EE201 Semiconductor Devices

LOGO
INTRODUCTION TO
SEMICONDUCTOR
CHAPTER 1
EE 201
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
http://modul2poli.blogspot.com/
COURSE LEARNING OUTLINE
At the end of this course, you will be able to :
Describe illustratively the theoretical characteristics
and electrical properties of semiconductors. (C2)
Explain the applications of semiconductor
devices using the schematic diagrams. (C4)
Conduct the construction of semiconductor
devices application circuits based on
schematic diagrams. (P4)

Objectives
At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:-
1.1 Understand the characteristics and electrical
properties of semiconductors.
1.1.1 Define a semiconductor and state that silicon and
Germanium are semiconductor materials.
1.1.2 Explain the characteristics of N-type and P- type
semiconductors.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
All matters on earth made of atoms (made up
of elements or combination of elements).
All atoms consist of electrons, protons, and
neutrons.
An atom is the smallest particle of an
element that retains the characteristics of
that element.
Bohrs Atomic Structure
According to Bohr,
atoms have a
planetary structure
that consists of a
central nucleus,
surrounded by
orbiting electrons.
Nucleus contains
protons and
neutrons.

The ability of a material to conduct
current is based on its atomic
structure.
The orbit paths of the electrons
surrounding the nucleus are called
shells.
Each shell has a defined number
of electrons it will hold.(2xn2)
Ex:Copper:2.8.18.1 (electron
valence)
The outer shell is called the
valence shell and electrons at this
layer are called valence electrons.
Maximum number of valence
electron is 8
The less complete a shell is filled
to capacity the more conductive
the material is
The valence shell determines the ability of material
to conduct current.
Copper atom has only 1
electron in its valence
ring. This makes it a good
conductor.
Silicon atom has 4
electrons in its valence
ring. This makes it a
semiconductor.
CONDUCTOR
An atom of a material carries 1 to 3 valence
electrons.
Any material that will support a generous flow
of charge when a voltage source is applied
across its terminals.
the atom has more tendency to lose its
valence electrons which become free
electron (Copper,Aluminium)
INSULATOR
An atom of a material carries 5 to 8 valence
electron
A material that offers a very low level of
conductivity under pressure from an applied
voltage source.
The atom has more tendency to gain free
electrons to complete its shell. ( Argon,
Neon)
SEMICONDUCTOR
An atom of a material carries 4 valence
electrons,
A material that has a conductivity level
somewhere between a conductor and an
insulator.
It is not easy for the atom to lose or gain any
electrons. (Silicon, Germanium, Carbon)
SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIAL
Figure 1.3
Carbon (6 electrons)
Shell valence
consist of 4
electron valence
6
Figure 1.2
Silicon (14 electrons)
Figure 1.3
Germanium (32
electrons)
Shell valence
consist of 4
electron valence
14
32
COVALENT BOND
In a pure silicon or germanium crystal, the
four valence electrons of one atom form a
bonding arrangement with four adjoining
atoms.
This bonding of atoms, strengthened by the
sharing of electrons, is called covalent
bonding a method by which atoms
complete their valence shell by sharing
valence electrons with other atoms

COVALENT BOND
The atoms are
electrically stable
because their
valence
shells are
complete.
The center silicon atoms share an electron share each
of the four surrounding atoms creating covalent band
with each

CONDUCTOR IN SEMICONDUCTOR
When an intrinsic silicon crystal gains
sufficient heat (thermal energy), some
valence electrons could break their covalent
bonds to jump the gap into conduction band,
becoming free electrons.
Free electrons are also called conduction
electrons, (negative charge).
This vacancy in the valence band is called a
hole (positive charge).
For every electron
raised to the
conduction band, there
is 1 hole in the valence
band creating
electron-hole pair.
When a conduction
electron loses energy
and falls back into a
hole, this is called
recombination.
With the existence of
holes and electrons,
current can be
produced when a
voltage is applied
across the terminals.
INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
Intrinsic (pure) materials are those
semiconductors that have been carefully refined
to reduce the impurities to a very low level.
Intrinsic (pure) Si and Ge are poor conductor
due partially to the number of valence electrons,
covalent bonding and relatively large energy
gap.
Extrinsic materials are those semiconductors
that have been subjected to doping process and
no longer pure.
Doping is the process of adding impurity atoms
to intrinsic Si or Ge to improve the conductivity
of the semiconductor. http://modul2poli.blogspot.com/
EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
There are two types of semiconductor material
that are subjected to doping process which are :
a) N-type Extrinsic
b) P-type Extrinsic
Two types of elements used for doping are:
a) Trivalent element that has three valence
electrons.
b) Pentavalent element that has five valence
electrons
N type
N-type is created by adding pentavalent impurity
atoms Arsenic (As), phosphorus (P), bismuth
(Bi), into a pure Si or Ge base.
Pentavalent also known as donor atoms since
they donate electrons.
Each pentavalent atom forms covalent bond with
4 adjacent Si atom


Since only 4 electrons
are needed to form a
covalent bond, leaving
an extra electron
becomes a free electron
when each pentavalent
atom is added.
In n-type material
electrons are majority
carrier, and holes the
minority carrier
P-Type
P-type is created by adding Trivalent (with 3
valence electrons) impurity atoms
Aluminium (Al), boron (B), indium (In),gallium
(Ga) into apure Si or Ge base through the
doping process.
Trivalent also known as a acceptor atom
since they accept electrons.
Each trivalent atom forms
covalent bond with 4
adjacent Si atom.
Since 4 electrons are
needed to form a covalent
bond, causes an existence
of hole in the covalent
bonding.
It also causes a lack of
valence electrons in the B
atoms.
In p-type material holes
are majority carrier, and
electron the minority
carrier
Review
1. What is a semiconductor
2. Explain a covalent bonding
3. Whats the difference between a
pentavalent atom and a trivalent atom?
4. What is the difference between intrinsic and
extrinsic semiconductors?
5. Explain the differences between p-type and
n-type semiconductor.

COURSE LEARNING OUTLINE
At the end of this course, you will be able to :
Describe illustratively the theoretical characteristics
and electrical properties of semiconductors. (C2)
Explain the applications of semiconductor
devices using the schematic diagrams. (C4)
Conduct the construction of semiconductor
devices application circuits based on
schematic diagrams. (P4)

Objectives
At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:-
1.2 Understand the characteristics of P-N junction and its
reaction towards voltage biasing.
1.2.1 Illustrate the formation of a junction
a. Free electrons mobility.
b. Formation of depletion region and its properties.
c. Existence of threshold voltage and its values for
silicon and germanium.
1.2.2 Illustrate the meaning of forward biased voltage and
reverse biased voltage supplied across a P-N junction.

