This book is dedicated to you.

I hope it will be your favourite book.

ISBN: 978-84-614-2786-4
2
nd
edition
2011
Author: Gonzalo Morillo Dez
Editors: Mathew Mendoza & Ann Taylor

www.esobook.net
info@esobook.net

2
Index
Section 1 Technology and Projects
CHAPTER 1 - WHAT IS TECHNOLOGY? ....................................................................... 6
1.1 IS TECHNOLOGY RELATED TO SOCIETY? ............................................................................................... 6
1.2 NAMES OF THE TOOLS IN THE WORKSHOP ........................................................................................... 8
CHAPTER 2 - PROJECTS ........................................................................................... 14
2.1 RESOLUTION OF TECHNOLOGICAL PROBLEMS ..................................................................................... 14
2.2 STEPS OF A PROJECT .................................................................................................................... 15
2.3 EXAMPLE OF THE DOCUMENTS OF A PROJECT ..................................................................................... 20

Section 2 Drawing
CHAPTER 3 - DRAWING TOOLS AND BASIC TECHNIQUES. ...................................... 22
3.1 DRAWING TOOLS ........................................................................................................................ 22
3.2 BASIC DRAWING TECHNIQUES ....................................................................................................... 25
CHAPTER 4 - ORTHOGRAPHIC DRAWING ................................................................. 27
4.1 DRAFTING ..................................................................................................................................... 28
4.2 DRAWING ..................................................................................................................................... 28
4.3 STANDARDIZATION ......................................................................................................................... 29
4.4 FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION ................................................................................................................. 30

Section 3 Materials
CHAPTER 5 - PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS .............................................................. 36
5.1 CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS ...................................................................................................... 36
5.2 PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS ........................................................................................................... 36
CHAPTER 6 - WOOD ................................................................................................ 42
6.1 PROPERTIES AND COMPOSITION OF WOOD ........................................................................................ 43
6.2 PROCESSING AND TREATMENT OF NATURAL WOOD ............................................................................. 43
6.3 SOME COMMONLY USED TYPES OF WOOD ......................................................................................... 44
6.4 ARTIFICIAL WOOD PLANKS ............................................................................................................. 46
6.5 APPLICATIONS OF NATURAL AND PROCESSED WOOD. ........................................................................... 46
6.6 PRODUCTION OF PAPER ................................................................................................................ 47
6.7 TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES FOR WOODWORKING .................................................................................. 47

3


CHAPTER 7 - METALS ............................................................................................... 52
7.1 STEEL ....................................................................................................................................... 53
7.2 CAST IRON ................................................................................................................................. 53
7.3 PRODUCTION OF CAST IRON AND STEEL............................................................................................ 54
7.4 SPECIAL STEELS ........................................................................................................................... 55
7.5 NON FERROUS METALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES .................................................................................. 56
7.6 NON FERROUS ALLOYS AND THEIR PROPERTIES ................................................................................... 57
7.7 METALWORKING ........................................................................................................................ 57

Section 4 Structures, Mechanisms and Electricity
CHAPTER 8 - STRUCTURES ....................................................................................... 60
8.1 TYPES OF STRUCTURES ................................................................................................................. 60
8.2 STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS ................................................................................................................ 63
8.3 TYPES OF UNIONS ....................................................................................................................... 63
8.4 FORCES ON STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS ................................................................................................. 64
8.5 APPLICATIONS ............................................................................................................................ 66
8.6 ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOUR, USING DIFFERENT MODELS ......................................................... 66
CHAPTER 9 - MECHANISMS ..................................................................................... 68
9.1 BELTS ....................................................................................................................................... 69
9.2 PULLEYS .................................................................................................................................... 69
9.3 LEVERS ..................................................................................................................................... 70
9.4 GEARS ...................................................................................................................................... 72
9.5 CRANKSHAFT .............................................................................................................................. 74
9.6 CLUTCH ..................................................................................................................................... 74
9.7 BRAKES ..................................................................................................................................... 74
CHAPTER 10 - ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS ........................................................................ 75
10.1 WHAT IS AN ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT? ................................................................................................... 76
10.2 APPLICATIONS OF ELECTRICITY ....................................................................................................... 77
10.3 ELEMENTS OF AN ELECTRIC CIRCUIT .................................................................................................. 78
10.4 ELECTRIC SYMBOLS ...................................................................................................................... 79
10.5 CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS ...................................................................................................................... 79
10.6 MAGNITUDES IN ELECTRIC CIRCUITS ................................................................................................. 80
10.7 TYPES OF CIRCUITS AND THEIR PROPERTIES ........................................................................................ 82

4

Section 5 Energy and Machines
CHAPTER 11 - NON-RENEWABLE SOURCES OF ENERGY............................................ 84
11.1 URANIUM ............................................................................................................................. 86
11.2 COAL .................................................................................................................................... 87
11.3 CRUDE OIL ............................................................................................................................ 87
11.4 NATURAL GAS ...................................................................................................................... 90
CHAPTER 12 - RENEWABLE SOURCES OF ENERGY ................................................... 92
12.1 HYDRO-ELECTRIC DAMS ........................................................................................................ 93
12.2 WIND POWER ....................................................................................................................... 94
12.3 SOLAR POWER ...................................................................................................................... 96
12.4 NUCLEAR FUSION ................................................................................................................. 97
CHAPTER 13 - THERMAL MACHINES ...................................................................... 100
13.1 EXTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES ....................................................................................... 101
13.2 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES ...................................................................................... 103
13.3 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF FOSSIL FUELS ....................................................................... 107
13.4 REFRIGERATORS AND AIR CONDITIONERS ........................................................................... 107


Section 6 Computing
CHAPTER 14 - HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE .......................................................... 110
14.1 WHAT IS A COMPUTER? ....................................................................................................... 110
14.2 HARDWARE .......................................................................................................................... 110
14.3 SOFTWARE ........................................................................................................................... 113
CHAPTER 15 - COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY: THE INTERNET ............................ 119
15.1 HISTORY OF THE WEB ........................................................................................................... 120
15.2 THE TECHNOLOGY BEHIND THE WEB ..................................................................................... 121
15.3 STRUCTURE OF THE INTERNET ............................................................................................... 122
15.4 SEARCHING FOR INFORMATION ON THE INTERNET ................................................................. 123
15.5 THE COMPUTER AS A COMMUNICATION TOOL: EMAIL, CHATS, VIDEO-CONFERENCING. ......... 125


5


6
Chapter 1
WHAT IS
TECHNOLOGY?









Technology is how we make things, things that make our lives more comfortable and our
work more productive: ploughs, chairs, telephones...
In technology we use tools and knowledge to make things.
1.1 I s technology related to society?
Yes, for example, thanks to telephones, we can talk to people who are far from us. But
telephones exist because we want to talk to people who are far from us.

The relation between science and technology
is strong.
For example, telescopes help us understand
the universe, and understanding the universe
helps us to construct satellites.

Homo Habilis started technology with a
technique to make fire.
This happened hundreds of thousands of
years ago.
Fire was good for heating and grilling meat.

7

Later, people converted natural resources into simple tools, for example
stone axes.
Axes are good for cutting trees.


Modern humans continue to invent
things.
The wheel (invented around 2700 BC)
helps us to travel and transport
merchandise.
It is hard to imagine today`s world
without the wheel.


Recent technological developments, the printing press, the telephone, the
internet, etc. help us to communicate on a global scale.

Technology helps develop more advanced economies.

But we dont always use technology
peacefully. Weapons are now more
powerful.
Many technological processes produce
unwanted by-products, called pollution.
Technological activities consume natural
resources.
Experts propose a change in our way of
life to reduce pollution emissions.

Some new technological developments raise ethical questions, especially in biotechnology
and genetic engineering.
1 Imagine the world without technology. Describe it.
2 Which do you think that is the best invention? Why?
3 Debate the present and future of technology in society. How do you think
technology will be in ten years?
4 Name three technologies that help us to communicate.

8
1.2 Names of the tools in the workshop
Metal File
We use the metal file to remove small amounts of metal.
You can also use it to remove small amounts of wood. We get a
better finish than with the wood file.
The finish is better with the metal file than with the wood file
because the grooves of the file are smaller. That is also why the
metal file removes less material.


Wood File
The grooves of the wood file are large.
We use it to remove parts of the surface of the wood and to give a
finish to the surface.
The wood file removes more wood than the metal file, but the
finish is worse.


Hammer
You probably know how to use it, but be careful!
Hammers normally have a wooden handle; wood is light and
absorbs vibrations well.
The head is metallic. Metals are heavy and resilient (resistant to
fracture by impact).

Ruler
We use the ruler to draw straight lines and also to measure things.
Normally, on one side there is a scale in centimetres and
millimetres and on the other there is a scale in inches and eighths
of an inch.
There are ten millimetres in a centimetre. There are eight eighths
of an inch in an inch.
In some countries people use inches as a unit of length. One inch is
approximately two and a half centimetres.

9
Hand Clamp
We use the hand clamp to hold together
two pieces.
For example, if we want to glue two
pieces of wood with a glue that takes
time to set, we can use the hand clamp
to keep the two pieces together while
the glue sets.
The jaws are made of metal.
The sliding jaw has an inner thread for
the shaft, which has a screw to tighten
the wood pieces.

