What Is Seismic Surveying?

Seismic surveys are used to locate and estimate the size of underground oil and gas reserves. Seismic
images are produced by generating, recording and analyzing sound waves that travel through the Earth.
These sound waves are also called seismic waves. Explosives or vibrating plates generate the waves and a
line or grid of geophones records them. Density changes between rock or soil layers reflect the waves
back to the surface and the speed and strength that the waves are reflected back indicates what geological
features lie below. The oil and gas exploration industry has deployed this evolving technology for decades
to help determine the best places to explore for oil and gas.
The seismic survey is one form of geophysical survey that aims at measuring the earths geophysical
properties by means of physical principles such as magnetic, electric, gravitational, thermal, and elastic
theories. It is based on the theory of elasticity and therefore tries to deduce elastic properties of materials
by measuring their response to elastic disturbances called seismic (or elastic) waves.
A seismic source-such as sledgehammer-is used to generate seismic waves, sensed by receivers deployed
along a preset geometry (called receiver array), and then recorded by a digital device called seismograph.
Based on a typical propagation mechanism used in a seismic survey, seismic waves are grouped primarily
into direct, reflected, refracted, and surface waves.
There are three major types of seismic surveys: refraction, reflection, and surface-wave, depending on the
specific type of waves being utilized. Each type of seismic survey utilizes a specific type of wave (for
example, reflected waves for reflection survey) and its specific arrival pattern on a multichannel record.
Seismic waves for the survey can be generated in two ways: actively or passively. They can be generated
actively by using an impact source like a sledgehammer or passively by natural (for example, tidal motion
and thunder) and cultural (for example, traffic) activities. Most of the seismic surveys historically
implemented have been the active type. Seismic waves propagating within the vertical plane holding both
source and receivers are also called inline waves, whereas those coming off the plane are called offline
waves.
General Seismic Principle
Seismic techniques generally involve measuring the travel time of certain types of seismic energy from
surficial shots (i.e. an explosion or weight drop) through the subsurface to arrays of ground motion
sensors or geophones. In the subsurface, seismic energy travels in waves that spread out as hemispherical
wavefronts (i.e. the three dimensional version of the ring of ripples from a pebble dropped into a
pond). The energy arriving at a geophone is described as having traveled a ray path perpendicular to the
wavefront (i.e. a line drawn from the spot where the pebble was dropped to a point on the ripple). In the
subsurface, seismic energy is refracted (i.e. bent) and/or reflected at interfaces between materials with
different seismic velocities (i.e. different densities). The refraction and reflection of seismic energy at
density contrasts follows exactly the same laws that govern the refraction and reflection of light through
prisms. Note that for each seismic ray that strikes a density contrast a portion of the energy is refracted
into the underlying layer, and the remainder is reflected at the angle of incidence. The reflection and
refraction of seismic energy at each subsurface density contrast, and the generation of surface waves (or
ground roll), and the sound (i.e. the air coupled wave or air blast) at the ground surface all combine to
produce a long and complicated sequence of ground motion at geophones near a shot point. The ground
motion produced by a shot is typically recorded as a wiggle trace for each geophone
Seismic method instrumentation
Both refraction and reflection data are acquired using a seismograph. A seismograph records the
arrival of reflected and refracted seismic waves with respect to time. These waves are detected at
the surface by small receivers (geophones), which transform mechanical energy into electrical
