UNSTEADY HEAT TRANSFER

Many heat transfer problems require the understanding of

the complete time history of the temperature variation. For
example, in metallurgy, the heat treating process can be
controlled to directly affect the characteristics of the
processed materials. Annealing (slow cool) can soften
metals and improve ductility. On the other hand,
quenching (rapid cool) can harden the strain boundary and
increase strength. In order to characterize this transient
behavior, the full unsteady equation is needed:
∂T 1 ∂T
ρc = k ∇ T , or
2
=∇ T2

∂t α ∂t
k
where α = is the thermal diffusivity
ρc
 “A heated/cooled body at Ti is suddenly exposed to fluid at T∞ with a
known heat transfer coefficient . Either evaluate the temperature at a
given time, or find time for a given temperature.”

Q: “How good an approximation would it be to say the bar is more or less

isothermal?”
A: “Depends on the relative importance of the thermal conductivity in the
thermal circuit compared to the convective heat transfer coefficient”.
 Biot No. Bi
•Defined to describe the relative resistance in a thermal circuit of
the convection compared
hLc Lc / kA Internal conduction resistance within solid
Bi = = =
k 1 / hA External convection resistance at body surface

Lc is a characteristic length of the body

Bi→0: No conduction resistance at all. The body is isothermal.
Small Bi: Conduction resistance is less important. The body may still
be approximated as isothermal (purple temp. plot in figure)
Lumped capacitance analysis can be performed.
Large Bi: Conduction resistance is significant. The body cannot be treated as
isothermal (blue temp. plot in figure).
 Transient heat transfer with no internal
resistance: Lumped Parameter Analysis
Valid for Bi<0.1

Solid
Total Resistance= Rexternal + Rinternal

GE:
dT
=−
hA
(T − T∞ ) BC: T (t = 0 ) = Ti
dt mc p
Solution: let Θ = T − T∞ , therefore
dΘ hA
=− Θ
dt mc p
 Lumped Parameter Analysis

Θi = Ti − T∞
Θ hA
ln =− t
Θi mc p
hA
Θ − t
=e
mc p

Θi
- To determine the temperature at a given time, or
T − T∞
mc p
−t
=e hA - To determine the time required for the
Ti − T∞ temperature to reach a specified value.

Note: Temperature function only of time and not of

space!
 Lumped Parameter Analysis

T − T∞ hA
T= = exp( − t)
T0 − T∞ ρcV

hA ⎛ hLc ⎞⎛ k ⎞ 1 1 α
t =⎜ ⎟⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ t = Bi 2 t
ρcV ⎝ k ⎠⎝ ρc ⎠ Lc Lc Lc
Thermal diffusivity: ⎛ k ⎞ (m² s-1)
α ≡ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ ρc ⎠
 Lumped Parameter Analysis
Define Fo as the Fourier number (dimensionless time)
α hLC
Fo ≡ 2
t and Biot number Bi ≡
Lc k
The temperature variation can be expressed as

T = exp(-Bi*Fo)
where Lc is a characteristic length scale : realte to the size of the solid invloved in the problem

r
for example , Lc = o (half - radius) when the solid is a cylinder.
2

r
Lc = o (one - third radius) when the solid is sphere
3

Lc = L (half thickness) when the solid is aplane wall with a 2L thickness

 Spatial Effects and the Role of Analytical
Solutions
The Plane Wall: Solution to the Heat Equation for a Plane Wall
with Symmetrical Convection Conditions

1 ∂T ∂ 2T
⋅ = 2
a ∂τ ∂x
T ( x, 0) = Ti
∂T
=0
∂x x =0

∂T
−k = h[T ( L, t ) − T∞ ]
∂x x =l
 The Plane Wall:

Note: Once spatial variability of temperature is included,

there is existence of seven different independent
variables.

How may the functional dependence be simplified?

