Voltage Upgrading of Overhead Lines

Anders Tuhus Olsen

Master of Science in Electric Power Engineering

Submission date: June 2010
Supervisor:
Magne Eystein Runde, ELKRAFT

Norwegian University of Science and Technology

Department of Electric Power Engineering

Problem Description
Statnett wants to increase the transmission capacity in their 300 kV overhead lines by upgrading
the operating voltage to 420 kV. To make this possible some modifications must be done. Insulator
strings have to be elongated or replaced and the air clearances must be increased. EN standards
provide guidelines for how to calculate the air clearances adequately to provide required safety
margins.
It turns out that the formulas given by the standards provide greater safety margin than
appropriate for upgraded transmission lines. Proper minimum air clearances represent a great
potential for saving money when upgrading the voltage on overhead lines. It is therefore desirable
to calculate the air clearances on the basis of smaller safety margins than described in the
standard.

Assignment given: 15. January 2010

Supervisor: Magne Eystein Runde, ELKRAFT

Summary
Statnettwantstoincreasethetransmissioncapacityintheir300kVoverheadlinesbyupgradingthe
operatingvoltageto420kV.Tomakethispossiblesomemodificationsmustbedone.Insulator
stringshavetobeelongatedbytwotofourinsulatorsandtheairclearancesmustbechecked.EN
standardsprovideguidelinesforhowtocalculatetheairclearancesadequatelytoproviderequired
safetymargins.
Itturnsoutthattheformulasgivenbythestandardsprovidegreatersafetymarginthanappropriate
forupgradedtransmissionlines.Byfindingnewpropersafetymargins,severaltowerswhich
otherwisewouldhavetoberebuilttofulfilltherequirementsforclearances,canstayunmodified.
Whenconsideringthenumberoftowersinanaveragetransmissionline,thereisobviouslyagreat
potentialforsavingmoneybyputtingsomeeffortlookingintoproperminimumairclearances.By
reducetheairclearancebyapproximately10cm,6.5mill.NOKweresparedina65kmtransmission
line.Itisthereforedesirabletocalculatetheairclearancesonthebasisofsmallersafetymargins
thandescribedinthestandard,butwhichisstillwithinacceptablesafetylimits.Intheformulasfor
minimumdistances,thestatisticalwithstandvoltageU50%,gapfactorsandaltitudefactorsare
examinedforthecasesofoperatingvoltage,switchingimpulseandlightningimpulse.
DiscrepanciesbetweentestresultsfromalaboratoryworkconductedbySTRIandcalculationsbased
ontheENstandardofU50%,havebeendiscovered.TestedU50forswitchingimpulsesare59%
higherthanU50fromthestandard.Thesameappliesforlightningimpulseswherethetestedvalueis
12%higherthanthestandard.Thisgivesreasontoassumethestandardtobesomewhat
conservative.
Further,discrepanciesarefoundbetweenthestandardEN50341thatsaysthatthegapfactorwhen
aninsulatorispresentisthesameasifnoinsulatorispresent,andCigrreport72,whichsaysthat
thegapfactorshouldbecorrectedforthepresenceofinsulators.Correctionforinsulatorswilllead
toalowergapfactori.e.lowerbreakdownstrengthalongtheinsulatorstringthanintherestofthe
airgap.Itturnsoutthatthecombinationofrainandinsulatorstringreducethegapfactorandthus,
thewithstandstrengthinthecasesofswitchingimpulsesintheorderof613%forVstring
insulatorsand2034%forIstringinsulatorsandforcontinuouspowerfrequencyvoltageinthe
orderof25%forVstringinsulatorsand3340%forIstringinsulators.
RainhasnoinfluenceonthewithstandstrengthofIstringsorVstringsexposedtolightningimpulses.
Severalpreviousresearches[1][2]showsthesametendenciesoflackofcorrelationbetweenU50and
gapfactorswhenairgapswithinsulatorstringsareexposedtolightningimpulses.Thus,thegap
factorisnotsufficienttodescribethedischargecharacteristicsofairgapswithinsulatorstrings
exposedtolightningimpulses.
Itisfoundthattheairgapbetweenphaseandguywirehasapproximately7%greaterwithstand
strengththanovertheinsulatorstringinatowerwindow.Thisadditionalsafetymarginisadesirable
propertyintermsthattheguywiresaretheweakestpointofatower.Thisshouldhoweverbe
verifiedbyfullscalelaboratorytestsasthisismainlyvalidforthecaseofonlytheconductorguy
wiregapwithoutthepresenceoftheotherairgapsthatrepresentthetowerwindow.

III

Preface
ThisprojectisdoneincooperationwithStatnettandGrazUniversityofTechnologyandaddressesa
realproblemconcerningvoltageupgradingofoverheadlinesintheNorwegiangrid.Theprojectis
stronglylinkedtothestandardsofinsulationcoordination.Alargepartoftheworkhastherefore
beenlookingintowhatthestandardscontainandwhattheyarebasedon.
IwanttothankmyacademicsupervisorsMagneRundefromNTNUandSonjaMonicaBerlijnfrom
Statnettfortheircontributiontothisprojectreport.
IwouldalsoliketothankmybrotherHvardTuhusOlsenforlanguagerevisionofthisreport.

AndersTuhusOlsen
Trondheim11.06.2010

IV

TableofContents
Summary................................................................................................................................................III
Preface....................................................................................................................................................IV
Tablelist................................................................................................................................................VII
Tableoffigures.....................................................................................................................................VIII
Symbollist..............................................................................................................................................IX
Definitions..............................................................................................................................................IX
Gapfactor...........................................................................................................................................IX
Operatingconditions..........................................................................................................................IX
Fastfrontovervoltage.........................................................................................................................X
Slowfrontovervoltage........................................................................................................................X
Continuouspowerfrequencyvoltage.................................................................................................X
Minimumelectricalclearances...........................................................................................................X
1

Introduction.....................................................................................................................................1

Scopeandlimitations......................................................................................................................3

Societyandeconomy......................................................................................................................3

Gapfactors......................................................................................................................................3
4.1

Rodplanegap..........................................................................................................................3

4.2

Actualairgaps.........................................................................................................................4

4.2.1

ParisandCortina.............................................................................................................5

4.2.2

Cigr72technicalbulletin...............................................................................................7

4.3

Influenceofinsulators...........................................................................................................12

4.4

Influenceofrain....................................................................................................................13

4.5

Conclusionofthechapter.....................................................................................................13

Minimumairclearances................................................................................................................14

Wind..............................................................................................................................................15
6.1

Towers...........................................................................................................................................18
7.1

Modificationoftowers..........................................................................................................18

7.2

Alternativemeasuresfornarrowtowers..............................................................................19

Airgapinsulatorconfigurations....................................................................................................21
8.1

EffectofwindonIstrings.....................................................................................................15

Fourdifferentalternativeconfigurations..............................................................................21

Theoryvs.laboratorytesting........................................................................................................25
9.1

Researchreport1:STRI.........................................................................................................25
V

9.1.1

Lightningimpulse..........................................................................................................26

9.1.2

Switchingimpulse..........................................................................................................28

9.2

Researhreport2:EFI.............................................................................................................30

9.2.1

Gapfactors....................................................................................................................32

9.2.2

U50disruptivedischargetest.........................................................................................38

9.3
10

Conclusionofthechapter.....................................................................................................42
Acasestudy...............................................................................................................................43

10.1

KristiansandArendal.............................................................................................................43

10.2

Findingsofthecasestudy.....................................................................................................47

10.3

Savingpotential.....................................................................................................................47

10.4

Conclusionofthechapter.....................................................................................................47

11
11.1

Newlaboratorytest...................................................................................................................48
Testproposal.........................................................................................................................48

12

Discussion..................................................................................................................................49

13

Conclusion.................................................................................................................................51

14

Bibliography...............................................................................................................................52

VI

Tablelist
Table1AirgapconfigurationsandtheirrespectivegapfactorsproposedbyL.Paris[3]......................6
Table2Insulatorandairgapconfigurations.......................................................................................21
Table3Airclearancesforconfiguration14andminimumrequiredairclearances............................23
Table4Conductorcrossarmcalculatedfora250/2500spositiveswitchingimpulse,(SI)underdry
andwetconditions.Gapfactorsaregiveninparentheses.Altitudeof500m,towerheight=25m,
guywireangleof40.............................................................................................................................24
Table5U50,50%flashoverprobabilityforlightningimpulse(LIdry)...................................................26
Table6U50,50%flashoverprobabilityforswitchingimpulse(SIwet)................................................28
Table7U10,10%flashoverprobabilityforswitchingimpulse(SIwet)................................................30
Table8Gapfactorsforouterphaseatlightningimpulse.....................................................................35
Table9Gapfactorsformidphaseatlightningimpulse........................................................................35
Table10Gapfactorsforouterphaseatswitchingimpulse..................................................................36
Table11Gapfactorsformidphaseatswitchingimpulse....................................................................36
Table12Gapfactorsforouterphaseatpowerfrequencyvoltage......................................................37
Table13Gapfactorsformidphaseatpowerfrequencyvoltage.........................................................37
Table14Conductorcrossarmexposedtoa1.2/50spositivelightningimpulse,(LI)underdry
conditions..............................................................................................................................................38
Table15Conductorcrossarmcalculatedfora1.2/50spositivelightningimpulse,(LI)underdry
conditions.Samegeometryasabove...................................................................................................38
Table16Towerwindowexposedtoa1.2/50spositivelightningimpulse,(LI)underdryandwet
conditions..............................................................................................................................................39
Table17Towerwindowcalculatedfora1.2/50spositivelightningimpulse,(LI)underdryandwet
conditions..............................................................................................................................................39
Table18Conductorcrossarmexposedtoa200/3000spositiveswitchingimpulse,(SI)underdry
conditions..............................................................................................................................................40
Table19Conductorcrossarmcalculatedfora250/2500spositiveswitchingimpulse,(SI)under
dryconditions.Samegeometryasabove.............................................................................................40
Table20Towerwindowexposedtoa200/3000spositiveswitchingimpulse,(SI)underdryandwet
conditions..............................................................................................................................................40
Table21Towerwindowcalculatedfora250/2500spositiveswitchingimpulse,(SI)underdryand
wetconditions.......................................................................................................................................41
Table22Towerwindowcalculatedfora250/2500spositiveswitchingimpulse,(SI)underdryand
wetconditionsandfordifferentswingangles.Theairgapbetweenphaseandguywireandthe
lengthoftheinsulatorstringisboth2.56m.........................................................................................41
Table23SwinganglesforaselectionoftowerofthetransmissionlineKristiansandArendal...........45
Table24MeasuredminimumdistancesfortowermidphaseconductedbyStatnett.The
correspondingswinganglesaregiveninparenthesis...........................................................................46
Table25MinimumrequireddistancesfortowermidphasecalculatedaccordingtoEN50341.........46
Table26Comparisonoftable24(measuredminimumclearances)andtable25(requiredminimum
clearancesaccordingtoEN50341).......................................................................................................46

VII

Tableoffigures
Figure1Theprojectpresentedbyaflowchart......................................................................................2
Figure2InfluenceoftheradiusRofsphericalelectrodesonU50underpositivepolarity[2]................4
Figure3Conductorcrossarm[2]............................................................................................................7
Figure4Towerwindow[2].....................................................................................................................8
Figure5Probabilityforflashoverasafunctionofvoltageamplitudegivenasstandarddeviations..10
Figure6Minimumairclearancesforthreedifferentoperatingconditions.........................................14
Figure7Windmovestheconductortowardthetower........................................................................16
Figure8Verticalandhorizontalspanlengths.Visthelengthbetweenthelowerpointsoftheline
withintwospanswhileHisthelengthbetweenthemiddleoftwospans..........................................17
Figure9CalculationsofswinganglesoftheinsulatorstringsinPLSCADData)nowind,b)3year
windandc)50yearwind......................................................................................................................17
Figure10ExtensionofanIstringinsulator...........................................................................................18
Figure11ExtensionofaVstringinsulator...........................................................................................19
Figure12Fittingequipmentbetweenphaseandinsulator..................................................................19
Figure13Towerwindowofatensiontowerwithsupportinginsulator..............................................20
Figure14Supportinginsulator..............................................................................................................20
Figure15Armourrod............................................................................................................................21
Figure16Testobjectsimulatingthetowerwindow.............................................................................25
Figure17Cumulativenormaldistributionprobabilitycurvesforflashoverforlightningimpulse(LIdry)
and15insulators(1.96m).....................................................................................................................27
Figure18Cumulativenormaldistributionprobabilitycurvesforflashoverforswitchingimpulse(SI
wet)and15insulators(1.96m)............................................................................................................29
Figure19Testobjectusedtosimulatethetowerarrangement.Figurea)andb)representstheouter
phase.Swingangleissimulatedaccordingtofigureb).Figurec)representsthemidphase[7].........31
Figure20Voltageimpulse.Xaxis:T1=timetothepeakvalueoftheimpulseisobtained,T2=timeto
halfofthepeakvalueoftheimpulseremains.Td=timewheretheimpulsehasavoltagelevel
between0.9and1.0PU.Yaxis:ValueofthevoltageoftheimpulseinPU.........................................32
Figure21Gapfactorforpositivepolarityswitchingimpulsetowerwindow(midphase)asafunction
ofthestrikedistance.............................................................................................................................33
Figure22Gapfactorforpositivepolarityswitchingimpulsetowerwindow(midphase)asafunction
ofthestrikedistance[7].......................................................................................................................34
Figure23TestobjectproposedbyMichaelHintereggerattheGrazUniversityofTechnology..........48

VIII

Symbollist
Symbol
Kg
Kg_sf
Kg_ff
Kg_pf
Ka
Kcs

Unit

H
d1
d2
d

U50

m
m
m
m
m
kV

U10

kV

Dpp
Del

kg/m3
m
m

Explanation
gapfactor
gapfactorslowfrontwaveforswitchingimpulse
gapfactorfastfrontwaveforlightningimpulse
gapfactorforpowerfrequencyoperatingvoltage
atmosphericcorrectionfactor
statisticalcoordinationfactor.Kcscomesfromchoosingariskoffailure
oftheinsulationthathasbeenprovenfromexperiencetobeacceptable
heightfromphasetoground
lengthoftheinsulatorstring
distancefromphasetotowerpole
distancefromphasetotowerconstruction
withofthetowerpole
thevoltagethatgivesaprobabilityof50%foraflashovertooccurfor
selfrestoringinsulation
thevoltagethatgivesaprobabilityof10%foraflashovertooccurfor
selfrestoringinsulation
airdensity
minimumrequiredairclearancephasetophase
minimumrequiredairclearancephasetoearth

Definitions
Gapfactor
Gapfactoristherelationshipbetweentheflashovervoltageforarodplanegapandtheflashover
voltageofapracticalairgapofidenticalsizeandforapositivevoltageimpulse.
ThegapfactorisgivendirectlyforswitchingovervoltageasKg_sf.Thegapfactorforlightningimpulse
isderivedfromtheswitchingovervoltagegapfactorasKg_ff=0.74+0.26Kg_sfandthegapfactorfor
powerfrequencyvoltageisderivedfromswitchingimpulsegapfactorasKg_pf=1.35Kg_sf0.35Kg2_sf

Operatingconditions
Thestandardshavedefinedthreedifferentoperatingconditionsthatdescribethewindconditions
andtheworstandmostlikelycorrespondingelectricalstress.