Handles are made of wood or plastic with rubber.
The bars are made of steel or aluminium. They have stops to keep the sliding jaw in position.
If the bars are made of aluminium they are lighter; if they are made of steel they are
stronger.
Bench Clamp
We use the bench clamp to hold pieces that we want
to work with.
For example, we clamp a wood board to saw it
comfortably.
The bench clamp is stronger than the hand clamp and
is fixed to the bench.
The bench is the workshop table, made of a thick
board.

5 When would you use:
a) A wood file c) A ruler
b) A metal file d) A bench clamp
6 How many centimetres are 5 inches?
7 Name the parts of the hand clamp and explain their function.
8 Why do you think that we work more comfortably with the bench clamp?

10
Flat screwdriver
As its name indicates, the head of the flat
screwdriver is flat.
It is used to screw and unscrew screws with a single
slot in their head.


Cross head screwdriver
The difference between the flat head and the cross
head screwdrivers is in the tip.
The cross head screwdriver has a crossed-head tip
and the flat head screwdriver has a flat tip.

Pliers
We use pliers for a variety of purposes. The most
common use is to grip objects to work with them,
for example to undo a bolt or to bend a wire.
Pliers have parallel handles, a spindle where the
handles join, and parallel jaws that grip the object.

There are special pliers for specific purposes, such
as cutting wire or bending wire.
A special type of pliers is the plumber's pliers, on
which we can adjust the width between the jaws.

Scissors
Scissors have two steel blades that rotate around a
spindle screw.
A pair of scissors cuts better or worse depending
on how sharp the blade edges are.
In the handle there are holes for the fingers so that
we can move both blades at the same time with
only one hand.
The handle is normally made of plastic glued to the
steel.


11
Wood Saw

There are many types of saws, each
designed for a specific purpose.
Some are rigid so that the cut is straight.
Some are good to cut curves.
Some are good to cut big things.

If the teeth are big, the cut is rougher.
If the teeth are small, the end result is smoother.

Metal Saw
There are many types of metal saws, but the most common
one (and the one which you probably have in the
workshop) is like the one shown here.
The difference from the wood saw is in the teeth of the
blade.
The teeth of metal saws are smaller, so we remove less
material with each stroke.
The teeth of metal saws are made of a much harder
material.
The teeth must be harder than the material that they cut.
If not, the teeth soon wear down.

9 Which tools have:
a) A handle c) A spindle e) Teeth
b) One blade d) A flat tip f) Two blades
10 Name two tools that have a spindle.
11 Describe the teeth of the metal saw.
12 Name the parts of a pair of scissors.
13 Do you have tools at home? What tools? What do you do with them?
14 Imagine a new tool. Describe what it does, its shape

12
Vernier calliper
We use the calliper to measure small things with precision (0.1 mm).









1
st
We put the object that we want to measure between the two jaws.
2
nd
We slide the sliding jaw until both jaws gently enclose the object.
3
rd
We look at the main scale of the caliper. The value of the main scale that coincides
with the zero mark of the Vernier scale is the length of the object in millimetres, for
example, 135mm.
4
th
If the zero mark of the Vernier scale does not coincide exactly with a millimetre mark
on the main scale, we take the smaller value.
5
th
To know the decimals of millimetre we look at the Vernier scale.
There is a mark on the Vernier scale that coincides with a mark on the main scale, it
is the value of decimals of millimetre.
For example, if the mark that coincides is the 7, then it is 0.7mm.
Adding both numbers gives the dimension: 135.7mm.
Spanner
Spanners are the tool to tighten and loosen nuts and bolts.
There are several types: the open spanner, the ring spanner and the adjustable spanner.

The story of the adjustable spanner started in Sweden
in 1886, in the mechanical workshop of Johan Petter
Johansson.
At that time there was no standardisation of the sizes of
nuts and bolts and it was necessary to have many
different spanners.
Johan thought of having only one spanner with an
adjustable width and so he designed, patented and
made the first adjustable spanner.

13
Activities
1 What is technology?
2 Write six examples of the relation
between technology and society.
3 Name three inventions that help
us to communicate.
4 Which was the first technological
development?
5 Search for information about the
origins of paper. Write down a 20
lines summary.
6 Which type of file has smaller
grooves? Why?
7 Why do you think that hammers
have a:
a) Wooden handle
b) Metallic head
8 Using a ruler with two scales, one
in centimetres and one in inches,
draw a line of ten centimetres and
then measure it with the inches
scale. How many inches long is it?
Now, using the inches scale, draw
a line two inches long and another
six inches long. How many
centimetres long are they?
9 What happens if you saw with a
saw that has:
a) Large teeth
b) Small teeth
10 Technology sometimes has a
specific vocabulary. For example,
technological items are often
made of parts with specific names.







For example a boat has several
parts.
Choose another object, for
example a lamp, a bicycle, a tap
draw it and write the names of its
different parts.
11 What do we use the calliper for?
12 With the calliper, measure the
width of an object.
Write down your reading. In the
example the reading is 47.2 mm.
Compare your readings with the
readings of other students.








13 Why did Johan invent the
adjustable spanner?
14 Can you
think of a
new
invention for
the future?


14
Chapter 2
PROJECTS



2.1 Resolution of technological problems

Finding solutions to problems or needs requires
complex thinking; it is one of the most advanced
intellectual functions.

We search for solutions when we do not know
how to go from a starting point to a desired goal.

Resolution of problems is part of a larger process
that includes understanding the needs of the
user.

Projects in technology are normally done by
teams, not by individuals working alone.
One person can do small tasks, like replacing a
light bulb. Teams can do larger projects, like
constructing a car.

One of the most difficult things is to decide what
tasks are necessary.
The team agrees on the tasks for each member.
For example, Sarah does the drawings, Thomas
cuts the wood, Anna glues the pieces and
everyone works together to complete the project!

If you want the team to work well, it is important
to learn the different steps of a project, from
beginning to end.
It is best to follow the steps in the correct order.

15
2.2 Steps of a project

There are many ways to organize a project
from beginning to end.
Normally we divide the project into steps.

To be sure that we all work in the same
way, we should all follow these steps:





1 Specify the need
In this first step, we describe the problem.
Listen carefully to the problem and the needs of the user.
It is important to have an open mind about what the user
needs.
For example, instead of saying I need a chair to sit down
in front of the computer, you can say I need something
to be comfortable while writing at the computer for fifty
minutes.
The first document of the project is the description of
what the user wants. This document is called the
specification.

2 Search for information
Before we start to resolve the problem, we look for
information:
How other people have already resolved the same
problem in the past.
What solutions already exist in the market.
Asking someone who knows more.
Etc.
Information helps us to think of good ideas in the next
step (brainstorming).

16
3 Brainstorm
Brainstorming is a technique to generate solutions to problems.
We brainstorm after specifying the problem and searching for information.
Brainstorming helps us to think of ideas and select a good one.


Think of ideas:
One member of the team writes a list of the ideas from all
the members of the team.
Every member of the team contributes with ideas to solve
the problem.
The ideas must be practical and reasonable. Dont propose
absurd ideas!
Nobody should criticise other members ideas; all the ideas
go on the list.
The second document of the project is the list of proposed
ideas.

Select the best idea:
The members of the team discuss the advantages and
disadvantages of all the ideas.
Select the best three ideas by voting.
Draw a sketch of the best ideas and discuss and analyse
those ideas further.
Then vote again to select the best idea to solve the
problem. Think if it is easy to design, construct and recycle,
and if it is the best solution for the user.
The third document of the project is an explanation of why
the chosen idea was the best.
The third document includes a detailed sketch of the idea
and a description of the product: how it works, what
structure it has...
1 Do a brainstorm with this specification:
The sunlight reflects on the blackboard and it is difficult to see what
the teacher writes.
The students want to see clearly what the teacher writes on the
blackboard.


17
4 Plan
This is probably the most difficult step.
It is not more important than selecting
a good idea but it is more complex.
Now we think about all the tasks that
the team has to do and all the
resources that the team needs.
Time and people are resources.

1
st
You need to know how much time and how many people you have.
2
nd
Give tasks and time to each team member.
3
rd
Make a calendar with the dates for each part of the project.

The fourth document is a list of tasks for each member and the time for each task.
We can include what materials and tools we need.
5 Design
In this step we define the structure, the shape, the colour
During the design step we define in detail the chosen idea,
considering its manufacture, sale, service and recycling.
At this step it is not very difficult to go back to
brainstorming, so maybe you want to think again.
We design for easy manufacture and to satisfy the
specification.
During the design we make a clean, clear and detailed
drawing with the necessary dimensions.
The drawing is in first-angle projection (see Chapter 4:
Orthographic Drawing), with a top view, a front view and a
side view.
We specify the necessary materials and tools.
The detailed drawing is the fifth document of the projct.
2 The result of a brainstorm is to make a school bag with wheels:
a) Plan the project.
b) Design the school bag.

18
6 Construct
We construct our design: measurements, materials, colours
If during the construction we find mistakes in the design, or something that we cant make,
or if we see that we can improve the design, then we go back to the design step and change
it.

The problem with changing the design is that now
we have spent resources (time and materials) that
will be wasted.
So, there must be a very good reason to make
design changes (it would be worse not to make the
changes).
Dont forget to write a sixth document with the list
of tasks that each member of the team did and how
long each task took, the materials and tools that we
used, etc.
This sixth document is a bit like the planning
document. But instead of a plan, its a description of
how things happened.

