Messeguem Hemza

1
st
year Master
"Environment Management"

&


msgm_hamza@yahoo.com

2012-2013

Contents:
General introduction
Chapter 01: Acid Rain
1- Definition....4
2- The reasons of formation of acid rain.....4
3- Acid rain is a problem that can travel.5
4- Effects of acid rain
a. Effects of acid rain on Forests......4
b. Effects of acid rain soils...7
c. Effects of acid rain aquatic ecosystem.8
d. Effects of Acid Rain on Man-Made Materials.9
Chapter 02: The Smog
1- History of smog.11
2- Introduction in the smog13
3- Definition...13
4- Summary of Pollutant Characteristics, Sources and General
Health and Ecological Effects....14
5- How the smog formed...15
6- Index of smog .......16
7- Who most at risk of smog..17
8- Effects of smog
8-a effect on the health.......17
8-b economic impacts of smog ......19
Conclusion





Acid rain and the smog

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General Introduction

very day, the average adult breathes about 15,000 to 20,000 liters of air. Air is a
mixture of gases that makes up our atmosphere and is vital to life on earth. It
largely consists of oxygen (21%) and nitrogen (78%).
However, as a result of both natural and human processes, the atmosphere also contains a
number of gases that, at elevated concentrations, can be a health threat to people and
animals and damaging to plants.
These gases include ground-level ozone (O3), nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulphur dioxide
(SO2), and carbon monoxide (CO), as well as a range of organic gases and vapours referred
to as volatile organic compounds (VOCs). The atmosphere also contains tiny particles,
known as particulate matter (PM) that may be either solid or liquid. All of these
potentially toxic gases and substances are together referred to as air pollutants. Combined,
they are the principal ingredients of smog and acid rain.










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Introduction to acid rain

umans make use of many things found in nature. For example, we use trees to build
our homes and cotton to make our clothes. Things that are not made by people, but
instead occur naturally, are called natural resources. Some examples of natural
resources are plants, minerals, and water. All of these things are important to humans because
they provide us with the materials we need to make the things we use every day.
Some of the products made from natural resources are obvious to us, like the timber and stone
that make buildings.
Other natural resources are not as noticeable, like the underground water table where
our drinking water comes from. Natural resources that humans use to generate electricity are
called energy resources. Most energy in the United States comes from burning fossil fuels
such as coal, oil, and natural gas. Coal, oil, and natural gas are called fossil fuels because they
were formed millions of years ago from dead plants and animals.
People burn fossil fuels for many reasons, we burn oil and coal to make the electricity
that we need to light buildings and run appliances like televisions and computers. We burn
gas to heat our homes and to power cars, buses, and airplanes. Many human activities,
including the burning of fossil fuels, cause pollution. Pollution is the release of harmful
substances called pollutants into the environment. The air pollution created when fossil fuels
burn does not stay in the air forever. Instead it can travel great distances, and fall to the
ground again as dust or rain.