Nowind:Lightningimpulse(LI).
3yearsreturntime:Switchingimpulse(SI).
50yearsreturntime:Powerfrequency(PF).

IX

Fastfrontovervoltage
Fastfrontovervoltagesofimportanceforoverheadlinesaremainlylightningovervoltagesduetoa
directstriketothephaseconductor.Therepresentativevoltagestressischaracterizedbythe
standardlightningimpulsewaveshape(1.2/50s).Fastfrontovervoltagesarealsoreferredtoas
lightningimpulse(LI)inthestandardsforinsulationcoordinationandareusedasdimensioncriteria
fordeterminingnecessaryairclearanceatnowindconditions.

Slowfrontovervoltage
Slowfrontovervoltagecanoriginatefromfaults,switchingoperationsordistantdirectlightning
strikestooverheadlines.Slowfrontovervoltagesofimportanceforoverheadlinesareovervoltages
causedbyearthfault,energizationandreenergization.Thestandardswitchingimpulsewaveshape
is(250/2500s).Slowfrontovervoltagesarealsoreferredtoasswitchingimpulses(SI)inthe
standardsforinsulationcoordinationandareusedasadimensioncriteriafordeterminingnecessary
airclearanceatwindspeedwith3yearsreturntime.

Continuouspowerfrequencyvoltage
Thecontinuouspowerfrequencyvoltage(PF)isconsideredasconstantandequaltothepeakvalue
ofthehighestsystemvoltage( 2 Us)whichisthehighestvalueofoperatingvoltagethatoccurs
undernormaloperatingconditionsatanytimeandanypointinthesystem.Inthestandardsfor
insulationcoordination,powerfrequencyvoltageisusedasdimensioncriteriafordetermining
necessaryairclearanceatextremewindconditionswith50yearsreturntime.

Minimumelectricalclearances
FivetypesofelectricalclearancesareconsideredinthepresentstandardEN50341:
Del

Minimumairclearancerequiredtopreventadisruptivedischargebetweenphase
conductorsandobjectsatearthpotentialduringfastfrontorslowfrontovervoltages.
Delmaybeeitherinternalwhenconsideringconductortotowerstructureclearance,
orexternalwhenconsideringaconductortoobstacleclearance.

Dpp

Minimumairclearancerequiredtopreventadisruptivedischargebetweenphase
conductorsduringfastfrontorslowfrontovervoltages.Dppisaninternalclearance.

D50Hz_p_e

Minimumairclearancerequiredtopreventadisruptivedischargeatpower
frequencyvoltagebetweenaphaseconductorandobjectsatearthpotential.D50Hz_p_e
isaninternalclearance.

Thismasterthesismainlydealswiththeissuesrelatedtominimumairclearanceswithinthetowers
relatedtovoltageupgrading.TheairclearancesthataretreatedinthisthesisarethereforeonlyDel
andD50Hz_p_e.

1 Introduction
ThemaingridinNorwaywasbuiltduringthetimeperiodfrom1960to1990.Sincethenthedemand
forelectricityhasconstantlyincreased,causinghigherrequirementstothegridsabilitytotransmit
electricity.Inordertomeettoadysandfuturerequirementsfortransmissioncapacityandsecurity
ofsupply,measuresmustbetaken.Oneoptionistobuildnewtransmissionlines.Thisishowever
ratherexpensiveandtimeconsumingasthisrequirestheacquisitionoflicensesfordevelopmentof
newlines.Anotherpossibleoptiontomeettherequirementforhighertransmissioncapacityis
increasingthecapacityoftheexistingtransmissionlines.Anincreaseofcapacityintransmissionlines
canbedoneeitherbyincreasingthecurrentorincreasingthevoltage.Increasingthecapacityby
increasingthecurrentlevelmeansthetemperatureoftheconductors,thustheactivelosseswill
increase.Toallowahigherconductortemperatureonemustmakesuretomakeuseoftheproper
conductorthatisdesignedforhighoperatingtemperatures.Alternativelyonecanreplacethe
existingconductorswithconductorsofgreatercrosssection.Thisprojectexclusivelydealswiththe
otheralternativeforincreasingthetransmissioncapacity,whichistoincreasetheoperatingvoltage.
Whenupgradingtheoperatingvoltage,insulatingcoordinationhastobedoneoveragaininorderto
obtainsufficientinsulationstrengthforthenewvoltagelevel.Insulatingcoordinationistheselection
oftheinsulatingstrengthconsistentwiththeexpectedovervoltagetoobtainanacceptableriskof
failure.
Thetowergeometryanddimensionsareoriginallydesignedforanoperatingvoltageof300kV.To
allowthesetowerstobeexposedtohigherelectricalstressthantheyareoriginallydesignedfor,
somemeasuresmustbedone.Theinsulatorstringshavetobeelongatedorreplacedandtheair
clearanceshavetobeincreasedinordertoachievesufficientdielectricstrength.Thetighter
dimensionsina300kVtower,comparetoa420kVtower,limitstheextensionoftheinsulatorsand
thepossibleminimumdistances.
Thestandardsforinsulationcoordinationprovideguidelinesforminimumairclearances.Ithas
provendifficulttomaintaintheminimumairclearanceswithinthestandardsrequirementswithout
doingmajormodificationstothetowers.However,theregulationssaythatitisnotanabsolute
requirementtofollowthemethodforinsulatingcoordinationdescribedbythestandards.The
standardsareprovidedasarecommendationtohowthingsshouldbeperformedtoensuresufficient
safetyandsecurityofsupply.Theregulationsrequirethatalldeviationsfromthestandardsmustbe
documentedtocomplywithapplicablelawsandregulationstoensurethesafety.Thismasterthesis
willexaminethepossibilitiesforvoltageupgradingoftightdimensionedtowerswhichlimitsthe
possibilitiesforvoltageupgradingaccordingtostandards.Whendifferentsolutionsareconsidered,
economy,safetysecurityofsupplymustbeconsidered.

Aflowchartismadetogivethereaderabetteroverviewofthedifferentissuesthatareinvestigated
andhowtheinvestigationisperformed.

Figure1Theprojectpresentedbyaflowchart

2 Scopeandlimitations
Thisreportexaminesminimumairclearancesthatmaybeallowedinatower.Itisknownthat
currentrequirementsforairclearancesthataregiveninthestandardsaresomewhatconservative
andcannotbemetwithoutdoingmajormodificationstothetowers,whichinvolvesextensivecosts.
Amajortaskistofindtheappropriateminimumclearancesthatcanallowalargernumberoftowers
tostayunmodifiedwithoutlackofthesecurityofsupply.Thiswillalwaysbeanassessmentofcost
andreliability.
Gapfactorswillbeexaminedandthegapfactorsrecommendedbythestandardsarecomparedto
gapfactorsproposedotherresearchwork.Theimpactoftheswingangleoftheinsulatorandthe
insulatoritselftothegapfactorisexamined.ThestatisticalwithstandvoltageU50willbeexamined
forlightningimpulses,switchingimpulsesandcontinuous50Hzpowerfrequencyvoltage.
Otheraspectsofinterestofvoltageupgradingthatarenotincludedinthisreportarelocationof
surgearrestorsandcoronanoise.

3 Societyandeconomy
Theideaofupgradingtransmissionlinesistogetagridwithhighercapacityatlowerinvestmentcost
andwithlessenvironmentalimpactthanbuildingnewtransmissionlines.Accordingly,when
upgradingtransmissionlines,oneshouldtothegreatestextentpossiblemakeuseoftheexisting
lines,insulators,towersandotherequipment.Theenvironmentalaspectofvoltageupgradingisof
greatimportanceintodayssocietywherethereisalotoffocusonenvironmentfriendlyenergy
production.Environmentfriendlypowertransmissionshouldbeanaturalpartofthis.

4 Gapfactors
Determiningtheelectricalwithstandstrengthofairgapsisdonebydisruptivedischargetestsin
laboratories.Onedesiredoutcomeofsuchtestsistofindthevoltageamplitudethatgivesa50%
probabilityforflashover,U50.Thevoltageamplituderequiredtogiveaflashoverisstrongly
dependentontheshapeoftheelectrodes.Onthebasisofthisphenomenon,thegapfactorwas
introducedinordertocorrectthe discrepancybetweenareferencegapwhereitselectricproperties
wasknownandtheshapeoftheactualelectrode.Thegapfactorkgisamultiplyingfactorwhich
characterizestheshapeoftheelectrodesofanairgap,thusdischargecharacteristicsofanyairgaps
canbedeterminedbymultiplyingthegapfactorwiththedischargecharacteristicsofareferencegap.
Amongthedifferentairgapsofspacingd,thepositivepolarityrodplanegaphasthelowest
withstandstrengthandwasthereforeusedasareferencegapwithagapfactorkg=1.

4.1 Rodplanegap
Therodplanegapisawellknowngapconfigurationusedinlaboratorytesting.Theradiusof
curvatureoftherod(anode)isdecisiveforthevalueoftheflashovervoltage.Forpositivepolarity
impulse,themorepointedtheanode,thelowertheflashovervoltageofalargeairgap.Forthe
cathodeapplies:themorepointedthecathode,thegreatertheflashovervoltageofalargeairgap.

TheU50valueremainsconstantwhentheanoderadiusislessthanacertaincriticalvalueRcriticalwhich
isdependentonairgapspacingasshowninfig.2.

Figure2InfluenceoftheradiusRofsphericalelectrodesonU50underpositivepolarity[2].

Fromfig.2itcanbeseenthatforairgapsof2metresandupthecriticalradiusisR>0.1metresi.e.
forthemajorityofpracticalproblems,theanoderadiusislessthanthecriticalradius.Inthiscasethe
dielectricwithstandstrengthonlydependsonthelengthoftheairgap,whichmeansthatformost
practicalairgapstherodplanegapstaysvalidasareferencegapwhendeterminingthegapfactor.

4.2 Actualairgaps
Thegapfactorkg,originallyproposedbyL.ParisandR.Cortina[1]in1968,istherelationofflashover
voltageforarodplanegapandapracticalairgapofidenticalgaplength,d.Theynotedthatthatall
curvesofU50asafunctionofgapspacingdhadessentiallythesameshapeforatowerconfiguration
andarodplanegap.Aconductorplanegap,whichhasshowntohavethesametendencyasarod
planegap,providedagoodbasisfordeterminingtheelectricalpropertiesofactualairgapswitha
referencetothewellknownrodplaneconfiguration.In1967LuigiParispublishedtheIEEEresearch
articleInfluenceofAirGapCharacteristicsofLinetoGroundSwitchingSurgeStrength[3].The
researchworkwasperformedbyapplyingimpulsewavessimulatingswitchingsurges.Themain
purposeoftheresearchwastoinvestigatethedependenceofairgapswitchingsurgeperformance
upongapgeometry.Mostofthetestsweremadewitha120/4000simpulsewavesincethis
particularwaveshapeisrecognizedforhavingthelowestpositivepolaritywithstandvoltageforrod
rodandrodplanegaps.Onthebasisofthetestresultstherewasdrawnsomeconclusionsaboutthe
influenceoftheelectrodeshapetotheelectricwithstandstrengthU50ofairgaps.Onthebasisofthe
testresultstheauthorproposedthegapconfigurationswiththecorrespondinggapfactors,kggiven
intable1.
4

4.2.1 ParisandCortina
In1968LuigiParisandRosarioCortinapublishedtheIEEEresearcharticleSwitchingandLightning
ImpulseDischargeCharacteristicsofLargeAirgapsandLongInsulatorStrings[1].Thisarticlewas
publishedasasecondpartofthearticlewrittenbyL.Paristhepreviousyear,andalsoincludesthe
behaviourofairgapswhenexposedtothe1.2/50slightningimpulse.Oneofthediscoveriesthey
madewasthattheimpactoftheshapeoftheelectrodestothedischargevoltageforlightning
impulsesissimilarinbehaviourtothatseenforswitchingimpulses,whenthereisnoinsulatorstring
betweentheelectrodes.However,theinfluenceofelectrodeshapeislesssignificantforlightning
impulsesinairgapswithoutaninsulatorstringthroughit.Theyalsofoundthattheshapeofthe
insulatorsinaninsulatorstringhasaveryslightinfluenceonthebehaviouroftheairgap,meaning
thatintroducinganinsulatorstringbetweentheelectrodescanbeconsideredingeneral,leavingthe
typeofinsulatoroutofconsideration.Forlightningimpulsesappliesthattheinfluenceofthe
electrodeshapeismuchgreaterinthecaseofairgapswithaninsulatorstringbetweenthe
electrodes.Thearticleconcludesthatthegapfactorkgisnotsufficientfordefinitionofthebehaviour
ofairgapswithaninsulatorstringthroughitwhentheairgapisexposedtolightningimpulseswith
positiveornegativepolarityunderdryandwetconditions,andindryconditionsfornegativepolarity
switchingimpulses.Negativepolarityimpulsesarehowevernotinterestinginthiscontextsincethe
flashovervoltageinanairgapisconsiderablyhigherinthiscase.Onthebasisoftheresearchwork
theyproposedthesemiempiricalformula:

U 50 d 500 S 0.6 kV

(4.1)

fordeterminingthedischargevoltageU50ofanrodplaneairgapoftwotosevenmetresfora
positivepolarityswitchingimpulsewhereU50isinkVanddinmeters.
Byapplyingthegapfactor,kgtotheformula,itisvalidforallairgapsthatarecharacterizedbyagap
factor:

U 50 d 500k g S 0.6 kV

(4.2)

Fordevelopingequation4.1theauthorsusedapositiveswitchingimpulsewithawaveshape
120/4000swhichisconsideredasthemostcriticalwaveshapeforrodrodandrodplanegaps.
Thus,theequationisnotbasedonthesamewaveshapeastheoneusedtodefinetheswitching
impulseintheENstandardof250/2500s.
IntheIEEEresearchreportInfluenceofAirGapCharacteristicsonLinetoGroundSwitchingSurge
Strength[3],aselectionoftypicalgapconfigurationswaspresentedasshownintable1.Thegap
factorsforthedifferentairgapconfigurationssuggestedintable1weredevelopedthroughseveral
disruptivedischargetestswhereaswitchingimpulsewaveof120/4000s,recognizedforhavingthe
lowestpositivepolaritywithstandvoltageforrodrodandrodplanegaps,wasused.