•The answer is Non-dimensionalisation. We first

need to understand the physics behind the
phenomenon, identify parameters governing the
process, and group them into meaningful non-
dimensional numbers.
 θ T − T∞
Dimensionless temperature difference: θ = =
*

θ i Ti − T∞
x
Dimensionless coordinate: x* =
L
αt
Dimensionless time: t* = 2
= Fo
L
hL
The Biot Number: Bi =
k solid
The solution for temperature will now be a function of the other non-dimensional
quantities
θ * = f ( x * , Fo, Bi )
θ = ∑ C n exp(− ζ n2 Fo )cos(ζ n x * )
∞
*
Exact Solution:
n =1

4 sin ζ n
Cn = ζ n tan ζ n = Bi
2ζ n + sin(2ζ n )
The roots (eigenvalues) of the equation can be obtained from tables given in standard textbooks.
 The One-Term Approximation Fo > 0.2

Variation of mid-plane temperature with time Fo ( x * = 0)

T − T∞
θ =
*
0 ≈ C1 exp(− ζ 12 Fo )
Ti − T∞
From tables given in standard textbooks, one can obtain C1 and ζ1
as a function of Bi.

Variation of temperature with location ( x * ) and time ( Fo ):

θ * = θ 0* = cos(ζ 1 x * )

Change in thermal energy storage with time: ΔE st = −Q

⎛ sin ζ 1 ⎞ *
Q = Q0 ⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎟θ 0
⎝ ζ1 ⎠
Q0 = ρcV (Ti − T∞ )
Graphical Representation of the One-Term Approximation:
The Heisler Charts
Midplane Temperature:
Temperature Distribution

Change in Thermal Energy Storage

Assumptions in using Heisler charts:

•Constant Ti and thermal properties over the body
•Constant boundary fluid T∞ by step change
•Simple geometry: slab, cylinder or sphere
 Radial Systems
Long Rods or Spheres Heated or Cooled by Convection

Similar Heisler charts are available for radial systems in standard

text books.
Important tips: Pay attention to the length scale used in
those charts, and calculate your Biot number accordingly.
 Unsteady Heat Transfer in
Semi-infinite Solids

‰ Solidification process of the coating layer during a thermal spray

operation is an unsteady heat transfer problem. As we discuss
earlier, thermal spray process deposits thin layer of coating
materials on surface for protection and thermal resistant purposes,
as shown. The heated, molten materials will attach to the substrate
and cool down rapidly. The cooling process is important to prevent
the accumulation of residual thermal stresses in the coating layer.
 Unsteady Heat Transfer in
Semi-infinite Solids(contd…)

liquid
Coating with density ρ,
latent heat of fusion: hsf
S(t) δ

solid

Substrate, k, α
 Example

‰ As described in the previous slide, the cooling process can now be

modeled as heat loss through a semi-infinite solid. (Since the substrate
is significantly thicker than the coating layer) The molten material is at
the fusion temperature Tf and the substrate is maintained at a constant
temperature Ti. Derive an expression for the total time that is required
to solidify the coating layer of thickness δ.
 Example
‰ Assume the molten layer stays at a constant temperature Tf
throughout the process. The heat loss to the substrate is solely
supplied by the release of the latent heat of fusion.
From energy balance:
hsf Δm (solidified mass during Δt) = ΔQ = q" AΔt (energy input)
dm
h sf= q" A, where m = ρV = ρAS,
dt
where S is solidified thickness
dS
Heat transfer from ρ dt = q"
the molten material
to the substrate
(q=q”A)
 Example (contd...)

‰ Identify that the previous situation corresponds to the case of a semi-

infinite transient heat transfer problem with a constant surface
temperature boundary condition. This boundary condition can be
modeled as a special case of convection boundary condition case by
setting h=∞, therefore, Ts=T∞).
 Example (contd...)

If the surface temperature is Ts and the initial temperature of

the bolck is Ti , the analytical solution of the problem can be found:
The temperature distribution and the heat transfer into the block are:
T(x,t)-Ts ⎛ x ⎞
= erf ⎜ ⎟ , where erf( ) is the Gaussian error function.
Ti − Ts ⎝ 2 αt ⎠
2 w − v2
It is defined as erf(w)=
π ∫ e dv
0

k(Ts − Ti )
qs"(t)=
παt
 Example (contd...)

