past uses the
nominali-er .
. % ' 1The food that you have made is very good.2
% B ' 1The horse that he is riding is very fast.2
K( S' 1The boo> that +=m reading now is very
interesting.2
;. %dverbial complement of tense 1when2
% ? 59B 1+ remember the day when he came.2
% ? '6% 1The time at which he is to come hasn=t been
con/rmed.2
I. +ndirect obect 5in the dative9 and adverbials of place3 1to whom,2 1to which,2 1that,2
1where.2
.ith adverbs of place, the tense-aspect of the relative clause may be speci/ed. is used
to indicate the present, future and imperfective past 5the 1imperfect29, whereas is used
for the perfective past. (n the other hand, this distinction is not usually made with
indirect obects or goals, and only the nominali-er is used, irrespective of the tense-
aspect.
';pJ' 1.here is the trun> where the clothes are >eptK2
';pJ' 1.here is the trun> where the clothes were putK2
J" XI,. 1Yring the table on which the television was
placed.2
J"XI,. 1Yring the table on which the television is
>ept.2
36M%7' 1The restaurant where we used to go
before doesn=t e#ist any more.2
% O +54 1The girl he loved is already married.2
G. +nstrument, cause and purpose3 1with which,2 1for which.2
+n order to situate a head noun in an instrumental, causal or purpose clause, the
nominali-er is used irrespective of the tense-aspect. +t should be noted that the head
noun is mar>ed in the same way whether it is a direct obect or an instrument 5or cause,
etc.9. The head noun may be ta>en as an instrument only if the verb is preceded by the
direct obect. *ompare the following3
> 1.ho bought the meat that +=m cuttingK2
M~' 1The >nife for cutting meat isn=t sharp.2
The following e#amples illustrate the instrumental and causal functions3
@' 1.here=s the cloth for wiping the blac>boardK2
66'6s4 1This is the reason why we=re holding a
meeting.2
.hen the head noun of the relative clause denotes the substance of which the obect is
made, may be replaced by the nominali-er s3 1with, of which,2 1for.2
^(sa 1The wood for ma>ing the lute ?of which the lute is made@
is dry.2
{sqO 5add tibetan, the tib in the file was garbled91.here can
we get the cloth for ma>ing the chubaK2
' 1This meat for ma>ing momos is e#cellent.2
&/(&AL CLA'SES
5,"T ;8.7.D9 Li>e relative clauses, nominal clauses 5whether as subect, obect or
complement9 are formed with the use of a nominali-er, but it is important to distinguish
between the two types. Hor this purpose the nominali-ers , , and s are used 5see
,"T 88, DI9 . They may be followed by the genitive or obliEue case 5when the function
of the clause reEuires it9. The syntactic position of the nominal clause in the sentence
depends on its function as subect, obect or complement.
. ?# 1+ hope you=ll be able to come.2 5nominal clause a
complement of the noun 9
;gu R'<s 1+ pray that you should be in good
health and that you study well.2 5nominal clause a obect of the verb R'<9
O -X 1"he reali-ed that the girl was her own sister.2
5nominal clause a obect of the verb 9
% 4 1Did he thin> all Tibetans were poorK2
5nominal clause aobect of the verb 9 % 4 ide#.
THE NOMINALI!ER %
5,"T D:.7.89 +n a more formal register, this nominali-er is pronounced -5n9>hen,
whereas in conversation it is usually pronounced as , and even . The verb to which
it is attached ta>es the present-future.
<% but not B<%
% but not B%
% but not B%
Li>e other nominali-ers, it can form nominal clauses as well as relative clauses 5see
,"T DG9. This nominali-er prototypically indicates the agent of the verbal action, but
also e#tends to the subect of transitive verbs and even 5in most cases9 to the subect of
intransitive verbs.
&% 1the person who writes, the writer2
<% 1the person who is spea>ing, the spea>er2
% 1the person who is eating2
6% 1the person who is selling, the vendor2
!% 1the dreamer2
% 1the person who is sleeping, the sleeper2
Hormulations with % may sometimes be translated by terms for agents in 0uropean
languages. +n 0nglish, the suf/# )er or the name of a profession often best conveys the
sense of this nominali-er.
% % 1He=s a ba>er.2 5lit. he=s a bread-ma>er9
6M5K"% 1(ur *hinese friend is a /lm-ma>er.2
%> 1.ho=s the person who=s smo>ingK2 or 1.ho=s the
smo>erK2
2%S 1The person who has the blac> car is the mayor of
a district,2 or 1The owner of the blac> car isT2
+n certain cases, verbs that are nominali-ed with % are practically the same as
conugated verbs. Hor e#ample, the sentence3 59M% 1+=m also going,2
which literally means3 1+=m also a goer2 is similar to3 59M ide#.
Remar>s on the tense of nominali-ed verbs.
The nominali-er, as we have seen, mar>s the subect of both transitive and intransitive
verbs. +n the former case, the tense-aspect of the verb is unspeci/ed, and must be
deduced from the conte#t. Thus the sentence 1.ho is the person who is smo>ing 5or
who smo>es92 could ust as well be translated by the imperfective past as 1.ho is the
person who was smo>ingK 5or who used to smo>eK92 or the past perfective, 1.ho is the
person who 5has9 smo>edc2
Yy contrast, when the nominali-er is used with an intransitive verb, it indicates
the )resent or the f%t%re 5or else the imperfective past9. To indicate the past
5perfective9 corresponding to the 0nglish perfect or preterite, Tibetan uses
another nominali-er3 .
M% 1the person who is going, goes, will go, was going2
7% 1the person who is staying, who stays, will stay, was staying2
@ 1the person who went, has gone2
7 1the person who stayed, has stayed2
THE NOMINALI!ER (AND B " )
5,"T DI.7.89 Historically spea>ing, of the nominali-ing suf/#es 5see ,"T 88.;, 86.;
and D:.;9, the suf/# occupies an essential place to the e#tent that it is the basic mar>er
of nominali-ation in Literary Tibetan. +n "tandard "po>en Tibetan, however, it has far
fewer functions.
+n Literary Tibetan, the suf/# sometimes appears in the variant form3 ?I;@ .
%fter the consonants Q
%fter vowels and the consonants Q
+n the spo>en language, this rule is not followed, and the form is used in all
conte#ts. ?II@
+n colloEuial speech, the suf/# BB sometimes replaces , but this suf/# is never
written, and has no >nown spelling.
The suf/# is associated only with the past tense form of the verb, and refers to a past
perfective action.
< but not B<
but not B
% nominali-ed verb may be followed by a demonstrative, an inde/nite article or other
determinants such as any substantive.
>6 1Those that ?you@ mentioned.2
!'&CT(&S !