Table1AirgapconfigurationsandtheirrespectivegapfactorsproposedbyL.Paris[3].

Electrodes
Energized
Grounded

Testarrangement

Gapfactor,kg
Without
WithIandV
insulatorstring
insulatorstring
1.00
1.00

Rod

Plane

Rod

Structure(under)

1.05

Conductor

Plane

1.15

Conductor

Window

1.20

1.15

Conductor

Structure(under)

1.30

Rod

Rod(h=3m
under)

1.30

Conductor

Structure(over
andlaterally)

1.35

1.30

Rod

Rod(h=6m
under)

1.40

Conductor

Rope

1.40

Conductor

Rod(h=3m
under)

1.65

Conductor

Crossarmend

1.50

Conductor

Rod(h=6m
under)

1.90

Conductor

Rod(over)

1.90

1.75

4.2.2 Cigr72technicalbulletin
AsitappearsfromtheIEEEresearcharticleSwitchingandLightningImpulseDischarge
CharacteristicsofLargeAirgapsandLongInsulatorStrings[1],thegapfactordependsonthetype
ofelectricalstresstheairgapisexposedto.Inairgapswithoutinsulatorstring,bothswitchingand
lightningimpulsescanbedescribedbyagapfactor.TheCigr72technicalbulletinsuggestsgap
factorsforlightningimpulsesandcontinuouspowerfrequencyvoltagenamedkg_ff(ff=fastfront
wave)andkg_pf(pf=powerfrequency)respectively.Thegapfactorskg_ffandkg_pfarederivedfrom
theswitchingimpulsegapfactorasfollows:
Whentheairgapisexposedtoalightningimpulse,thegapfactorkg_ffisexpressedintermsofkgas:

kg _ ff 0.74 0.26kg

(4.3)

Whentheairgapisexposedtopowerfrequencyvoltage,thegapfactorkg_pfisexpressedintermsof
kgas:

k g _ pf 1.35k g 0.35k g 2

(4.4)

InsomeliteratureincludingtheENstandards,thegapfactorforswitchingimpulseisnamedkg_sf(sf=
slowfrontwave).Thisishoweverthesamegapfactorasthekggivenintablesforgapfactorssuchas
table1andthetablesforgapfactorsfoundintheENstandards,i.e.thegapfactorsareprimarily
givenforswitchingimpulsessothatkg_sf=kg.
Conductorcrossarmistheairspacethatrepresentstheinsulationoftheouterphaseinatower.The
insulationconsistsoftwoairgaps,d1whichisconductorcrossarmendandd2whichisconductor
structure(laterally)ref.table1.

Figure3Conductorcrossarm[2].

TheCigr72technicalbulletinsuggeststhefollowingformulaforthegapfactoroftheconductor
crossarmconfiguration:

k g 1.45 0.015(

8
H
d
6) 0.35(e d1 0.2) 0.135( 2 1.5)
d1
d1

Applicableinrange:
d1=210m
d2/d1=12
/d1=0.11
H/d1=210

(4.5)

where
Kggapfactor
Hheightfromphasetoground
d1lengthoftheinsulatorstring
d2distancefromphasetotowerpole
withofthetowerpole
Thisformulawillinmostcasesgiveagapfactorcloseto1.45.Comparingthiswithtable1,thetwo
airgaps,d1conductorcrossarmendandd2conductorstructure(laterally),havethegapfactors1.50
and1.35respectively.Inpracticetheairgapconductorcrossarmendwithkg=1.50willbethe
determinantairgapsinceinmostcasesd1<d2.Inthiscasetheformula3.5complieswellwiththe
suggestedgapfactorsintable1.

Conductortowerwindowistheairspacethatrepresentstheinsulationofthemidphase.Theair
spaceinsidethetowerwindowmaybeseenasmultipleairgapswithastrikelengthd.Thetower
windowoffigure4canmainlybedividedintothreeairgaps:conductorstructure(over),conductor
structure(laterally)andconductorrope(guywire)ref.table1.

Figure4Towerwindow[2].

TheCigr72technicalbulletinsuggeststhefollowingformulaforthegapfactoroftheconductor
towerwindowconfiguration:

k g 1.25 0.005(

H
8
6) 0.25(e d 0.2)
d

(4.6)

Applicableinrange:
d=210m
/d=0.11
H/d=210
where
Kggapfactor
Hheightfromphasetoground
ddistancefromphasetotowerconstruction
withofthetowerpole
Thisformulawillinmostcasesgiveagapfactorcloseto1.25.Ifinsteadusingtable1todetermine
thegapfactorofthetowerwindow,oneobtainthethreeairgaps,conductorstructure(overwith
insulatorstring),conductorstructure(laterally)andconductorrope,havingthegapfactors1.30,
1.35and1.40respectively.Unliketheconductorcrossarmconfigurationoftheouterphase,the
distancesfromconductortostructureareapproximatelythesameintheairspaceofthetower
window.Inthiscaseallofthethreementionedairgapswillbedeterminantfortheinsulating
strengthandmightbetreatedindividuallyratherthanasasingleairgap.
Inthiscasetheformula3.6compliesonlypartlywiththesuggestedgapfactorsintable1,asit
appearslowerthanthelowestsinglegapfactorofthetreeairgapsfromtable1.
Asafirstapproximation,asthelowestsinglegapfactorofthethreementionedgapsis1.3,itmakes
sensetouseacommongapfactorforthetowerwindowof1.25asaconservativevaluewhen
designingnewtransmissionlines.Whenitcomestovoltageupgrading,theairclearanceswithinthe
towerislimited,makingitinterestingtoexamineallrelevantairgapswithinthetowerwindow.
Asstatedearlier,itisdesirablethatincaseofaflashover,thestrikeshouldgotothecrossarm
ratherthantothefragileguywires.Accordingtothegapfactorsintable1,theconductorguywire
airgaphasanelectricalwithstandstrengthof78%higherthanconductorcrossarm,giventhatthe
airgapsareofidenticallength.Thismightbeexplainedbythestatementthataconductorandthusa
guywireorarope,hasapproximatelythesamepropertiesasarodinanairgap.Theconductor
structuregapwillthushavethesametendencyasarodplanegap,whiletheconductorguywiregap
willhavethesametendencyasarodrodgapwhichisknownforhavinghigherbreakdownstrength
thantherodplanegap.

Asalreadymentioned,thestandardsforinsulatingcoordinationrecommendagapfactorofkg=1.25.
Ifinsteaddividingthetowerwindowintothethreementionedairgapswithkg=1.3,1.35and1.4
onemightgetamoreaccuratedescriptionofthecharacteristicsoftheairgapandhencetowhich
partofthetowerconstructionthestrikeismostlikelytogo.
Inthestandardsforinsulationcoordination,therequiredwithstandvoltage,Urwforlightningand
switchingimpulsesissettobethevoltagethatgivesa10%probabilityforflashovertooccurinthe
airgapi.e.Urw=U10.Thisvalueisobtainedbymoving1.3standarddeviationsdownfromU50onthe
probabilitycurveinfig.5,endingupat10%probabilityforflashover.Requiredwithstandvoltageis
calculatedbytheformula:

U rw U10 U50 1.3Z kV

(4.7)

where
Zisthestandarddeviation
forlightningimpulsesZ=0.03U50
forswitchingimpulsesZ=0.06U50

1
0,9
0,8
Probability

0,7
0,6
0,5
0,4
0,3
0,2
0,1
0
4

Standarddeviation

Figure5Probabilityforflashoverasafunctionofvoltageamplitudegivenasstandarddeviations.

10

Iftheconductortraverseairgap,whichhasthelowestgapfactor,kg=1.3isusedasareferencegap,
thisairgapshouldgivea10%probabilityforflashover.Onewillthenobtainthefollowing
probabilitiesforthetwootherairgapstohaveaflashover:

Conductortowerpole,kg=1.35

U 50 _ k g 1.35

1.35
U 50 _ k g 1.30 1.04U 50 _ k g 1.30 kV
1.30

(4.8)

Knowingthatthestandarddeviation,Z=0.06U50forswitchingimpulses,thegapfactorofthe
conductortowerpolecorrespondsto2/3ofthestandarddeviationforswitchingimpulses.Adding
the2/3tothe1.3gives1.97standarddeviations,whichcorrespondtoaprobabilityforflashoverof
2.5%ontheprobabilitycurveinfig.5.

Conductorguywire,kg=1.40

U 50 _ k g 1.40

1.40
U 50 _ k g 1.30 1.08U 50 _ k g 1.30 kV
1.30

(4.9)

correspondsto4/3ofthestandarddeviationforswitchingimpulses.Addingthe4/3tothe1.3gives
2.63standarddeviations,whichcorrespondtoaprobabilityforflashoverof0.5%ontheprobability
curveinfig.5.
Usingthemethodfordeterminerequiredwithstandstrengthdescribedinthestandardforinsulating
coordinationincombinationwiththegapfactorsproposedintable1,therearea10%probabilityfor
theflashovertooccurovertheinsulatorstringtotraverse,2.5%probabilityfortheflashoverto
occurtowardsthetowerpoleand0.5%probabilityfortheflashovertooccurtowardstheguywire.
Towhatextenttheseresultsarevalidforactualcasesoftowerwindowshastobedeterminedby
laboratorytesting.Itisalsoimportanttopointoutthatthisisonlyvalidincasesofswitching
impulses.Thestandardsusethesamemethodfordeterminerequiredwithstandstrengthoflightning
impulses.However,thegreatuncertaintyonthebehaviouroflightningstrikesinairgapshavingan
insulatorstringthroughitmakesitimpossibletorelatetheprobabilityforflashovertogapthe
factors.Thisisdiscussedinthenextchapter;Influenceofinsulators.Asthelightningstrikesseem
toacthighlyunpredictableinsuchcases,theguywireshouldbeprotectedincaseswherethe
dimensionsinthetowerwindowaretightandthedistancefromtheconductortotraverseisequalto
conductorguywire.This,amongothersolutions,isdiscussedinthechapterAlternativemeasures
fortighttowers.
11

4.3 Influenceofinsulators
Towhatextenttheinsulatorstringaffectstheelectricpropertiesofanairgapdependsonthewave
shapeofthevoltagetheairgapisexposedto.Differentliteratureagreeonthatinthecaseof
positivepolarityswitchingimpulses,theintroductionofaninsulatingmediumbetweenthe
electrodescausesonlyaslightchangeinthebehaviouroftheairgapandthusthegapfactor.Asfor
lightningimpulse,thepresenceofinsulatorsbetweentheelectrodesmayplayanimportantroleon
thedischargeprocess,thusalsoheavilyaffectingthestatisticalwithstandvoltageU50.

Therearemainlytwodifferentconfigurationsofcapandpininsulatorstringsthatareusedin
overheadlines,IstringandVstring.Asthenameindicates,theIstringconfigurationconsistsofa
singleverticallystringofcapandpininsulators,whiletheVstringconfigurationconsiststwostrings
withanangleof45,formingaVshape.Inthecaseofcapandpininsulatorstrings,thefield
distributionisevenlydistributedbythemetalliccapsandpins.
Givenexperimentalerror,thestatisticaluncertaintyandtheimprecisenatureoftheevaluationof
geometricalcharacteristicsoftheinsulatorlessairgap,thepresenceofdrycapandpininsulatorsin
theairgapcanbesaidtonothaveasignificantimpactwithrespecttothedielectricstrengthwhen
exposedtoslowfrontimpulsewavessuchasaswitchingimpulse.Cigrreport72indicatesan
influencelessthan3%[2].Foranairgapwherecapandpininsulatorsarepresent,thegapfactoris
givenby:

kt 0.85 0.15e

k
g

k g 1

(4.10)

wherekgisthegapfactorforanairgapwithnoinsulatorstringgoingthroughit.
Thisformulaindicatesaslightdecreaseofthewithstandstrengthofairgapswhereinsulatorsare
present.

TheParis/CortinaresearcharticleSwitchingandLightningImpulseDischargeCharacteristicsofLarge
AirgapsandLongInsulatorStrings[1]concludesthatthefactorkgisnotsufficienttodefinethe
behaviourofairgapswithinsulatorstringswhentheairgapisexposedtolightningimpulseswith
positiveornegativepolarityunderdryandwetconditions,andindryconditionsfornegativepolarity
switchingimpulses.Fortheseconditionstheauthorsnotedthatthebehaviourofthedischargeinthe
airgapdidnotseeminanywaytobeconnectedwiththegapfactor.Sinceinsulatingcoordinationis
basedonthemostseverecaseofswitchingandlightningimpulses,onlythepositivepolarity
impulsesareconsidered.Thus,forallpracticalpurposes,thegapfactorisnotsufficienttodescribe
thedischargecharacteristicsofairgapswithinsulatorstringsexposedtolightningimpulses.

12

TestresultsfromtheresearchworkpresentedinCigrreport72showthesametendencieswhere
thereisalackofcorrelationbetweenU50andgapfactorsundertheseconditions.Furthermore,the
testresultsshowedthattheinfluenceofcapandpininsulatorsisreducedwhenthestressonthe
firstinsulatoratbothextremitiesofthestringisreducedusingshieldingrings.