voltages. The voltages are relayed along cables to the seismograph, which records the voltage
output versus time, much like an oscilloscope.
There are a variety of seismographs used in the industry. Engineering seismographs are the most
common types of seismograph used in ground water pollution site investigations. Each seismograph
has different capabilities to handle data that is dependent on the number of channels in the
seismograph. Seismographs are available with one, six, twelve, twenty-four or forty-eight channels,
or as many channels as desired (usually the number of channels is a multiple of six). Each
channel records the response of a geophone or array of geophones. Other capabilities of a seismograph
may include analog or digital recording, frequency filters, electronic data storage, and signal
enhancement hardware.
On multichannel systems, geophone stations are located at established distances along the seismic
cable; on single channel systems, the geophone is moved to the next station after each shot.
Geophones are coupled to the ground, usually by a small spike attached to the bottom of the
geophone. Care must be taken in the placement of geophones; each geophone gives the best
response when the axis of the geophone element is positioned vertically with the attached spike
driven firmly into the ground. Geophones are manufactured at different natural frequencies
depending upon the desired result. High natural frequency geophones (usually greater than 30
hertz) are used when collecting shallow reflection data and lower natural frequency geophones are
used in refraction surveys.
There are many types of seismic sources used to impart sound into the earth. The most common
type of source in seismic investigations is a sledgehammer and strike plate. Other sources include
explosives, shot gun shells detonated in shallow augerholes, and various mechanical devices that shake
the ground or drop large weights. The types of sources used are dependent on the signal versus noise ratio
in the survey area. Noise can come from vehicular traffic, people or animals walking near the geophones,
electrical current in the ground (electromagnetic interference which affects the geophone cables), low-
flying aircraft, or any sound source. Generally, the noise can be overcome by using a larger source, which
effectively increases the signal. Filtering on the seismograph can also reduce noise.
Seismic Refraction
Seismic refraction is defined as the travel path of sound wave through an upper medium and along an
interface (at a critical angle) and then back to the surface as shown in the figure below. The acoustic
waves, like light waves, follow Snells's Laws of Refraction.
Seismic refraction surveys are commonly used to determine the thickness of unconsolidated materials
overlying bedrock (overburden thickness) and depth to the water table. They are used for characterizing
the geological framework of ground-water contamination studies and for assessing geologic hazards and
archaeologic studies.
Method
The seismic refraction method is based on the measurement of the travel time of seismic waves refracted
at the interfaces between subsurface layers of different velocity. Seismic energy is provided by a source
(S) located on the surface. Energy radiates out from the shot point, either travelling directly through the
upper layer (direct arrivals), or travelling down to and then laterally along higher velocity layers (L1) as
refracted arrivals (R1, R2, etc.) before returning to the surface. This energy is detected on the surface
using a linear array of geophones. Observation of the travel-times of the refracted signals provides
information on the depth profile of the refractor.
If external constraints are available, the velocitydepth profile can be transformed into a geological
model. The conversion of observed travel times can be carried out using a number of techniques. In
simple geological scenarios where fast turn-around of results is a required, a time-intercept approach can
be used. For cases with suspected significant lateral heterogeneity the, tomographic inversion approach is
recommended.