1.2.3 Identify the effects when a P-N junction is supplied with
forward biased voltage and reverse biased voltage on the
following items:
a. Area of depletion region
b. Junction resistance
c. Current flow (including leakage current)
1.2.4 Explain why breakdown occurs when P-N junction is
reverse biased.
.
P-N JUNCTION
The PN Junction is formed when ptype
region is joined with the ntype region. This is
a basic structure forms a semiconductor
diode.
The ntype region has many free electrons
(majority carriers) and only a few thermally
generated holes.
The ptype region has many holes (majority
carriers) and only a few thermally generated
free electrons (minority carriers)

P-N JUNCTION
With the formation of the p and n materials,
holes from ptype will diffuse into the ntype,
and electrons from ntype will diffuse into the
ptype.
Combination of electrons and holes at the
junction takes place.
When equilibrium is reached, no further
diffusion of electrons and holes across the
junction.
The pregion loses
holes, and become
negatively charged
The nregion loses
electrons, and
become positively
charged
This creates the
depletion region
and has a barrier
potential
The depletion
region is a region
depleted of any
charge carriers
An electric field oriented
in the direction from the
(+) charge to the (-)
charge will be created.
Built-in Potential Barrier
or Built-in Voltage (Vbi)
is a potential difference
across the depletion
region.
Value of Vbi for
Germanium (0.3V) and
Silicon (0.7V)
No bias
In the absence of an applied bias voltage, the
net flow of charge in any one direction for a p-n
junction is zero.
No bias
Note that the arrow
is associated with
p-type component
and the bar with
the n-type region.
As indicated for
VD=0V, the
current in any
direction is 0 mA.
Reverse Bias condition (VD< 0V)
The p-type material is connected to the negative
terminal and the n-type is connected to the
positive terminal.
The positive terminal of the battery extracts
free electrons from the n-region and the
negative terminal extracts free holes (positive
ions) from the p-region.
The number of uncovered positive ion in the n-
region and negative ions in the p-region will
increase. Hence, the width of the depletion
region increases.
Cont
However, in real P-N junction, there is a
small flow of current in the reversed-biased
mode. This is due to the thermally
generated electrons and holes which cross
the junction to the battery terminals.
As the temperature is high enough, there
will be a constant generation of electron-
hole pairs and the current exists is called
the reverse-saturation current, Is or
leakage current.
Forward Bias condition (VD > 0V)
The p-type material is connected to the positive
terminal and the n-type is connected to the negative
terminal.
Cont
Positive terminal of the battery will push
the holes in the p-region towards the
junction.
Hence, the recombination process occurs
and the number of negative ion in the p-
region near the junction decreases.

Cont
Negative terminal of the battery will push the
free electron in the n-region towards the
junction and recombine with the positive ion.
Hence, the number of positive ion
decreases. As a result, the number of
uncovered ions is reduced and the width of
the depletion region will also reduce.
Cont
Since, the barrier potential is now reduced;
electrons in n-type will be easily moved to
the p-region.
This is also assisted by the negative terminal
which push the electrons and positive
terminal that pulls the electron. Hence, a
heavy majority carrier flows across the
junction
Breakdown Voltage
When a reverse-bias is applied to a p-n junction (diode),
the electric field in the depletion region increases.
The electric field may become large enough that
covalent bonds are broken and electron hole pairs are
created.
Electrons are swept into the n-region and holes are
swept into the p-region by the electric field, generating a
large reverse current. This phenomenon is called
breakdown.
This current can be limited by the external circuit. If this
current is not limited, a large Power can be dissipated in
the junction that may damage the device and cause
burnout.
Review
1. Draw and state the meaning of forward
biased voltage and reverse biased voltage
supplied across a P-N junction
2. Identify the effects when a P-N junction is
supplied with forward biased voltage and
reverse biased voltage on the following
items
a. Area of depletion region
b. Junction resistance
c. Current flow
3 Explain why breakdown occurs when P-N
junction is reverse biased.

END
LOGO
DIODES
CHAPTER 2
EE 201
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
Introduction to Diodes
A P-N junction
Allows current flow in one direction only
P side ANODE (A)
N side CATHODE (K)
Nonlinear device

Diode - symbol
An ideal diode 2
terminal device and act as
a switch, can conduct
current only in 1 direction
Conventional current
direction and polarity of
voltage drop is shown

Diodes packages
I-V Characteristic - Ideal
Forward Bias region
The voltage across the
diode is 0V
The current is infinite
The diode acts a short
Reverse Bias region
All of the voltage is across
the is 0V
The current is 0A
The diode acts like open.

I-V Characteristic - Practical
The P-N junction only
conducts significant
current in the forward
bias region.
Essentially no current
flows in reverse bias.
Typical barrier potential
for Si:0.7 V Ge:0.3 V

There are important characteristics of diodes:
Forward Current (I
F
): The amount of forward current that can be
continuously applied to the diode without failure.
Forward Voltage (V
F
): The amount of forward voltage present
when a given forward current is applied.
Reverse Breakdown Voltage (V
BR
, V
Z
):This value determines
the limiting (or clamping) voltage presented to an application that
is subject to an over-voltage event (ESD, Lightning Surge, AC
Power-Cross) or, the regulation voltage for power supplies.
Reverse Stand-Off Voltage (V
R
): Typically, the guaranteed
maximum reverse voltage that can be applied without the diode
going into breakdown (OV protection diodes).
Reverse Current-Leakage (I
R
): The current-leakage when a
given reverse voltage is applied (OV protection diodes).
Knee voltage (Vk): The forward voltage at which the current
through the junction starts increasing rapidly, is called the knee
voltage or cut-in voltage .
I-V characteristic
V
F
I
F
V
BR
, V
Z
Forward
Reverse
V
R
I
R
I-V characteristic
Ideal for Germanium and Silicon
Diode circuit analysis
Determine the state of the diode whether it is
in ON or OFF state.
The applied Voltage is matched with the
arrow of the diode symbol or not.
The VD > Vknee for the diode to be
operated.
Substitute the equivalent circuit for ON or
OFF diode.
Perform KVL to find node voltages
Perform Ohms Law to find current

Forward Bias
Vk for Si = 0.7V and Ge = 0.3V
If voltage source (E) > knee voltage(Vk), diode is
assume replaced by a battery 0.7V for Si or 0.3V
for Ge. ( E = Vs ) hence, using
- Kirchoff's voltage law (KVL): E = VR + VD
- ID=IR , Ohms law :VR = IRR = IDR
Reverse Bias
Current flow is approximately 0A (ID=0A) using
-Kirchoff's voltage law (KVL): E = -VD + VR
E = -VD + ID R
where ID= 0 A
Example 1
Example 2
Example 3
Cont
DC power supply
The diode only conducts when it is in forward bias, hence
only half of the AC cycle passes through the diode.
The diode is OFF during the negative cycle.
Diode is reverse biased, and is therefore open circuit. No
output during this cycle
At the end of the lesson, students should be
able to:-