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Chapter 01: Acid rain
1- Definition :
cid rain is rain that is more acidic than it should be. Acid rain is a complicated
problem affecting soil and water chemistry, as well as the life cycles of plants and
animals on land and in the water. In, weather conditions contribute to air pollution
and cause acid rain to spread vast distances (EPA, 2008).
2- The reasons of formation of acid rain:
Scientists have discovered that air pollution from the burning of fossil fuels is the major
cause of acid rain. Power plants and factories burn coal, oil, and natural gas to produce the
electricity we need to do all kinds of things, like light our homes. Cars, trucks, and airplanes
also run on gasoline, a fossil fuel.
When we burn things, they do not disappear. For example, when you burn a log in a
campfire, ash is left. But what happened to the rest of the log? Water from the log becomes
vapor and enters the air. Burning wood also releases chemicals and particles into the air, the
same thing happens when we burn fossil fuels. Burning fossil fuels sends smoke and fumes
into the atmosphere, or the air above the Earth. In the air, these pollutants combine with
moisture to form acid rain.
The main chemicals in air pollution that create acid rain are sulfur dioxide (SO
2
) and
nitrogen oxides (NO
X
). Acid rain usually forms high in the clouds where SO
2
and NO
X
react
with water and oxygen. This forms sulfuric acid and nitric acid in the atmosphere. Sunlight
increases the speed of these reactions, and therefore the amount of acid in the atmosphere.
A
Fig.1: formation of acid rain
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Rainwater, snow, fog, and other forms of precipitation then mix with the sulfuric and nitric
acids in the air and fall to Earth as acid rain (EPA, 2008).
The principal reactions which lead to formation the acid rain are (RAMADE, 2006):
SO
2
+ O
2
+ H
2
O H
2
SO
4
2NO
2
+ O
2
+ H
2
O 2HNO
3
NO
2
+ SO
2
+ H
2
O H
2
SO
4
+ NO
3- Acid rain is a problem that can travel
The chemical reactions that cause acid rain can take several hours to several days to
occur. Years ago, when smokestacks were only a few stories high, pollution from
smokestacks usually stayed near the ground and settled on the land nearby. This caused
unhealthy conditions for people, plants, and animals near those smokestacks. To reduce this
pollution, the government passed laws for the construction of very tall smokestacks. At that
time, people thought that if the pollution were sent high into the air it would no longer be a
problem.
Scientists now know that this is incorrect. In fact, sending pollution high into the sky
increases the time that the pollution stays in the air. The longer the pollution is in the air, the
greater the chances that the pollutants will form acid rain. In addition, the wind can carry
these pollutants for hundreds of miles before they become joined with water droplets to form
acid rain. For that reason, acid rain, or wet deposition, can be a problem in areas far from
sources of pollution. Dry deposition is usually greater near the cities and industrial areas
where the pollutants are released (EPA, 2008).
4- Dry Deposition:
Acid rain does not account for all of the acidity that falls
back to Earth from pollutants. About half of the acidity in the
atmosphere is deposited onto buildings, cars, homes, and
trees anything!as particles and gases. This process is called
dry deposition. In some instances, these gases and particles can
damage or alter the things on which they settle. Dry deposition
(gases and particles) is sometimes washed from trees and other
surfaces by rainstorms. When that happens, the runoff water
contains acid from acid rain and dry deposition, making the
combination more acidic than the falling rain alone. The
combination of acid rain (wet deposition) plus dry deposition is
called acid deposition.






Dry Deposition: The falling of
small particles and gases to the
Earth without rain or snow.
Runoff: Water that flows off
land into lakes and streams.
Acid Deposition Acidic
material that falls from the
atmosphere to the Earth in
either wet (rain, sleet, snow,
fog) or dry (gases, particles)
forms.
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Wet Acid Deposition, 1989-1991 Wet Acid Deposition, 2003-2005

Fig. 02: These maps show how the Acid Rain Program has reduced the amount of wet acid
deposition (acid rain) in the United States. In these maps, the dark areas represent places with high amounts
of acid rain. Notice how the areas with lots of acid rain in 19891991 have shrunk since the Acid Rain
Program started

5- Effects of Acid Rain on Ecosystems :
a. Effects of acid rain on Forests:
cid rain causes significant damage to forests. It directly affects trees and other plants
which are important to the ecosystem as a whole because they are primary
producers. Primary producers are organisms that produce their own food through
photosynthesis, a series of chemical reactions that convert water into sugar using light from
the sun to provide energy. Plants and some microscopic animals have this ability. Plants are
important to ecosystems because they feed everything else, and provide important habitat for
other animals. If trees and plants are damaged by acid rain, the effects are felt throughout the
entire ecosystem. Acid rain causes trees in forests to grow more slowly, and in some sensitive
species it can even make the leaves or needles turn brown and fall off. Red Spruce and Sugar
Maple, two species of trees found mainly in the East and in New England, are very
susceptible to acid rain damage.








A
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Fig.03: Sugar Maple leaves turn brilliant shades of red, orange, and yellow in the fall.
People from all over the United States and the world travel to New England to see colorful autumn leaves like
those of the Sugar Maple.(EPA)
Acid rain damages trees by dissolving the calcium in the soil and in the leaves of trees.
This hurts the tree, because calcium is a mineral that trees need to grow. Once the calcium is
dissolved, the rain washes it away so the trees and other plants cannot use it to grow. Acid
rain washes other minerals and nutrients from the soil in a similar fashion, causing Nutrient
Deficiency. This is why acid rain can cause trees to grow more slowly (EPA, 2008).