5,"T DI.7.89 The suf/# has two essential functions ?IG@ 3
8. +t denotes prototypically the grammatical )atient of the verbal action in the
perfective past. That is, it refers to the direct obect when it is used with a transitive verb
or the subect when it is used with an intransitive verb.
1that which has been built2
& 1that which has been written2
1that which has been washed2
7 1?the person@ who lived, sat2
1?the person@ who came2
9 1?the person@ who cried2
1?the person@ who went to bed2
However, it also e#tends to the subect of transitive benefactive verbs3
1?the person@ who has2
1?the person@ who has obtained2
D. The suf/# may also be neutral and nominali-e the entire cla%se.
+n this case, the suf/# is not oriented towards any grammatical role and nominali-es the
entire clause. Hrom a syntactic point of view, the nominali-ed verb functions as a head
noun and may be translated in 0nglish by a verb in the in/nitive, an -ing clause, a that
clause or even by a noun.
- 1The fact that she too> /rst place made me happy.2
a+ 1+t=s very important to >now Tibetan.2 or 1Snowledge of
Tibetan is very important.2
# 1To be able to plant hair on the head is incredibleA2
+t is only from the conte#t that we can distinguish between the two functions described
above, as the following e#amples show3
> 1.ho=s the person who came a short while agoK2
1+t was a good thingC idea ?for us@ to co#e here today*2
.hat is being nominali-ed in the /rst case is the verb 1to come2 modifying the head
noun 1this one,2 and in the second the clause 1we came here today.2
THE NOMINALI!ER $
5,"T 7D.7.89 Li>e other nominali-ers, this one is directly suf/#ed to the verb, which
goes in the present-future.
$ 1way of spea>ing2
&$ 1way of writing2
$ 1way of eating2
$ 1way of loo>ing, considering2
The following forms, in which the verb is in the past, are incorrect3
B&$
B$
B$
This nominali-er shows the way in which the action designated by the verb is
performed.
A%5$3S 1The way they build houses in Tibet today
is not as it was in the past.2
OO {$ 1The way men and women wear the chuba is
different.2
The nominali-er may also be translated by a noun.
6$ the lifestyle 5lit.3 the way of leading one=s life9
$ the production of tormas
THE NOMINALI!ER i
5,"T 7G.7.89 Li>e other nominali-ers, this one is attached directly to the verb, which
ta>es the present-future form.
i 1This is what we usually say.2
+O' 1.hen we ma>e a chang offering, this is how
we usually sing.2
O65i 1%s they say, Xto e#change a horse for a don>ey=.2
5i.e., to ma>e a bad deal9
THE NOMINALI!ERS \ AND c
5,"T 7F.7.89 The nominali-er \, derived from a noun 1method, way,2 has a /rst
meaning similar to $ 5see ,"T 7D9, but occurs mainly in Literary Tibetan or in a
formal spo>en language. +t e#presses the way or the manner the verbal action is
performed.
% \M5 1He e#plained how Tibetan paper is made.2
The nominali-er \, and its literary homologue c 1manner,2 has a second meaning
when used with reported speech. +t indicates that the spea>er is not necessarily
subscribing to what he or she is reporting. +t may be translated by 1they say that2 or
1apparently.2
'M'$'5\A 1They say that there used to
be seven thousand seven hundred mon>s in this monastery.2
E\ 1He claimed to be a lama.2
THE NOMINALI!ERS AND s
5,"T 88.7.79 The suf/#es and s are associated only with the present-future form of
the verb.
< but not B<
but not B
but not B
The suf/# , which is sometimes spelled , does not occur in Literary Tibetan,
which instead uses the nominali-er . The form s, on the other hand, is used both in
"po>en Tibetan and in the literary language.
THE !'&CT(&S !
)erbs followed by the nominali-er indicate the present, future or imperfective past
according to the conte#t. Hurthermore, they often convey a sense of obligation 5deontic
sense9.
The nominali-er is used to form nominal and relative clauses. % distinction needs to
be made between two functions3
The nominali-er indicates the grammatical )atient of the verbal action 5the obect of a
transitive verb or the subect of an intransitive verb9 in the present and future. ?IL@
& 1that 5which9 needs to be written, that 5which9 one writes2
t 5L.3 O9 1that 5which9 is to be offered, that 5which9 one offers2
/ 1that 5which9 is to be visited, that one visits2
1that 5which9 is to be built, that 5which9 one builds2
H 6 1.here are the cups to be washedK2
S.6?' 1The things 5that have9 to be ta>en are over there.2
@t5O9. 1Have you brought the boo> that we=re going to
presentK2
The suf/# also operates as a neutral nominali-er3 it nominali-es the entire cla%se.
+n this case, the suf/# is not oriented towards any grammatical role and nominali-es the
entire clause. Hrom a syntactic point of view, the nominali-ed verb functions as a head
noun and may be translated in 0nglish by a verb in the in/nitive, by an ing- clause, a
that- clause or even by a noun3
& 15the fact of9 writing2
t 5L.3 O9 15the fact of9 offering2
/ 15the fact of9 visiting2
15the fact of9 constructing, construction2
.) 1+=ve forgotten to bring the boo>.2
;g+ 1"tudying is very important.2
,,/' 1There are many small monasteries to visit.2
(nly the syntactic conte#t allows one to distinguish between the neutral nominali-er
and the patient-centered nominali-er.
THE !'&CT(&S ! s
)erbs followed by the nominali-er s correspond to the future or the imperfective, often
with a sense of obligation. The functions of the nominali-er s are analogous to those of
, though it has more formal, and rather literary, overtones.
.s) 1+=ve forgotten to bring the boo>.2
,,/s' 1There are many small monasteries to visit.2
THE NOMINALI!ER
5,"T 86.7.89 ,"T 88 introduced nominali-ers that transform a verb 5or an entire
clause9 into a noun phrase. Li>e other nominali-ers, this one can form nominal clauses
as well as relative clauses 5see ,"T DG9.
The verb to which the suf/# is attached appears in the present-future stem form, but it
may be used in the conte#t of the past, present or future.
< but not B<
but not B
but not B
The nominali-er relates to the location or the goal of the verbal action. ?I6@
& 1the place where one writes, or upon which one writes2
t 5O9 1the place where one ma>es an offering, the person to whom one
ma>es an offering2
< 1the person to whom one spea>s, the place where one spea>s2
1the place where one sleeps2
M 1the place towards which one goes, the trail2
Hormulations with are very common in Tibetan, and may sometimes be translated by
nouns in 0uropean languages.
7579' 1+s there a room hereK2
E ' 1.here=s the gas stationK2
Z? ' 1The tic>et of/ce is over there.2
/# 1+s that a teashopK2 or 1+s that a teacupK2
+n these e#amples, the four substantives 1room,2 1gas station,2 1tic>et of/ce2 and
1teacup2 would be translated literally as 1sitting place,2 1gasoline pouring place,2
1tic>et buying place2 and 1tea drin>ing place.2
The nominali-er provides no clues about the tense-aspect of the verb, which has to be
deduced from the conte#t.