4.4 Influenceofrain
Testswhichhavebeencarriedoutshowthatrain,asaperturbationoftheinsulationmedium,hasno
significanteffectonthedielectricstrengthofairgaps.However,duetostreamingofwater,therain
canmodifytheshapeoftheelectrodesbyformationofcascadesofwaterdropletsalongthe
insulatorstringandaccordinglydecreasethedielectricstrengthofanairgap[2].Theinfluenceof
raintendstobemorepresentinIinsulatorsthantoVinsulatorsastheangleoftheVinsulator
makestheraindrainawaymoreefficiently.Foranairgapwherethecombinationofcapandpin
insulatorsandrainarepresent,thegapfactorisgivenby:

k wet

kt 1
1 0.54e
kt

(4.11)

wherektisthegapfactorforanairgapwherecapandpininsulatorsarepresent.
Formula3.11indicatesaslightdecreaseofelectricwithstandstrengthinwetconditions.

4.5 Conclusionofthechapter
Anairgapinatransmissiontowercanbeseenasacomplexairgapwithmultipleelectrodes.This
appliesespeciallyforthetowerwindow(seepart4.2.2fig.4).Hence,thetowerwindowmightbe
describedmoreaccuratelybythethreegapfactorskg=1.3,1.35and1.4foundintable1.
UsingthemethodfordeterminerequiredwithstandstrengthUrw=U10willresultina10%
probabilityfortheflashovertooccurovertheinsulatorstringtotraverse,2.5%probabilityforthe
flashovertooccurtowardsthetowerpoleand0.5%probabilityfortheflashovertooccurtowards
theguywire.
Thereisgreatuncertaintyaboutthebehaviourofaflashoverinairgapswithinsulatorsexposedto
lightningimpulses.Thus,therelationshipbetweenelectrodeshapesandgapfactorsishardtodefine
forthiswaveshape(seepart4.2.1).

13

5 Minimumairclearances
Whenupgradingthevoltage,newrequirementsaresettotheinsulationstrength.Whenspecifying
theserequirements,thegoalisnotonlytoselectthenewinsulationstrength,butalsotoselectthe
minimuminsulationstrengthorminimumairclearance.Minimumairclearanceisdirectly connected
tothecost,sincetheminimumairclearanceiswhatdetermineswhetheratowerhastobemodified
ornot.Figure6showsatowerwithclearancecirclesthatillustratestheminimumairclearancesfor
thethreeoperationconditions:

1. Nowind.Minimumairclearancedeterminedbylightningimpulse.
2. 3yearswind.Minimumairdeterminedbyswitchingimpulse.
3. 50yearswind.Minimumairclearancedeterminedby50Hzsystemvoltagepeakvalue
( 2U s ).

Figure6Minimumairclearancesforthreedifferentoperatingconditions.

Thecalculationsoftherequiredairclearancesforswitchingandlightningovervoltages,phaseto
earthandphasetophase,DelandDpp,andfortheoperatingvoltagephasetoearthandphaseto
phase,D50Hz_p_eandD50Hz_p_pinthestandardEN50341[4]arebasedonENV50196supportedbyEN
6500711,EN600712[5]andCigrreport72"Guidelinesfortheevaluationofthedielectricstrength
ofexternalinsulation[2].
Thedielectricstrengthinanairgapdependsonsuchfactorsaselectrodegeometry,spacingandthe
shapeandpolarityofthevoltageimpulse.Thebreakdownvoltageislowerforanimpulsewith
positivepolaritythanforanimpulsewithnegativepolarity.Thebreakdownvoltagewithlightning
impulsesincreasesapproximatelyproportionallytothespacing,whileitincreasesconsiderablymore
slowlywithpositiveswitchingimpulsesandlargespacing.Consequentlyathighersystemvoltages
300kVwheretherearelargeairgapspacinginthetowers,switchingimpulseplaysagreaterrolein
insulationdesignthanlightningimpulse[6].
14

TheformulasforU50%forswitchingandlightningimpulseandpowerfrequencyvoltageinairgaps
giveninEN50341[4]arederivedfromexperimentsofarodplanegapastheelectrodeconfiguration.
Theformulasaregivenby:

U50forarodplanegapconfigurationforswitchingimpulsesorslowfrontwaveimpulses:

U 50 rp _ sf 1080 ln 0.46d 1 kV ; d m

(5.1)

U50forarodplanegapconfigurationforlightningimpulsesorfastfrontwaveimpulses:

U 50 rp _ ff 530d kV ; d m

(5.2)

U50forarodplanegapconfigurationfor50Hzpowerfrequencyvoltage:

U 50 rp _ 50 Hz 750 2 ln 1 0.55d 1.2 kV ; d m

(5.3)

Inahighvoltagetowertheelectrodesarerepresentedbylinesandtowerconstruction.Gapfactors
giveninthestandardEN50341correctforthediscrepancybetweenthegeometryofthevarious
"electrodes"attheappropriateairgapsintowersandtherodplanegap.Consequentlytheformulas
forU50rphavetobemultipliedbyacertaingapfactortodeterminethewithstandstrengthina
certainpartofatower.

6 Wind
6.1 EffectofwindonIstrings
Istringsarenormallynotconstrainedfrommovementcausedbywind.Windcanmovethe
conductorclosertothetower,thusdecreasingboththestrikedistancetothetowerpole,guywire
andtraverse.ReducedstrikedistanceleadstodecreaseofU50,thusincreasingofSSFOR(Switching
SurgeFlashoverRate).AresearchworkconductedbyEFIin1971[7]foundthatthewithstand
strengthofanairgaptendstoreducegraduallywithincreasedinsulatorswing.TheU50isreducedby
4%at10swingand17%at30swing.Furthertheyfoundthatat10swingtheflashoveroccurred
alongtheinsulator,whilefor20swing,theflashovermostlyoccurredtothetraversethroughthe
air.
IntheeasternpartofNorwaythe3yearwindisnormally25m/sandthe50yearwindis32m/s.This
windspeednormallycorrespondstoswinganglesofapproximately30and50respectively.

15

TheSSFORforanIstringcanbecalculatedbyconsideringeachwindspeedanditsprobabilityof
occurrence.

Figure7Windmovestheconductortowardthetower.

Forawindspeedvimpingingontheconductor,theswingangleSis

S tan 1 k1v1.6

(6.1)

DW
V H

(6.2)

where

k1 1.138 104

and

D=conductordiameterincm,W=conductorweightinkg/m,V=verticalspanlength(fig.8),H=
horizontalspanlength(fig.8)andv=windspeed.

16

Figure8Verticalandhorizontalspanlengths.Visthelengthbetweenthelowerpointsofthelinewithintwospanswhile
Histhelengthbetweenthemiddleoftwospans.

ForcalculationofswinganglesoftheinsulatorstringsaprogramnamedPLSCADDwhichisa
computerprogramwithgraphicaluserinterfaceusedfordesigningofoverheadpowerlines.Figure9
showstheanglesoftheinsulatorstringsinatoweratnowindconditions,3yearswindconditions
and50yearswindconditions.

Figure9CalculationsofswinganglesoftheinsulatorstringsinPLSCADData)nowind,b)3yearwindandc)50year
wind.

17

7 Towers
7.1 Modificationoftowers
Toallow420kVin300kVtowerstheinsulatorstringshavetobeextendedbytwotofourinsulators,
dependingonthespaceavailableinthetowerwindowandwhetheritisaIstringasinfig.10oraV
stringasinfig.11.Inanycaseitappliesthatextensionofinsulatorstringsreducesthedistanceand
thusthesafetymarginstowardtheguywires.Eachofthetowersinatransmissionlineisuniquewith
respecttoitsdimensions,meaningthatthesecuritymarginswillvaryfromonetowertoanother.
Sometowersfulfilltherequirementswithouttheneedforfurtherinvestigationofthesafetymargins,
whileothertowerswilldefinitelyhavetobemodifiedtobeabletobeupgraded.Foreveryother
towerbetweenthesetwocases,onewillhavetoevaluateeachtowerparticularly.
Thetowerscanthusbedividedintothreecategories:
1.
Ok
2.
Caseofdoubt
3.
Notok

Figure10ExtensionofanIstringinsulator.

18


Figure11ExtensionofaVstringinsulator.

7.2 Alternativemeasuresfornarrowtowers
Fortowerscoveredbycategory1nomeasuresareneededotherthanextensionoftheinsulator
strings.
Towerscoveredbycategory2requireacloserinvestigationofthetowertoidentifythemostcritical
airgap.Whenthisisidentifiedonecanstartevaluatingpossiblemeasures.Insuchcasesitmightbe
enoughtojustdosomeminorchanges,suchasreplacingexistingfittingequipmentlocatedbetween
phaseandinsulatorwithmorecompactequipment,asillustratedinfig.12willgainalimiteddistance
intheairgap.

Figure12Fittingequipmentbetweenphaseandinsulator.

19

Towerscoveredbycategory3requiremoreextensivemodificationofthetowertobeupgraded.
SupportinginsulatorisasolutionwheretwocompositeinsulatorsformingaVasshowninfig.13and
14.ItlockstheIstringinsulator,preventingitfromswingingtowardsthetowersideatwindy
conditions.Thissolutionisusedontensiontowersaswelltosupportthelooppreventingitfrom
movingtowardsthetowerconstructionasshowninfig.13.AnalternativeistoreplacetheIstring
insulatorwithanordinaryVstringinsulatorseeninfig.11.

Figure13Towerwindowofatensiontowerwithsupportinginsulator.

Figure14Supportinginsulator.

20

Armourrod(fig.15)isahelicalsteelprotectionthatiswoundaroundtheguywiretoprotectitfrom
damagecausedbyarcs.Thissolutionisusedwhenthereisanuncertaintyonwhereinthetower
windowaflashoverwilltakeplace.Inpracticethisisdoneintowerswheretheairclearance
betweenphaseandtraverseisequaltotheairclearancebetweenphaseandguywireinthetower
window.

Figure15Armourrod.

8 Airgapinsulatorconfigurations
Thischapterinvestigatesfourdifferentinsulator/airgapconfigurations.Theminimumairclearances
requiredbytheENstandard,U50andgapfactorsindryandwetconditionsareinvestigatedfor
differenttypeofelectricalstressandswingangles.

8.1 Fourdifferentalternativeconfigurations
Transmissionlinesdesignedforvoltagelevelsof420kVwillnormallyhaveinsulatorstringsof18
insulators.Duetolackofspaceinthevoltageupgradedtransmissionlines,itisfoundexpedientto
useinsulatorstringsof17insulatorstoobtainsufficientreliability.However,dependingonthesizeof
thetowersonemightevennothaveenoughspaceforaninsulatorstringof17insulators.Intowers
withtightdimensions,onemustgodownto16insulatorstoprovidesufficientdistancebetween
phaseandguywire.
Inthecasesoftightdimensioning,onehastoacceptthatthereisahigherprobabilityforaflashover
tooccurincasesofovervoltages.Itisthereforeofgreatimportancetodimensiontheinsulator/air
gaprelationinawaythatanyflashoverfindsitswaytothetraverse,ratherthantotheguywire
whichmightburnoff.Fourdifferentinsulator/airgaprelationsforthemidphasetowerwindowhave
beenproposedbyStatnett:
Table2Insulatorandairgapconfigurations.

Configuration

No.ofinsulators

1
2
3
4

16
16
17
17

Lengthofinsulator
stringinmetres
2.55
2.55
2.72
2.72

Distancetoguywirein
metres
2.55
2.7
2.72
2.9
21

Thechoiceofinsulatorlengthversusdistancetoguywirewillbecompromisesoftheelectrical
withstandperformanceofthetoweratdifferentoperatingconditions.Theinsulatorstringconsisting
of16insulatorswillgivepoorerperformanceincaseofalightningstrikeandnowindthanan
insulatorstringof17insulators.However,ashorterinsulatorstringmightperformbetterinwindy
conditionsastheswingradiusislessforashorterstring.Thisisinvestigatedfurtherbydetermining
U50foraselectionofdifferentswinganglesforthefourbeforementionedinsulator/airgap
configurations.Itcanbeseenfromthetablethateachswinganglecorrespondstoaspecific
operatingsituation,i.e.typeofelectricalstress.BasedoninformationdatafromtheKristiansand
Arendaltransmissionline,thefollowingassumptionsforthemostseverecaseofelectricstresstothe
towersarefoundmostappropriate:

Stresscausedbylightningimpulseismostlikelytooccuratnowindconditions.However,
calculationsaredoneforstaticlineanglesupto10whichisthecaseforsomeofthetowers
inline.

Stresscausedbylineswitchingimpulseismostlikelytooccurforswinganglesupto30.

Stresscausedbypowerfrequencyoperatingvoltageismostlikelyforswinganglesupto40.
Themaximumamplitudeofthepowerfrequencyvoltageisthesystemvoltage.

Thecalculationsofminimumrequiredairclearances,statisticalwithstandstrengthvoltageU50and
gapfactorsaredonebyanexcelsheetmadeforthisproject.Theformulasusedforcalculationofthe
airclearancesandthestatisticalwithstandstrengthvoltageU50aretheformulasthataregiveninEN
50341[5],whiletheformulasusedforcalculationofgapfactorsaretakenfromtheCigrreport72[2]
whichtheENstandardisbasedon.Airclearances,U50andgapfactorsareinvestigatedforvarious
swinganglesoftheinsulatorstringforthefourbeforementionedtowerconfigurations.Calculations
aredonefortheairgapbetweenphaseandguywireandtheairgapbetweenphaseandtraverse.
U50andgapfactorsarealsoinvestigatedovertheinsulatorstringindryandwetconditions,whilethe
airgapsarecalculatedfordryconditions.Calculationsaredoneforlightningimpulses(LI),switching
impulses(SI)andpowerfrequencyvoltage(PF).Theswitchingovervoltageisassumedtobe1.83PU
andtheoperatingvoltageis420kV.Thetowerisassumed25metreshigh,hasaguywireangleof
40*andislocatedatanaltitudeof500metresabovesealevel.
*Theguywireangleistheanglebetweenguywireandtowerpoleasshownonfig.7.Theair
clearanceinthemidphaseasafunctionoftheinsulatorswingangleisalsodependentontheangle
oftheguywire.
Table3showstherelationshipbetweenswinganglesandairclearanceforconfiguration14,witha
guywireangleof40.Theminimumairclearancesisbetweenphaseandguywire,hencetheseair
clearancesarecomparedtominimumrequiredairclearancesaccordingtoENstandard.The
comparedclearancesaremarkedwithboldfront.

22

Table3Airclearancesforconfiguration14andminimumrequiredairclearances.