2.2 Know diode applications as rectifiers
.
What is rectifier ?????
Convert a.c. to pulses rippling d.c.

Cut ve cycle or +ve cycle
Ripple d.c. output
a.c. component exist in d.c.
A.c. input with
lowered voltage
3 types of rectifier:-
i. half wave
ii. Full wave
iii. Bridge @ Full Wave bridge

i. half wave

i. Half wave rectifier
Circuit
V
A.C
240v
50hZ
D1
RL
Transformer
+
v
e
-
v
e
+
i/p
o/p
+ve
0
+
D1
A
B
+ve
-ve
+ve
0
D1 ON
RL
input
+ve
Output
+ve
Circuit operation
During +ve cycle
i. Terminal A is +ve, terminal B is
ve
ii. Anod D1 gets +ve voltage
iii. D1 in forward biased
Circuit operation
During +ve cycle
iv. D1 let current pass through it.
v. Voltage drop exist across RL
iv. Voltage drop RL is the output
voltage
During +ve cycle
Circuit operation
+
D1
A
B
+ve
-ve
D1 OFF
RL
Input -ve
0
+ve
0
- ve
No output
During -ve cycle
Circuit operation
i. Terminal A is -ve,
terminal B +ve
ii. Anod D1 gets ve voltage
iii. D1 in reverse biased
During -ve cycle
Circuit operation
i. D1 blocks the current flow
through it
ii. No voltage drop across RL
because no current flow
iii. Output voltage is zero
During -ve cycle
Circuit operation
1) Half wave rectifier
+ve
-ve
D1
A
B
RL
Input
output
D1 ON
D1 OFF
Output voltage
ii. full wave

12
v
12
v
D1
+
v
e
-
v
e
RL
D2
0v
+
ii. Full wave rectifier
V A.C
240v
50Hz
Circuit
D1
+
v
e
-
v
e
RL
+
0v
+
0
0
D2
D2
+
RL
0v
A
D1
D1 ON
D2 OFF
A
B
+
Switched On
RL
0v
B
Switched Off
Circuit operation
During +ve cycle
Terminal A is +ve, terminal B is ve
D1 forward biased, D2 reverse biased
Current can flow through D1 like a switch
is switched on
During +ve cycle
Circuit operation
D2 blocks current flow, switch off
Current flow through D1, RL and return to
terminal 0
Voltage drop across RL
Voltage drop across RL is the output
voltage
During +ve cycle
Circuit operation
D1
+ve
-ve
RL
0v
0
+
0
D2
D2
RL
0v
A
D1
D2 ON
D1 OFF
+
RL
0v
B
Switch Off
+
A
C
B
+
During -ve cycle
Switch On
Circuit operation
i. Full wave rectifier
Terminal A is -ve, terminal C is +ve
D2 forward biased , D1 reverse biased
Current can flow through D2 like a switch
is switched on

During -ve cycle
Circuit operation
i. Full wave rectifier
D1 blocks current flow, switch off
Current flow through D2, RL and return to
terminal 0
Voltage drop across RL
Voltage drop across RL is the output
voltage
During ve cycle
Circuit operation
Full wave rectifier
Full wave rectifier
iii. Bridge @ Full wave bridge

240VAC
50Hz
Input
voltage
Output
voltage
Circuit
iii. Bridge rectifier
A
B
Input
voltage
+
0
+
Output
voltage
+
0
D1&D
3 ON
D2&D
4 OFF
+
Circuit operation
During +ve cycle
A
B
Input
voltage
+
0
+
Output
voltage
+
0
D1&D3
ON
D2&D4
OFF
+
Circuit operation
During +ve cycle
Bridge rectifier
During +ve cycle
Circuit operation
Anod D1 is +ve, Katod D3 is ve
D1 and D3 forward biased.
Let current pass through
rectifier Tetimbang
Ketika cycle +ve Kendalian Litar
Anod D2 is -ve, Katod D4 is +ve
D2 and D4 reverse biased
Block current flow
A
B
Input
voltage
+
Output
voltage
+
0
D2&D4
ON
D1&D3
OFF
+
0
Circuit operation
During +ve cycle
A
B
Input
voltage
+
Output
voltage
+
0
D2&D4
ON
D1&D3
OFF
+
0
Circuit operation
During -ve cycle
Terminal A is -ve, terminal B is +ve
Anod D2 is +ve, Katod D4 is ve
D2 and D4 forward biased
Let current pass through
Circuit operation
During -ve cycle
Terminal A is -ve, terminal B is +ve
Anod D1 is -ve, Katod D3 is +ve
D1 and D3 reverse biased
Block current flow
Circuit operation
During -ve cycle
Vo = V
A-B
- 1.4V
Occurs in both cycles
At one cycle, voltage drop across 2
diodes
So, the total voltage drop is 1.4V
(assume silicon diode),
Output voltage is :-
Output voltage
Full wave bridge rectifier
Full wave bridge rectifier
The PIV for a bridge rectifier is approximately
half the PIV for a centertapped rectifier.
Note that in most cases we take the diode drop
into account.
Summary of rectifier circuit
CLIPPERS
Diode Clippers
CLIPPERS clip off a portion of the input signal
Clipper has the ability to clip without distorting the
remaining part of the alternating waveform
Diode Clippers
Diode (Clipper)-Series
Diode (Clipper)-parallel
Diode Clamper
A diode clamper adds a DC
level to an AC voltage.
The capacitor charges to the
peak of the supply minus the
diode drop.
Once charged, the capacitor
acts like a battery in series with
the input voltage.
The AC voltage will ride along
with the DC voltage.
The polarity arrangement of the
diode determines whether the
DC voltage is negative or
positive.

The clamping circuit is one that will clamp a
signal to a different dc level.
The circuit have a capacitor a diode and a
element and it must capacitor, resistive can
also have an independent dc supply to
introduce an additional shift.

Clamper circuit
Bias Clamper circuit
Summary Clamper
Summary
Limiters are used to set the output peak(s) to
a given value.
Clampers are used to add a DC voltage to an
AC voltage.

Zener diode
The basic function of zener diode is to maintain a
specific voltage across its terminals within given
limits of line or load change.
Used to provide a stable reference voltage for use in
power supplies and other equipment
Zener Diode
A zener diode is much
like a normal diode, the
exception being is that it
is placed in the circuit in
reverse bias and
operates in reverse
breakdown.
This typical characteristic
curve illustrates the
operating range for a
zener.
Its forward
characteristics are just
like a normal diode
Zener Diode
The zener diodes
breakdown characteristics
are determined by the
doping process.
Low voltage zeners less
than 5V operate in the
zener breakdown range.
Those designed to operate
more than 5 V operate
mostly in avalanche
breakdown range.
Zeners are available with
voltage breakdowns of
1.8V2.0V

Application voltage regulator
In this simple illustration of zener regulation circuit, the
zener diode will adjust its impedance based on varying
input voltages and loads (RL) to be able to maintain its
designated zener voltage.
Zener current will increase or decrease directly with
voltage input changes.
The zener current will increase or decrease inversely with
varying loads.
Again, the zener has a finite range of operation.