7 Test
When we finish the construction, we test it and see if everything works correctly.
The first time that we test the constructed project it might not work. Dont worry! It is a
common problem amongst great inventors. Look for possible reasons and make changes;
then try again.
Sometimes the project doesnt work for simple things: a wire not connected, a piece in the
wrong position
Hopefully it will work fine!


19
8 Sell
At school we normally dont sell what we construct,
but if we plan to sell the product this is the most
important step.

The price doesnt depend on the production costs
(you cant sell something at any price you want).
The price depends on what the customer is
prepared to pay.
So, you should do the project only if the cost of
making it is lower than the expected selling price.


9 - Recycle
When we finish using the object (and if we designed
it with recyclable materials), we can construct other
objects using the same material.
We can recycle some materials that we use in the
workshop.
For example, we can dismantle some of the
components: light bulbs, wires, etc. and put them
back in storage.
Also, we can save large pieces of wood to make
smaller pieces in the future.
Recycling helps to save money, protects the
environment and promotes a more sustainable way
of life.
We put cans, plastic bottles and cartons in the
yellow container.


20
2.3 Example of the documents of a project
Specification
A model of tennis racket slips out of tennis players hands because the handle is too
slippery. Sales of this model are low.
We want to increase sales.
List of ideas
Reduce the weight of the racket, this reduces the centrifugal force and the racket
slips less.
Make the handle to the shape of the hand so that players can hold it better.
Cover the surface of the handle with rubber so that it has a better grip.
Tell players to hold it tightly because it slips.
Chosen solution
Cover the surface of the handle with rubber so that it has a better grip. This is the
best solution because it is cheap and solves the problem well.

Design
A strip of 1m long and 2cm wide rubber tape
wrapped around the handle and glued at both
ends.
Manufacture
Costs: rubber tape: 0,35 euros; glue: 0,04 euros;
labour: 4 minutes (1,24euros).
1
st
Glue one end of the tape.
2
nd
Wrap the tape around the handle. Add glue
to the other end and clamp to hold the tape
while the glue sets.
3
rd
Release the racket from the clamp.
Sale
We sell the racket in sports shops.
Recycle
We can melt rubber and mix it with chip stones
to make tarmac.

21
Activities
1 When do we search for solutions?
2 What type of things do we do:
a) As an individual
b) As part of a team
3 What is important to remember
when we specify the need?
4 How do we search for
information?
5 How do we select the best idea?
6 Read this specification:
There is a computer on a table.
The person that uses the
computer has to stand up all the
time and this is very tiring.
Something is needed to make life
more comfortable for the
computer user.



a) Do step 2 of the project and write
how you searched for information.
b) Do step 3 of the project. Write the
second and third documents.
c) Do step 4 of the project and write
the fourth document.
Do step 5. When you design it (fifth
document), make a good drawing and
additional notes: materials needed,
etc.
7 With these specifications, do all
the steps in a project.
We need a container to hold the
pens that we bring to school. The
container must:
Be light and easy to carry.
Have a nice appearance.
Be durable and cheap.
8 Look at your daily rubbish.

a) Make a list of things that we
recycle (newspapers, plastic
bottles...) and another list of
things that we dont recycle.
b) In which container do we put each
thing? (glass, paper, packaging,
rubbish, others).
For example, banana skin goes in
the organic container.
9 What do we put in the yellow
container?
10 True or false?
a) Projects in technology are
normally done by individuals
working alone.
b) When we plan, we think about
all the tasks that the team has
to do.
c) The selling price of a product
depends on its production
costs.

22
Chapter 3
DRAWING TOOLS AND
BASIC TECHNIQUES



3.1 Drawing tools
Ruler
The ruler is a useful tool for schoolwork.
On one side the ruler has a 1:1 metric
scale (centimetres and millimetres).
Sometimes, on the other side the ruler
has a 1:1 imperial scale (inches and
sixteenths of an inch). This is useful in
countries where people use inches as a
unit of length.
One inch is approximately two and a half
centimetres.
Sometimes rulers have holes on the long edge so that you can use it as a compass.

Protractor
The most common protractor has 180.
We use protractors to draw angles and to
measure angles.
To use it, put the vertex of the protractor on
the vertex of the angle and the 0 line of the
protractor on one of the segments of the
angle.
The other segment of the angle is under a
mark in the protractor, which indicates the
value of the angle. In the drawing it is 30.

23
Pencil and rubber
Pencils have leads of different hardness in a scale that ranges from soft (B) to hard (H):

Softest 4B, 3B, 2B, B, F, HB, H, 2H, 3H, 4H Hardest

If the lead is soft, the lines will be dark and thick, but we consume the lead quickly.
To obtain dark, thin lines, we use a soft lead and sharpen the pencil often.

We use rubbers to erase what we draw with a pencil.
They also are softer or harder.
Softer rubbers erase better but we also consume them faster.


Compass

With the compass we draw arcs or circles in
architectural and engineering drawings.
One arm of the compass has a needle. The other arm
has a drafting lead or a pen or a pencil.

First, adjust the width of the compass by placing the
compass needle at the centre of the circle and the
lead at a point of the future circle.
Then rotate the compass to draw the circle or arc.
During rotation, lean handle in the direction of the
movement.

1 Using a protractor, draw these angles:
a) 30 b) 58 c) 10 d) 165
2 Which is the hardness of the leads of your pencils?
3 With the compass, draw these circles:
a) r = 6 cm b) r = 3 cm c) r = 4.6 cm d) r = 2.5 cm

24
Triangle rulers
We use the triangle rulers to make simple lines, but
also parallel and perpendicular lines.
There are two types of triangle rulers: the 45 ruler
and the 60 ruler.
We also use the corners of the triangle rulers to
draw angles: 30, 45, 60, 90.


Drawing board

In the past, the drawing board was the drawing tool
for engineers and illustrators.
It was good for detailed drawings.
Now we use computers and CAD programs.



CAD
Computer-Aided Design programs
(applications) are programs for technical
drawing.
There are many examples: TurboCAD,
Autocad, Catia
If we combine CAD with finite element
analysis software (mathematical modelling
programs) we can calculate, for example:
If the structure will resist forces.
Liquids flow speeds.
4 Draw two parallel lines and two perpendicular lines.
5 Why do you think that engineers now prefer to use CAD programs?
6 What is the use of finite element analysis software?

25
3.2 Basic drawing techniques
Making parallels

We need two triangle rulers or one triangle ruler and one
straight ruler.

1
st
Put the triangle ruler on one side of the straight ruler.


2
nd
Draw a line with another side of the triangle ruler.


3
rd
Slide the triangle ruler along the straight ruler.


4
th
Use the same side of the triangle ruler to draw another line.

Magnificent! We have two parallel lines!


Making perpendicular lines

1
st
Draw a line with the straight ruler.


2
nd
Put the triangle ruler on the straight ruler.


3
rd
Draw another line along the triangle ruler.

This second line is perpendicular to the first one.

26
Drawing angles with triangle rulers

We can use the corners of the triangle rulers to draw angles,
for example, in a 60 triangle ruler:
The bottom right corner is a 30 angle.
The bottom left corner is a 90 angle.
The top left corner is a 60 angle.

For example, to draw a 60 angle, we draw a line on each side
of the 60 angle corner.

We can combine different corners of the 90 and 60 triangle
rulers to draw other angles. For example, with the 60 corner
and the 45 corner we draw a 105 angle.


Drawing a 60 angle with compass and ruler

1
st
Make a straight line with the ruler. It is a segment of the
angle.

2
nd
Mark a point anywhere on the line. That point is the
vertex of the 60 angle.

3
rd
With the compass, draw an arch of any radius.

The crossing of the arc over the straight line is a second point.

4
th
With centre on this second point, draw another arc of the
same radius, cutting the first arc. This makes a third point.

5
th
Draw a second straight line, starting at the first point
(vertex) and passing through the point where both arcs cross.

The two straight lines are the two segments of a 60 angle.

27
Activities
1 http://www.technologystudent.co
m/designpro/drawdex.htm
Look at the drawing equipment
and do the first set of exercises.
2 Using a protractor, draw these
angles:
a) 55 d) 148
b) 26 e) 31
c) 6 f) 123
Draw the construction lines thin
and the segments of the angle
thick.
3 What pencil lead do we need to
draw:
a) Dark lines
b) Light lines
c) Dark thin lines
4 If we use a soft rubber, which is:
a) The advantage
b) The disadvantage
5 With the compass, draw a circle
with radius:
a) r = 5 cm c) r = 35 mm
b) r = 1.5 cm d) r = 280
mm
6 Using triangle rulers,
draw 3 parallel lines.
7 Using triangle rulers,
draw 2 perpendicular
lines.
8 With triangle rulers, draw a:
a) 60 angle c) 105 angle
b) 30 angle d) 75 angle
9 http://www.mathopenref.com/co
nstangle60.html
Watch the animations on how to
draw a 60 angle (click on next
or run).
With compass and ruler, draw a
60 angle.
10 http://www.mathopenref.com/co
nstangle60.html
Watch the animations on how to
draw 45 and 30 angles and then
draw them on paper.
Dont forget: construction lines
thin and angle lines thick!
To draw the 45 angle, we first
draw a perpendicular line with
compass and ruler.
11 http://www.mathopenref.com/in
dex.html
In Plane Geometry click on
Angles.
Then click on definition of an
angle.
You can make the angle you want
by moving the orange dot. The
name of the angle changes as you
move the dot
a) What are the names of the
three types of angles?
b) Click on interior of an angle.
What is the interior of an
angle?
12 True or false?
a) We use protractors to draw
angles.
b) The drawing board is a new
drawing tool.