Configuration Typeof
Min.requiredair
Ref.table3 impulse clearanceaccordingtoEN
1
1
1
1
1

2
2
2
2
2

3
3
3
3
3

4
4
4
4
4

LI
LI
SI
SI
PF

LI
LI
SI
SI
PF

LI
LI
SI
SI
PF

LI
LI
SI
SI
PF

2.687m

1.907m

0.834m

2.687m

1.913m

0.835m

2.866m

1.914m

0.835m

2.866m

1.920m

0.837m

Swing
angle
0
10
20
30
40

0
10
20
30
40

0
10
20
30
40

0
10
20
30
40

Distance
Phaseguy
wire
2.55m
2.236m
1.981m
1.793m
1.678m

2.7m
2.360m
2.106m
1.916m
1.799m

2.72m
2.358m
2.113m
1.912m
1.790m

2.9m
2.531m
2.262m
2.060m
1.935m

Distance
Phase
traverse
2.55m
2.511m
2.396m
2.208m
1.953m

2.55m
2.511m
2.396m
2.208m
1.953m

2.72m
2.679m
2.556m
2.356m
2.084m

2.72
2.679m
2.556m
2.356m
2.084m

Table3showsthat:

MinimumrequiredairclearanceaccordingtoENstandardforallofthethreeimpulsetypes,
LI,SIandPF,isachievedwithconfiguration2and4wheretheairgapbetweenphaseand
guywireisgreaterthanthelengthoftheinsulatorstring.

Configuration1and3doesnotfulfillENstandardrequirementforminimumairclearance
whenexposedtolightningimpulses(LI).

Forallconfigurations,thedistancebetweenphaseandguywire,whichistheleastdurable
airgap,isalsotheshortestoneatswinganglesexceeding10.

23

Table4Conductorcrossarmcalculatedfora250/2500spositiveswitchingimpulse,(SI)underdryandwetconditions.
Gapfactorsaregiveninparentheses.Altitudeof500m,towerheight=25m,guywireangleof40.

Configuration Typeof
Ref.table3 impulse
1
LI
1
LI
1
SI
1
SI
1
PF

2
LI
2
LI
2
SI
2
SI
2
PF

3
LI
3
LI
3
SI
3
SI
3
PF

4
LI
4
LI
4
SI
4
SI
4
PF

Swing
angle
0
10
20
30
40

0
10
20
30
40

0
10
20
30
40

0
10
20
30
40

U50Phase
guywire
1428(1.057)
1253(1.058)
859(1.228)
801(1.233)
848(1.135)

1448(1.057)
1322(1.057)
896(1.225)
839(1.230)
899(1.133)

1523(1.056)
1336(1.057)
898(1.225)
838(1.229)
895(1.132)

1546(1.056)
1418(1.057)
941(1.222)
882(1.226)
953(1.130)

U50Phase
traverse
1416(1.048)
1407(1.057)
979(1.220)
926(1.223)
961(1.130)

1416(1.048)
1407(1.057)
979(1.220)
926(1,223)
961(1.130)

1510(1.048)
1500(1.056)
1022(1.218)
967(1.220)
1011(1.129)

1510(1.048)
1500(1.056)
1022(1.218)
967(1.220)
1011(1.129)

U50Dry
insulator
1416(1.048)

991(1.182)

1082(1.030)

1416(1.048)

991(1.182)

1082(1.030)

1510(1.048)

1035(1.181)

1136(1.030)

1510(1.048)

1035(1.181)

1136(1.030)

U50Wet
insulator
1416(1.048)

989(1.180)

1082(1.030)

1416(1.048)

989(1.180)

1082(1.030)

1510(1.048)

1033(1.178)

1136(1.030)

1510(1.048)

1033(1.178)

1136(1.030

Table4showsthat:

Thesametrendisrepeatedforallofthefourinsulators/airgapconfigurations:U50is
decreasingwithincreasingswinganglewhilethegapfactorisincreasingwithincreasing
swingangle.

Thevariationsofthevalueofthegapfactorsareinsignificantcomparetothevariationsof
U50.Intheorythisresultsindicatethatachangeinthegeometryofthetowerhasnegligible
impacttothegapfactorandthustothevalueofU50.

ReductionofU50isratherduetoreducedclearancecausedbyincreasinginsulatorswing
angle.Theairgapbetweenphaseandguywirehasthegreatestlossofelectricalwithstand
strengthsincethisistheairgapthatreducedthemostasafunctionofincreasedswingangle.

Configuration2and4performbetteratinsulatorswingingthanconfiguration1and3.
However,thedesiredpropertyofhavingagreaterU50betweenphaseandguywirethanthe
U50betweenphaseandtraverseisonlyachievedwhenthereisnoswingangle.

24

9 Theoryvs.laboratorytesting
Asaconsequenceofvoltageupgrading,severaltowerswillendinguphavingrathertightdimensions
andhencelowersecuritymargins.Someofthesetowersmightnothavesufficientsecuritymargin
accordingtostandards.Asmentionedearlier,itisnotanabsoluterequirementtofollowthe
standardsaslongasonecanprovethatthetowersmeettherequirementsforsafetysetbythe
regulations.Asapartofthedocumentationprocesslaboratoryexperimentsshouldbeperformed.A
laboratorytestshouldbedoneonafullscaletestobject,whichinthiscaseisa300kVtransmission
tower,andwiththeexpectedvoltagelevelsandimpulsetypesthatatowermightbeexposedto.
Thiskindoflaboratorytestsareexpensive,complicatedandtimeconsumingtoperformandwillnot
beincludedinthisreport.However,afullscalelaboratorytestunderthedirectionofStatnettwillbe
performedatalaterstage.Forthisreport,twoexistinglaboratoryreportshavebeenusedfor
investigationoftowerinsulation:
1. ConductedbySTRIwiththetitle:Experimentaldielectrictestsonaporcelaininsulatorstring
withcapandpininsulatorstypeNGKCA500[8].
2. ConductedbyEFI(formerSINTEF)withthetitle:Luftisolasjon.Underskelseavelektrisk
holdfasthetforlinjeisolasjon[7].
InthischapterstatisticalwithstandvoltageU50andgapfactorsfordifferentairgapconfigurations
areinvestigated.Theresultsfromthetwoabovementionedreportsareusedasabasisfor
comparisontothestandards.

9.1 Researchreport1:STRI
In2009STRI[8],aSwedishaccreditedtestinglaboratory,didaresearchonthedielectricproperties
ofinsulatorstringsbeingexposedtodifferentelectricalstresses.Experimentaldielectrictestswere
performedonaporcelaininsulatorstringwithcapandpininsulatorsidenticaltotheoneslocatedin
thetransmissionlineNeaHjrpstrmmen.TheresearchwasperformedonrequestofSvenska
Kraftnt.Thetestobjectusedforthisresearchworkwassimulatingatowerwindowasshowninfig.
16.

Figure16Testobjectsimulatingthetowerwindow.

25

Thetestobjectconsistedof:

Aporcelaininsulatorstringconsistingofy=14(1.8m),15(1.96m)and16(2.1m)capand
pininsulatorstypeNGKCA500fromthelineNeaHjrpstrmmen.Theinsulatorstringwas
fittedintothecrossarmwithoriginalfittingdetails.
Theinsulatorstringwasmountedonacrossarmequippedwithtwoverticalmemberswitha
distanceofx=7.2mfromeachother,simulatingthepolesofthetower.
Thelinewassimulatedbya6meteraluminiumtubewithdiameter30mm,mountedonthe
originalarchinghornanddetails,fittedonthelowerendoftheinsulatorstring.
ThedistancefromthepowerlinetothegroundisH=6metres.

Thetestwasperformedwiththethreeimpulsetypes

Lightningimpulsedisruptivedischargetestwithpositivepolarityanddryconditions(LIdry).
Switchingimpulsedisruptivedischargetestwithpositivepolarityandwetconditions(SIwet).
Powerfrequencydisruptivedischargetestforwetconditions(PFwet).

TestvaluesofU50fromtheSTRItestreportarecomparedwithvaluescalculatedwiththeformulas
forU50givenintheENstandard.Thecalculationsare,asfaraspossible,carriedoutwiththesame
conditionsasthetestconditions.Gapfactorsarecorrectedforinsulatorsandrain.Thefollowing
tablesshowacomparisonbetweentestresultsandcalculations.

9.1.1 Lightningimpulse
Thelightningtestwasperformedonaninsulatorstringof15insulatorscorrespondingtoaflashover
lengthof1.96munderdryconditions.TheupanddownmethodwasusedtodetermineU50.

Table5U50,50%flashoverprobabilityforlightningimpulse(LIdry).

Test

Numberof
insulators

LIdry

15

U50corrected U50calculated Deviationbetween

test
conductor
testandcalculation
window
referredto
kdry=1.041
calculatedvalues
1216kV

1081kV

12.4%

Forthelightningimpulsethedeviationis12.4%.Thecalculationsinthepreviouschapterindicated
thattheminimumairclearancesforthelightningimpulsewerethemostcriticalonesandrequired
minimumairclearancecouldnotbeobtainedforconfiguration1and3.

26

Inthestandardsforinsulationcoordination,therequiredwithstandvoltage,Urwforlightningand
switchingimpulsesaresettobethevoltagethatgivesa10%probabilityforflashovertooccurinthe
airgapi.e.Urw=U10.Thisvalueisobtainedbymoving1.3standarddeviationstotheleftonthe
probabilitycurve.Forlightningimpulseonestandarddeviationis3%ofU50.Onewillthenendupat
10%probabilityforflashoverontheprobabilitycurve.
Urwisdeterminedbytheformula

U rw U10 U50 1.3Z kV

(9.1)

whereZisthestandarddeviation
Figure17showstheprobabilityforaflashovertooccurasafunctionofthemagnitudeofthe
lightningimpulseforaninsulatorstringof1.96m,correspondingto15insulators.

1
0,9
0,8
Probability

0,7
0,6
0,5
0,4

Test

0,3

ENstandard

0,2
0,1
0
950

1050

1150

1250

1350

Voltage[kV]

Figure17Cumulativenormaldistributionprobabilitycurvesforflashoverforlightningimpulse(LIdry)and15insulators
(1.96m).

ThedifferencebetweenU50andUrwis1.3standarddeviations,whilethedifferencebetweenthetest
resultandcalculationcorrespondstoapproximatelyfourstandarddeviations.IfthevalueofU50
givenbythebluecurvethatrepresentthestandardisinsertedintotheformulaforUrw,weobtain
therequiredwithstandvoltage:

27

U rw U10 U50 1.3Z 1081 1.3 0.06 1081 1039kV

(9.2)

wherethestandarddeviation,Z=0.03U50.
U10of1039kVonthebluecurvegivesaprobabilityof10%forflashover,whileitgivesaprobability
of3.17*105forflashoverontheredcurvethatrepresentsthelaboratorytestresult.
Conclusion:TheUrwvaluedeterminedfromthestandards,whichissupposedtohaveaprobabilityof
10%foraflashovertooccur,hasamuchlowerprobabilityforoccurrenceaccordingtothelightning
impulsedisruptivedischargetestwith15insulators.

9.1.2 Switchingimpulse
Theswitchingtestwasperformedunderwetconditionsonaninsulatorstringof14,15and16
insulatorscorrespondingtoaflashoverlengthof1.8,1.96and2.1mrespectively.Theupanddown
methodwasusedtodetermineU50.

Table6U50,50%flashoverprobabilityforswitchingimpulse(SIwet).

U50corrected U50calculated Deviationbetween

test
conductor
testandcalculation
window
referredto
kwet=1.155
calculatedvalues

Test

Numberof
insulators

SIwet

14

786kV

753kV

4.4%

SIwet

15

851kV

802kV

6.1%

SIwet

16

919kV

843kV

9.0%

TheresultsfromtheswitchingimpulsedisruptivedischargetestandthecalculatedvaluesofU50have
adeviationthatvariesbetween4.49%,wherethedeviationincreasingwiththelengthoftheairgap.
Figure18showstheprobabilityforaflashovertooccurasafunctionofthemagnitudeofthe
switchingimpulseforinsulatorstringof1.96m,correspondingto15insulators.

28

1
0,9
0,8
Probability

0,7
0,6
0,5
0,4

Test

0,3

ENstandard

0,2
0,1
0
650

750

850

950

Voltage[kV]

Figure18Cumulativenormaldistributionprobabilitycurvesforflashoverforswitchingimpulse(SIwet)and15insulators
(1.96m).

ThedifferencebetweenU50andUrwis1.3standarddeviations,asforlightningimpulses,butfor
switchingimpulses,onestandarddeviationcorrespondsto6%ofU50.Thedifferencebetweenthe
valueofU50basedonthestandardandU50testedisapproximatelyequaltoonestandarddeviation
whenconsideringaflashoverlengthof15insulatorsor1.96m.IfthevalueofU50givenbytheblue
curvethatrepresentthestandardisinsertedintotheformulaforUrw,weobtaintherequired
withstandvoltage:

U rw U10 U50 1.3Z 802 1.3 0.06 802 739kV

(9.3)

wherethestandarddeviation,Z=0.06U50.

U10of739kVonthebluecurvegivesaprobabilityof10%forflashover,whileitgivesaprobability
of0.014forflashoverontheredcurvethatrepresentsthelaboratorytestresult.
Table7belowshowstheresultsoftheU10switchingimpulsedisruptivedischargetestoninsulator
stringsof14and15insulatorscorrespondingtoaflashoverlengthof1.8and1.96mrespectively.

29

Table7U10,10%flashoverprobabilityforswitchingimpulse(SIwet).

Test

No.of
insulators

No.of
impulses

U10corrected
test

No.offlash
over

U10calculated
conductor
window

kwet=1.155
SIwet
SIwet

14
15

15
15

732kV
804kV

1
3

695
739

Deviation
betweentest
andcalculation
referredto
calculatedvalues
5.3%
8.8%

Again,whenaninsulatorstringof15insulatorsisconsidered,thetestresultshowsthatthevalueof
U10=804kVwhichis8.8%higherthanU10calculatedaccordingtostandards.
IfthetestresultsoftheU50testareinsertedintotheformulaforUrw,ideallyweshouldendupwith
aresultsimilartotheU10testofequallynumberofinsulators.WheninsertingthetestresultofU50
at15insulatorsobtain:

U rw U10 U50 1.3Z 851 1.3 0.06 851 785kV

(9.4)

whichissomewhatbetweentheactualtestresultof804kVandthevalueobtainedfromthe
standardof739kV.Thisindicatesthattheremaybesafetymarginsaddedinboththeformulafor
requiredwithstandvoltage,UrwandthevalueofthestatisticalwithstandvoltageU50.Thismayin
sumgiveanunnecessarilyhighsafetymargin.
Conclusion:TheUrwvaluedeterminedfromthestandards,whichissupposedtohaveaprobabilityof
10%foraflashovertooccur,hasa1.4%probabilityforoccurrenceaccordingtotheswitching
impulsedisruptivedischargetestwith15insulators.