Application voltage regulator
Other types of diode
LED Light emitting diode
LED is a kind of special diodes that emit light
when connected in a circuit.
LED will operate when the bias voltage is
given.
Electron from N-type material will merged
with the P-type material hol.
If the material is silicon and germanium the
merger will generate heat.
Application - Used as an indicator light to
determine whether equipment in the ON
and OFF.
If the material is gallium arsenide (GaAs),
Gallium Phosphide (GaP) and Gallium-
Ardenide Phosphide (GaAsP) the merger will
produce light.
The color of light depends on the type of
material used.
- GaAs = infra red radiation
- GaP = red or green
- GaAsP = red or yellow
LED operate at low voltage between 1 to 4 V
and conduct between 10 and 40 mA
It has low breakdown voltage (3 and 5V)
LED brightness depending on the current
PHOTODIODE
It is type of photo detector capable of converting light
into either current or voltage.
Photodiodes are similar to regular semiconductor
diodes except that they may be either exposed (to
detect vacuum UV or X-rays) or packaged with a
window or optical fiber connection to allow light to
reach the sensitive part of the device
Many diodes designed for use specifically as
photodiode will use PIN junction to increase the
speed of response.
A photodiode is designed to operate in reverse bias.
Application compact disc player, remote control.
LASER DIODE
The laser diode is a laser where the active
medium is a semiconductor similar to that
found in a light-emitting diode.
The most common type of laser diode is
formed from a p-n junction and powered by
injected electric current
Application - barcode readers, Visible lasers,
laser pointers, laser printers, bar-code
readers, image scanning, laser surgery,
LED
PHOTODIODE
LASER DIODE

END
LOGO
CHAPTER 3: BIPOLAR
JUNCTION TRANSISTOR
EE201- SEMICONDUCTOR
DEVICE
Two main categories of transistors:
bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) and
field effect transistors (FETs).
Transistors have 3 terminals where the application of
current (BJT) or voltage (FET) to the input terminal
increases the amount of charge in the active region.
The physics of "transistor action" is quite different for
the BJT and FET.
In analog circuits, transistors are used in amplifiers
and linear regulated power supplies.
In digital circuits they function as electrical switches,
including logic gates, random access memory (RAM),
and microprocessors.
Transistors
Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT)
A bipolar transistor
essentially consists of a pair of
PN Junction diodes that are
joined back-to-back.
There are therefore two kinds
of BJT, the NPN and PNP
varieties.
The three layers of the
sandwich are conventionally
called the Collector, Base, and
Emitter.
Three terminals:
Base (B): very thin and lightly doped central region (little
recombination).
Emitter (E) and collector (C) are two outer regions
sandwiching B.
Normal operation (linear or active region):
B-E junction forward biased; B-C junction reverse biased.
The emitter emits (injects) majority charge into base region
and because the base very thin, most will ultimately reach
the collector.
The emitter is highly doped while the collector is lightly
doped.
The collector is usually at higher voltage than the emitter.
Terminals & Operations
Terminals & Operations
Operation Mode
Operation Mode
Active:
Most importance mode, e.g. for amplifier operation.
The region where current curves are practically flat.
Saturation:
Barrier potential of the junctions cancel each other out
causing a virtual short.
Ideal transistor behaves like a closed switch.
Cutoff:
Current reduced to zero
Ideal transistor behaves like an open switch.
Operation Mode
There are three different currents in transistors :
collector current I
C
, base current I
B
and emitter current
I
E
.

Since the emitter is the source of the electrons, it has
the largest of the three currents.

The collector current is slightly lower than the emitter
current, while the base current is usually very small.
The relationship is expressed as follows:
Current Flow
I
E
= I
B
+ I
C
The relationship between the collector current
and the base current is expressed in the
following formula
= I
C
/ I
B
Current gain(H
FE
)

The ratio between collector current and emitter
current is referred as (alpha) and is shown in
the following relationship :
= I
C
/I
E

DC Gain
Emitter voltage,V
E
Base voltage,V
B
Collector voltage,V
C
Collector emitter
voltage,V
CE

Base emitter
voltage,V
BE
Collector Base
voltage,V
CB

DC supply voltage,V
CC

V
CC
V
CE
V
BE
V
C
V
B
V
E
R
B
R
C
B
C
E
Voltages in Transistor Circuit
I - V characteristics are used to explain the operation of transistors.
Output I-V characteristics curves
Input I-V characteristics
I-V Characteristics
A load line is a line
drawn over the
collector curves to
show each and
every possible
operating point of
a transistor.
Load Line
Q-Point
The point at which
the base current
intersects the load
line is referred to as
the operating point
or the quiescent
point.
Q
Circuit Symbols
Circuit Configuration
V
CC
= V
RB
+ V
BE
V
RB
= V
CC
- V
BE
I
B
= V
CC
-V
BE
R
B
I
C
= I
B
V
CC
= V
CE
+ V
RC
V
CE
= V
CC
- I
C
R
C
V
CE
R
B
R
C
V
CC
I
B
I
C
I
E
It consists only of a fixed bias
resistor and load resistor.
V
BE
Fixed Base Bias Circuit (Simple Bias
Circuit) and Formula


V
CE
R2
R1
V
CC
R
C
R
E
V
BE
I
C
I
B
I
E
It offers the best resilience against
changes in temperature and device
characteristics and by far more stabilized.

R1 and R2 form a potential divider, which
will fix the base potential of the transistor.
The current is usually set at 10 times
greater than the base current required by
the transistor

The base emitter voltage drop is
approximated as 0.7volt. There will also
be a voltage drop across the emitter
resistor, R
E
, this is generally set to about
10% of the supply voltage.

If I
C
increases, then so will I
E.

Potential Divider Bias Circuit
V
CC
= I
R1
+ I
R2
I
B
= V
CC
R1 + R2
V
B
= R2
R1 + R2
V
CC
V
RE
= V
B
- V
BE
I
E
= V
RE
/ R
E
I
B
can be ignored if the value is too small

I
E
= I
B
+ I
C
V
CE
= V
CC
V
RC
- V
RE
V
C
= V
CE
+ V
RE
Formula
One factor can affect the IB is AC input signal.
AC input signal must not too big so that can control the
IB.

Common emitter amplifier circuit with AC
input signal
LOGO
12 8
4
0V
20A
40A
60A
80A
100A
8
10
20
15
5
10
6
4
2
V
C
(V)
I
C
(mA)
Q point is at IB = 60A, Ic =
6mA, Vc = 8V.