28
Chapter 4
ORTHOGRAPHIC
DRAWING

Drawing is a way to transmit or represent an idea by defining shapes, dimensions, colours
Orthographic drawing is how engineers and architects draw.

4.1 Drafting

Drafting is a bit like sketching; it is a quick and
basic representation of an idea we have in mind.
It is the simplest way to graphically represent an
idea.
We use drafting for a first evaluation in a project.
It is hand drawn and has no details.
If we select the draft as the chosen solution for a
project, and if the project is important, then we
draw it.


4.2 Drawing

The drawing must be clean, drawn with a ruler
(or a CAD program), contain all necessary details
(dimensions, scale, materials) and follow a set
of rules (standardization).
If the drawing is bigger or smaller than the real
object, it should indicate the scale.

29
4.3 Standardization

Standardization is to make something always the same way.
For example, shoe sizes are standardized. We can buy a size
38, or a size 39, or a 40 but we cant buy a 39.763
The disadvantage is that we cant have exactly our size.
The advantages are that we reduce costs by mass producing
and stores have a small stock.

Until the Industrial Revolution things
were handmade.
Standardization gained importance in
the industrial revolution, when we
started to make many things in
production lines.


Sometimes we have ideas that we want to tell other people.
Maybe we decide to design something.



Then we draw the idea.
We use standardized rules to make the drawing.




Everybody knows the standardized rules, so when someone
sees the drawing he/she understands it.



Thanks to the standardized rules, all the
information is correctly transmitted.
Then what we designed is constructed
correctly!

30
4.4 First angle projection

Engineering drawing gives all necessary information to the user, or the manufacturer of the
piece.
Sometimes we cant describe all the information in a single view. To give the necessary
information we draw several views in a single drawing.
In first angle projection we draw the three sides of an object as if we are looking directly
at each of them independently.

Look at the drawing of the scale podium.
We put the podium near a corner.
There are three views: a front view, a side view
and a top view.
The front view is what we see if we look straight
at the podium.
The side view is what we see if we look at the
podium from the left side.
The top view is what we see if we look at the
podium from the top, like a bird (birds-eye view).

To put the three views on a single piece of paper, we rotate the views around the axis lines.
1 Why do we draw several views?
2 Which are the views in first angle projection?
3 Draw a simple object in first angle projection.

31
Dimensioning:
To dimension is to indicate the longitudinal measurements
of an object.
We indicate all the necessary dimensions on the drawing, so
that the object can be made in the factory, or on the
construction site, or wherever.
Dont let measurements clutter the drawing!
Dont repeat dimensions, each dimension must be in only
one view.
If a dimension is not necessary, dont indicate it. For
example, a dimension is not necessary when it can be
calculated from other dimensions.
Use arrowheads showing the exact beginning and end points of your measurements.
Keep the arrows away from the drawing. This is easy because we use reference lines (thin
lines that go from the object to the arrow); reference lines dont touch the object.
Dimensions are in mm. If you use another unit, indicate the unit, for example: 30 cm.










Tubes and cylindrical objects in general only need a front view and a side view because the
top view and the front view are identical.
The symbol means that the dimension is a diameter and the symbol R means that it is
a radius.
4 Which dimensions do we draw? Why do we draw them?
5 Draw a simple object in first angle projection, with dimensions.
6 How many views we use to draw cylindrical objects? Why?

32
Scale:
Scaling means drawing the object bigger or smaller than it really is.
If it is too large to fit in the space you have on the paper, then you need to draw it smaller.
If it is too small to see it, then we can draw it bigger (but not bigger than the paper!).

If we scale down (drawing smaller) we divide all the
dimensions by a number, always using the same
number.
We indicate the scale on the bottom left corner of the
paper with a 1 and then a colon : and then the
number. For example 1:10 means we will divide by
ten.



If we are scaling up (drawing bigger than it really is) we
multiply all the dimensions by a number, always using the
same number.
We indicate the scale on the bottom left corner of the
paper, with the number that we are going to use to
multiply, then a colon : and then a 1. For example
10:1 means we will multiply by ten.



We always indicate the real dimensions. We
only change the drawing.
For example, we want to draw a person that
is 180 cm tall on an A4 size paper.
The drawings to the right show the same
person in a 1:40 scale, then in a 1:80 scale.
The larger the scale, the smaller the
drawing.

We now draw an ant, using a 1:1
scale, a 2:1 scale, a 4:1 scale and a
10:1 scale.

33
Example of first angle projection:

A podium drawn in first angle projection:



The scale is 1:20. That means that the drawing is twenty times smaller than the dimensions
it indicates.
In the text box we write the information that we think is relevant: the name of the object
drawn, the materials, the name of the person who draws it, the date when the drawing was
finished, indications for the manufacturing process information that we cant express in
the drawing.
Sometimes we can write in the views, with a line indicating the part of the object to which
the indication refers.
All lines must be in black. These drawings have orange, blue and green only to help in the
explanation.

34
Activities
1 What is drafting?
2 What is the difference between
drafting and drawing?
3 What is standardization?
4 Name the advantages and
disadvantages of standardization.
5 What happened during the
Industrial Revolution?
6 Why do we have standardized
rules for drawing?
7 Which are the top, front and side
views?


8 Draw these figures in first angle
projection:
a)

b)

9 http://metal.brightcookie.com/2_
draw/draw_t3/htm/draw3_2.htm
Find out how to represent hidden
lines and what symbol we use to
indicate that the drawing is in first
angle projection.
10 Which is the top, front and side
views of each figure:
a)

b)

35
11 Draw these figures in first angle
projection:
a)


b)


c)

12 Some more good web pages to
look at if you want to know more
or see a demonstration are:
http://www.btinternet.com/~hog
nosesam/gcse/page9.html
http://www.technologystudent.co
m/designpro/ortho1.htm
http://www.tpub.com/content/en
gineering/14069/css/14069_156.h
tm
13 What is the scale?
14 Give five examples of things that
you would scale down to draw
them.
15 Give five examples of things that
you would scale up to draw them.
16 When would you not use a scale
to draw?
17 Draw yourself in
first angle
projection with a
1:20 scale.
18 Measure the
dimensions of your
pencil sharpener
and draw it in first
angle projection
using a 4:1 scale.
19 Measure the dimensions of your
chair and draw it in first angle
projection using a 1:12 scale.
20 True or false?
a) Drafting is a complex way to
graphically represent an idea.
b) We use drafting for a first
evaluation in a project.
c) Until the Industrial Revolution
things were handmade.
d) Standardization is not
important if we make things in
production lines.
e) Drawing rules are
standardized.
f) We normally use three views
in first angle projection.
g) If we scale down we multiply
all the dimensions by a
number.
h) To draw an ant, we normally
scale down.

36
Chapter 5
PROPERTIES OF
MATERIALS


Different
materials behave
differently.
Knowing the
differences helps
us choose the
best material to
make an object.


5.1 Classification of materials
There are many ways to classify materials. One of them is
to classify them as raw materials and processed
materials.
Raw materials
They are those materials that exist in nature and which
we use as they are: wood, stone, etc.
We cut the trees into logs and the logs into wood planks,
but we do not change the wood itself.
Processed materials
We transform raw materials to make processed materials
with different properties.
For example, we extract iron ore from mines. Iron ore is a
raw material. We process the iron ore to make steel.
Steel is a processed material, stronger than iron.

37
5.2 Properties of materials
Mechanical properties
Elasticity is the ability of a material to change its
shape when we apply forces to it, and to recover its
original shape when the forces stop.
A good example of elastic material is rubber. We can
stretch, squeeze, bend or twist it, but when the
force stops it recovers its original shape.
Malleability is the ability of a material to squeeze
into a new shape when it is under compression
forces, and to keep the new shape when the forces
stop.
In other words, if you hammer something and it
changes shape and keeps the new shape, it is
malleable.
Metals are malleable. Hot forging is shaping them
by hammering them when they are red-hot.
In the old days, blacksmiths forged metals by
heating them in a furnace until they were red-hot,
and then hammered them into the desired shape.
Ductility is the ability of a material to stretch into a
new shape when it is under pulling forces, and then
to keep the new shape when the forces stop.
This property is useful for making wires.
Hardness is the capacity to scratch other materials.
Hard materials scratch softer materials.
For example, diamonds are harder than glass, so you can
scratch glass with a diamond. But glass is harder than wood, so
you can scratch wood with glass.
Toughness is the resistance to breaking. It is difficult to break
objects made of tough materials, even if they suffer repeated
impacts.
For example, steel is tougher than stone, so we use steel and
not stone for hammer heads.
1 http://www.technologystudent.com/joints/matprop1.htm
Read about the properties of materials. Then click on PDF FILE -
CLICK HERE FOR PRINTABLE EXERCISE, print the exercise page (or
copy it in your notebook) and do the exercises.

38
Physical properties
Density is a relation between weight and volume.







Imagine we have 1000 litres of air, which has a
mass of 1 Kg (1).
Then we compress the air with a piston, reducing
the volume to 500 litres (2).