Post)ositions and Post)ositional Phrases
DRD RDER A&D PSTPS(T(&S
5,"T L.7.89 %s we have seen above, basic word order in Tibetan is "ubect-(bect-
)erb. %s is often the case in languages with this "() word order, there are no
prepositions but postpositions. The head nouns of the relative clauses are usually placed
after the relative clauses. ,oreover, the main clause, which goes at the end of the
statement, is always placed after the subordinate clauses 5obect, causal, etc.9. The main
information is therefore almost always deferred to the end of the sentence.
.ord order within a noun phrase is as follows3 the substantive comes /rst, followed by
the Eualifying adective, the article 5or demonstrative adective9, the plural mar>er and
the case. The case particle ta>es last place in the the noun phrase 5although it may
happen that the case mar>er is followed by a topicali-er 9.
!oun P ?%d. P Det.P &l.@ P *ase
0#ample3
O () 6
girl pretty thosePDative 1to those pretty girls2
+n Tibetan, then, there are no prepositions but only postpositions3 the eEuivalents of
1in,2 1on,2 1with,2 and so on all follow the noun to which they relate. .e don=t say 1in
the water2 but 1water in2$ not 1on the table2 but 1table on.2
&ostpositions are always followed by a case particle, usually the locative case 5but also
sometimes other cases such as the genitive or the ablative9. They also command the
genitive, which is inserted between the noun group and the postposition. The structure
of the prepositional phrase is therefore3
!oun ?IF@ P ?Gen.3 @ P &ostposition P Loc.
0.g., 1water of inside-in,2 which would correspond to the 0nglish word order 1in ?the
inside of@ the water.2
Note: The postpositions are all clearly derived from substantives. They reEuire that the
preceding noun 5or noun group9 be followed by a genitive particle. .hile the genitive is
always used when the preceding word ends in a vowel, its use is optional with certain
postpositions when the preceding word ends in a consonant. This is particularly the case
with3 1in,2 J 1on,2 5 1behind,2 ' 1in front of.2
K
par>PGen. inPLoc. 1in the par>2
5A9
boo> PGen. inPLoc. 1in the boo>2
+or Exa#ple: SI 1under the table,2 K 1in the world,2 ;4 1in the
lesson,2 ;P: 1ne#t to the school.2
Ad=ecti#es and ad=ecti#al )hrases
PS(T(&
5,"T 7.7.;9 +n the spo>en language, adectives always come after the nouns they
describe, and may be followed by determinants such as articles and Euanti/ers3 !. P
%d. P %rt.
%lthough adectives are invariable they have a long and a short form, a subect which
will be tac>led in ,"T 8L.
*onstructions involving an attributive adective bear a super/cial resemblance to
constructions with a predicative adective.
e` 1The pen is blac>,2 or 15This9 is a blac> pen2
The ambiguity may be avoided by using a demonstrative. *ompare3
e` 1The pen is blac>.2
e` 1The pen is blac>.2
AD:ECT(VAL S'!!(0ES
5,"T 8L.7.89 Generally spea>ing, adectives strongly resemble verbs and may even be
1conugated2 with certain au#iliary verbs. %dectives usually consist of a radical and a
suf/#, or else a doubled radical.
There are a number of suf/#es that specify the degree of the adective3 positive,
comparative, superlative 5see ,"T D8 and DD9 and intensive, admirative,
e#cessive, k attenuative, + or intensives, as well as interrogative suf/#es3
and e#pressive suf/#es 5see ,"T 789.
THE LONG OR POSITIVE FORM OF ADJECTIVES
5,"T 8L.7.89 The positive form of adectives is formed by using , , , or by
doubling up the radical, which represents a long form of the adective.
The short form is the monosyllabic root of the adective. +n the case of double forms,
the short form is the /rst, unrepeated, syllable, while in the case of adectives consisting
of a radical and a suf/#, the latter is simply dropped. %n important e#ception to this rule
is the adective + 1big,2 of which the short form is + and not +.
Hor e#ample3 1pleasant,2 H 1white,2 1clear,2 1many,2 $ 1empty,2
1dirty2 k 1clean,2 1new,2 " 1old,2 1sweet,2 M 1cold,2 ##
1short,2 ,, 1small,2 1<at,2 JJ 1round, circular,2 1spherical,
cylindrical,2 1healthy,2 dd 1few,2 1soft,2 == 1rela#ed,2 etc.
*ertain adectives are formed by means of an e#pression comprising a substantive
followed by an adective such as 4 1hot2 5often peorative9, + 1big,2 1well,2
1shape, appearance,2 etc.
Hor e#ample3 1>ind,2 1greedy,2 4 1curious,2 4
1hypocritical,2 4 1arrogant, brutal,2 q4 1scary, terrible,2 1close, near,2
1manifest, obvious,2 1superb,2 ko 1impeccable,2 E% +
1brave,2 $ 1convenient.2
SHORT FORMS OF ADJECTIVES
5,"T 8L.7.89 %ll adectival suf/#es are attached to the short form of the adective,
which hardly ever appears alone.
Hor e#ample3 ,, 1small2 Q , 1smaller,2 , 1too small,2 , 1how smallK,2
, 1the smallest,2 ,k 1a bit small,2 , 1how smallA,2 etc.
EXCESSIVE: TOO
5,"T 8L.7.89 This suf/# is placed directly after the short form of the adective, and can
be translated by 1too.2
1heavy2 Q 1too heavy2
dd 1few2 Q d 1too few2
+ 1big2 Q + 1too big2
THE INTERROGATIVE: HO#
5,"T 8L.7.89 This suf/# is used to as> Euantitative Euestions li>e 1how bigK,2 1how
heavyK,2 etc.9.