b. Effects of acid rain on soil:
Spring shower in the forest washes leaves
and the rain falls through the trees to the
forest floor below. Some of the water soaks
into the soil. Some trickles over the ground and runs
into a stream, river, or lake. Soil sometimes contains
substances, like limestone, that buffer acids or bases.
Some salts in soil may also act as buffers. The soil
may neutralize, or make less acidic, the acid
rainwater.
This ability of the soil to resist ph change is
called buffering capacity. A buffer resists changes
in pH. Without buffering capacity, soil pH would change rapidly. Midwestern states like
Nebraska and Indiana have soils that are well buffered. Places in the mountainous northeast,
like New Yorks Adirondack Mountains, have soils that are less able to buffer acids. Other
soils, like those in the Southern Appalachian Region, hold acids from acid rain, making them
more susceptible to damage from acid rain. Since there are many natural sources of acids in
forest soils, soils in forest areas are especially sensitive to effects from acid rain (EPA, 2008).



A
Buffering : Capacity The ability of a
substance to resist changes in pH when
acids or bases are added.
Buffer: A substance, such as soil,
bedrock, or water, capable of
neutralizing either acids or bases.
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c. Effects of acid rain aquatic ecosystem:
he effects of acid rain are most clearly seen in aquatic environments such as streams,
lakes, and marshes. Acid rain flows to streams, lakes, and marshes after falling on
forests, fields, buildings, and roads. Acid rain also falls directly on aquatic habitats.
Most lakes and streams have a pH between 6 and 8, because the buffering capacity of soil
usually neutralizes slightly acidic, clean rain. Lakes and streams become acidic (pH value
goes down) when the rainwater itself is so acidic that the surrounding soil cannot buffer the
rain enough to neutralize it. For this reason, some lakes in areas where soil does not have a lot
of buffering capacity are naturally acidic even without acid rain. (EPA, 2008)
The acidic deposition changed the lake chemistry in the Adirondack region of New York
(Table 1).
Table.1: Chemical characteristics of three studies stream in the western Adirondack
region of New York (1991- 2001) (modified from Lowrence et al., 2001).
Parameters
Mean of six monthly samples January - June 2001
Buck creeck Bald mountain brook Pond outlet
pH 5.55 6.22 7.11
SO
4
-
mol
-1
60 54 52
NO
3
-
mol
-1
35 32 25
K
+
mol
-1
7.1 7.5 15
Mg
+2
mol
-1
18 22 43

During 1970s in southern Norway over 20% of lakes have lost their fishes (Wright and
Henriksen, 1983). Losses of sport fish populations have occurred in acidified lakes and river
in Canada. Due to acidic precipitation, fishes showed increases in mortality rate, reproductive
failure, reduced growth rate skeletal deformities and increased uptake of heavy metals (Watt
et al., 1983).
Fig.3: PH Tolerance Chart on Aquatic Life:
T
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In areas like the northeastern United States where soil buffering is poor, acid rain has
made already slightly acidic lakes very acidic, with some lakes having a pH value of less than
5. As lakes and streams become more acidic, the numbers and types of fish and other aquatic
plants and animals that live in these waters decrease. Some types of plants and animals are
able to tolerate acidic waters. Others, however, are acid-sensitive and will leave or die as the
pH declines. Some acidic lakes have no fish, because at pH 5 most fish eggs cannot hatch. At
lower pH levels, adult fish can die. Substances like aluminum that wash into the water from
the soil can also harm and kill fish.
d. Effects Of Acid Rain On Man-Made Materials:
cid rain eats away at stone, metal, paintalmost any material exposed to the weather
for a long period of time. Human-made materials gradually deteriorate even when
exposed to unpolluted rain, but acid rain speeds up the process. Acid rain can rust
metals and cause marble statues carved long ago to lose their features.
This happens because marble is made of a compound called calcium carbonate, which
can be dissolved by acids. Calcium carbonate is also found in limestone. Many buildings and
monuments are made of marble and limestone and are damaged by acid rain.