The compressed air is more dense:




Electrical properties

Electrical conductivity is the ability of a material to let
electrons flow through it.
When we want the electricity to flow easily, we use
conducting materials.
When we dont want the electricity to flow, we use
insulating materials.
Inside a wire there is copper or aluminium, because they
are good conductors.
The outside of the electrical wire is plastic, because it is an
insulating material.
2 Calculate the density of these materials:
a) 2 litres which weigh 15 Kg. b) 5 litres which weigh 13 Kg
3 In electric wires, why do we use:
a) Copper b) plastic c) aluminium

39
Thermal properties
Thermal conductivity is the ability to let heat flow through a
material.
For example, heat flows easily through metals, but not
through wood, ceramic or plastic.
That is why we use metals to make cooking pots and pans, so
that heat from the fire transmits easily to the food.
When cooking pots were made of ceramic, heat was
transmitted slowly and cooking was slow.
Fireplaces are best made of a metallic material because heat
transmits well through metal, so the room is warm. Be careful
dont touch it!

We use ceramics to make roofs because they are thermal
insulators.
Heat has difficulty passing through the ceramic, so little heat
from the house escapes to the atmosphere.

Technological properties
Mouldability is the ability of a material to fill a mould.
When the material is a liquid we put it in the mould. When
it becomes solid we take the piece out of the mould.
We can make cakes in a mould. We put the mixture in the
mould and the mould in the oven. When the cake is ready
it has the negative shape of the mould.

Extrudability is the ability of a material to be pushed
through a hole with the desired shape.
A good example is toothpaste. When you squeeze the tube
you extrude the paste through the hole.
Aluminium bars and tubes are easily manufactured by
extrusion.
4 To build the wall of a house, is it better to use ceramics or
metals? Why?
5 Think and write three examples of moulding.
6 What property is toothpaste a good example of? Why?

40
Ecological properties
Toxicity is the capacity of a substance to damage
an organism by ingestion, inhalation or skin
contact.
The damage depends on the toxicity of the
substance and on the dose.
The dose is the quantity of a substance or the
length of time of exposure of a person to a toxic
substance.
Pollution affects the atmosphere and the water.
It is important to use non-toxic materials for
objects that are in contact with people, food or
water.
Some substances are not toxic but they damage
the environment. For example, carbon dioxide
produces the greenhouse effect, but it isnt toxic if
we breathe it.


Recyclability is the capacity of a material to be
used again to make another object.
This is not a property of the material, it depends
on how we use the material in the object, the
recycling technology available, and if users put
the object in the bin.

For example, if we put glass bottles in the green
container, the recycling company melts them in an
oven.
With the molten glass we make new bottles.
It is more difficult to make new glass if the old glass
is mixed with rubbish.
This property of materials is more important as
the world gets more populated; there is more
waste and there is less space for landfill sites.

7 The damage caused by a toxic material depends on which two things?
Describe them.
8 Search for information about the technology we use to recycle
aluminium cans and write a summary.

41
Activities
1 Classify these materials as raw
materials or processed materials:
wood, wool, plastic, stone, glass,
iron ore, steel, crude oil, clay,
bronze, cotton, sand.
2 What properties of materials do
you think that are important for:
a) A suitcase.
b) A dish.
3 Calculate the density of:
a) Steel (14 kilograms occupy 2
litres).
b) Pine wood (7 kilograms occupy
10 litres).
4 http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/ks
2bitesize/science/materials.shtml
Do the Characteristics of
materials activity following the
instructions.
Then click on Revision Bite and
click again on Material
properties. Copy into your
notebook the definitions of
transparent, opaque, waterproof,
strong, flexible, hard, magnetic
and conductor.
Go back to the first page and click
on Quiz. Complete the quiz.
5 Describe these materials:
(strong/weak, light/heavy, etc.)
a) Paper
b) Cardboard
c) Cork
d) wool
e) Wood
f) Plastic
g) Metal
6 Fibrous materials (wood, for
example) have different
mechanical properties depending
upon the direction of the force.
This is because their fibres are
aligned in one direction.
Cut two identical pieces of wood
(dimensions: 5 mm x 10 mm x 50
mm).

Piece A - Fibres across the piece.
Piece B - Fibres along the piece.
Test them to see which one breaks
more easily.
Which is stronger, the fibres or the
material that bonds the fibres?
Explain your answer.
7 What materials do we use to make
electric wires?
Why?

42
Chapter 6
WOOD



Wood is a fibrous material.
Fibrous materials are made of fibres (which are
relatively strong) and glue (which is relatively weak).
In the case of wood, the fibres run along the tree
trunk, so we can make long wood planks with the
strong fibres running along the plank.

There are three common fibrous materials: fibreglass,
carbon fibre and wood.
Of the three, only wood is natural.
If we mash a piece of wood, as in this picture, we can see
the fibres.


Wood comes from trees, but not all the parts of the tree trunk are good quality wood. The
best parts are the heart wood and the sap wood. They are stronger and more durable.
The cambium is a very thin layer; it is difficult to see. The phloem produces the bark. The
bark is the protective cover of the tree, like skin.

43
6.1 Properties and composition of wood
Fibrous materials have different properties depending on the direction of the force.
Their best properties are with the direction of the fibres, because the fibres are strong and
the glue has no work to do.
One advantage of fibrous materials is that if one fibre breaks, the rest stay intact, so the
component doesnt break.
Another advantage is that fibres are flexible (because they are very thin).
In the case of wood, the fibres are structural proteins called cellulose, which form the walls
of vegetable cells and which give strength to the plants.
A protein is a long molecule formed by a chain of carbon atoms.
The cells themselves form the relatively light and soft material that bonds the fibres.
6.2 Processing and treatment
of natural wood
We first cut the tree trunks into logs.
We transport the logs by lorry or by floating them down
rivers to a sawmill where we cut them into wood planks.


Xylophagous insects eat wood.
To protect the wood from these insects, we add
insecticides to the wood planks.


Another protection for wood is the varnish.
Varnish is a hardened resin spread over the surface of
the component after the final object has been
manufactured.
It covers the surface of the item and protects against
xylophagous insects, makes the surface harder, and
also is ornamental.


1 Name the parts of the tree trunk.
2 Which parts of the tree trunk are good quality wood?
3 Name two advantages of fibrous materials.
4 What is cellulose?
5 What is varnish?

44
6.3 Some commonly used types of wood

There are as many types of wood as there are types of trees.
Even two trees of the same species produce different wood depending on their growing
conditions.

Pine
Pine trees live in climates that are
cold or dry, or both, or where the
soil is not fertile.
Pine gives a soft wood which is
easy to carve.
Carpenters say that pine wood is
the wood to use because it is of
good quality, cheap, easy to work
with and durable.
It is the most widely used type of
wood.
Pine comes in several varieties
and all of them make great
furniture.
It is easy to stain pine wood.
The largest producers of pine wood are Russia, Finland and Sweden.

Oak
Oak trees live in some humid and fresh regions of the
northern hemisphere.
Oak wood was commonly used for furniture, until its price
rose.
Oak is strong and easy to work.

White oak is better for making furniture because it is
resistant to moisture and we can use it for outdoor
furniture.

Also, white oak has a more attractive pattern
than red oak.

45
Beech
Beech grows in some humid parts of Europe
and the northeastern U.S.A.
Beech wood is heavier and harder than pine,
but not as heavy or as hard as mahogany or
teak.
The wood of the beech tree has a pale
brown colour.
Fir
Fir grows in the cold climates of northern Europe,
Siberia and Canada.
Fir wood is very soft, and has a red-brown colour.
We use fir in construction and sometimes for furniture.
It isnt expensive.
Ash
Ash wood is of a very pale brown colour, almost white,
and it has a straight grain.
It is easy to work and easy to stain, but ash is getting
harder and harder to find.
Ash is a good substitute for white oak.
Mahogany
The mahogany tree grows in the tropical forests of
Central and South America and in tropical Africa.
The wood colour is red or brown.
It is one of the best woods for furniture, but
mahogany forests are disappearing quickly due to
excessive exploitation, so you shouldnt buy
mahogany products without guarantee of a
sustainable origin.

6 Which type of wood is the favourite of carpenters?
7 Which types of wood would you use to make furniture? Why?
8 Which types of wood have a dark colour?
9 For what would you use:
a) Fir b) Ash c) Oak d) Pine
10 Should you buy mahogany products?

46
6.4 Artificial wood planks
Sometimes called engineered wood or composite wood, we make artificial wood by
gluing wood particles, fibres or veneers.

Plywood
We make plywood with thin layers (1mm thick) of
wood that we call veneers.
We glue veneers on top of each other, as many as
necessary to obtain the desired thickness.
Alternative veneers have their fibres at right angles
to each other.
We make veneers using whole logs.
Plywood is very resistant to splitting and shearing because the fibres go in two different
directions.
It has excellent dimensional stability.
It is easy to make large plywood boards without defects such as knots.
Fibreboard
Fibreboard is made of a mixture of glue and wood
fibres and particles.
Is much cheaper than natural wood because it is
made from spare wood bits and saw dust.
Fibreboard is heavier than natural wood because the
fibres and glue are compressed to make the board.
Fibreboards do not accept nails or screws because the fibres would crumble.
We use fibreboard to make cheap furniture, but we cover the visible pieces with a veneer to
give the furniture the appearance of natural wood.