1heavy2 Q 1how heavyK2
+ 1grand2 Q + 1how bigK2
1far2 Q 1how farK2
E0PRESS(VE AD:ECT(VES A&D ADVER"S
TRISYLLABIC EXPRESSIONS
5,"T 78.7.79 The short form of certain adectives is associated with repeated syllables
with an e#pressive meaning. This formulation is used especially with adectives of
colour. ?G:@
/ 1Euite calm2
3 1bright blue or green2 5the grassland, the s>y9
1bright red2 5blood9
== 1bla-ing, burning red2 5/re9
4 1warm as toast2 5pleasant heat9
M 1biting cold2
k 1clean as a whistle2
There is another commonly-used adectival construction3
%d 5long9 P %d 5short9 P , which is used to form e#pressive constructions implying
1completely2 or 1entirely.2
1completely new2
44 1really hot2
HH 1pure white2
1utterly stupid2
QUADRISYLLABIC EXPRESSIONS
5,"T 78.7.79 Tibetan contains a number of adectival and adverbial e#pressions
consisting of four syllables. ?G8@ The general pattern is that the /rst syllable is
phonologically associated with the third, whereas the second is lin>ed to the fourth,
according to the pattern3 ZWZ=W.=
Here are a few very common e#pressions3
1anyhow2
1scatty, piecemeal2
4 1nervous, sha>y2
4\ 1hastily2
G 1messy2
AD:ECT(VAL C&STR'CT(&S
SUPERLATIVE CONSTRUCTIONS
5,"T D8.7.89 These are formed with the superlative form of the adective. Remember
that the latter consists of adding the suf/# to the short form of the adective. +n the
case of relative superlative constructions, the comparison must be introduced by means
of the adverb 1among, out of,2 preceded by the genitive.
/KK 1bhomolangma is the highest mountain in the
world.2
&_+ 1DrJpung is the biggest of the monasteries.2
1This boo> is the best.2
A, k 1The Yrahmaputra is the longest river in Tibet.2
A( 1"amyJ is the oldest monastery in Tibet.2
S 1Today is the /nest day of my life.2
6() 1This is the most beautiful of these <owers.2
COMPARATIVE CONSTRUCTIONS OF SUPERIORITY
5,"T DD.7.89 *omparative constructions are formed by ta>ing the comparative 5short9
form of an adective and adding the suf/# . The term being compared is followed by
. The mar>ers and are the two forms of the ablative that are used in Literary
Tibetan, but in the spo>en language it is only that denotes the ablative, whereas
is reserved for comparative constructions.
59' 1There is more than that.2
+ 1*hang is better than beer.2
59 1That boo> is better than this one.2
G+' 1%re ya>s bigger than d-oK2
G+ 1Wa>s are bigger than d-oA2
The au#iliary ' is optional in declarative sentences, whereas it is obligatory in
negative and interrogative sentences.
!ote that the position of the item being compared is not /#ed$ it may also come /rst3
+ 1*ompared with beer, chang is better.2
.hen the adective is an attribute of the subect, another construction is also commonly
used3 the short form of the adective is followed by the au#iliary .
1There is more than this.2
+ B 1*hang is better than beer.2
G+ 1Wa>s are bigger than d-o.2
=S 1+t=s colder in Lhasa than in Yeiing.2
q 1+t=s better to ride a nalo 5gentle, hornless ya>9.2
1+ 1.on=t it cost more to send it by airK2
Tibetan has no special constructions for mar>ing comparatives of inferiority. 1Less
than2 is e#pressed simply reversing the order of comparison or by using an opposite
adective.
Hor e#ample, to translate the e#pression 1He is less poor than + am,2 Tibetan would say3
% 1+=m poorer than him.2
or
% { 1He=s richer than me.2
or according to the conte#t
% 1He isn=t poorer than me.2
The com)arati#e and s%)erlati#e forms of ad=ecti#es
&ositive *omparative "uperlative
1new2 5L9
S 1bad2 5L9
1many2 5L9
dd 1few2 d d 5L9 d
1long2 5L9
,, 1small2 , , 5L9 ,
+ 1big2 + +
1pleasant2 5L9
1clear2 5L9
[% 1elderly2 [ [
1sweet2 5L9
THE C&STR'CT(& 2 V- */RE THA&+
5,"T D7.7.89 The mar>er may also precede a verb, in which case it is translated by
1more than.2
akB 1That won=t ta>e more than twenty minutes.2
'%`5? 1%t that time he wasn=t more than eight years
old.2
THE SUFFIX k
5,"T D7.7.89 This suf/#, which we have already met, may be used with adectives 5in
their short form9 as well as with substantives, numbers and verbs. +n the conversational
register, the suf/# k is usually pronounced k C-tsC. +ts meaning varies according to
conte#t3
%fter an adective, it means 1a little,2 or 1a little more.2
k 1a little more2
% k 1a little cheaper2
Bk 1a little faster2
k 1a little red2
=k 1a few more2
3k 1a little earlier 5or early92
%fter a number, it means 1about.2
5k 1about 8:: people2
JOk 1about two hundred thousand gormo 5yuan92
aSk 1about a Euarter of an hour2
%fter a noun, a verb or a nominali-ed verb, depending on conte#t this suf/# may mean
1only,2 1simply,2 1mere,2 1ust,2 1almost.2
k 1only the name, purely nominal2
% ? kB": 1The mere fact that he came created problems.2
#kB4 1bust touching it with my hand ma>es it hurt.2
% kn 1He was beaten almost to death.2
;k' 1%lmost from head to foot.2
The suf/# also appears in certain adverbial formulations such as3
-k 1Euite, not bad2
?k 1ust there2
THE CONSTRUCTION: ADJ (SHORT FORM) $ M "
5,"T D6.7.;9 This construction is used to form verbs from adectives as follows3
+ 1big2 Q +M 1to grow, get bigger2 + 1to ma>e bigger2
1good2 Q M 1to get better2 1to improve, ma>e better2
The past form of M is @.
+n Literary Tibetan, the form that the obliEue ta>es follows the usual rules.
1long2 Q ' 5L9 1to lengthen2
## 1short2 Q # #' 5L9 1to shorten2
B 1fast2 Q B B> 5L9 1to accelerate2
1high2 Q 1to ma>e higher2
Ad#erbs and ad#erbial )hrases
ADVER"S D(TH
5,"T 86.7.79 %dectives can be transformed into adverbs by the addition of the suf/#
, which is derived from the verb 1to do,2 as the following e#ample shows3
1pleasant2 1pleasantly2
==< 1Let=s sit here Euietly.2
THE ADVER"S A&D *HD,+
5,"T 7:.7.89 The literary form of is .
The suf/# of the words , , is sometimes also spelled ?GD@ 3
, , .
The form is associated with nouns and adectives.
. u' 1How=s your health these daysK2
H,' 1How=s the dairy production this yearK2
% %M' 1Loo>A How Euic>ly he=s wal>ingA2
The form is associated with verbs. This adverbial form ma>es it possible to as>
about the way in which an action is performed.