9.2 Researhreport2:EFI
TheresearchworktitledLuftisolasjon.Underskelseavelektriskholdfasthetforlinjeisolasjon[7]
conductedbyformerSINTEF,EFIin1971discussesdimensioningofinsulationintowersand
probabilityforflashover,i.e.probabilisticinsulationdimensioning.Thetestobject,aninsulator
stringof9to18capandpininsulators,wasexposedtolightningimpulses,switchingimpulsesand
50Hzoperatingvoltage.Theresearchtakesaimtoestablisharelationshipbetweenflashover
voltageforarodplanegapandrelevantinsulationconfigurationsofequalstrikedistancei.e.thegap
factor,Kg.
Otherissuesthatwereinvestigatedweretheimpactsoftheinsulatorswingangleandraintothe
electricalwithstandvoltage.ThereportpresentsthevalueofU50forthethreedifferenttypesof

30

electricalstressatfivedifferentinsulatorconfigurationsformidandouterphaseandatfour
differentswinganglesoftheinsulatorstringoftheouterphase.

Thetestobjectusedtoperformthetestswassimulatingouterphaseandtowerwindowasshownin
fig.19a),b)andc).

Figure19Testobjectusedtosimulatethetowerarrangement.Figurea)andb)representstheouterphase.Swingangle
issimulatedaccordingtofigureb).Figurec)representsthemidphase[7].

Thetestobjectconsistedof:

Istringinsulatorsof9,15and18capandpininsulatorsandVstringinsulatorsof9and15
capandpininsulatorstypeNTP33019,21ton.

Towerarrangementaccordingtofig19.

Thetestprocedurewasasfollows:

Towercrossarmwassimulatedaccordingtofig19a)andb)forIstringinsulatorsandtower
windowweresimulatedaccordingtofig19c)forbothVstringandIstringinsulators.

Insulatorswingingwassimulatedfortheouterphaseaccordingtofig19b)for10,20and

30.

31

Theexperimentswereperformedusingdifferentvoltageimpulseshapessimulatinglighting
impulsesandswitchingimpulses.Tosimulatelightingstrikeanimpulseshapewithtimeto
peakT1=1.2sandtimetohalfvalueT2=50swasusedaccordingtofig20.The1.2/50s
impulseisdefinedasthestandardlightningimpulse.

TheswitchingimpulsewassimulatedbyapplyingavoltageshapewithtimetopeakT1=200
sandtimetohalfvalueT2=3000stothetestobjectaccordingtofig20.

Figure20Voltageimpulse.Xaxis:T1=timetothepeakvalueoftheimpulseisobtained,T2=timetohalfofthepeak
valueoftheimpulseremains.Td=timewheretheimpulsehasavoltagelevelbetween0.9and1.0PU.Yaxis:Valueof
thevoltageoftheimpulseinPU.

9.2.1 Gapfactors
Theresearchestablishedarelationshipbetweenflashovervoltageforarodplanegapandrelevant
insulationconfigurationsofequalstrikedistanceaccordingtofig.19a),b)andc).Therelation
betweentheflashovervoltageforacertaininsulationconfigurationandarodplanegapisdescribed
bythegapfactor.Severaldisruptivedischargetestsareperformedforseveralvariantsofthe
geometry(s,z,y,andx)forlightning/switchingimpulsesand50Hzpowerfrequencyandforwet
anddryconditions.Thetestresultsarecomparedtodisruptivedischargetestsofarodplanegapof
equallengthasareferencegap.

Thegapfactoristherelation:

Kg

U 50 _test _object
U 50 _ rod plane _ pos. _ pol.

(9.5)

ThegapfactorsobtainedfromtheEFItestarecomparedtogapfactorsobtainedaccordingtothe
formulas3.3,3.4,3.5and3.6inchapter4Gapfactors.
32

ParisandCortinasuggestedseveralgapfactorsdependingonthegapconfiguration,from1forarod
planegapto1.9foraconductorrodgap.EN50341reproducestypicalvaluesforgapfactorsthatare
basedontypicaldimensionsfordifferentinsulatingconfigurations.Thesearefixedvaluesgivenfor
onespecificconfigurationwhichdimensionsarewithinanareaofapplication.Ifamoreaccurate
valueofthegapfactorisdesired,itcanbecalculatedaccordingtotheformulas3.5and3.6fromthe
Cigr72technicalbulletin[2]whichdescribeshowtocalculatethegapfactorsforthedifferent
geometricconfigurations.Bydoingthisoneobtainagapfactorthatshoulddescribetheelectric
propertiesoftheairgapmoreaccurately,sincethestrikedistanceisalsotakenintoaccount.
Whenputtingindifferentstrikedistancesfrom210metresintheformula3.6fortowerwindow,
andplottingtheresults,oneobtainsthefollowingcurvewiththegapfactorasafunctionofthe
strikedistancethatis,thestrikedistanceinthexaxisandthegapfactorintheyaxis.

1,28
1,27

Gapfactor

1,26
1,25
1,24
1,23
1,22
1,21
2

10

Strikedistance(m)

Figure21Gapfactorforpositivepolarityswitchingimpulsetowerwindow(midphase)asafunctionofthestrike
distance.

Fromthecurveitiseasytovisualizethattheinfluenceofthestrikedistancetothegapfactorissmall
andthattheoutcomefromcalculatingthegapfactorforaspecificstrikedistancedoesnotdiffer
significantlyfromthefixedvaluesgiveninthestandard,whichinthiscase,thetowerwindow,would
be1.25.ThisobservationsupportsthestatementfromtheCigr72technicalbulletinwhichstate:
Somethingthatshouldbenoticedisthatthegapfactorispracticallyunaffectedbythelengthofthe
airgap[2].
TheresearchworkconductedbyEFIin1971[7]concludesthatforswitchingimpulsethegapfactoris
dependentonthestrikedistanceandthatthegapfactorsvaryapproximatelylinearlywhenthestrike
distanceisintherangeof13metres.Thisconclusionseemsreasonablecomparedtothecurveinfig.
21intherangeof13metres.

33

However,asfig.21showsadecreaseofthegapfactorbetween13metres,theEFIreportclaims
thatthegapfactorincreaseswithincreasedstrikelengthinthesamearea.
TheEFIresearchsuggeststhatforairgapsof1m<Z3mref.fig.22b)thegapfactorforthemid
phaseandpositiveswitchingimpulsecanwithgoodapproximationbesetto:

K g _ sf 1 0.067 Z

(9.6)

Figure22Gapfactorforpositivepolarityswitchingimpulsetowerwindow(midphase)asafunctionofthestrike
distance[7].

Thelengthofthesuspensionequipmentthatsecurestheinsulatorstringtothetowerhastosome
extentanimpactonthebehaviouroftheairgapandhencethegapfactor.However,thereport
concludesthatwhenthelengthofthesuspensionequipmentisintherangefrom180mmto1120
mm,thedifferencewithrespecttothevalueofU50isnegligible.Thus,accordingtothisconclusion
thesuspensionequipmenthasanegligibleimpacttothegapfactorformostpracticalcases.
Inthefollowingthreechapterstheinfluenceofraintothegapfactorandthusthewithstand
strengthofairgapswithinsulatorsexaminedforlightningimpulse,switchingimpulseandcontinuous
50Hzvoltage.

34

9.2.1.1 Lightningimpulse
Outerphase
Table8Gapfactorsforouterphaseatlightningimpulse.

Testobject

Istringinsulator9segments
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Istringinsulator15segments
"
"
Istringinsulator18segments

Dry/
wet
Dry
"
"
"
Wet
"
"
"
Dry
Wet
"
Dry

s
0.18
0.60
0.60
1.12
0.18
0.60
0.60
1.12
0.18
0.18
0.60
1.20

Geometrym
z
y
1.35 1.53
1.35 1.95
1.35 1.95
1.35 2.47
1.35 1.53
1.35 1.95
1.35 1.95
1.35 2.47
2.38 2.56
2.38 2.56
2.38 2.98
2.80 4.00

Geometrym
z
y
1.34 1.26
1.34 1.54
1.34 1.90
1.34 1.26
1.34 1.54
1.34 1.90
2.37 2.31
2.37 2.63
2.37 2.31
2.37 2.63
1.35 1.95
1.35 1.95
2.38 2.56
2.38 2.56

x
2.40
2.40
3.06
4.00
2.40
2.40
3.06
4.00
4.00
4.00
4.00
4.50

Kg
EFItest
1.13
1.15
1.16
1.15
1.10
1.10
1.13
1.14
1.09
1.09
1.12
1.11

Kg
Standard
1.099
1.041
1.041
1.080
1.099
1.041
1.041
1.080
1.079
1.079
1.075
1.072

x
2.40
3.06
4.00
2.40
3.06
4.00
4.50
4.50
4.50
4.50
3.06
3.06
4.50
4.50

Kg
EFItest
1.07
1.08
1.13
1.08
1.09
1.07
1.07
1.06
1.05
1.06
1.12
1.11
1.07
1.07

Kg
Standard
1.058
1.054
1.051
1.058
1.054
1.051
1.049
1.048
1.049
1.048
1.051
1.051
1.048
1.048

Midphase
Table9Gapfactorsformidphaseatlightningimpulse.

Testobject

Vstringinsulator9segments
"
"
"
"
"
Vstringinsulator15segments
"
"
"
Istringinsulator9segments
"
Istringinsulator15segments
"

Dry/
wet
Dry
"
"
Wet
"
"
Dry
"
Wet
"
Dry
Wet
Dry
Wet

s
0.18
0.60
1.12
0.18
0.60
1.12
0.18
0.60
0.18
0.60
0.60
0.60
0.18
0.18

ForlightningimpulsesthegapfactorsfromtheEFItestareverysimilartothegapfactorsobtained
fromthestandardforbothdryandwetconditions.Rainseemtohavenoinfluenceonthewithstand
strengthofIstringsorVstringsexposedtolightningimpulses.

35

9.2.1.2 Switchingimpulse
Outerphase

Table10Gapfactorsforouterphaseatswitchingimpulse.

Testobject

Istringinsulator9segments
"
"
"
"
"
Istringinsulator15segments
"

Dry/
wet
Dry
"
"
Wet
"
"
Dry
Wet

s
0.18
0.60
1.12
0.18
0.60
1.12
0.18
0.18

Geometrym
z
y
1.35 1.53
1.35 1.95
1.35 2.47
1.35 1.53
1.35 1.95
1.35 2.47
2.38 2.56
2.38 2.56

x
2.40
3.06
4.00
2.40
3.06
4.00
4.00
4.00

Kg
EFItest
1.19
1.22
1.26
0.84
0.79
0.78
1.31
1.05

Kg
Standard
1.374
1.332
1.302
1.323
1.297
1.276
1.298
1.274

Midphase

Table11Gapfactorsformidphaseatswitchingimpulse.

Testobject

Vstringinsulator9segments
"
"
"
"
"
Vstringinsulator15segments
"
Istringinsulator9segments
"
Istringinsulator15segments
"

Dry/
wet
Dry
"
"
Wet
"
"
Dry
Wet
Dry
Wet
Dry
Wet

s
0.18
0.60
1.12
0.18
0.60
1.12
0.60
0.60
0.60
0.60
0.18
0.18

Geometrym
z
y
1.34 1.26
1.34 1.54
1.34 1.90
1.34 1.26
1.34 1.54
1.34 1.90
2.37 2.63
2.37 2.63
1.34 1.90
1.34 1.90
2.38 2.56
2.38 2.56

x
2.40
3.06
4.00
2.40
3.06
4.00
4.50
4.50
3.06
3.06
4.50
4.50

Kg
EFItest
1.04
1.09
1.14
1.00
0.98
0.86
1.15
1.08
1.20
0.94
1.22
1.08

Kg
Standard
1.220
1.206
1.194
1.213
1.201
1.190
1.182
1.179
1.194
1.190
1.182
1.180

Forswitchingimpulses,theEFItestshowsahigherdecreaseofthegapfactorasaconsequenceof
rainthanthoseobtainedfromthestandard.TheEFItestshowsadecreaseofkgandthusthe
withstandstrengthintheorderof613%forVstringinsulatorsand2034%forIstringinsulators.
Theinfluenceofraintothegapfactorisdecreasingwithincreasedinsulatorlength.Thegapfactors
obtainedfromthestandardshowadecreaseofkgintherangeof04%.However,theEFItestresults

36

andtheENstandardseemtofolloweachotherrelativelyindryconditions.ThegapfactorsoftheEN
standardaresomewhathigherthantheEFItestresults.
9.2.1.3 50Hzpowerfrequency
Outerphase

Table12Gapfactorsforouterphaseatpowerfrequencyvoltage.

Testobject

Istringinsulator9segments
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Rodplane

Dry/
wet
Dry
"
"
"
Wet
"
"
"
Dry

s
0.18
0.60
0.60
1.12
0.18
0.60
0.60
1.12

Geometrym
z
y
1.35 1.53
1.35 1.95
1.35 1.95
1.35 2.47
1.35 1.53
1.35 1.95
1.35 1.95
1.35 2.47
1.35

x
2.40
2.40
3.06
4.00
2.40
2.40
3.06
4.00

Kg
EFItest
1.15
1.17
1.17
1.20
0.75
0.69
0.69
0.69
1.03

Kg
Standard
1.061
1.054
1.026
1.050
1.061
1.054
1.026
1.050

Midphase

Table13Gapfactorsformidphaseatpowerfrequencyvoltage.