If IB is between 40A and
80A, while Ic is between 4mA
and 8mA

So Vc is between 4V and 12V.

Vc is output voltage for the
amplifier circuit, Vo.

If input signal is too big, It will affect the IB.
IB will become big, followed by Ic and Vc.
Ic and Vc will over the saturation point and will
cut the signal.
When this happen, there is a distortion to the
output signal.
If there is a distortion to the output signal, the
amplifier is not efficient.
Cont
From figure above, Load resistance,

rL : R3 // R6

Will have a new AC loadline (new value of cut off
and saturation point).

Ic(sat)new = ICQ + (VCQ/RL)
Vc(sat)new = VCQ + ICQ . RL
Garis Beban a.t
Garis Beban a.u
30 25 20 15
10
5
3.5
I
C
(mA)
3
Rajah 6.36
Titik-Q
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
V
C
(V)
Av = Vo/Vi = rL / re

Where re = 25mV/ IE

AC loadline exists when the load for AC voltage
output is different with the load for DC voltage
output.
Voltage Gain, Av
3
15Vp 12Vp
V
CQ

27V
V
C(alih)

0
Garis Beban a.t
Garis Beban a.u
30 25 20 15 10 5
3.5
I
C
(mA)
3
Titik-Q
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
V
C
(V)
Bahagian 1 :
V
C(ALIH)(AU)
- V
CQ
= 27V 15V
= 12Vp
Bahagian 2 :
V
CQ
0 = 15V 0 = 15Vp
24Vp-p
30Vp-p
Is output voltage that oscillated within the
operation point symmetrically and no distortion.

Maximum output voltage without
distortion,Vo
Can be determine from equation Av = rL / re

Use the Av to determine maximum input
voltage, Vi.
Av = Vo/Vi, so Vi = Vo/Av.

It can define as undistorted maximum input
signal because it has undistorted maximum
output signal.
Maximum input signal
LOGO
Frequency response is characterized by the
response magnitude (measure in dB) versus
frequency.
From frequency response graph above :
Y axis (shows response in decibel (dB))
X axis (shows frequency (Hz))
Important parameters of frequency response
curve :
Maximum voltage gain, Av(max).
Maximum voltage gain, Av (max) in dB
Cut off frequency (-3dB)
Frequency bandwidth.

Maximum voltage gain , Av(max) =
maximum ratio of output voltage, Vo over
input voltage, Vi.
Av in dB = 20 log Av(max)
Cut off frequency or corner frequency is
the frequency either above or below power
output of a circuit.
Cont
fc1 lower 3dB cut off frequency

fc2 upper 3dB cut off frequency

Frequency Bandwidth range of
frequency between fc1 and fc2.
Cont...
Use Av(max)dB instead of Av(max)
because to scale a large measurement
down to a much smaller and more
useable range.

Eg : Vo = 100, Vi = 1
Av(max) = Vo/Vi = 100/1 = 100
In dB, Av(max)dB = 20 log Av(max)
= 20 log 100 = 40.
Term of Decibel (dB)
This frequency is where a device will quit
working or operating in an efficient manner
resulting in it shutting down or being cut off.
Refer to the 3dB point since a fall of 3dB
corresponds approximately to half power of
the output circuit.
There is lower cut off frequency and upper
cut off frequency.
Cut off frequency at 3dB
a band of a given width can carry the
same amount of information.

So to relate bandwidth to the
performance of amplifier,
wide bandwidth, the amplifier is more
efficient.
BW = fc2 fc1

Frequency bandwidth
Important parameters
fB

= 1 / (2 RCB)

where :

R = Rs + Rin ; Rin

= R1

R2

hie

CB = value of the Base coupling capacitor,
C1
The lower cutoff frequency of the Base
Circuit is:
fC

= 1 / [2 (RC

+ RL) CC]

RC

+ RL = sum of the resistance in the
collector circuit

CC = value of the Base coupling capacitor,
C2

The lower cutoff frequency of the Collector
Circuit is:
Rout

= RE

( re

+ Rin

/ hfe

); re

= V
T
/ IE

Rin

= R1

R2

Rs

fE

= 1 / (2 Rout

CE

)
CE = value of the Base coupling capacitor,C3

The lower cutoff frequency of the Emitter
Circuit is:
There are 4 classes of amplifier.

Class A
Class B
Class AB
Class C

Classification of Amplifier
Class A Amplifier
The most common and simplest form of power
amplifier that uses the switching transistor in the
standard common emitter circuit configuration as
seen previously.

The transistor is always biased "ON" so that it
conducts during one complete cycle of the input
signal waveform producing minimum distortion
and maximum amplitude to the output.

Class A amplifier
Is the ideal operating mode, because there
can be no crossover or switch-off distortion to
the output waveform even during the
negative half of the cycle.

Class A power amplifier output stages may
use a single power transistor or pairs of
transistors connected together to share the
high load current.
Class A amplifier
Class-B amplifiers only amplify half of the input
wave cycle, thus creating a large amount of
distortion, but their efficiency is greatly improved
and is much better than class A.

Class B has a maximum theoretical efficiency of
/4. (i.e. 78.5%) This is because the amplifying
element is switched off altogether half of the
time, and so cannot dissipate power.
Class B amplifier
A single class-B element is rarely found in
practice, though it has been used for driving
the loudspeaker in the early IBM Personal
Computers with beeps, and it can be used
in RF power amplifier where the distortion
levels are less important. However, class C is
more commonly used for this.
Class B
A practical circuit using class-B elements is
the pushpull stage, such as the very
simplified complementary pair arrangement .

Complementary or quasi-complementary
devices are each used for amplifying the
opposite halves of the input signal, which is
then recombined at the output.
Class B Push Pull
This arrangement gives excellent efficiency,
but can suffer from the drawback that there is
a small mismatch in the cross-over region
at the "joins" between the two halves of the
signal, as one output device has to take over
supplying power exactly as the other finishes.
This is called crossover distortion
In class-AB operation, each device operates the
same way as in class B over half the waveform,
but also conducts a small amount on the other
half.

As a result, the region where both devices
simultaneously are nearly off (the "dead zone")
is reduced. The result is that when the
waveforms from the two devices are combined,
the crossover is greatly minimised or eliminated
altogether.
Class AB amplifier
Class AB amplifier
Collector current flows for less than one half
cycle of the input signal.

By reverse biasing the emitter-base junction,
which sets the dc operating point below cut off
and allows only the portion of the input signal
that overcomes the reverse bias to cause
collector current flow.
Class C amplifier
Class C amplifier
Class A amps sound the best, cost the
most, and are the least practical. They waste
power and return very clean signals.

Class B - operated amplifier is used
extensively for audio amplifiers that require
high-power outputs. It is also used as the
driver- and power-amplifier stages of
transmitters.
Application of each class.
Class C - operated amplifier is used as a radio-
frequency amplifier in transmitters.