5 1How should it be doneK2
% ? 1How did he come from TibetK2
E0PRESS(VE ADVER"S
"ee under 10#pressive %dectives2
Cla%ses and sentences- )ro)ositions
C&&ECT(VES
SUBORDINATORS
THE C&&ECT(VE
5,"T 8;.7.D9 This particle, which is the same as that used to form the ablative case, is
placed after the verb in a temporal or causal subordinate clause to lin> it with a
following clause. +t is always placed directly after the verb, and may not be preceded by
an au#iliary. The mar>er is translated, according to the conte#t, by the conunctions
1and2 or 1then,2 or else by 1after2 or 1since.2
% 1+=ll come after +=ve eaten.2
=? 6@ 1How long has he been in LhasaK2 5lit. since he came to
Lhasa how much ?time@ has passed9
3;PM 1+ get up early and go to school.2
THE C&STR'CT(& V 2
5,"T 8;.7.79 The e#pression is derived from the form , which consists of the
nominali-er and the demonstrative 1ust that2 or 1ust there.2 This e#pression,
which is always attached to a verb in the past tense, means 1to have ust2 or 1as soon
as.2 +n Literary Tibetan, it is replaced by or .
% 1+ came as soon as +=d eaten.2
; 1Tsering has ust arrived.2
6`;/4 1%s soon as we got into the tent, we dran>
some hot tea.2
/%J@ 1The bho>hang has ust been opened.2
TE/PRAL C&&ECT(VES
5,"T D;.7.89 1"ubordinating conunctions2 or 1temporal connectives2 are usually
attached directly to the verb or to its nominali-ed form. 0ach connective ta>es the
present-future or past form of the verb.
5,"T D;.7.89 These connectives go directly after the verb. They are always associated
with the present-future form.
K59'D D 1.hen they picnic, they have fun.2
% 57579'. 1.hile he was living in *hina, he ate dog-
meat.2
#$S<'5 ; 1.hile he was living in
&e>ing, ThubtJn studied *hinese medicine.2
Ha+ 1They tal>ed a lot while they were ma>ing
momos.2
H
5,"T D;.7.89 These are always associated with the past form of the verb. The verb that
precedes these connectives must be nominali-ed by the suf/# and followed by the
genitive case.
5 a/@ 1.hile + was in +ndia + went on a lot of
pilgrimages.2
+aa+ 1.hen + bought the camera, + as>ed about
its Euality.2
% ? m? 1He passed through !epal on his way to
Tibet.2
% @ a+59s 1.e shouldn=t have the radio
on too loudly while he=s wor>ing.2
THE C&&ECT(VE + ' *(& RDER T+
5,"T 7G.7.79 This connective is used after nominali-ed verbs to form purpose clauses.
+t is an elegant construction that also occurs in Literary Tibetan.
M#+'ag 1+n order to go to Tibet, you should learn
Tibetan properly.2
u+'scDko 1+n order to be in good
health, you should do ta>e regular e#ercise and >eep clean.2
COORDINATORS
THE C&&ECT(VE *ALS+
5,"T I.7.79 +n "po>en Tibetan, is pronounced . +n Literary Tibetan, this
connective has three possible forms, depending on the last letter of the preceding
syllable.
after the consonants Q
after the consonants and the Q A
after vowels and Q C
+t also appears in the e#pression , meaning 1but, nevertheless,2 and pronounced
in "po>en Tibetan.
THE C&:'&CT(& k *"ECA'SE6+ *S(&CE6+ *!R+
5,"T 88.7.;9 This very common conunction is suf/#ed directly to the verb or to
certain au#iliaries. +t appears in the following combinations3 k, k. However, the
following combinations are incorrect3 Bk, Bk, B'k.
'6kM#A 1"ince + haven=t got much time + won=t be able to
go there.2
5akH% 1That may be dif/cult because + don=t
spea> Hindi well.2
m Mks 1+=m not very sure, as this is the
/rst time +=ve been to 0urope.2
THE E&'/ERAT(VE C&&ECT(VE
5,"T DD.7.D9 .hen obects are being enumerated, the connective , derived from the
verb 1to do,2 is commonly interposed between the items in the series.
Z c MM 1Sneaded tsampa, boiled mutton$
then with some yogurt, that should be enough.2
&S #S - 1&lease give us one stew, one
soup, and some momo.2
THE C&&ECT(VE *"E!RE+
5,"T 7;.7.89 This connective is associated with the verb in the past tense form. The
verb itself must be preceded by a negation. ?G7@
@H SS4 1+ really must /nish this wor> before
going.2
. O>+ 1Wou should ta>e three pills before
sleeping.2
THE C&&ECT(VES ) *A!TER+ A&D < *A!TER+
5,"T 7;.7.D9 These connectives accompany the verb in the past tense. ,oreover, the
verb is nominali-ed with the suf/# and ta>es the genitive case.
% 6H)S 1%fter holding a discussion, they reached
a decision.2
<\H 1%fter reading this boo>, he understood the
situation.2
THE C&&ECT(VE
5,"T 7;.7.79 This has the same meaning as the ablative in its connective function
5that is, when is used after a verb9. This usage e#ists only in the spo>en language.
. 1%fter you go to bed, you have to sweat.2
%5 ~7A 1.hen they=ve eaten well, they sit
and sing Tibetan operatic songs.2
THE C&&ECT(VE $
5,"T 76.7.89 +n Literary Tibetan, the adversative connective $ 1but2 has several
variants according to the last letter of the preceding syllable.
after and vowels Q $
after Q
after Q
+n speech, the three are all pronounced Vte. This particle has a range of functions in
Literary Tibetan. +n the spo>en language, by contrast, it is used only to introduce an
opposition between two phrases or a concession, and may be translated by 1but2 or
1although.2
The particle $ is used after only certain au#iliaries. +t usually appears in the
following combinations3 , , '$, , .
S 10ven though they=re similar, they=re not Euite identical.2
% 9 f 1He has money but he doesn=t use it.2
a'$' 1%lthough she has a nice voice, she doesn=t sing.2
S)eech acts and ty)es of sentences
E'EST(&S
THE FINAL INTERROGATIVE PARTICLES , ,
5,"T D.7.89 +nterrogative sentences end with 3nal interrogati#e )articles 5f.i.p.9, ?G;@
the precise form of which is determined by the last letter of the preceding au#iliary. ?GI@
after Q
after Q
in all other cases Q
Hor e#ample3 , , , , N, , '.
Hinal interrogative particles are not used with the copulas and au#iliaries mentioned
above when a sentence already contains an interrogative pronoun 5such as 1what,2 >
1who,2 etc.9.
However, with the verb , a final interrogative particle pa is sometimes used. +f there
is no interrogative pronoun in the Euestion, the sentence ends with , the
interrogative form of the verb $ if the Euestion does contain an interrogative pronoun,
the sentence ends in or .
. [ 1%re you a teacherK2
> a > 1.ho are youK2
+nterrogative pronouns are usually placed before the verb. The pronoun means both
1what2 and 1which,2 and corresponds to the literary forms S and 5it is in fact derived
from the latter9. The interrogative pronouns 1what2 and > 1who2 may be doubled 5
, >>9 to elicit an enumeration in the reply or to mean 1what types ofTK2 or 1what
>inds ofTK2
THE RULE OF ANTICIPATION
5,"T 7.7.;9 +n the case of interrogative sentences that directly concern the person being
addressed 5that is, sentences containing second-person pronouns9, the Euestioner must
anticipate an answer containing an 1+2 or a 1we2 by ma>ing advance use of an
egophoric au#iliary in the Euestion itself.