*- How Acid Rain Affects Stonework










*-
How
Acid
Rain
A
Picture was taken in 1908
Picture was taken in 1968
After 60 years
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Affects Metal






















Chapter 02: The Smog
Acid rain and the smog

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1. History of Smog
ir pollution first became a serious problem in the late 19th century. Throughout
the first half of the 20th century, heavy air pollution in a number of cities
resulted in the deaths of hundreds, and on some occasions even thousands, of
people. Three of the worst episodes were the following:
In 1930 in the Meuse Valley in Belgium, an industrial area filled with steel mills and coal-
fired industry, an incident of air pollution caused the deaths of 63 people, with hundreds of
others experiencing respiratory symptoms.
In 1948 in Donora, Pennsylvania another industrialized valley 20 people out of a
population of 14,000 died, and more than 40% of the population became ill, 10% of them
severely, as a result of an air pollution episode.
The most dramatic air pollution episode took place in London, England, in December 1952,
when a stagnant air mass, combined with greater-than-normal coal burning during a cold
spell, was associated with 4,000 deaths.

A
Fig. 4 the smog in London December 1952
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Fig.05: Smoggy day in Qubec, February 02, 2005


















Fig. 06: A woman wears a mask while riding a bicycle on the street during severe pollution on
January 23, 2013 in Beijing, China. While masks may keep out some larger pollution particles, they
are not very effective against fine particles.







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2. Introduction to Smog:
The question of air quality in polluted regions represents one of the issues of
geochemistry with direct implications for human well-being. Human health and well-being,
along with the well-being of plants, animals, and agricultural crops, are dependent on the
quality of air we breathe. Since the start of the industrial era, air quality has become a matter
of major importance, especially in large cities or
urbanized regions with heavy automobile traffic and
industrial activity. Concern over air quality existed as
far back as the 1600s. Originally, polluted air in cities
resulted from the burning of wood or coal, largely as a
source of heat. The industrial revolution in England
saw a great increase in the use of coal in rapidly
growing cities, both for industrial use and domestic
heating.
London suffered from devastating pollution
events during the late 1800s and early 1900s, with
thousands of excess deaths attributed to air pollution
(Brimblecombe, 1987). With increasing use of coal,
other instances also occurred in continental Europe and
the USA. These events were caused by directly emitted
pollutants (primary pollutants), including sulfur dioxide
(SO2), carbon monoxide (CO), and particulates. They
were especially acute in cities with northerly locations
during fall and winter when sunlight is at a minimum.
These original pollution events gave rise to the term
smog (a combination of smoke and fog).

3. Definition:
mog is a type of air pollution; the word "smog"
was made in the early 20th century as a
portmanteau of the words smoke and fog to refer
to smoky fog.[1] The word was then intended to refer to what was sometimes known as pea
soup fog, a familiar and serious problem in London from the 19th century to the mid 20th
century. This kind of smog is caused by the burning of large amounts of coal within a city;
this smog contains soot particulates from smoke, sulfur dioxide and other components.
Modern smog, as found for example in Los Angeles, is a type of air pollution derived from
vehicular emission from internal combustion engines and industrial fumes that react in the
atmosphere with sunlight to form secondary pollutants that also combine with the primary
emissions to form photochemical smog. The atmospheric pollution levels of Los Angeles,
Mexico City and other cities are increased by inversion that traps pollution close to the
ground. (Free encyclopedia).
S
Summer Smog and Winter smog
Summer Smog : Caused by mixture
of pollutants from: road vehicles; fuels
used to provide electricity and heating in
offices, factories and homes; vapours
from petrol and certain industrial
premises.
Formed by: Action of sunlight on these
pollutants forms low-level ozone close to
the grounde. In hot sunny days
Winter Smog: Caused by mixture of
pollutants from: road vehicles; fuels used
to provide electricity and heating in
offices, factories and homes
Formed by: Pollutants building up at
ground level in urban areas. The 'lid' of
cold air above the warm air traps the
pollutants in cold, calm days, often after
a clear, cloudless night and an early-
morning frost or mist close to the
ground.
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4. Summary of Pollutant Characteristics, Sources and General Health and Ecological Effects:
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5. How the Smog Formed?
mog is formed in the lower atmosphere, just above the Earths surface when a variety
of sources release smog forming pollutants into the air. These pollutants are usually
warmer than the surrounding air and tend to rise. While being dispersed by the wind,
heat and sunlight cause chemical reactions to occur between pollutants, forming ground-level
ozone. PM is also released into the air or is formed later within the atmosphere through
chemical reactions. These particles, together with ground-level O3, are the two main
components of smog. Smog will remain in an area until a weather system, such as a heavy
rainfall, washes most of the pollutants out of the local atmosphere. High wind speeds can
increase dispersion of pollutants, thereby lowering the concentration levels of the pollutants in
an area.
Smog pollutants can be generated by either naturally occurring processes or by human
activities. Natural sources of pollutants include forest fires and volcanoes, which add particles
and gases to the air; trees, which emit VOCs; soil erosion, which produces dust; and
biological processes in soil that creates NOx. The largest source of air pollution affecting
human health and the environment, however, is human activity, and primarily the burning (or
combustion) of fossil fuels (petroleum, natural gas and coal) to transport people and goods,
heat and cool buildings, make electricity and operate industries (EPA, 2008).
Weather plays a significant role in determining smog levels:
During the summertime, heavy smog episodes will usually occur when a stagnant high
pressure system moves into an area. In the northern hemisphere, winds in high pressure
systems spiral clockwise and outwards, bringing warm air up from the south. The air tends to
sink near high pressure centers, warming as it descends and evaporating any clouds or
precipitation that may be present in the air. This is why high pressure systems tend to bring
bright and sunny days.
These systems, combined with warm summertime temperatures and little or no wind,
will usually result in stagnant air being trapped close to the ground. When trapped by high
pressure, VOCs and NOx will bake in the hot sun, creating O
3
. In addition, stagnant air
masses prevent pollutants from being dispersed.
Fig.7 the role of weather on the formation of smog
S
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The severity of smog is also increased with the occurrence of a temperature
inversion. When the air close to the earth is cooler than the air above it, the lower, cooler air
does not rise but remains still, with the warmer air above it creating a lid. This may result
from a cold front moving through a region or from cool sea air blown over land by an onshore
breeze. Under these conditions, the pollutants cannot rise and disperse; the smog is kept close
to the ground thus maximizing any damaging effects. The severe inversion over Donora,
Pennsylvania in 1948 was associated with respiratory illnesses in more than 6,000 people and
the deaths of 20 people.
6. Index of the Smog:
6.1 Index of USA (according to EPA):