Class AB - operated amplifier is commonly used
as a push-pull amplifier to overcome a side
effect of class B operation called crossover
distortion

Cont

Bipolar transistor amplifiers must be properly
biased to operate correctly.
There are :
- base biased with emitter feedback
technique.
- biased voltage divider technique

Biasing Techniques of common emitter
transistor.
Base biased
(emitter feedback technique)
Vin
Base biased
Fig 1
Fig 2
Circuit in Fig 1 is
unstable
Circuit in Fig 2 is stable
Adding resistance (RE) to the emitter of transistor.
R
E
improves performance by adding negative feedback.
I
C
begins to increase as temperature rises.
The increase in I
C
increases I
E
and as a result V
E
rises.
V
BE
(or V
B
- V
E
) is fixed, but the rise in V
E
reduces V
BE
.
The overall effect of reducing V
BE
is to reduce I
C
which in
turn makes the circuit stable. Negative feedback.
Base biased

R
E
greatly reduces error (variation in gain and
consequent distortion).

Emitter resistor R
E
also solves other problems
such as temperature instability and distortion.
Base biased
The voltage divider is
formed using external
resistors R
1
and R
2.
The voltage across R
2

forward biases the
emitter junction.
By proper selection of
resistors R
1
and R
2
, the
operating point of the
transistor can be made
independent of .
Biased Voltage Divider Technique
RTH = R1//R2
RTH = R1R2
R1 + R2
VTH = R2 x VCC
R1 + R2
IE = (+1)IB

Voltage Divider Calculation
KVL from input loop :

- VTH + IBRTH + VBE + IERE = 0

- VTH + IBRTH + VBE + (+1)IBRE = 0

- VTH + IB(RTH + (+1)RE) + VBE = 0

IB = VTH VBE
(RTH + (+1)RE)
KVL from output loop:

- VCC ICRC VCE IERE = 0

IC = IB

IE = (+1)IB

Transistors are commonly used for :
1. Amplifier circuit 2. Switching circuit
Application
Amplifiers containing one active device have
limited gain, input impedance, output impedance
and power handling capabilities.
Multistage amplifier is used to increase the gain
or modify the characteristics of the amplifier to
satisfy a particular specification.
Introduction
a) Cascode connection
- Places one transistor on top of another
b) Cascade connection
- Provides stages in series
c) Coupling
- Circuitry used to connect the output of one
stage of a multistage amplifier to the input of
next stage.
Working principles
Block diagram
The overall gain of a multistage amplifier is the
product of the gain of the individual stage
Gain (A) = A1A2A3A4.AN
If the gain of each amplifier stage is expressed
in decibels (dB) the total gain is the sum of the
gain of individual stage
Gain in dB (A) = A1+A2+A3+A4+AN

The Gain
Depending on the manner which the
different amplifier stages are connected,
one of the following amplifiers may result :
a) RC coupling @ capacitor coupling
b) Direct coupling (CE-CC, Darlington pair)
c) Transformer coupling
Type of multistage
RC COUPLING
One way to connect various stage is via
capacitor
Coupling capacitor is used to block the flow of dc
current between the output of one amplifier
stage and the input of the next stage
Cont
Make dc bias at the output of one stage is
different from dc bias voltage at the input to
next stage
Prevent the flow of dc signal current between
stage
Provides enough high frequency to keep
capacitive reactance small

Advantages
Affects the lower frequency response of
amplifier
Disadvantage
DIRECT COUPLING
In this type of amplifier, the output of one stage
of amplifier is connected to the input of the next
stage directly without using any reactive
component like capacitor, inductor.
As a result, the frequency response of this
amplifier is quite flat all the way down to dc
(0Hz)
Cont
Simple circuit
Can be used to amplify zero and low
frequency signal
Used in differential and op-amp
Advantages
At high frequency, gain decrease
Transistor parameter change with
temperature, hence output is affected by
temperature variation
Any noise appearing at the input also present
at the output in amplified form due to high
gain
Disadvantages
DARLINGTON PAIR
Collector of two BJT are tied together and
emitter of one is direct coupled to the base of the
other
The combination is used in amplifier circuit as if
were a single transistor having three terminal
B,C,E
Is important and useful configuration because
has high B
BD = B1B2
Cont
TRANSFORMER COUPLING
Transformer coupling is where the primary
winding is in the output of one stage and
secondary winding is in the input circuit of the
following stage
The ac signal is passed from one stage to
the next stage without the possibility of dc
current flowing between the two windings
Cont
Low power dissipation
Capability of designing a turn ratio that result
in maximum power transfer between stage
Often used in narrow band application (RF
amplifier)
Advantages
Poor frequency response due to inductance
and inter-winding capacitance tend to reduce
the usable bandwidth of these amplifier
Disadvantages
Frequency response curve of
multistage
The greater the number of identical stages,
the lower cut-off frequency is increasing and
the upper cut-off frequency is decreasing
Therefore, this will reduce the bandwidth of
the multistage amplifier
Cont
FIELD EFFECT
TRANSISTORS (FET)

CHAPTER 5
EE201-SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
Introduction
The field-effect transistor (FET) is a three-terminal
device used for a variety of applications that match, to
a large extent, those of the BJT Although there are
important differences between the two types of
devices.

The primary difference between the two types of
transistors is the fact that the
BJT transistor is a current-controlled device
JFET transistor is a voltage-controlled device

In each case the current of the output circuit is being
controlled by a parameter of the input circuitin
one case a current level and in the other an applied
voltage.

Two types of FETs will be introduced in this
chapter :
Junction Field-Effect Transistor (JFET)
Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor
(MOSFET)
JFET
JFET is a three-terminal device with one
terminal capable of controlling the
current between the other two.
For the JFET transistor the n-channel device
will appear as the prominent device than p-
channel.

The basic construction of the n-channel
JFET .

The major part of the structure is the n-
type material that forms the channel
between the embedded layers of p-type
material.

The top of the n-type channel is connected
through an ohmic contact to a terminal
referred to as the drain (D).

The lower end of the same material is
connected through an ohmic contact to a
terminal referred to as the source (S).

The two p-type materials are connected
together and to the gate (G) terminal.
Physical structure

Schematic Symbol
N-Channel P-Channel
I-V characteristics
I
DSS
= Max I
D
V
P
= Pinch Voltage
Operating
region
MOSFET

The metaloxidesemiconductor field-effect
transistor (MOSFET, MOS-FET, or MOS FET) is
a transistor used for amplifying or switching
electronic signals.

In MOSFETs, a voltage on the oxide-insulated gate
electrode can induce a conducting channel between
the two other contacts called source and drain.

The channel can be of n-type or p-type, called an
nMOSFET or a pMOSFET (also commonly nMOS,
pMOS).