. 1%re you wellK2
C 1+=m wellCnot well.2
This e#change might be rendered literally in 0nglish as 1%m you wellK,2 since the
anticipated reply, whether positive or negative, is 1+ am wellC not well.2
The rule of anticipation operates in a similar way, but with a reverse result, when the
spea>er is as>ing a Euestion about himV or herself. +n this case, since the reply will of
course contain a 1you,2 the rule reEuires that the /rst person be represented by a neutral,
not egophoric, au#iliary.
* 1%m + madK2
. *59 1Wou are 5not9 madA2
% more literal 0nglish rendering of this e#change would be3
c 1%re + madK2
c 1Wou are5n=t9 mad.2
This 1anticipatory mood2 is a distinctive feature of Tibetan. +t appears not only in
"tandard Tibetan but in all other Tibetan dialects too, though not in the classical literary
language.
QUESTIONS ITH ALTERNATIVES
5,"T 8:.7.G9 4uestions involving alternatives, such as 1.ould you li>e this or thatK,2
are formed by placing the /nal interrogative particle 5for the future9 and 5for the
past9 after each of the alternative sentences.
/A % ?A 1"hall + bring you tea or coffeeK2
++? < 1.ill you go for a stroll or will you stay inK2
This formulation is sometimes referred to as a cons%ltati#e constr%ction.
THE ECHO QUESTION -
5,"T 78.7.D9 .hen someone hasn=t heard what the spea>er has said, or wishes to ma>e
him repeat it, he can use the particle -, which raises a Euestion about the preceding
word. +n a similar situation 0nglish would use interrogative pronouns.
o`- 1+n the tentK c "ureA2
; ? 1There=s a phone call, comeA > - V 1.hoK ,eK2
INDIRECT QUESTIONS
5,"T 7D.7.D9 +n order to form nominal interrogative clauses, one uses alternative
constructions made of positive and negative copulas3 , .
%nd after the main verb, the following au#iliaries3
Huture3 ) P
&resent3 ) P
&ast3 ) P . ?GG@
These constructions are translated by clauses formed with 1if2 or 1whether2 or by
interrogative pronouns 1what,2 1who,2 etc.
-> 1Today we=ll >now who the champion is.2
% A 1+ don=t >now if he has a radio.2
% 6?A . 1Do you >now whether they=re comingK2
5? %H 1%s> him if they=ve gone to +ndia.2
J A 1+ don=t >now what=s in the bo#.2
% 1+ don=t >now if he is Tibetan.2
RHETORICAL QUESTIONS
5,"T 76.7.D9 Rhetorical Euestions are very commonly used in both "po>en and
Literary Tibetan. They entail the spea>er as>ing a Euestion and immediately replying to
it himself.
1+f you as> why2 a because.
' 1+f you as> when2 a when.
'Y7i55 6D?& 1) Y 1.hen was it
institutedK +t was after the regent had renovated the &otala palace2 ?i.e., +t was instituted
when the regent had rebuilt the palace@
m +A +' 1.hat was its aimK +t was to
commemorate the death of the Hifth Dalai Lama2 ?i.e., its aim was to commemorate the
death of the Hifth Dalai Lama@
(/PERAT(VES
THE IMPERATIVE ITH THE VERB ALONE
5,"T ;.7.;9 The imperative mood may be formed by means of a verb without an
au#iliary. +n most cases, as we shall see 5,"T F9, verbs in the imperative mood are
followed by 1ussive2 particles 5see ,"T 8F9. ,oreover, some verbs have a special
form 5an in<ection9 to mar> the imperative.
THE IMPERATIVE SUFFIX
5,"T 87.7.D9 This suf/# may be attached to any volitional verb, preferably an honori/c
one, to formulate a reEuest or a polite command.
1Loo>.2 or 1Yuy.2
%A 1*lose it.2
? 1*ome.2
IMPERATIVE MARKERS
5,"T 8F.7.89 .e have already seen 5,"T 8:9 that some volitional verbs have an
imperative form.
Q 1Listen2
Q 1Get up2
These forms are not used for the negative imperative, which instead ta>es the present-
future form.
1Don=t listen2
1Don=t eat2
1Don=t come2
However, there are many verbs that have no special form to denote the imperative. +n
such cases, the verb may be used by itself.
/+1Have some tea2
?? 1Go over there2
+n most cases, the imperative 5command9 and optative 5wish9 moods are formed by
using particles.
The main particles are3 , , -, , , and the construction .
THE PART(CLE
5,"T 8F.7.89 This particle is used to form the /rst person plural imperative3 the
e#hortative.
? 1Let=s go.2
< 1Let=s sit down.2
%part from , which is used to form the /rst person imperative, the other mar>ers all
indicate the second person singular or plural imperative, and differ from one another
only in terms of nuance or register.
THE E0PRESS(&
5,"T 8F.7.89 This is the most polite form in which to phrase a command or a reEuest. +t
is used only with honori/cs, and ta>es the present-future 5not the imperative9 form of
the verb.
? 1&lease go2 or 1&lease come2
> 1&lease say2
< 1&lease stay2
+ 1&lease eat2
H 1&lease stop2 5the car, the dog, etc.9
< 1&lease as>.2
Note: There is also the non-honori/c version .
THE PART(CLES A&D
5,"T 8F.7.89 These very common particles have e#actly the same meaning as the
e#pressions described above, but refer to a lower register. +n conversation they are
pronounced respectively and . They may be used with both honori/c and non-
honori/c forms.
> 1"ay it2
? 1Go2
? 1Go2
< 1"it down2
< 1"it down2
10at2
1Listen2
1"pea>2
1Loo>2
THE PART(CLE -
5,"T 8F.7.89 This particle, too, is very common, and may also be used with both
honori/c and ordinary forms. +t conveys a sense of urgency or danger, or implies a
greater degree of coercion.
:- 1Don=t worryA2
- 1Ye carefulA2
- 1bust don=t tal>A2
THE PART(CLE
5,"T 8F.7.89 This form, which is less common, is also used with both honori/c and
non-honori/c formulations. +t conveys immediacy, and implies that the person
addressed is hesitant to do what he or she is being told. +t may be translated by 1Go onA2
> 1Go on, say itA2
? 1*ome here, will youA2
1Go on, buy itA2
THE E0PRESS(&
5,"T 8F.7.89 .e have seen above 5,"T 6.79 that non-volitional verbs cannot ta>e an
imperative. However, the verb may be followed by the e#pression which means
1to see to it that.2
)- 1Don=t forgetA2 5see to it that you don=t forget9
_` 1Don=t lose the childA2
(&TER:ECT(&S
EXPRESSIVE PARTICLES
5,"T 77.7.D9 .e have already encountered a number of e#pressive particles. These are
common in both "tandard and Literary Tibetan. "ome go at the beginning of a sentence
and some at the end, after the verb.