From the previous equation

δ
k(Tf − Ti ) k(Tf − Ti ) dt
t
dS
ρ hsf =q"= , and ∫ dS = ∫
dt πα t 0 ρ hsf πα 0 t
2
2k(Tf − Ti ) πα ⎛ δρ hsf ⎞
δ (t ) = t , therefore, δ ∝ t. Cooling time t = 2 ⎜ ⎟⎟
ρ hsf πα 4k ⎜⎝ T f − Ti ⎠

‰ Use the following values to calculate: k=120 W/m.K, α=4×10-5 m2/s,

ρ=3970 kg/m3, and hsf=3.577 ×106 J/kg, Tf=2318 K, Ti=300K, and δ=2
mm
 Example (contd…)
2k(Tf − Ti )
δ (t ) = t = 0.00304 t
ρhsf πα
‰ δ(t) ∝ t1/2
0.004 ‰ Therefore, the layer solidifies
very fast initially and then slows
0.003 down as shown in the figure
‰ Note: we neglect contact
δ( t )0.002 resistance between the coating and
the substrate and assume
0.001 temperature of the coating material
stays the same even after it
0 solidifies.
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
t

‰ To solidify 2 mm thickness, it takes 0.43 seconds.

 Example (contd…)

‰ What will be the substrate temperature as it varies in time? The

temperature distribution is:

T ( x, t ) − TS ⎛ x ⎞
= erf ⎜ ⎟,
Ti − TS ⎝ 2 αt ⎠
⎛ x ⎞ ⎛ x ⎞
T ( x, t ) = 2318 + (300 − 2318)erf ⎜ ⎟ = 2318 − 2018erf ⎜ 79.06 ⎟
⎝ 2 αt ⎠ ⎝ t⎠
 Example (contd…)

‰ For a fixed distance away from the surface, we can examine

the variation of the temperature as a function of time. Example,
1 cm deep into the substrate the temperature should behave as:

x 0.79
T ( x = 0.01, t ) = 2318 − 2018erf 79.06 = 2318 − 2018erf
t t
 Example (contd...)

2000

1600
‰ At x=1 cm, the temperature
T1( t )
rises almost instantaneously at a
Temperature

1200
T2( t )
800
very fast rate. A short time later,
T3( t )
400
the rate of temp. increase slows

0
down significantly since the
0 2 4 6 8 10
energy has to distribute to a very
t
Time large mass.
x=1 cm
x=2 cm ‰ At deeper depth (x=2 & 3
x=3 cm
cm), the temperature will not
respond to the surface condition
until much later.
 Example (contd...)
‰ We can also examine the spatial temperature distribution at
any given time, say at t=1 second.
T ( x, t = 1) = 2318 − 2018erf 79.06 x = 2318 − 2018erf 79.06 x
t
3000
‰ Heat penetrates into the
substrate as shown for different
Temperature (K)

T1( x )
2000 time instants.
T2( x ) ‰ It takes more than 5 seconds
T3( x ) 1000 for the energy to transfer to a
depth of 5 cm into the substrate
0 ‰ The slopes of the temperature
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
profiles indicate the amount of
x
distance (m) conduction heat transfer at that
t=1 s. instant.
t=5 s.
t=10 s.
 Numerical Methods for Unsteady
Heat Transfer
‰ Unsteady heat transfer equation, no generation, constant k, two-
dimensional in Cartesian coordinate:
1 ∂T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T
= 2 + 2
α ∂t ∂x ∂y
‰ We have learned how to discretize the Laplacian operator into system of
finite difference equations using nodal network. For the unsteady
problem, the temperature variation with time needs to be discretized too.
To be consistent with the notation from the book, we choose to analyze the
time variation in small time increment Δt, such that the real time t=pΔt.
The time differentiation can be approximated as:
∂T TmP,n+1 − TmP,n
≈ , while m & n correspond to nodal location
∂t m ,n Δt
such that x=mΔx, and y=nΔy as introduced earlier.
 Finite Difference Equations

m,n+1

m-1,n m,n m+1, n

m,n-1

‰ From the nodal network to the left, the heat equation can be written
in finite difference form:
 Finite Difference Equations
(contd…)
P +1
1 Tm ,n − Tm ,n Tm +1,n + Tm −1,n − 2Tm ,n Tm ,n +1 + Tm ,n −1 − 2Tm ,n
P P P P P P P
= +
α Δt ( Δx ) 2
( Δy ) 2
αΔt
Assume Δx=Δy and the discretized Fourier number Fo=
( Δx )
2