MOSFET is further broken down into depletion and
enhancement types.

N-MOS & P-MOS
N-MOS
n-channel MOSFETs are smaller than p-channel
MOSFETs and producing only one type of
MOSFET on a silicon substrate is cheaper and
technically simpler.
P-MOS
P-type metal-oxide-semiconductor logic uses p-
type metal-oxide-semiconductor field effect
transistors (MOSFETs) to implement logic
gates and other digital circuits.

PMOS transistors have four modes of
operation: cut-off (or subthreshold), triode,
saturation (sometimes called active), and
velocity saturation.
Physical & Schematic diagram
D-MOSFET (Depletion mode)

Have similar characteristics to those of a
JFET between cutoff and saturation at
IDSS.
Additional feature of characteristics that
extend into the region of opposite
polarity for VGS.
A slab of p-type material is formed from a
silicon base and is referred to as the
substrate. (SS) It is the foundation upon
which the device will be constructed.

The source and drain terminals are
connected through metallic contacts to n-
doped regions linked by an n-channel

The gate is also connected to a metal
contact surface but remains insulated from
the n-channel by a very thin silicon dioxide
(SiO
2
) layer.

D-MOSFET Operation
D-MOSFETs can operate in the depletion
and enhancement modes.
Zero bias: The gate is shorted to the source, so drain
current equals the I
DSS
rating of the component.

Depletion mode: The negative gate-source voltage
forces free electrons away from the gate, forming a
depletion layer that cuts into the channel. As a result,
I
D
< I
DSS

Enhancement mode: The positive gate-source voltage
attracts free electrons in the substrate toward the
channel while driving valence-band holes (in the
substrate) away from the channel. As a result, the
material to the right of the channel effectively becomes
n-type material. I
D
> I
DSS.

E-MOSFET
There are some similarities in construction and
mode of operation between depletion-type and
enhancement-type MOSFETs

The characteristics of the enhancement-type
MOSFET are quite different from anything obtained
thus far.

Current control in an n-channel device is now effected
by a positive gate-to-source voltage rather than the
range of negative voltages encountered in n-channel
depletion-type MOSFETs.
The source and drain
terminals are again
connected through metallic
contacts to n-doped regions.

The absence of a channel
between the two n-doped
regions.

This is the primary difference
between the construction
of depletion-type and
enhancement-type
MOSFETs
E-MOSFET Operation
E-MOSFETs are restricted to enhancement-
mode operation.

When an E-MOSFET is zero biased, there is
no channel between the source and drain
materials, and I
D
=0A. When V
GS
exceeds
the threshold voltage rating for the
component V
TH
, a channel is formed.

This allows a current to pass through the
component. The operation of the E-MOSFET
is represented by the transconductance
curve. Note that the I
DSS
rating for the
component is, by definition, the value of
drain current when V
GS
=V
TH
. Since the
channel is just beginning to form when
V
GS
= V
TH
, I
DSS
0A

NMOS I-V Characteristics
Cutoff Mode
Occurs when V
GS
V
TH(N)
I
D
= 0

Triode/Linear Mode
Occurs when V
GS
> V
TH(N)
and
V
DS
< V
GS
-V
TH(N)

Saturation Mode
Occurs when V
GS
> V
TH(N)
and
V
DS
V
GS
-V
TH(N)
PMOS IV Characteristics
I
D
, V
GS
, V
DS
, and V
TH(P)
are all negative for
PMOS.

Channel formed when V
GS
< V
TH(P)

Saturation occurs when V
DS
V
GS
V
TH(P)

P-MOS I-V Curve
Cutoff Mode
Occurs when V
GS
V
TH(P)
I
D
= 0
Triode/Linear Mode
Occurs when V
GS
< VT
H(P)
and
V
DS
> V
GS
-V
TH(P)
Saturation Mode
Occurs when V
GS
< V
TH(P)
and
V
DS
V
GS
- V
TH(P)
JFET Amplifier
JFET's can be used to make single stage class
A amplifier circuits with the JFET common
source amplifier.

The main advantage JFET amplifiers have
over BJT amplifiers is their high input
impedance which is controlled by the Gate
biasing resistive network formed
by R1 and R2 as shown.
The control of the Drain current by a negative
Gate potential makes the Junction Field
Effect Transistor useful as a switch.

It is essential that the Gate voltage is never
positive for an N-channel JFET as the channel
current will flow to the Gate and not the
Drain resulting in damage to the JFET.

The principals of operation for a P-channel
JFET are the same as for the N-channel JFET,
except that the polarity of the voltages need
to be reversed.
The FET can be used as a linear amplifier or as
a digital device in logic circuits.

The enhancement MOSFET is quite popular in
digital circuitry, especially in CMOS circuits
that require very low power consumption.

FET devices are also widely used in high-
frequency applications and in buffering
(interfacing) applications.

Common Source Amplifier
The common-source (CS) amplifier may be
viewed as a transconductance amplifier or as a
voltage amplifier.
As a transconductance amplifier, the input
voltage is seen as modulating the current going
to the load.

As a voltage amplifier, input voltage modulates
the amount of current flowing through the FET,
changing the voltage across the output
resistance according to Ohm's law.

FET device's output resistance typically is not
high enough for a reasonable transconductance
amplifier (ideally infinite), nor low enough for a
decent voltage amplifier (ideally zero).

Common Drain Amplifier
Also known as a source follower, typically used as a voltage buffer.
In this circuit the gate terminal of the transistor serves as the input,
the source is the output, and the drain is common to both (input
and output), hence its name.

In addition, this circuit is used to
transform impedances.
For example, the Thvenin resistance of a combination
of a voltage follower driven by a voltage source with
high Thvenin resistance is reduced to only the output
resistance of the voltage follower, a small resistance.
That resistance reduction makes the combination a
more ideal voltage source.

Conversely, a voltage follower inserted between a
driving stage and a high load (ie a low resistance)
presents an infinite resistance (low load) to the
driving stage, an advantage in coupling a voltage
signal to a large load.
Common Gate Amplifier
Typically used as
a current buffer or voltage amplifier. In this
circuit the source terminal of the transistor
serves as the input, the drain is the output and
the gate is common to both.
This configuration is used less often than
the common source or source follower.

Usually used in CMOS RF receivers for
ease of impedance matching and
potentially has lower noise.
MOSFET as Switches
MOSFET switches use the MOSFET
channel as a lowon-resistance switch to
pass analog signals when on, and as a high
impedance when off.

In this application the drain and source of
a MOSFET exchange places depending on
the voltages of each electrode compared
to that of the gate.
For a simple MOSFET without an
integrated diode, the source is the more
negative side for an N-MOS or the more
positive side for a P-MOS. All of these
switches are limited on what signals they
can pass or stop by their gate-source,
gate-drain and source-drain voltages, and
source-to-drain currents; exceeding the
voltage limits will potentially damage the
switch.