Testobject

Vstringinsulator9segments
"
"
"
"
"
Istringinsulator9segments
"

Dry/
wet
Dry
"
"
Wet
"
"
Dry
Wet

s
0.18
0.60
1.12
0.18
0.60
1.12
0.60
0.60

Geometrym
z
y
1.34 1.26
1.34 1.54
1.34 1.90
1.34 1.26
1.34 1.54
1.34 1.90
1.35 1.95
1.35 1.95

x
2.40
3.06
4.00
2.40
3.06
4.00
3.06
3.06

Kg
EFItest
0.98
1.00
1.00
0.71
0.79
0.74
1.19
0.80

Kg
Standard
1.037
1.034
1.032
1.037
1.034
1.032
1.032
1.032

Asfortheswitchingimpulses,the50Hzpowerfrequencytestshowsthatthedifferenceinkgindry
andwetconditionsseemstobelargerfortheEFItestthanproposedbythestandard.TheEFItest
showsadecreaseofthegapfactorasaconsequenceofrainintheorderof25%forVstring
insulatorsand3340%forIstringinsulators.Thereisnodifferencefordryandwetconditionsforthe
gapfactorsobtainedfromthestandard.However,thetestresultsandthecalculationsseemto

37

followeachotherrelativelyindryconditions.Oppositetoswitchingimpulses,thegapfactors
obtainedbytheENstandardaresomewhatlowerthanthosefromtheEFItestresults.
ThetestsperformedwithswitchingimpulseandpowerfrequencyvoltageshowthattheIstring
suffersagreaterlossofelectricwithstandstrengththantheVstringasaconsequenceofrain.This
canbeexplainedbythenaturallydraineffectcausedbythe45angleoftheVstringinsulators.
ThesefindingsareconsistentwithwhatwasfoundinCigrreport72[2](seechapter4.4).Asfor
lightningimpulsesitdidnotseemtobeanydifferencesondryandwetconditions.Thismayindicate
thatrainhasalesserimpactonshortdurationimpulsewaves.

9.2.2

U50disruptivedischargetest

9.2.2.1 ElectricalstressfromLightning

OuterphaseEFItest:
Table14Conductorcrossarmexposedtoa1.2/50spositivelightningimpulse,(LI)underdryconditions.

Testobject
Istringinsulator
"
"
"

Geometry
D1/dxO.Pref.fig.7
2.56/4m
"
"
"

Swingangle

0
10
20
30

U50EFI
Kg=1.31at0
1380
1354
1289
1204

%reductionat
swingangle
0
1.9
6.6
12.8

Midphasecalculated:
Table15Conductorcrossarmcalculatedfora1.2/50spositivelightningimpulse,(LI)underdryconditions.Same
geometryasabove.

Swingangle
0
10
20
30

U50calculated
Airgap
1484
1461
1392
1279

GapfactorKg
1.094
1.093
1.091
1.089

%reductionat
swingangle
0
1.5
6.2
13.8

U50calculated
Overinsulator
1464(1.079)
"
"
"

Whencomparingtable14and15thefollowingisobserved:

TherelativereductionofU50duetoinsulatorswingingispracticallythesamefortheEFItest
andthecalculations.
ThecalculatedvaluesofU50arearound100kVhigherthaninthetest,oppositetotheresults
oftheSTRItestwherethecalculatedvaluesareabout130kVlowerthanthetestresults.
38

IntheEFItesttheflashovertendstogotoalongtheinsulatorstringfor10swingangle,at
20swinganglemostflashovergoesdirectlytothetraverseandat30swinganglesome
flashoveralsogoestotheverticaltowerpole.
FromtheresultsinthetableforcalculatedvaluesitcanbeseenthatU50intheairgap
becomessmallerthanU50overtheinsulator,i.e.theflashovergoesdirectlytothetraverse
alreadyat10swingangle.

MidphaseEFItest:
Table16Towerwindowexposedtoa1.2/50spositivelightningimpulse,(LI)underdryandwetconditions.

Testobject
Istringinsulator
"

Geometry
D1/dxO.Pref.fig.7
2.56/4.5m
"

Dry/wet
Dry
Wet

U50EFI

1350
1352

GapfactorKg
1.07
1.07

Midphasecalculated:
Table17Towerwindowcalculatedfora1.2/50spositivelightningimpulse,(LI)underdryandwetconditions.

Testobject
Istringinsulator
"

Geometry
D1/dxO.Pref.fig.7
2.56/4.5m
"

Dry/wet
Dry
Wet

U50calculated

1422
1422

GapfactorKg
1.048
1.048

Whencomparingtable16and17thefollowingisobserved:

Boththetestresultsandthecalculationsshownodifferenceinthegapfactorandhencethe
withstandstrengthoftheairgapinwetanddryconditions,whichistobeexpected
accordingtotheresultsseenintable13.

39

9.2.2.2 Electricalstressfromlineswitching
ThetestresultsfromtheEFIworkarecomparedwithcalculations.Thecalculationsaredoneonthe
basisoftheENstandards[5]whichhavestandardizedtheswitchingimpulseasa250/2500impulse.
Theseresultshavebeencomparedwithcalculationsandthecomparisonisshowninthetablebelow.

OuterphaseEFItest:
Table18Conductorcrossarmexposedtoa200/3000spositiveswitchingimpulse,(SI)underdryconditions.

Testobject

Geometry
D1/dxO.Pref.fig.7
Istringinsulator
2.56/4m
"
"
"
"
"
"

Swingangle
0
10
20
30

U50EFI
Kg=1.31at0
1219
1172
1110
1010

%reductionat
swingangle
0
3.9
8.9
17.1

Midphasecalculated:
Table19Conductorcrossarmcalculatedfora250/2500spositiveswitchingimpulse,(SI)underdryconditions.Same
geometryasabove.

Swingangle

0
10
20
30

U50calculated
Airgap
1143
1129
1088
1019

GapfactorKg
1.360
1.358
1.352
1.342

%reductionat
swingangle
0
1.2
4.8
10.8

U50calculated
Overinsulator
1091(1.298)
"
"
"

MidphaseEFItest:
Table20Towerwindowexposedtoa200/3000spositiveswitchingimpulse,(SI)underdryandwetconditions.

Testobject
Istringinsulator
"

Geometry
D1/dxO.Pref.fig.7
2.56/4.5m
"

Dry/wet
Dry
Wet

U50EFI

1124
1000

GapfactorKg
1.22
1.08

40

Midphasecalculated:
Table21Towerwindowcalculatedfora250/2500spositiveswitchingimpulse,(SI)underdryandwetconditions.

Testobject
Istringinsulator
"

Geometry
D1/dxO.Pref.fig.7
2.56/4.5m
"

Dry/wet
Dry
Wet

U50calculated

994
991

GapfactorKg
1.182
1.180

Itisworthnotifyingthattheshapeofthevoltageshapemightinfluencetheresultsignificantly.Both
testresultsandcalculationsindicatesignificantlossininsulationlevelwhentheinsulatorshavea
certainangle.Thisisasexpectedastheminimumairclearanceisreducedwithincreasedswingangle.
TheEFItestshowsalothigherdecreaseofU50thanthecalculations.However,thetrendisthatU50
decreasesrelativelyatthesameratioinbothcases.ThepartoftheEFItestthatconcernstestingof
electricalwithstandvoltageasafunctionoftheswingangleoftheinsulatorstringsisonlydonefor
theouterphase.Asthemostcriticalminimumairclearanceislocatedatthemiddlephase,itwould
bemoreinterestingtoknowthewithstandstrengthhere.ThereforecalculationsofU50andgap
factorsareperformedforthesameswinganglesasfortheouterphasealthoughtheyarenot
comparedtoanyrealtest.Theymighthoweverindicatewhatcouldbeexpectedinreallife.
Theresultisshownintablebelow.

Table22Towerwindowcalculatedfora250/2500spositiveswitchingimpulse,(SI)underdryandwetconditionsand
fordifferentswingangles.Theairgapbetweenphaseandguywireandthelengthoftheinsulatorstringisboth2.56m.

Swing
angle
0
10
20
30

U50Phaseguy
wire
1024(1.218)
936(1.222)
861(1.228)
803(1.233)

U50Phase
traverse
1024(1.218)
1013(1.219)
982(1.220)
928(1.223)

U50Dry
insulator
994(1.182)
994(1.182)
994(1.182)
994(1.182)

U50Wet
insulator
991(1.180)
991(1.180)
991(1.180)
991(1.180)

Swingingofinsulatorswillcauseachangeofthegeometricpropertiesoftheairgapinatower.Thus,
thegapfactorswillalsochangewiththeinsulatorswingangle.However,thechangeofthesizeof
theairgapduetoswingingisthemainreasonforreductionofthevalueofU50ratherthanthe
changeofthegapfactor.ThegapfactorgiveninparenthesesforeachvalueofU50doesnotappear
tochangesignificantlywiththeswingangleoftheinsulatorstring.Thisagreeswiththeresults
obtainedintable4inchapter8.
Table22indicatesthattheelectricwithstandstrengthisabout3%lessoveradryorwetinsulatoras
fortherestoftheairgap.At10swinganglethephaseguywireairgaphaslost9%oftheelectrical
withstandstrength.At20swinganglethephaseguywireairgaphaslost16%oftheelectrical
withstand,whilethephasetraverseairgaphaslostabout4%oftheelectricalwithstandstrength.
41

Onthebasisofthecalculations,onecanassumethat

Atswinganglesnotexceeding10mostflashoverwilloccuralongtheinsulatorstring.
Atswinganglesexceeding10mostflashoverwilloccurintheairgap,mainlytotheguywire.
TheseresultsdiffersomefromtheEFItestwhichconcludesthataflashoverwilloccuralong
theinsulatorataswingangleof10,andtothetraverseataswingangleof20.

Thetableindicatesthatthestatisticalwithstandvoltage,U50decreaseswithincreasedswingangleas
expected.Atacertainswinganglethestrikemighteventuallyfinditswaytotheguywire.As
previousdiscussed,itisdesirablethataflashoverfindsitswaytothetraverseratherthantothe
guywires.Thishastobetakenintoaccountwhenchoosinginsulatorconfiguration.Eachtowerhasa
specificmaximumswingangleatadefinedwindspeed.

9.3 Conclusionofthechapter
GapfactorsandthestatisticalwithstandvoltageU50areinvestigatedbycomparingresultsfromtwo
previousresearchwithcalculationsbasedontheENstandard.
TheENstandardturnsouttogivelowerU50forbothswitchingandlightningimpulsesthanthetest
resultsfromSTRI.Thedifferenceisinorderof59%forswitchingimpulsesand12%forlightning
impulse.
ForswitchingimpulsesappliesthattheENstandardprovidesagreatergapfactorthanthetest
resultsfromEFI.ThedifferencebetweenENstandardandEFIresultsisinorderof020%depending
oninsulatorconfigurationanddryorwetcondition.ThebiggestdifferenceisfoundforIstring
insulatorsinwetcondition.Forlightningimpulsesappliestheopposite,butthereisonlyaslight
differencebetweenENstandardandtestresults.
RainhasnoinfluenceonthewithstandstrengthofIstringsorVstringsexposedtolightningimpulses
(seepart9.2.1.1).
Forswitchingimpulsesrainseemtoreducethewithstandstrengthintheorderof613%forVstring
insulatorsand2034%forIstringinsulators(seepart9.2.1.2).
Forcontinuouspowerfrequencyvoltagerainseemtoreducethewithstandstrengthintheorderof
25%forVstringinsulatorsand3340%forIstringinsulators(seepart9.2.1.3).

42

10 Acasestudy
10.1 KristiansandArendal
Oneofthepowerlinesthatisvoltageupgradedthesedaysis300kVlineKristiansandArendal.
KristiansandArendalisa62750mlongpowerlineconsistingof203towers.52ofthe203towers
haveaminimumairclearancelessthan2.72mwhichcorrespondsto17insulators.Sevenofthe203
towersareconsideredascriticalwithrespecttotheirsmalldimensionandthesetowershavetobe
furtherinvestigatedinordertodeterminewhethertheyaresuitableforvoltageupgradingornot.
Thepurposeofthecasestudyistogetanideaofthediscrepancytobeexpectedbetweenthe
requirementstoairclearancessetbythestandardandtheactualairclearancesavailablein300kV
towers.Itisalsoofgreatinteresttoclarifywhichofthethreeoperationconditionspowerfrequency,
switchingandlightningthatismostcriticalwhenconsideringvoltageupgrading.
TheformulasforcalculatingminimumrequiredairclearancesaccordingtotheENstandardsare
givenby:

Minimumairclearancephasetoearthforpowerfrequencyvoltage:

D50 Hz _ p e

750
e

Us
3K a K z _ pf K g _ pf

0,55

0,83

(10.1)

where

Usisthesystemvoltage
Kg_pfisthepowerfrequencygapfactor,expressedintermsofswitchingimpulsegapfactorKg,
Kg_pf=1.35Kg0.35Kg2
Kaisthealtitudefactor
Kzisthedeviationfactoroftheairgapwithstandvoltagedistribution

43

Minimumairclearancephasetoearthforswitchingimpulse:

K cs U e 2% _ sf

1 1080 KaK z _ sf K g _ sf
e
Del
1 m
0, 46

(10.2)

where

Kg_sfistheswitchingimpulsegapfactor.Kg_sf=Kg,accordingtotheformulaforgapfactors.
Kaisthealtitudefactor
Kzisthedeviationfactoroftheairgapwithstandvoltagedistribution
Kcsisthestatisticalcoordinationfactor
Ue2%_sfisthe2%slowfrontovervoltagestressingtheairgap(slowfrontovervoltagehavinga
2%probabilityofbeingexceeded)

Minimumairclearancephasetoearthforlightningimpulse:

Del

U 90% _ ff _ is
530 K a K z _ ff K g _ ff

K g _ ff _ is
K a K g _ ff

dis m

(10.3)

where
Kg_ffisthelightningimpulsegapfactor,expressedintermsofswitchingimpulsegapfactorKg,
Kg_ff=0.74Kg_ff+0.26Kg
Kaisthealtitudefactor
Kzisthedeviationfactoroftheairgapwithstandvoltagedistribution
U90%_ff_isisthe90%lightningwithstandvoltageoftheinsulatorstringsinstalledonaline
disistheclearancebetweentheextremitiesoftheinsulatorstring
44

Thetablebelowshowstheswingangleoftheinsulatorsontower7,11,27,100,129,180at3year
windandat50yearwindonthetransmissionlineKristiansandArendal.

Table23SwinganglesforaselectionoftowerofthetransmissionlineKristiansandArendal.

Tower No.of
height insulators

TowerNo.