6.2 Index of Ontario , Canada (according to ministry of environment):
We take the Toronto west like example; the ministry of environment measured
the index of this town:







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Note: the difference between the USA index and Ontario index is the scale of index that
all, but the effects of ground level of ozone and the particulate matter according to category is
the same.

7. Who is most at risk from Smog?

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8. Effects of the Smog :
Because the ozone is important reason of formation of smog, we have to know her
effects in the health and economy:
a. Effect of smog on the health:
Scientists have been studying the effects of ozone on human health for many years. So far,
they have found that ozone can cause several types of short-term health effects in the lungs:
*- Ozone can irritate the respiratory system:
When this happens, you might start coughing, feel an irritation in your throat, and/or
experience an uncomfortable sensation in your chest. These symptoms can last for a few
hours after ozone exposure and may even become painful.
*- Ozone can reduce lung function:
When scientists refer to lung function, they mean the volume of air that you draw in
when you take a full breath and the speed at which you are able to blow it out. Ozone can
make it more difficult for you to breathe as deeply and vigorously as you normally would.
When this happens, you may notice that breathing starts to
feel uncomfortable. If you are exercising or working
outdoors, you may notice that you are taking more rapid and
shallow breaths than normal. Reduced lung function can be
a particular problem for outdoor workers, competitive
athletes, and other people who exercise outdoors.

*- Ozone can aggravate asthma:
When ozone levels are high, more asthmatics have
asthma attacks that require a doctors attention or the use of
additional medication. One reason this happens is that ozone
makes people more sensitive to allergens, which are the
most common triggers for asthma attacks. (Allergens come
from dust mites, cockroaches, pets, fungus, and pollen.) Also, asthmatics are more severely
affected by the reduced lung function and irritation that ozone causes in the respiratory
system. Ozone can inflame and damage the lining of the lung. Some scientists have compared
ozones effect on the lining of the lung to the effect of sunburn on the skin. Ozone damages
the cells that line the air spaces in the lung. Within a few days, the damaged cells are replaced
and the old cells are shed much in the way that skin peels after sunburn. If this kind of
damage occurs repeatedly, the lung may change permanently in a way that could cause long
term health effects and a lower quality of life.