(f those that go at the beginning, the commonest are3 1(hA,2 - 1.ell, well,2 -
1RatsA DarnA YuggerA,2 - 1(wA,2 -, 1(o, that=s coldA,2 -4 1(uch, that=s hotA,2 -%
1.hat a shameA,2 - 1(h Lordy 5lit. ( mother9A2
The particles that appear most freEuently at the end of a sentence are3 and 5and their
variants , 9.
often implies that the spea>er is not in agreement with the person to whom he=s
spea>ing, or is emphasi-ing the surprising or threatening nature of the situation in
Euestion.
1+t=s pretty ama-ing, huhK2
B 1Yut you=ll be robbedA2
% 1Yut there is some dangerA2
1.atch out, the horse has escapedA2
and its variants , are subect to the same modi/cations ?GL@ as the interrogative
particles , , 5see ,"T D9. Rsing these implies that that spea>er is trying to elicit
agreement with what he is saying, and correspond to tag Euestions. They may therefore
be translated in 0nglish by 1isn=t that soK2 or 1don=t you thin>K2 or conveyed by the
intonation.
. _`++' 1,y God, how your child has grownA2
@ 1+t=s late now, isn=t itK2
1+t was very pleasantA 0hK2
. < 1+ told you, didn=t +K2
. ;ghDA ' 1Wou study really hard, don=t youK2
N%&'(
?8@ .ith some non-volitional verbs which imply a certain degree of control, such as
1lose2 or 1go to sleep,2 the imperative forms are also possible.
?D@ +n order to avoid the linguistically problematic notion of 1subect2 in Tibetan, verbs
may be de/ned according to their valency, e.g., the number of participants they reEuire.
"ee the Glossary of linguistic terms.
?7@ The distinction between e#istential and essential is similar to the difference between
the verbs ser and estar in "panish.
?;@ The present and the past have the same form, with the meaning depending on the
conte#t. However, as we shall see in ,"T 8:.;, this applies only to the past
imperfective3 for the perfective past, there are speci/c forms.
?I@ The variant yod red has been retained here because it is the one most commonly
used in contemporary writing. ,oreover, the spelling is based on the etymology of the
e#pression3 yod red is in fact derived from yod pa red, whereas the forms yog red and
yo,o red are purely phonetic.
?G@ The notions of perfective and imperfective aspects are e#plained in 8:.;. Here we
need only bear in mind that the imperfective past forms are eEuivalent to the present.
?L@ %bout the verb stems, see ,"T 8:.
?6@ %s we shall see in ,"T 8:.;, this is the perfective past.
?F@ +.e., verbs in which it is implied that the subect has control over the action. This
class of verbs is described in ,"T 6.
?8:@ +n 0nglish for e#ample, the progressive formed with the present particple 1ing2 and
the au#iliary 1be2 corresponds to an imperfective aspect. The progressive past, present
and future are all formed with the same present participle. +.e.3 was practic-ing, is
practic-ing and will be practic$ing.
?88@ +n the present and the future, the mar> for the agent is often left out. "ee the
1remar>s2 section in ,"T 8D.
?8D@ ,ore precisely, with the imperfective aspect, no limit of the process is overstepped
or reached, while with the perfective the /nal limit 5or sometimes the initial limit9 has
been reached. The above de/nition is based on D. *ohen=s theory in l,-spect verbal
58F6F9. Let us Euote here also *omrie=s de/nition of these aspects3 1The imperfective
pays essential attention to the internal structure of the situation. &erfectivity indicates
the view of a situation as a single whole2 *omrie 58F6L3 8G9. The Hrench imparfait,
"panish imperfecto, Russian imperfective 5nesover.senny/ vid9, the 0nglish progressive
all bear the basic features of the imperfective, while the Hrench passN composN, the
Russian perfective 5sover.senny/ vid9, the "panish preterito all bear the basic features of
the perfective. The 0nglish preterite however is neutral and may be translated
depending on the conte#t either by perfective or imperfective forms in other languages.
?87@ The opposition between the perfect and the aorist in Tibetan corresponds to the
oppostion we /nd in literary Hrench between the passN composN and the passN simple$
in 0nglish between the present perfect and the preterite, and in "panish between the
preterite and the passado compuesto 1composed past.2
?8;@ +n Tibetan, however, this opposition is not as pervasive as in 0nglish. The simple
past perfective may convey both perfect and aorist meanings in the absence of speci/c
perfect form.
?8I@ +n most cases, the compatibility of the perfect depends on whether the obect of the
transitive verb 5or the subect of an intransitive verb9 e#ists obectively after the
completion of the action and is still present.
?8G@ The ergative case is sometimes used with intransitive volitional verbs in order to
put an emphasis on the subect. 5see ,"T 8D9.
?8L@ These moods are essential in *entral Tibetan, and appear in different forms in
several other Tibetan dialects 5D-ong>ha, Lada>hi, Sham, %mdo, "herpa, etc.9.
However, they are practically none#istent in Literary Tibetan.
?86@ (r by the original source of the assertion in the case of reported speech.
?8F@ 0tymologically, 1egophoric2 signi/es 1bearer of X+= or Xego=.2
?D:@ The bapanese language has similar restrictions regarding the endopathic function.
?D8@ These categories are not always relevant. Hor certain statements there is only one
type of discourse, and they may therefore be translated into 0uropean languages by
either direct or reported speech. However, as we shall see below, it is sometimes
possible to distinguish between direct and 1hybrid2 indirect speech.
?DD@ +n this case only one form of reported speech is possible.
?D7@ The pronouns 1+2 and 1you2 and, more generally, the 1deictics,2 that is, words
connected to the statement li>e the adverbs 1here2 and 1now,2 as well as demonstratives
such as 1that2 which can only be interpreted in relation to the conte#t of the dialogue.
?D;@ This form should not be confused with its literary homonym, which has the same
meaning as yd3re=.
?DI@ .ith a rising intonation.
?DG@ +n 0nglish it corresponds rather to 1maybe2 than to 1probably,2 but the meaning
also depends on the intonation.
?DL@ The various tenses 5future, present, past9 have to be deduced from the conte#t.
?D6@ The negation is not pronounced 1mi2 as e#pected but rather is 1mu.2
?DF@ +n terms of grammatical roles, the bene/ciary comes /rst and the patient second.