Swingangledeg
3yearwind

50yearwind

Fromright

Fromleft

Fromright Fromleft

21m

16

16,4

16,4

26,4

26,4

11

22m

17

19,4

16,2

29,8

26,7

27

23m

16

3,2

23,8

12,3

31,9

100

24m

16

0,3

19,6

5,6

25,5

129

22m

17

19,4

16,2

29,8

26,7

180

25m

17

17,5

22,6

30

34,6

TowerNo.7,27and100haveinsulatorstringsconsistingof16insulators,whichcorrespondtoa
lengthof2.55meters.Herethealternativeairgapsbetweenphaseandguywireare2.55or2.7
meters.
TowerNo.11,29and180haveinsulatorstringsconsistingof17insulators,whichcorrespondtoa
lengthof2.72meters.Thedistancefromphasetoguywiremightbe2.72or2.9meters.
TheminimumdistancesforsevencriticaltowersoftheKristiansandArendalpowerlinearelistedin
thetablebelow.Thenumbersgiveninparenthesisarethemaximumswingangleoftheinsulatorsat
respectiveoperationconditions.Onlythemidphasesaretakenintoaccount,sincethecritical
minimumdistancesaretobefoundhere.

45

Table24MeasuredminimumdistancesfortowermidphaseconductedbyStatnett.Thecorrespondingswinganglesare
giveninparenthesis.

TowerNo.

7
11
27
100
110
129
180

Mindistance
[m]
Nowind
2.699
2.710
2.568
2.588
2.281
2.730
2.797

Min.distance
[m]
3yearwind
2.044(16.4)
2.014(19.4)
2.028(23.8)
2.230(19.6)
1.712(37)
2.206(19.4)
2.032(22.6)

Min.distance
[m]
50yearwind
1.762(26.4)
1.733(29.8)
1.807(31.9)
2.063(25.5)
1.588(46.5)
1.956(29.8)
1.737(34.6)

Insulators
used
16
17
16
16
16
17
17

Thetablebelowshowstheminimumrequiredairclearancesforthesameseventowersifcalculated
accordingtoEN50341.

Table25MinimumrequireddistancesfortowermidphasecalculatedaccordingtoEN50341.

TowerNo.
7
11
27
100
110
129
180

Mindistance
[m].Nowind
2.709
2.890
2.709
2.709
2.709
2.890
2.890

Min.distance[m].
3yearwind
1.936
1.929
1.914
1.914
1.848
1.930
1.914

Min.distance[m].
50yearwind
0.841
0.840
0,837
0,837
0.826
0.840
0,837

Thetablebelowshowsthedifferencebetweenthemeasuredminimumairclearancesoftable24
andtheminimumrequiredairclearancesaccordingtoEN50341.Thevaluesgiveninpercentarefor
lightningimpulseswhichturnedtobetheworstcasewithrespecttominimumclearances.

Table26Comparisonoftable24(measuredminimumclearances)andtable25(requiredminimumclearancesaccording
toEN50341).

Tower
No.

7
11
27
100
110
129
180

Realmin.dist.
standardmin.dist.
[m].
Nowind
0.01
0,18
0.141
0.121
0.428
0.021
0.088

Realmin.dist.
standardmin.dist.
[m].
3yearwind
0.108
0.085
0.144
0.316
0.136
0.276
0.118

Realmin.dist.
standardmin.dist.
[m].
50yearwind
0.921
0.893
0,970
1.226
0.762
1.116
0,900

Percentage
difference
Nowind
0.37%
0.35%
5.20%
4.47%
15.80%
0.73%
3.04%
46

10.2 Findingsofthecasestudy
Table24showstheactualminimumairclearancesofthemidphaseoftheseventowersin
KristiansandArendal.Table25showsthecalculatedrequiredminimumdistancesofthesame
towers.ThecalculationsaredoneonthebasisoftheformulasgiveninthestandardEN50341,
equation10.1,10.2and10.3.Therealdistancesarecomparedwiththecalculation,andtheresults
arereproducedintable26.
Comparisonsbetweenthedatagivenandcalculationsdonefortheseventowersshowthatthe
tightestclearancesarelocatedatnowindconditionswherelightningimpulsesisthedimensioning
voltage.Forthisoperationconditiononlytwooftheseventowersseemtohavesufficientair
clearance.Itappearsthatthemostcriticaltower,No.110,hasaminimumclearanceof2.281m
whichis0.428mor15.8%shorterthantheminimumclearancethatthestandardrecommends,
whichis2.709mforthisspecificcase.
Inthecaseofthethreeyearwindconditionswhereswitchingimpulsesisthedimensioningvoltage,
onlytowerNo.110seemstonothavesufficientairclearance.Forthistowerthemeasureair
clearanceis7.4%lessthantheminimumairclearancerequiredbytheENstandard.
Inthecaseofthefiftyyearwindconditionswherepowerfrequencyvoltageisthedeterminant
voltagefortheminimumairclearances,everyoneoftheseventowersarewithintherequirement
forminimumdistancesbyawidemargin.

10.3 Savingpotential
TheexcessivecostforreplacinganIstringinsulatorwithaVstringinsulatoris150000NOK/tower.
ForthevoltageupgradingprojectKristiansandArendalitwasfoundthatsufficientwithstand
strengthwasstillmaintainedatminimumairclearancesof10cmshorterthanrecommendedbythe
ENstandard.Byreducingtheminimumairclearancesby10cm,6.5mill.NOKwerespared.

10.4 Conclusionofthechapter
Fromtheresultsseenintable26itcanbeconcludedthataccordingtotheENstandardsitwillbe
mostdifficulttofulfilltherequiredminimumairclearanceforlightningimpulses.However,thetest
resultsfromSTRIinchapter9.1.1indicatethatthetestedflashovervoltageU50_LIis12%higherthan
U50_LIobtainedfromtheENstandard.
Thesameappliesforswitchingimpulses;towerNo.110hasaminimumclearancewhichis7.4%less
thanrequiredbytheENstandard.TestresultsfromSTRIinchapter9.1.2indicatethatthetested
flashovervoltageU50_SIisintheareaof4.46%higherthanU50_SIobtainedfromtheENstandard.
ThisgivesreasontoassumethatthestandardsuggestaU50thatislowerthantheactualvoltagelevel
neededtogivea50%probabilityforflashover.

47

11 Newlaboratorytest
AmasterthesisperformedbyMichaelHintereggerattheGrazUniversityofTechnologyinAustriaisa
collaborationprojecttothismasterthesisis.Inthatthesisalaboratorytestwilltakeplace.

11.1 Testproposal
Thetwolaboratorytestspresentedinchapter9areperformedonatestobjectsimulatinga
transmissiontower.Commonfeatureforthesetestsisthatthetestobjectlackstheguywires,which
isfoundnottohavethesameelectricpropertiesastherestoftheairgap.Anewtestshouldbe
performedonatestobjectwithguywiresasshowninfig.23below,toverifythefindingsinthis
report.ThetestobjectisproposedbyMichaelHinteregger.

Figure23TestobjectproposedbyMichaelHintereggerattheGrazUniversityofTechnology.

48

12 Discussion
IntheENstandardseachgapconfigurationisdedicatedtoasinglegapfactor.Anairgapina
transmissiontowershouldnotnecessarilybeconsideredasasingleairgapbetweentwoelectrodes,
butratherasacomplexairgaprepresentedbymultipleelectrodes.Hence,thewithstandstrength
betweenphaseandthedifferentearthedconstructionpartswhichrepresentthetowerwindowwill
vary.Itisfoundthattheairgapbetweenphaseandguywiremayhaveabout7%higherwithstand
strengththanovertheinsulatorstring.Thiswouldbeinterestingtoverifywithlaboratorytests,as
thiswouldmeananadditionalsecuritymargintowardstheguywires.Incaseofaflashover,itis
desirablethatitgoesovertheinsulatortothetraverse.
Anairgapinatransmissiontowercanbeseenasacomplexairgapwithmultipleelectrodes.This
appliesespeciallyforthetowerwindow(seepart4.2.2fig.4).Hence,thetowerwindowmightbe
describedmoreaccuratelybythethreegapfactorskg=1.3,1.35and1.4foundintable1.
Thereisgreatuncertaintyaboutthebehaviourofaflashoverinairgapswithinsulatorsexposedto
lightningimpulses.Thus,therelationshipbetweenelectrodeshapesandgapfactorsishardtodefine
forthiswaveshape(seepart4.2.1).
Foursuggestedinsulator/airgapconfigurationshavebeeninvestigated.Theminimumrequiredair
clearances,U50andgapfactorsareinvestigatedfordifferenttypeofelectricalstressandswingangles.
Table3showsthatminimumrequiredairclearanceaccordingtoENstandardforallofthethree
impulsetypes,LI,SIandPF,isachievedwithconfiguration2and4wheretheairgapbetweenphase

andguywireisgreaterthanthelengthoftheinsulatorstring. Configuration1and3doesnotfulfill

ENstandardrequirementforminimumairclearancewhenexposedtolightningimpulses(LI).
Table4showsthatforallofthefourinsulators/airgapconfigurationsU50isdecreasingwith
increasingswinganglewhilethegapfactorisincreasingwithincreasingswingangle.Thevariations
ofthevalueofthegapfactorsareinsignificantcomparetothevariationsofU50.Thisindicatesthata
changeinthegeometryofthetowerasaresultofinsulatorswinginghasnegligibleimpacttothegap
factor.
ReductionofU50isratherduetoreducedclearancecausedbyincreasinginsulatorswingangle.The
airgapbetweenphaseandguywirehasthegreatestlossofelectricalwithstandstrengthsincethisis
theairgapthatreducedthemostasafunctionofincreasedswingangle.
Avarietyofdifferentmethodstomakevoltageupgradingpossible,alsoinnarrowtowersare
presented.Theinsulatorstringshavealwaystobeextendedbytwotofourinsulators.
Incaseswherewindcausesthephasestomovetoclosetothetowerconstruction,theIstring
insulatorscanbesupportedbycompositesupportinginsulators(fig.14)orreplacedbyVstring
insulators.
Replacingexistingfittingequipmentlocatedbetweenphaseandinsulatorwithmorecompact
equipment,asillustratedinfig.12willgainalimiteddistanceintheairgap.Armourrods(fig.15)are
usedwhenthereisanuncertaintyonwhereinthetowerwindowaflashoverwilltakeplace.This
solutionisusedintowerswheretheairclearancebetweenphaseandtraverseisequaltotheair
clearancebetweenphaseandguywireinthetowerwindow
49

Fromtheresultsseenintable26itcanbeseenthataccordingtotheENstandardsitwillbemost
difficulttofulfilltherequiredminimumairclearanceforlightningimpulses.However,thetestresults
fromSTRIinchapter9.1.1indicatethatthetestedflashovervoltageU50_FFis12%higherthanU50_FF
obtainedfromtheENstandard.
Thesameappliesforswitchingimpulses;towerNo.110hasaminimumclearancewhichis7.4%less
thanrequiredbytheENstandard.TestresultsfromSTRIinchapter9.1.2indicatethatthetested
flashovervoltageU50_SFisintheareaof4.46%higherthanU50_SFobtainedfromtheENstandard.
ThisgivesreasontoassumethatthestandardsuggestaU50thatislowerthantheactualvoltagelevel
neededtogivea50%probabilityforflashover.However,asmentionedearlierinthisdiscussion;it
shouldbenotedthereisgreatuncertaintyaboutthebehaviourofaflashoverinairgapswith
insulatorsexposedtolightningimpulses.
ForthevoltageupgradingprojectKristiansandArendalitwasfoundthatsufficientwithstand
strengthwasstillmaintainedatminimumairclearancesof10cmshorterthanrecommendedbythe
ENstandard.Reducingtheminimumairclearancesby10cmresultedinasavingof6.5mill.NOK.

50

13 Conclusion
Itisfoundthattheairgapbetweenphaseandguywiremayhaveabout7%higherwithstand
strengththanovertheinsulatorstring.Usingthemethodfordeterminerequiredwithstandstrength
ofatowerwindow,Urw=U10willresultin;10%probabilityfortheflashovertooccuroverthe
insulatorstringtotraverse,2.5%probabilityfortheflashovertooccurtowardsthetowerpoleand
0.5%probabilityfortheflashovertooccurtowardstheguywire.
TheENstandardturnsouttogivelowerU50forbothswitchingandlightningimpulsesthanthetest
resultsfromSTRI.Thedifferenceisinorderof59%forswitchingimpulsesand12%forlightning
impulse.
ForswitchingimpulsesappliesthattheENstandardprovidesagreatergapfactorthanthetest
resultsfromEFI.ThedifferencebetweenENstandardandEFIresultsisinorderof020%depending
oninsulatorconfigurationanddryorwetcondition.ThebiggestdifferenceisfoundforIstring
insulatorsinwetcondition.Forlightningimpulsesappliestheopposite,butthereisonlyaslight
differencebetweenENstandardandtestresults.
RainhasnoinfluenceonthewithstandstrengthofIstringsorVstringsexposedtolightningimpulses
(seepart9.2.1.1).
Forswitchingimpulsesrainseemtoreducethewithstandstrengthintheorderof613%forVstring
insulatorsand2034%forIstringinsulators(seepart9.2.1.2).
Forcontinuouspowerfrequencyvoltagerainseemtoreducethewithstandstrengthintheorderof
25%forVstringinsulatorsand3340%forIstringinsulators(seepart9.2.1.3).
Itturnsoutthatlightningimpulse/nowindistheoperationconditionwhereitismostdifficultto
fulfilltheminimumairclearancerequiredbytheENstandards.ItalsoturnsoutthatU50forlightning

impulseismoreconservativethanU50forswitchingimpulseandpowerfrequencyvoltage.

51

14 Bibliography
[1]RosarioCortinaLuigiParis,"SwitchingandLightningImpulseDischargeCharacteristicsofLargeAir
GapsandLongInsulatorStrings,"1968.
[2]33.07WorkingGroup,"Report72,Guidelinesfortheevaluationofthedielectricstrengthof
externalinsulation,"Cigr,1992.
[3]LuigiParis,"InfluenceofAirGapCharacteristicsonLinetoGroundSwitchingSurgeStrenght,"
IEEE,1967.
[4]ENstandard50341,"OverheadelectricallinesexceedingAC45kV,"2008.
[5]ENstandard600712,"Insulationcoordination,"1996.
[6]ErlingIlstad,HighVoltageInsulatingMaterials.:NTNU,2008.
[7]EFIresearchreport,"Underskelseavelektriskholdfasthetforlinjeisolasjon,del1,"1971.
[8]STRIresearchreport,"Experimentaldielectrictestsonaporcelaininsulatorstringwithcapand
pininsulatorstypeNGKCA500,"2009.

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