What I do for protect my health?
Avoid outdoor strenuous work or
exercise.
Stay indoors in a cool, well
ventilated place.
Avoid being outside around high
traffic areas and during peak rush
hour times to minimize your
exposure to smog.
If you must be outside, stay out
of the sun and drink lots of water.
(NUGENT, 2002)
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*- Scientists suspect that ozone may have other effects on
peoples health:
Ozone may aggravate chronic lung diseases, such as emphysema and bronchitis. Also,
studies in animals suggest that ozone may reduce the immune systems ability to fight off
bacterial infections in the respiratory system. Most of these effects are considered to be short-
term effects because they eventually cease once the individual is no longer exposed to
elevated levels of ozone. However, scientists are concerned that repeated short-term
b. Economic Impacts of Smog:
mog impacts the economy on several levels, the most serious being related to health-
care costs. However, the smog problem in Canada also affects the economy through
reductions in agricultural yields and the potential loss of tourism dollars as a result of
decreased visibility at scenic tourist destinations.
Health-Care Costs: The serious health effects of smog also have significant
economic impacts. According to the Ontario Medical Association, air pollution is estimated to
cost the province more than $1 billion per year due to hospital admissions, emergency room
visits and absenteeism. When the costs of pain, suffering and loss of life from polluted air are
added to this figure, the total annual economic loss is estimated to be $10 billion a year. This
amount is expected to increase to $12 billion by the year 2015. According to two reports,
however, it is possible to significantly reduce these escalating health care costs. A 1996
Ontario government report calculated that reducing key smog pollutants by 45% would result
in 190 fewer cardiac and respiratory hospital admissions, 6,200 fewer emergency room visits
for asthma, and between 3 and 4 million fewer episodes of acute respiratory symptoms per
year. Studies in Greater Vancouver have found that more than 2,700 premature deaths and
33,000 emergency room visits could be avoided over 30 years with a 25% reduction in PM.
Agricultural Costs: As discussed earlier, smog damages farm crops and vegetation,
thereby reducing yields of economically important crops, such as soybeans, kidney beans,
wheat and cotton. In the United States, agricultural losses due to O3 have been estimated to be
between $1 and $3 billion annually.
Tourism Dollars: With visibility reduced by as much as 80% in some areas as a
result of air pollution, the loss of tourism dollars, particularly in areas where people are drawn
to the fresh air and scenic landscapes of national parks and wilderness areas, could be
substantial.





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Conclusion:

What can I do to limit of acid rain and the smog?
Keep the motor vehicle regularly serviced and the tyres inflated to the manufacturer's
specifications. This will ensure the car is running efficiently and not emitting
excessive pollutants.
When you trade in your old car, replace it with a fuel-efficient, low emission car.
Check out the fuel consumption label, which now has to be displayed on new cars. For
commercial vehicles (3.5 tonnes gross vehicle mass and over), the Alternative Fuels
Conversion Program is available.
Instead of using a car, try riding a bike or walking, and use buses, trams or trains
whenever you can.
Use energy efficient appliances. Look for the Energy Star logo when buying a
computer, printer or scanner, TV, VCR, audio or DVD product; or the Energy Rating
on the next air conditioner, clothes dryer, washing machine, dishwasher, fridge or
freezer you purchase.
If renovating or building, use energy-efficient designs and materials.
Turn off unnecessary electrical appliances at the power point wherever possible.
Make it your goal to purchase 'green power'power generated from clean, renewable
energy sources.
Generate you own green powerinvestigate the State Government's Solar Hot Water
Rebate, Photo-voltaic Rebate and the Remote Renewable Power Generation grants.
Limit the wood fires at home. Wear warmer clothes as your first action to keep warm.
If you are buying a slow combustion wood heater, make sure it meets the Australian
Standard AS4013 and is installed correctly, according to AS2918.
Schools can get involved with Air watch, a program for primary and secondary
schools where students can become pollution watchdogs in their local area
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Bibliography:
http://www. epa.gov/acidrain/education/teachguide.pdf
http://www.epa.gov/sunwise/doc/summertime.pdf
http://www.epa.gov/airnow/teachers/ozone-lesson-teacher.pdf
http://legacy.london.gov.uk/mayor/environment/air_quality/docs/50_years_on.pdf
http://www.ec.gc.ca/Publications/AD024B6B-A18B-408D-ACA2-
59B1B4E04863%5CCanadianSmogScienceAssessmentHighlightsAndKeyMessages.pdf
http://www.lung.ca/protect-protegez/pollution-pollution/outdoor-exterior/smog-smog_e.php