6.5 Applications of natural and processed wood.

Our ancestors used wood more than we do; we now
have other materials which have replaced it in some
cases.
However, some products are still made of wood, such as
floors, roofs, doors, tables, chairs, crates...

47
6.6 Production of paper
Ancient Egyptians used papyrus: a laminated and dried paste
made from the papyrus plant (a bit like modern paper).
True paper was probably invented in China before the 2nd century
AD.
Chemical pulping
Chemical pulping breaks the structure of lignin to separate it from the cellulose fibres.
Lignin is a complex molecule in the plants.
We wash the lignin to have a pure cellulose pulp.
We put bleach in the celulose pulp to make the pulp white and make white paper.
Additives
We add additives to the cellulose pulp.
These additives are chalk or China clay. They improve the surface
of the paper for printing or writing.
Drying
The water must be removed from the pulp.
Drying is done by using air and/or heat to remove water from the
paper sheet.
In the earliest days of papermaking, this was done by hanging the paper sheets like laundry.
Recycled paper
The paper recycling process is simple. We mix the paper with water and we
mash it to separate the cellulose fibres again.
We add some virgin cellulose fibre to improve quality.
It is possible to remove the ink, but this process is polluting, so it is better to use
the recycled paper to make brown cardboard for packaging or other uses.

11 How do we make artificial wood?
12 What is a veneer?
13 Name the two components of fibreboard.
14 Why is fibreboard cheaper than natural wood?
15 What is papyrus?
16 In your own words, describe the process of chemical pulping.

48
6.7 Tools and techniques for woodworking
Basic Techniques
Think and plan before you start to cut wood! This is important because after cutting it is
difficult or impossible to undo the work done.
You should follow three steps:

1
st

Make a drawing with dimensions.
In the drawing you define what you
are going to make, its shape and
dimensions
The drawing also helps you to think
about the manufacturing process. For
example, how you plan to assemble
the different parts made.



2
nd
Mark (on the wood) the lines
along which you are going to
saw.
Use a ruler so that the lines have
the correct dimensions.
It is better to use a square ruler.
It helps to make the lines parallel
or perpendicular.



3
rd

Choose carefully the best type of saw to cut
your piece.
Then if everything seems right start to
saw.
Saw carefully to get the piece exactly as you
want it.

49
Wood saws
There are many types of saws, each
designed for a specific purpose.
We can classify wood saws depending on
the size of the teeth or the shape of the
blade.

The rip saw has large teeth. We use it to cut
along the fibres.
Large teeth cause more splintering, but it doesnt matter
because we are splitting the wood along the fibres.

The cross-cut saw has medium teeth, we use it to cut across
the fibres.
The smaller teeth cause less splintering.

The panel saw has small teeth. We use it to cut panels.
The smallest teeth cause the least splintering, in panels we do
not want any splintering.

The handsaw is the saw most often used by
carpenters to cut timber, planks, and boards.
The handsaw has a wide blade. There are
filed teeth along one edge of the blade.
There is a handle at one end of the blade.
The blade is made of steel and the handle is
made of wood or plastic.
When we make the blade, we heat the teeth
until they are red hot and then we cool them
quickly by dipping them in water. This
process is called heat treatment and
makes the steel very hard.
The rest of the blade is not heat-treated because it would become brittle.
Handsaws are good for cross-cutting and for ripping.

17 Why do we plan before we start to cut wood?
18 Which are the three steps we should follow to cut a wood board?
19 Why do we heat treat the teeth of the blades of the saws?
20 For what do we use the cross-cut saw?

50
The coping saw is the saw to cut curves.
The coping saw has a U shaped frame.
The coping saw has a thin blade held in the frame
by clamps with butterfly bolts. Sometimes the
clamp is operated by turning the handle.

When you insert a blade in the frame, the teeth should point toward the
handle so that the cutting is done on the pulling stroke rather than on
the pushing stroke.
If you want to make a shape in the middle of a wood board, first drill a
hole and then pass the blade through it.
To pass the blade through the hole you obviously have to unclamp it
from the frame.


The backsaw is the saw we use to make
very straight cuts.
The backsaw has a reinforcement on
the blade, which makes the blade stiff.
The reinforcement is a strip of brass or
steel on the back of the blade.
Hold the wood board on the bench
clamp, close to the line along which
you saw.
The free hand can rest on the reinforcement to help guide the movement of the saw.
During the first strokes, raise the handle slightly, then put it parallel to the wood.
It is not possible to make cuts deeper than the width of the blade with the back saw because
the reinforcement is thicker than the blade.

The hacksaw is used by metalworkers.
You can also use it to cut wood. The small teeth give a
cleaner cut and a smoother finish.
The frame is rigid to hold the blade firmly in line.
Blade tension is adjusted by turning the butterfly bolt.
The blade must be a bit tense.
Handle
Blade
Frame
butterfly bolt
21 What saw would you use to:
a) Cut metal b) cut curves c) cut very straight
22 How deep can the cut be with a backsaw?

51
Activities
1 What do we use to protect wood?
2 Which type of wood would you use to make a boat?
3 Name the different parts of a saw.
4 What type of saw would you use to cut across a
wood plank? Why?
5 Practice in the workshop.
Materials: a small piece of natural wood, a small piece of plywood, a small piece of
fibre board and three thick nails.
Hammer a nail through each of the pieces. Then write a report about what
happened in each case.
6 Working in the workshop, hammer a thin nail on a very small piece of natural wood.
Then hammer a thick nail.
Is there any splintering? In which case? Write a short report.
7 Construct a model
table.
To make the legs, use 4 round
bars 100 mm long and 5 mm
in diameter.
Use thin plywood to cut the
table board.
Nail the board to the legs.
Make sure that the nails are
very thin to avoid splintering.
If you want a more solid construction, you can use wood
screws instead of nails. In this case, to avoid splintering, you
need to drill a hole (thinner than the screw) and then
introduce the screw along the hole.
8 Put some papers or cardboard for recycling in a
bucket of water and leave them to soak for at least one
day.
Then mash them thoroughly with your hands.
Using a rod, laminate the paste over a flat surface. Try to
obtain an even thickness of 1mm. It is important that the
thickness of the whole page is even.
Then let it dry. The result is recycled paper!

52
Chapter 7
METALS



We often classify metals as ferrous and non-ferrous.
Ferrous metals are those that contain iron.
The only two ferrous metals are steel and cast iron, but
we use them a lot because of their low price and their
good mechanical properties.
There are many non-ferrous metals. Copper, aluminium,
nickel and magnesium are some examples.
We usually use them mixed into alloys.
Alloys are a mixture of various metals.
For example, bronze is a mixture of copper with tin, zinc,
lead or nickel.


Metals are important materials for us. Historical eras
changed when people started using metals.
The use of metals started in the Middle East, and the
communities that first learned to obtain and work
metals founded kingdoms and empires.


The first metal to be used was copper.
Later came bronze. Minerals containing copper also often
contain tin; as both metals melted, they mixed together.
And finally came the Iron Age. Pure iron is a soft
material, but when a bit of carbon mixes with the molten
iron, the result is steel.
Metals were expensive (especially silver and gold).
People used metals to make coins.
Coins helped develop long distance trade.

53
7.1 Steel
Steel is a mixture of iron and carbon. Between
0.2% and 2% is carbon (C) and all the rest is
iron (Fe).
Properties of Steel
The properties of steel depend mainly on the
percentage of carbon that it contains.
They also depend on the type and quantity of the other elements mixed with it.
The properties are influenced by the speed of cooling the steel from liquid to solid.
In the Iron Age, the most important characteristic of steel was that it hardened if it was
heated until red-hot and then cooled quickly in water.
Mild steel is steel with less than 0.25% of carbon. It does not harden if cooled in water.
As the percentage of carbon in steel increases, its strength increases. But this also increases
its brittleness, and it becomes less flexible.
The three main properties of steel are that it is:
tough (its difficult to break)
resilient (it can absorb a lot of energy on impact)
malleable (we can compress it into the shape we want, especially when its hot)
7.2 Cast Iron
Cast iron is a mixture of iron and carbon.
Between 2% and 6% is carbon (C) and all the
rest is iron (Fe).
Properties of cast iron
The properties of cast iron vary depending on
the percentage of carbon it contains. But in
general, when compared to steel, cast iron is:
resistant to vibration (we can make it
vibrate a lot and it does not break)
resistant to compression (when we
apply compression forces, it squeezes
very little)
less flexible
less resistant to tensional forces
cheaper than steel
1 How do we classify metals?
2 What is an alloy?
3 Name three properties of steel.
4 What is cast iron?
5 Which has a higher content of
carbon, steel or cast iron?

54
7.3 Production of cast iron and steel
The blast furnace
Miners extract iron ore from the earth. Ore is a mineral in which there is a mixture of rock
and iron oxide (Fe
2
O
3
).
In the blast furnace the iron is separated from the oxygen, transforming the iron oxide into
pure iron (a bit of carbon dilutes in the iron).

We put iron ore, coal and air in the
blast furnace.
The coal burns with the air.
The carbon atom in the coal would
like to burn forming a molecule with
two atoms of oxygen from the air to
make a carbon dioxide (CO
2
)
molecule.
But there is not enough air, so each
carbon atom only finds one oxygen
atom, forming carbon monoxide (CO).