Seismic Refraction Advantages
The seismic velocity of a geologic horizon can be determined from a seismic refraction survey, and a
relatively precise estimate of the depth to different acoustic interfaces (which may be related to a geologic
horizon) can be calculated. Seismic refraction surveys can be useful to obtain depth information at
locations between boreholes or wells. Subsurface information can be obtained between boreholes at a
fraction of the cost of drilling. Refraction data can be used to determine the depth to the water table or
bedrock. Refraction surveys are useful in buried valley areas to map the depth to bedrock or thickness of
overburden.
The velocity information obtained from a refraction survey can be related to various physical
properties of the bedrock. However, rock types have certain ranges of velocities and these
velocities are not always unique to a particular rock type. For instance, some dolomites and
granites have similar seismic velocities. However, seismic velocity data can allow a geophysicist
to differentiate between certain units with divergent seismic velocities, such as shales and granites.
Seismic Refraction Limitations
The seismic refraction method is based on several assumptions. To successfully resolve the subsurface
using the refraction method the conditions of the geologic environment must approximate these
assumptions. These conditions include the following: 1) the seismic velocities of the geologic layers
increase with depth; 2) the seismic velocity contrasts between layers is sufficient to resolve the interface;
3) the geometry of the geophones in relation to the refracting layers will permit the detection of thin
geologic layers, and 4) the apparent dip of the units or layers is less than ten to fifteen degrees. If these
conditions are not met, accurate depth information will not be obtained.
There are several disadvantages to collecting and interpreting seismic refraction data. Data
collection can be labor intensive. Also, large line lengths are needed as a general rule, the
distance from the shot, or seismic source, to the geophone stations (or geophone spread) must
be at least three times the desired depth of exploration.
Seismic Refraction Survey Design, Procedure and Quality Assurance
Survey design is site dependent and must be planned so that the geometry of the geophone
spread will allow the target to be resolved. A primary limitation of the refraction method on
many sites is that long refraction traverses are sometimes required. The spacing of the geophone
stations within the spread can vary from several feet to tens of feet, depending on the depth of
the geologic layer and required resolution. A closer spacing of geophones within the spread is
chosen when a higher resolution of a shallow target is the objective. Shotpoints should extend
along the entire traverse length and show a redundant sampling of the resolved interfaces. Care
must be taken to maintain quality control on distance measurements. Small differences in
horizontal displacements can cause a considerable change in the interpretation.
The geophone stations should lie along as straight a line as possible (for profile data). Deviations
from a straight path will result in raypath projection inaccuracies. This will affect the
accuracy of the survey. Also, deviations in elevations will cause errors in the calculations.
Shotpoint and geophone elevations must be surveyed using a level or transit if variations in
elevation occur along the traverse. These elevations are used in the static elevation corrections
of the refraction data. Elevations to the nearest half-foot are adequate for most purposes.
A diligent field procedure will result in optimum results and will eliminate problems when
processing and interpreting data. The geophysicist must be aware of any problems encountered
during the survey, which may degrade the quality of the data. Modification of the original
survey plan may become necessary if problems are encountered in the field. The field geophysicist
should fill out an observers log listing pertinent information.
Seismic Refraction Data Reduction and Interpretation
Static elevation corrections must be made when there are significant changes in topographic
relief along the traverse. Failure to make elevation corrections will simply transfer those differences
in elevation to the interpreted results or otherwise cause errors in the interpreted results.
The geophone and shotpoint elevations obtained from the leveling or surveying are used to
compensate for travel-time differences caused by the changes in shotpoint and geophone
elevations. Corrections should also be made when the geophone stations deviate from a straight
line.
Seismic refraction data can be interpreted graphically or with the aid of a computer. There are
multitudes of interpretation schemes for seismic refraction data, depending upon the method
and desired results.
Seismic Refraction Presentation of Results
The interpretation should be presented in profile form and in contour map form when a grid of
data is collected. The contour map should include all information pertinent to the site, including
locations of buildings, property lines, roads, and other cultural and physical features. Locations
of the traverses should also be indicated on the site map. Traverse sections or profiles should
include details showing fixed positions, labeled interpretations, surface landmarks intersected
by the traverse, areas of poor data quality, and a vertical time/depth scale.
A listing of the seismic data, including the elevation data, time-picks (where applicable), and the
respective layer velocities should be included in the report. A brief description of the survey
procedure, instrumentation, and data reduction and interpretation procedures should also be
included in the report. If the original survey plan has been altered, the reasons for the alteration
should also be explained in the text. The best report will contain not only the positive results of
the investigation, but will also detail the limitations and negative results encountered during the
investigation.
Seismic Reflection
The seismic reflection method records acoutic waves at the surface that are reflected off of subsurface
stratigrphic interfaces where changes in the material density and conductive velocity of the acoustic
waves are significant. The reflection patterns are described by Snell's Laws of Reflection.