TmP,n+1 = Fo (TmP+1,n + TmP−1,n + TmP,n +1 + TmP,n −1 ) + (1 − 4 Fo)TmP,n

This is the explicit, finite difference equation for a 2-D,
unsteady heat transfer equation.
The temperature at time p+1 is explicitly expressed as a
function of neighboring temperatures at an earlier time p
 Nodal Equations

‰ Some common nodal configurations are listed in table for your

reference. On the third column of the table, there is a stability
criterion for each nodal configuration. This criterion has to be
satisfied for the finite difference solution to be stable. Otherwise,
the solution may be diverging and never reach the final solution.
 Nodal Equations (contd…)
‰ For example, Fo≤1/4. That is, αΔt/(Δx)2 ≤1/4 and
Δt≤(1/4α)(Δx)2. Therefore, the time increment has to be small
enough in order to maintain stability of the solution.

‰ This criterion can also be interpreted as that we should require

the coefficient for TPm,n in the finite difference equation be greater
than or equal to zero.

‰ Question: Why this can be a problem? Can we just make time

increment as small as possible to avoid it?
 Finite Difference Solution
Question: How do we solve the finite difference equation derived?

‰ First, by specifying initial conditions for all points inside the

nodal network. That is to specify values for all temperature at
time level p=0.
‰ Important: check stability criterion for each points.
‰From the explicit equation, we can determine all temperature at
the next time level p+1=0+1=1. The following transient response
can then be determined by marching out in time p+2, p+3, and so
on.
 Example
‰ Example: A flat plate at an initial temperature of 100 deg. is suddenly
immersed into a cold temperature bath of 0 deg. Use the unsteady finite
difference equation to determine the transient response of the temperature
of the plate.
L(thickness)=0.02 m, k=10 W/m.K, α=10×10-6 m2/s,
h=1000 W/m2.K, Ti=100°C, T∞=0°C, Δx=0.01 m
x Bi=(hΔx)/k=1, Fo=(αΔt)/(Δx)2=0.1
1
There are three nodal points: 1 interior and two
2 3
exterior points: For node 2, it satisfies the case 1
configuration in table.

T2P +1 = Fo(T1P + T3P + T2P + T2P ) + (1 − 4 Fo)T2P = Fo(T1P + T3P ) + (1 − 2 Fo)T2P

= 0.1(T1P + T3P ) + 0.8T2P
1
Stability criterion: 1-2Fo ≥ 0 or Fo=0.1 ≤ ,it is satisfied
2
 Example
For nodes 1 & 3, they are consistent with the case 3 in table.
Node 1: T1P +1 = Fo(2T2P + T1P + T1P + 2 BiT∞ ) + (1 − 4 Fo − 2 BiFo)T1P
= Fo(2T2P + 2 BiT∞ ) + (1 − 2 Fo − 2 BiFo)T1P = 0.2T2P + 0.6T1P
Node 3: T3P +1 = 0.2T2P + 0.6T3P
1
Stability criterion: (1-2Fo-2BiFo) ≥ 0, ≥ Fo(1 + Bi ) = 0.2 and it is satisfied
2
System of equations Use initial condition, T10 = T20 = T30 = 100,
T1P +1 = 0.2T2P + 0.6T1P T11 = 0.2T20 + 0.6T10 = 80
T2P +1 = 0.1(T1P + T3P ) + 0.8T2P T21 = 0.1(T10 + T30 ) + 0.8T20 = 100
T3P +1 = 0.2T2P + 0.6T3P T31 = 0.2T20 + 0.6T30 = 80

Marching in time, T11 = T31 = 80, T21 = 100

T12 = 0.2T21 + 0.6T11 = 0.2(100) + 0.6(80) = 68
T22 = 0.1(T11 + T31 ) + 0.8T21 = 0.1(80 + 80) + 0.8(100) = 96
T32 = 0.2T21 + 0.6T31 = 0.2(100) + 0.6(80) = 68, and so on