Carbon monoxide, if possible, would
like to find more oxygen to become
carbon dioxide, which would really
make the carbon happy!
Hot gases go up, so the hot carbon
monoxide gases (1300C) go up.
On the way up, the hot carbon monoxide sees the oxygen of the iron oxide (Fe
2
O
3
) and, as
it is very interested in more oxygen, takes the oxygen from the iron oxide, becoming
carbon dioxide and leaving pure iron.


Hurray!!!
We have de-oxydized the iron!!!



The molten pig iron and the slag exit from the bottom.

55
The pig iron is the pure iron (Fe) with a bit of carbon
(C) (because there was too much coal and too little air).
The slag is iron ore without the iron. In other words, it is
the mineral from which the iron has been taken.

Processing the pig iron into steel or
cast iron
To produce steel and cast iron we reduce the amount of carbon in the pig iron.
There are many ways to do this. The most common way is to mix the pig iron with oxidated
scrap steel at melting temperatures.
The oxidated iron in the scrap steel is iron combined with oxygen (Fe
2
O
3
).
The pig iron contains Fe and C.








The oxygen of the iron oxide combines with the carbon, forming carbon dioxide (CO
2
) which
is a gas and goes to the atmosphere.
7.4 Special steels
The properties of steel depend on the percentage of carbon, on the way we cool it, and on
small percentages of other metals that we add to the steel, making steel alloys that we call
special steels.
Stainless steel
We add chromium to the steel (until 10% of the steel is
chromium)
Chromium combines with oxygen, but forms a really thin
layer of oxide on the surface of the steel known as a
passive layer.
The passive layer stops further oxidation or other forms of
corrosion of the material.
Sometimes we make stainless steel by adding nickel
instead of chromium. Nickel also makes a passive layer.

56
7.5 Non-ferrous metals and their properties

Non-ferrous metals are those that are not iron and do not contain iron.
There are many non-ferrous metals, but we use them for specific applications when their
specific properties are important. This is because their price is normally higher than that of
steel.
Copper
Copper is the third best electrical conductor, and it is very ductile. For these two reasons it is
a good material for electric wires.
It is also a very good thermal conductor, so we also use it for heat exchangers in boilers.
We also use it for pipes in plumbing. In the past, water pipes were made of lead, but
scientists found that lead was toxic.
Aluminium
Aluminium is a light metal. It is resistant to rust
because it forms a passive layer, like stainless steel.
These are the two main reasons for almost all of its
applications.
It is the second best electrical conductor. This third
property is the reason we use it for the wires of the
electric power grid.
Tin
Tin is very resistant to corrosion and this property makes it suitable for coating other metals.
For example, steel cans are sometimes coated with tin on the inside.
It has a nice shine, like silver, so it is often used in decoration.
It melts at a low temperature for a metal (232C), so it is the material used for welding
electronic components.
Titanium
Titanium is lightweight and very resistant to corrosion.
It is abundant in nature, but is not concentrated in a mineral so it is
expensive to extract.
It is almost as strong as steel.
It is normally used for structural elements where it is worth
increasing the cost to reduce the weight.
Because it is lightweight and because it remains strong in a very
wide range of temperatures, it is used for spacecraft (outer space is
very cold).

57
7.6 Non-ferrous alloys and their properties

An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals.
The alloy has different properties from the metals
that are in it.

Aluminium - copper
Adding a bit of copper to aluminium improves its
mechanical properties. It is good for structural
components.
Adding copper also lowers its melting point, so you
can manufacture by casting.
We use aluminium alloys to make wheels, bicycle
frames, airplanes, cooking pots...

Bronze
Bronze is an alloy of about 88% copper and about
12% tin.
It is very resistant to corrosion.
It has little metal-on-metal friction, so we use bronze
in mechanisms when it is not possible or convenient
to have grease or oil for lubrication.
We also use bronze for statues because it is easy to
cast and weld and has a nice appearance.

6 What is a non-ferrous metal?
7 Which metal would you use to make electric wires? Why?
8 Name two light non-ferrous metals.
9 Name four uses for aluminium.
10 Which metal would you use to make a spacecraft? Why?
11 What is an alloy?
12 To make an alloy wheel, would you use an aluminium-copper alloy?
Why?
13 To make statues, which alloy would you use? Why?

58
7.7 Metalworking
Metalworking is the process of working with metals to give them shape.
Casting
We heat up the metal until it is liquid, then we put the liquid
metal into a mould. We also call this process moulding.
When the metal is cold (and solid), we take the metal
component out of the mould.
Hot forming
When the metal is hot it is easy to change its shape.
Extrusion
Extrusion is a technique to push hot metal through a hole with a shape. After passing
through the hole the metal has the negative shape of the hole.
Forging
Forging is a technique to change the shape of the hot metal by repeated impacts, normally
hammering.
Machining
Also called cutting, we cut the metal when it is cold.
Drilling
Drilling metal is harder than drilling wood. We normally
use a fixed vertical drill like the one in the picture.
The tip of drills that cut metal have a triangular tip. The
tip has two sharp and hardened cutting edges.
Filing
We file metal components to give them a smooth
surface.
Welding
We put two metal pieces together and we heat the place they touch until they melt
together. The molten metal of both pieces mix and when the metal cools it is one piece.
Another technique is to put liquid metal between two solid pieces.
14 In which metal working processes is it necessary to have the metal liquid? Why?
15 In which metal working process would you use:
a) A hammer c) A hole with the negative shape of the final product
b) A mould d) A metal file
16 Which are the two welding techniques?
17 Which are the two techniques to weld metals?

59
Activities
1 List, in chronological order, the
first metals used.
2 True or false?
a) Cast iron is more resistant to
vibration than steel.
b) Steel is more flexible than cast
iron.
c) Steel is cheaper than cast iron.
d) Steel is more resistant to
tensional forces than cast iron.
3 What is
iron ore?
4 What do we
put in a
blast furnace?
5 What does the carbon atom form
first in the blast furnace, CO or
CO
2
? Why?
6 How does the carbon monoxide in
the blast furnace become carbon
dioxide?
7 What things exit the blast
furnace?
8 What is pig iron?
9 What do we make with the pig
iron?
10 How do we reduce the percentage
of carbon (C) in the pig iron?
11 What is the difference between
steel and cast iron?
12 http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/brit
ish/victorians/launch_ani_blast_fu
rnace.shtml
There is an animation that shows
how a blast furnace to produces
pig iron.
Click on Launch the animation.
Click on start and watch how the
coke (special coal for steel
production), the iron ore and the
air go in. Also how the slag and
the pig iron exit.
Click on Build It. A virtual
teacher asks you questions. With
every right answer you construct a
part of the blast furnace.
Continue with the activity until
you construct the furnace.
13 The properties of steel depend on
what three things?
14 Why do we add chromium to
steel?
15 Which metal would you use to
make:
a) Spacecraft
b) Decoration
c) Water pipes
d) Bicycle
frames
16 Name three properties of
aluminium.
17 What happens if we add a bit of
copper to aluminium?
18 To make a mechanism without
grease or oil, which alloy would
you use? Why?
19 Which alloy would you use to
make:
a) Structural components
b) Statues
20 Search for information to find out
the properties of silver and write a
paragraph about them.
21 Imagine a world without metals.
Describe how you think it would
be.

60
Chapter 8
STRUCTURES


A structure is a group of elements united to support a
load with stability.

The structure maintains the shape of things under the
force of gravity, the force of wind, or any other force.

For example, humans have a skeleton, bicycles have a
frame, houses have columns, beams and a roof.


8.1 Types of structures
Frame structures
The frame structure is the most common type of structure.
These structures have long elements (bars, tubes...) joined to each other at the ends.
The elements of frame structures are made of strong materials.
The space between the elements is empty space.
A bicycle frame supports the load that it carries on the seat.
The elements in the bicycles frame are the aluminium tubes; the unions are the aluminium
welding, the nuts and bolts...

Advantages of frame structures: they are
relatively easy to design and build,
inexpensive to manufacture, lightweight
and do not require much material.
Disadvantages: They are not good for very
big loads or strong impacts.

61
Shell structures
Shell structures are made of a thin outer layer of material
around a volume. That volume can be empty space or contain
something with no structural relevance.
The shell keeps the shape and supports the loads.
The shell can be thin because the forces are spread throughout
the whole structure, dissipating the load all over the shell.
There are many examples of natural shell structures: eggs,
shellfish
There are also many examples of artificial shell structures:
cardboard boxes, bottles, balloons, cars, aeroplanes
Arch
The Romans invented the arch.
There are many types, but the semicircular arch, which was the
Roman arch, is the most common.
In Roman times, arches were made of stones. The stone at the
very top is called the keystone.
Its own weight is the main load.
The geometry of the arch displaces the forces to the sides, so that
there is a large free space under the arch.
Arches are good for bridges because the large space underneath
can span a river or other obstacle.
Mix and Match
Very often, we combine different types of structures into a more
complex structure.
For example, houses have brick walls (mass structures), columns
and beams (elements of a frame structure), etc.
1 What happens if something doesnt have a structure?
2 Give two examples of elements of a frame structure.
3 Define: a) Element b) Union c) Load
4 In a shell structure, what supports the loads?
5 What is the key stone?
6 What does the geometry of the arch do to the forces?