Seismic reflection surveys are used for determining the thickness and structure of subsurface geology and
are commonly applied in hydrocarbon and mineral exploration, earthquake and tectonic studies, and in the
marine enviromant for resolving stratigraphic details (for example, the location and thickness of beach-
sand deposits).
Method
Seismic reflection profiling involves the measurement of the two-way travel time of seismic waves
transmitted from surface and reflected back to the surface at the interfaces between contrasting geological
layers. Reflection of the transmitted energy will only occur when there is a contrast in the acoustic
impedance (product of the seismic velocity and density) between these layers. The strength of the contrast
in the acoustic impedance of the two layers determines the amplitude of the reflected signal. The reflected
signal is detected on surface using an array of high frequency geophones (R1, R2 ,R3, etc.). As with
seismic refraction, the seismic energy is provided by a 'shot' (S) on the surface. For shallow applications
this may comprise a hammer and plate, weight drop vibroseis, mini-sosie or an explosive charge.
The recorded travel timeamplitude information is used to generate a reflection seismic profile. These
data can be transformed into a velocitystructure profile. If external constraints are available, the
velocitystructure profile can be transformed into a geological model.

Seismic Reflection Advantages
The seismic reflection method yields information that allows the interpreter to discern between fairly
discrete layers. The reflection method has been used to map stratigraphy. Reflection data is usually
presented in profile form, and depths to interfaces are represented as a function of time. Depth
information can be obtained by converting time sections into depth from velocities obtained from seismic
refraction data, sonic logs, or velocity logs. The reflection technique requires much less space than
refraction surveys. The long offsets of the seismic source from the geophones, common in refraction
surveys are not required in the reflection method. In some geologic environments reflection data can yield
acceptable depth estimates.
Seismic Reflection Limitations
The major disadvantage to using reflection data is that a precise depth determination cannot be
made. Velocities obtained from most reflection data are at least 10% and can be 20% of the true
velocities.
The interpretation of reflection data requires a qualitative approach. In addition to being more
labor intensive, the acquisition of reflection data is more complex than refraction data.
The reflection method places higher requirements on the capabilities of the seismic equipment.
Reflection data is commonly used in the petroleum exploration industry and requires a large
amount of data processing time and lengthy data collection procedures. Although mainframe
computers are often used in the reduction and analysis of large amounts of reflection data,
recent advances have allowed for the use of personal computers on small reflection surveys for
engineering purposes. In most cases, the data must be recorded digitally or converted to a digital
format, to employ various numerical processing operations. The use of high resolution reflection
seismic methods places a large burden on the resources of the geophysicist, in terms of
computer capacity, data reduction and processing programs, resolution capabilities of the
seismograph and geophones, and the ingenuity of the interpreter. These factors should be
carefully considered before a reflection survey is recommended.
Seismic Reflection Survey Design, Procedure, And Quality Assurance
Because the seismic reflection method is extremely dependent upon the geology and physical
conditions of the site, a thorough evaluation of the survey area, including a site visit and review
of all available geologic data, is necessary.
There are many different seismic energy sources, geophone and shotpoint array configurations,
and survey plans that may be used in a particular investigation. However, there is no best
survey plan. Due to the many variables in site conditions and reflection survey parameters, each
site must be evaluated separately. Only a geophysicist with substantial experience in highresolution
reflection seismology is able to prepare such a site-specific survey plan. Experience
can be substantiated by the presentation of case histories where reflection has been used successfully.
Several generalities with respect to instrumentation and field procedure should be followed. The
seismograph should be able to record data digitally, and signal enhancement and filtering
capabilities are often necessary. The geophysicist should choose a seismic source that not only
imparts a sufficient signal, but also generates a minimum airwave. The seismic sources used in
reflection surveys are the same as those used in refraction work. A comparison of various highresolution
seismic reflection sources can be found in the literature (Miller and others, 1896).
Shotpoint and geophone locations should be surveyed for elevation control. Elevations should
be surveyed to the nearest half-foot. As mentioned in the Seismic Refraction section, the geophone
stations should lie along a straight line, with the geophones properly coupled to the
ground.
The field geophysicist should be able to make changes to the initial survey plan if necessary.
These changes should be discussed in detail with the State geophysicist prior to implementation.
Seismic Reflection Data Reduction and Interpretation
Seismic reflection must be corrected for static elevation and normal moveout. In some instances,
dip moveout corrections can be applied. Dip moveout corrections are applied in areas where the dip of the
reflecting layer is several degrees from horizontal.
Seismic Reflection Presentation of Results
The final report should present the results of the investigation as outlined above in the Seismic
Refraction Presentation of Results section.
Comparison between Seismic reflection and refraction
The differences between seismic refraction and reflection are summarized in the table below.