MOSFET CHARACTERISTIC
CURVE
1. Cut-off Region
Here the operating conditions of the
transistor are zero input gate voltage ( V
IN
),
zero drain current I
D
and output
voltage V
DS
= V
DD
Therefore the MOSFET is
switched "Fully-OFF".

Saturation Region
Here the transistor will be biased so that the
maximum amount of gate voltage is applied to
the device which results in the channel
resistance R
DS(on)
being as small as possible
with maximum drain current flowing through
the MOSFET switch. Therefore the MOSFET is
switched "Fully-ON".

The input and Gate are grounded (0v)
Gate-source voltage less than threshold voltage V
GS
< V
TH

MOSFET is "fully-OFF" (Cut-off region)
No Drain current flows ( I
D
= 0 )
V
OUT
= V
DS
= V
DD
= "1"
MOSFET operates as an "open switch"

Then we can define the "cut-off region" or "OFF mode" of a MOSFET switch
as being, gate voltage,V
GS
< V
TH
and I
D
= 0. For a P-channel MOSFET, the gate
potential must be negative.

N-MOS as switch
The input and Gate are connected to V
DD

Gate-source voltage is much greater than threshold voltage V
GS
> V
TH

MOSFET is "fully-ON" (saturation region)
Max Drain current flows ( I
D
= V
DD
/ R
L
)
V
DS
= 0V (ideal saturation)
Min channel resistance R
DS(on)
< 0.1
V
OUT
= V
DS
= 0.2V (R
DS
.I
D
)
MOSFET operates as a "closed switch"

Then we can define the "saturation region" or "ON mode" of a MOSFET switch as
gate-source voltage,V
GS
> V
TH
and I
D
= Maximum. For a P-channel MOSFET, the gate
potential must be positive.

P-channel MOSFET Switch
APPLICATION MOSFET AS
SWITCH
In this circuit arrangement an Enhancement-
mode N-channel MOSFET is being used to switch
a simple lamp "ON" and "OFF" (could also be an
LED). The gate input voltage V
GS
is taken to an
appropriate positive voltage level to turn the
device and therefore the lamp either fully "ON",
( V
GS
= +ve ) or at a zero voltage level that turns
the device fully "OFF", ( V
GS
= 0).
If the resistive load of the lamp was to be
replaced by an inductive load such as a coil,
solenoid or relay a "flywheel diode" would be
required in parallel with the load to protect the
MOSFET from any self generated back-emf.

In a P-channel device the conventional flow of drain
current is in the negative direction so a negative gate-
source voltage is applied to switch the transistor "ON".
This is achieved because the P-channel MOSFET is
"upside down" with its source terminal tied to the
positive supply +V
DD
. Then when the switch goes LOW,
the MOSFET turns "ON" and when the switch goes
HIGH the MOSFET turns "OFF".

This upside down connection of a P-channel
enhancement mode MOSFET switch allows us to
connect it in series with a N-channel enhancement
mode MOSFET to produce a complementary or
CMOS switching device as shown across a dual supply.

LOGO
CHAPTER 6
INTRODUCTION TO
OTHER ELECTRONIC
DEVICES
Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
An SCR consist of four layers of alternating
P and N type semiconductor materials.

As the terminology indicates, the SCR is a
rectifier constructed of silicon material with
a third terminal for control purposes.

Silicon was chosen because of its high
temperature and power capabilities.
PHYSICAL STRUCTURE &
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

SCR MODES OF OPERATION
In the normal "off" state, the device restricts
current to the leakage current.

When the gate-to-cathode voltage exceeds
a certain threshold, the device turns "on"
and conducts current.

The device will remain in the "on" state
even after gate current is removed so long
as current through the device remains
above the holding current.

CONTD
Once current falls below the holding current
for an appropriate period of time, the device
will switch "off".

If the gate is pulsed and the current
through the device is below the holding
current, the device will remain in the "off"
state.

SCR APPLICATION
Mainly used in devices where the control of
high power, possibly coupled with high
voltage, is demanded.

Suitable for use in medium to high-voltage
AC power control applications, such as
lamp dimming, regulators and motor
control.

SCRs and similar devices are used for
rectification of high power AC in high-
voltage direct current power transmission.



DIAC
The DIAC, or 'diode for alternating current',
is a diode that conducts current only after
its break-over voltage has been reached
momentarily.

The diac is basically a two-terminal parallel-
inverse combination of semiconductor
layers that permits triggering in either
direction.
DIAC SCHEMATIC SYMBOL

A1
A2
CONTD
DIACs are also called symmetrical trigger
diodes due to the symmetry of their
characteristic curve.

Because DIACs are bidirectional devices,
their terminals are not labeled as anode
and cathode but as A1 and A2 or MT1
("Main Terminal") and MT2.
DIAC APPLICATION
The diacs, because of their symmetrical
bidirectional switching characteristics, are widely
used as triggering devices in triac phase control
circuits employed for lamp dimmer, heat control,
universal motor speed control etc.




TRIAC
TRIAC, from Triode for Alternating
Current, is a genericized tradename for
an electronic component which can
conduct current in either direction when it is
triggered (turned on).

The triac is fundamentally a diac with a gate
terminal for controlling the turn-on
conditions of the bilateral device in either
direction.

For either direction the gate current can
control the action of the device in a manner
very similar to that demonstrated for an
SCR.
TRIAC SCHEMATIC SYMBOL

CONTD
It can be triggered by either a positive or a
negative voltage being applied to its gate electrode.

Once triggered, the device continues to conduct until
the current through it drops below a certain threshold
value, the holding current, such as at the end of a half-
cycle of alternating current(AC) mains power.

This makes the TRIAC a very convenient switch for AC
circuits, allowing the control of very large power flows
with milliampere-scale control currents.
TRIAC APPLICATION
Low power TRIACs are used in many
applications such as light dimmers, speed
controls for electric fans and other electric
motors.

In the modern computerized control circuits
of many household small and major
appliances.
UJT (UNIJUNCTION TRANSISTOR)
A unijunction transistor (UJT) is
an electronic semiconductor device that has
only one junction.

A slab of lightly doped (increased
resistance characteristic) n-type silicon
material has two base contacts attached to
both ends of one surface and an aluminum
rod alloyed to the opposite surface.

The p-n junction of the device is formed at
the boundary of the aluminum rod and the
n-type silicon slab.

The single p-n junction accounts for the
terminology unijunction.

UJT APPLICATION
The most important applications of UJTs or
PUTs is to trigger thyristors (SCR, TRIAC,
etc.).

DC voltage can be used to control a UJT
circuit such that the "on-period" increases
with an increase in the DC control voltage.
This application is important for large AC
current control.

UJTs can also be used to measure
magnetic flux.

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