?7:@ +n Tibetan, unli>e 0uropean languages, modal verbs such as thub 1can,2 dgos
1need, must,2 chog 1may2 do not have an epistemic function and may not indicate
probability or certainty 5as in 1he may be there, he must be there, etc.29. There is a
special set of au#iliaries devoted to this function 5see ,"T 88.7.89 as well as the modal
epistemic verb srid 1may.2
?78@ +n all four cases, the corresponding egophoric forms may also be used.
?7D@ Hor e#ample, the modal verbs have no in/nitives 5Bto can, Bto may, Bto must9, and
they cannot be conugated 5Bhe cans, Bhe mays, Bhe musts9.
?77@ "ee ,"T 8I.7.D.
?7;@ Losang Thonden, 0odern Tibetan 1anguage 58F6G9, volume D, provides a
substantial list of compound verbs involving these three verbali-ers.
?7I@ ,any of the causative verbs were formed by a morpheme 1s2 attached to the verb.
This is still visible in the Tibetan orthography3 ,khol 5resultative9 Q skol 5causative9,
nyal 5res.9 Q snyal 5caus.9, lang 5res.9 Q slang 5caus.9, ,khor 5res.9 Q skor 5caus.9, etc.
?7G@ The verb skon belongs to the literary or formal register. +n the conversational
language, the verb g.yogs is used instead.
?7L@ Yetween D:: and FFF dang is optional and is usually dropped.
?76@ .hen the mar>er is not accentuated it is pronounced without stress3 -tso.
?7F@ There are no e#ceptions to this rule in the written language, and very few in
"po>en Tibetan.
?;:@ (ur presentation of case does not reflect the Tibetan grammatical tradition which is
based on "ans>rit, a sacred language for Tibetans 5"ans>rit is an +ndo-0uropean
language entirely different in its structures from the Tibeto-Yurman languages9. The
Tibetan tradition usually mentions eight cases corresponding to the eight "ans>rit cases
in the following order3 first case3 ngo bo tsa# Xabsolutive= 5]9, second case3 las su bya
ba Xaccusative= 5la or its variants9, third case3 byed sgra Xagentive= or Xinstrumental= 5gis
and its variants9, fourth case3 dgos ched Xdative= 5la or its variants9, fifth case3 ,byung
khungs Xablative= 5nas or las9, si#th case3 ,brel sgra Xgenitive= 5gi or its variants9,
seventh case3 gnas g$hi Xlocative= 5la or its variants9, eighth case3 ,bod sgra Xvocative=
5]9.
?;8@ +n traditional grammars, dang is not considered to be a case 5rna# dbye9 but a
particle 5tshig phrad9. "ee ,"T F.7.7 and %ppendi# 8, section 7.7 for an e#planation of
why it is treated as a case in this ,anual.
?;D@ Rnli>e the other cases which are overtly mar>ed by a particle, the absolutive is not
distinguished by any formal mar>er.
?;7@ The role of patient also includes the e#periencer of an emotion.
?;;@ +n traditional grammars, the /rst is referred to as the particle of 1the main agent2
5byed pa po gtso bo9, while the second is referred to as the particle of 1the secondary
agent2 5byed pa po phal ba9.
?;I@ .e may compare the same transitive statement in /ve different languages, which
all operate according to an accusative model. Latin3 ego illP%m librP%m legi Russian3 a
etP% >nigP% procfl + P !omin. this P %ccus. boo> P %ccus. read 5past9 *hinese3 wo
>an-guo -hePben shu Hrench3 = ai lu ce livre 0nglish3 + read this boo>
?;G@ % title, accorded to certain lamas, meaning 1precious.2
?;L@ +n Literary Tibetan, there are seven forms. "ee ,"T %ppendi# 8, section 7.7.
?;6@ The same structure is used in Russian, Hebrew and numerous other languages that
lac> a proper verb 1to have.2
?;F@ %ll these nominali-ers are used in Literary Tibetan with the e#ception of ya= and
n>yo=. The latter is used e#clusively in a familiar register, and despite the freEuency of
its occurrence doesn=t /gure in grammars. The spelling given here is purely phonetic.
%ll the other suf/#es are clearly derived from nouns and have >ept a grammatical role
lin>ed with their original meaning.
?I:@ +n 0nglish, nominal clauses correspond to that clauses, %ing clauses, and in/nitive
clauses. "ee ,"T 88.7.7.
?I8@ +n 0nglish, relative clauses are introduced by 2h-pronouns or that 5including -ero-
that9. "ee DG. 7.8.
?ID@ Remember that the mar>er n>yo= is also used instead of pa in colloEuial language.
?I7@ That is, both tense and aspect. Remember that the term 1present2 actually refers to
the imperfective present and past, and that the term 1past2 denotes the perfective past
5see ,"T 8:9.
?I;@ Yut be carefulA This modi/cation applies only to verb suf/#es, and not to suf/#es
with other functions such as noun or adective suf/#es. Thus "tandard Tibetan says
khang pa 1house2 and stong pa 1empty,2 not khang ba and stong ba.
?II@ "ome spea>ers do, however, follow the rule. +n this case, they apply the
phonological rule of omitting the bilabial CwC described in section 8.8 of ,"T %ppendi#
83 nang wa Q nang nga, ph_l wa Q ph_l la, tshar wa Q tshar ra.
?IG@ +n the same way as the nominali-er , see ,"T 88.
?IL@ Hrom a syntactic point of view, the nominali-ed verb functions here as a head noun
or as a modi/er of the head noun and may often be translated in 0nglish by using a
relative clause 5see also ,"T DG9 as the e#amples show.
?I6@ +n other words, the suf/# indicates locative adverbials and indirect obects.
?IF@ (r noun phrase.
?G:@ +n D-ong>ha, the national language of Yhutan, most adectives are formed on this
pattern.
?G8@ %s a general rule, idiomatic e#pressions of four syllables are very common 5see
"angye T. !aga and Tsepa> Rig-in, Tibetan 3uadrisyllabics, 4hrases and 5dio#s ?!ew
Delhi3 LT.%, 8FF;@9.
?GD@ The first spelling is preferred for etymological reasons3 the 1s2 is in fact derived
from the verb $er, 1to say.2
?G7@ The connective 1before2 is associated with the negation in various languages. This
is the case for e#ample in Literary Hrench3 1avant Eue P negation.2
?G;@ Tibetan /nal interrogative particles may be compared to Yurmese C=laC and
*hinese CmaC.
?GI@ Hrom a historical point of view, the interrogative particles ngas and gas probably
correspond to variants of the particle pas. The phonological assimilation rule is
e#plained in %ppendi# 8, section 8.
?GG@ The perfective form ) P P is not used.
?GL@ However in the allegro speech, they are all pronounced CwaC.
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