Seismic Method Comparison
Refraction Reflection
Typical Targets
Near-horizontal density
contrasts at depths less
than ~100 feet
Horizontal to dipping
density contrasts, and
laterally restricted targets
such as cavities or tunnels
at depths greater than ~50
feet
Required Site
Conditions
Accessible dimensions
greater than ~5x the depth
of interest; unpaved
greatly preferred
None
Vertical
Resolution
10 to 20 percent of depth 5 to 10 percent of depth
Lateral Resolution ~1/2 the geophone spacing ~1/2 the geophone spacing
Effective Practical
Survey Depth
1/5 to 1/4 the maximum
shot-geophone separation
>50 feet
Relative Cost $N $3xN to $5xN


Note that in situations where both could be applied, seismic reflection generally has better resolution, but
is considerably more expensive. In those situations, the choice between seismic reflection and refraction
becomes an economic decision. In other cases (e.g. very deep/small targets) only reflection can be
expected to work. In still other cases, where boreholes or wells are accessible, neither refraction, nor
reflection may be recommended in favor of seismic tomography.

T-X Diagram
The interpretation of underground structure from refraction results relies on ray-path analysis.
The ray path is identified from a travel-time graph of arrival times vs. distance from source.
This sometimes called a T-X diagram.
The technique is basically to inspect the T-X diagram and identify/guess the most likely
underground structure from which it arises. Values are then picked off the T-X diagram and
converted into structure parameters such as depth, etc using the assumed geometry of the ray
path. Thus we need to know how T-X diagrams arise.
A refraction T-X diagram is based on the first arrival at each geophone. This is either picked off
the geophone output (manually or in software) or is automatically recorded by a cut-off timer.
The T-X diagram is thus a graph of first arrival times against distance from source.
Reflection time-distance plots
Consider a source (shot point) at point A with geophones spread out along the x-axis on either
side of the shot point.

A raypath from A to C or A to E is: 2

The travel time, t, is the raypath divided by the velocity, V
1,
or:
t=

Rearranging:

This is the equation of a hyperbola symmetric about the t axis. The travel time plot for the direct
wave arrivals and the reflected arrivals are shown in the following plot. The first layer is 100 m
thick and its velocity is 500 m/s. The intercept of the reflected arrival on the t axis, t
i
, is the two-
way zero
offset time and for this model is equal to 400ms. At large offsets the hyperbola asymptotes to the
direct wave with slope 1/V
1
.

In most seismic reflection surveys the geophones are placed at offsets small compared to the
depth of the reflector. Under this condition an approximate expression can be derived via:

which can be rewritten as;
t=

or since

t=

Since

is less than 1, the square root can be expanded with the binomial expansion. Keeping
only the first term in the expansion the following expression for the travel time is obtained:
t=

] This is the basic travel time equation that is used as the starting point for the
interpretation of most reflection surveys.
Refraction time-distance plots
A typical ray path for an incident ray refracted at the critical angle is made up of the lines ABDE
shown in the figure below. The incident ray at the critical angle, AB, yields a reflection BC and
generates the head wave which propagates along the interface. The wave front of the head wave
generates waves which return to the surface along rays which leave the interface at the critical
angle, e.g path DE in the figure. The refraction arrivals consequently begin at the same time as
the reflected wave on path ABC. Subsequent refraction arrivals are delayed by their travel time
along the interface at the velocity of the lower medium.


The equation for the travel time to an arbitrary point on the surface is the sum of the travel times
along AB, BD, and DE. The first and third times are identical so:
t=

t=

Using the geometry imposed by Snells Law this becomes:
t=

Since
c
is determined via the velocities,

, then the equation can be rewritten in terms

of velocity as: (note

and

)

This is the equation of a straight line with slope 2V1 and an intercept on the t axis,
.
This is the mathematical intercept; there are no refracted arrivals at distances less than AC or at
times less than the reflection travel time for the ABC path.
The velocities can be determined directly from the travel time plot as the inverse of the slopes of
the direct and refracted arrivals so the depth can be determined from the intercept time via:

The distance AC at which the first refraction arrives, called the critical distance, x
c
, can be
obtained from:
so

Finally it can be seen from the time-distance plot that there is a distance after which the refracted
arrivals come before the direct arrivals. This occurs at the crossover distance, x
cross
, when the
refraction and direct waves have equal travel times, i.e when


This is another useful equation for determining h. In practice with real data it is usually found
that projecting the refracted arrivals back to the t axis to find the intercept time is more accurate
than estimating where the crossover distance is.
The refraction arrivals from shot points at each end of a survey line over a dipping interface are
shown in the following figure:


The arrivals at geophones down dip from shot point A come at progressively later times than
their horizontal interface counterparts so that the slope of the arrival curve is steeper. The
apparent velocity obtained from the plot, V
app down dip
, is less than V
2.
The apparent up dip velocity
obtained with geophones up dip from shot point B is greater than V
2
. The travel times from A to
B and from B to A, the reciprocal times, must be the same. Refraction surveys must be shot in
both directions. Arrival times taken in only one direction and interpreted as being taken over a
horizontal interface may yield erroneous results if the interface is dipping.
The equations for the travel times for a dipping interface, and for multiple layers with dipping or
horizontal interfaces, are derived analytically
in Telford et al.(1990) and they present a useful collection of expressions for finding the depths
and dips for up to three layer models.
A particularly useful result for small dips is that

where V
d
and V
u
are abbreviations for the down dip and up dip apparent velocities respectively.
General expressions have been derived for the travel times for any number of layers with
accompanying equations for depths and true velocities but the quality of the field time-distance
data makes it difficult to identify intercept times or cross over distances for more than a few
refraction arrival segments. A better approach which leads into general methods of interpreting
seismic data is to use a numerical technique to generate arrivals in model of an arbitrary medium
and then by a process known as inversion adjust the parameters of the model to match the
observed data.
In summary the principal advantage of the refraction method over the reflection method is that it
depends only on measuring the first arrival times on a seismic time trace. There is no problem
separating the refracted arrival from other arrivals as there is in picking reflection events.
Problems or disadvantages are:
i) there is no evidence in the travel time plot for an intermediate layer(s) of lower velocity than
the layers enclosing it. Interpretation in this case, which assumes a progressive increase in layer
velocity with depth, will be in error.
ii) there are situations where, even with increasing velocity in successive layers, a refraction
arrival segment may be masked by a deeper higher velocity earlier arriving segment.
iii) the surface distribution of geophones must extend to distances of several times the anticipated
depth of the refractor in order to identify the crossover distance and to determine the slope of the
refractor arrival plot.
iv) at the large off-sets required by iii) the arrivals may be very weak and impractically big shot
energies may be required
References:
Html://parkseismic.com/Whatisseismicsurvey.
http://appliedgeophysics.lbl.gov/seismic/seismic_23.pdf
http://www.enviroscan.com/html/seismic_refraction_versus_refl.html
http://www.state.nj.us/dep/njgs/geophys/seis.htm
FPSM 2005 Chapter 8 Geophysical Techniques