62
Mass structures
Mass structures are a thick lump of low-quality
material.
To make mass structures we pile up materials
into a shape or design.
- Examples of natural mass structures are
mountains and coral reefs.
- Examples of man-made mass structures are
sandcastles, dams, load-bearing walls (walls that
support the weight of the building).
Advantages: the structure is held in place by its own weight; losing small parts has
little effect on the overall strength of the structure.
Disadvantages: heavy; needs a lot of material; and occupies large amounts of space.

Suspension structures
A suspension structure holds an element
(often a beam) by cables that are held from
the top of a tall column.
The space (distance) between one column and
the next is called the span. This type of
structure has the longest span of all structures.
Because of this, suspension structures are
often best for bridges that cover big rivers or
even small parts of the sea.
Advantage: good for covering a very large span.
Disadvantage: expensive to build.

63
8.2 Structural elements
An element is the simplest part of the whole.
In a structure, we calculate the forces for
every element and we design the
element (i.e. beam or column) to
support them.
The foundation is an element united to
the ground by friction.
The foundation is also united to the
column by friction.
The column is another element, united
to the foundation and to the primary
beams.
The beams and the column are united by
welding if they are metallic.
In some cases the beam is laid on the
column (united by gravity).

8.3 Types of unions
The structural elements must be united to each other.
The structure is often united to the floor/ground.
Permanent unions
These are for structures that we dont need to disassemble.
Examples: welding, rivets, glue
Non-permanent unions
With non-permanent unions we can assemble and disassemble the
elements of the structure.
Examples: nuts and bolts, clamps, friction
7 Which types of structures would you use to build:
a) Bridges c) Houses d) Bicycles d) Castles
8 Which are the disadvantages of mass structures?
9 Which is the advantage of suspension structures?
10 List the structural elements of a house.
11 When would you use: a) Permanenet unions b) Non-permanent unions

64
8.4 Forces on structural elements
A successful structure supports all the forces that act on it.
Each of the elements in the structure supports a type of force, which is a result of the load
that the structure supports.
Tension
This is the force that stretches an element. Tensional forces normally pull an element from
its ends.







Compression
This is the force which squeezes or buckles an element.
When we squeeze an element, it becomes shorter and thicker.
When an element bends in the middle due to the compression forces, it buckles.
In the case of buckling, an element loses its strength and, if the force doesnt disappear
quickly, the buckling continues until the element breaks.





12 Which type of force supports:
a) The legs of a table c) A cable
b) A car bumper d) The sole of your shoes
13 Write six examples of elements:
a) Supporting tension
b) Supporting compression

65
Shear
Shear forces act across a material; one part of the
element slides over the other.
A good example is when we cut paper with a pair
of scissors. The scissors produce a shear force in
the paper bigger than it can withstand and one
part completely slides over the other until they
separate.
Torsion
If we apply a turning force (called torque) at
one end of an element and, if the element is
fixed to a support at the other end, the element
twists.
If the element isnt fixed at the other end it turns
without changing shape.
Bending
Bending forces act at an angle to the element (at
90 in the drawing), making it bend.
14 Which type of force supports:
c) A paper that we cut c) A beam
d) A screwdriver d) A column
15 Write three things that support:
a) Tension c) Torsion e) Shear
b) Compression d) Bending
16 What is the difference between squeezing and buckling?
17 Can an element support two different types of forces at the same time?
18 True or false?
a) Torsion makes an element bend.
b) Buckling is a consequence of compression forces.
c) Shear forces make one part of the element slide over the other.
d) Tension is the force that squeezes an element.
19 We can classify forces as fixed or variable. Fixed forces act all the time, for
example the weight of the roof on the columns of the house. Variable forces act
only sometimes, for example the wind on a street lamp.
Write six examples of fixed forces and six examples of variable forces.

66
8.5 Applications
The design of the structure of an object (a beam for a house, the shell of a car, etc) helps
reduce the amount of material used. This reduces the price and the weight and improves
safety.
For example, we design the shell of a car so that
the shell is as thin as possible to reduce weight.
We also design it to support impacts without
breaking and to absorb the energy of an impact.
Cars are made of resilient materials.


8.6 Analysis of structural behaviour, using
different models

We know the effects of forces on structural elements.
For example, compression squeezes a body.
We can predict a structures behaviour under the
forces that it will withstand.
We need to know the magnitude of the forces that act
on a structure.
The magnitude and type of forces depend on the use
of the structure.
For example, the force of the wind is important on a
street lamp, on a wind turbine or on an electric power
tower.

The force of the wind normally isnt important for a
desktop lamp or for a chair.
In the case of a chair, the main force is the weight of the
person that sits on it.
It is also important to know the mechanical properties
of the materials that compose the structure.
Different materials have different properties.
For example, if you use rubber as a material, then we
can predict that the elements of the structure will lose
their shape under a small force.

67
Activities
1 Give five examples of:
a) Natural shell structures
b) Artificial shell structures
2 Can you think of some famous
structures? Name, draw and
describe two famous structures.
3 http://www.technologystudent.co
m/struct1/struindex.htm and do
some of the lesson starters, such
as 1c, 6, 10, 13 and 18.
4 Write two examples of natural
mass structures and four
examples of man-made mass
structures.
5 What type of structure is:
a) An egg f) A swing
b) A house g) A thick wall
c) A chair h) A bicycle
d) A castle i) A balloon
e) A box j) A roman bridge
6 What can we reduce with a good
structural design?
7 How can we predict the behaviour
of a structure?
8 Give four examples of structures
on which:
a) The force of the wind is
important.
b) The weight is important.
9 Make a frame structure.
Make two rolls with paper and sticky tape.
Cut a long strip of paper. To make it long, cut
two pieces and unite them together.
Unite the three elements as in the picture.
Then, hang a weight from the tip of the
structure, (a spanner in the photograph).
The rolls support compression and the strip
supports tension.
10 Construct a scale power line tower.
With paper and sticky tape make:
4 rolls 8 cm long
4 rolls 4 cm long
1 roll 16 cm long
Unite the rolls with glue or sticky tape, as shown in
the picture.
When you finish the tower, you can colour it silver
to make it look more realistic.
You can use it in another project to hang electric wires and transport electricity.

68
Chapter 9
MECHANISMS



Mechanisms are things that transform a movement.
They change the speed, the direction, the force or the
type of movement (rotary or linear).




For example, the cabin of a lift goes up and down, but
the motor has a rotary motion.
Between the motor and the lift there is a mechanism
that transforms the rotary movement of the electric
motor into a linear up and down movement.



The motor is very fast.
The mechanism reduces the speed so that the
cabin moves slower.





The mechanism reduces the speed, but increases the
force.
Thanks to that, the lift can move a big load with a
relatively small motor.

69
9.1 Belts
A belt passes around two pulley wheels. If the driver wheel
moves, it moves the belt and the belt moves the driven wheel.
If both wheels are the same size, then the only purpose of the
belt is to transmit the movement from the driver wheel
(connected to the motor or the engine) to the driven wheel.
If the wheels are different sizes, then the smaller wheel moves
faster, but with less force.
9.2 Pulleys
Simple pulley
A pulley is a wheel that turns when a rope or a chain passes
through it.
A simple pulley doesnt change the speed or the effort to move
a load.
A simple pulley only changes the direction of the rope.
Double pulley
The double pulley has two wheels. It reduces the speed of
motion and also reduces the effort to move the load.
With the double pulley we can use smaller motors.
The first wheel hangs from the ceiling.
The second wheel hangs from the first pulley, held by the rope.
1 What does a mechanism change?
2 What does the mechanism of a lift change?
3 In a belt, which wheel moves faster? Which wheel moves with more force?
4 If you want to reduce the effort to lift a load, what type of pulley should
you use? Why?
5 Calculate the effort to move these loads with a double pulley:
a) 160 Kg c) 80 Kg e) 1 Kg
b) 30 Kg d) 25 Kg f) 242 Kg
6 Look around you, you can probably see mechanisms. Write a list of ten
mechanisms that you use every day.

70
9.3 Levers
The lever is the most basic mechanism. It is normally
made of a bar of wood or metal which pivots around a
fixed point called a fulcrum.
Levers normally reduce the effort necessary to move a
load, but they also reduce the speed at which a load is
moved.
The load arm is the distance from the load to the
fulcrum. The effort arm is the distance from the effort to
the fulcrum.
The force required to move the load can be calculated
with an equation:

1
st
: Multiply the value of the load
by the value of the load arm.
2
nd
: Divide the result by the value
of the effort arm.

The effort and the load are forces; the unit of force is the Newton (N).
The arms are distances, the unit is sometimes the metre (m) and sometimes the millimetre
(mm). Use the same unit for both arms.
Three types of levers were described in the book The Equilibrium of Planes, written by
Archimedes (a scientist and inventor from ancient Greece). The type of lever depended on
the position of the load, the fulcrum and the effort.


First type of lever:
This is the lever in which the
fulcrum is between the load
and the effort.




There are many examples of first type levers; scissors, for
example.

71
Second type of lever:
This has the load between the effort and
the fulcrum.

An example of a second type of lever is the
wheelbarrow.


Third type of lever:
In this type, the effort is located between
the load and the fulcrum.
The third type of lever move small loads
with great effort, but the load moves faster
than the person/motor/engine pushing the
lever.



An example of this type of lever is the catapult.
7 Name the parts of a lever.
8 Write four examples of each type of lever.
9 In a lever, the effort arm is 6 m and the load arm is 2 m. Calculate the
effort to move the load:
a) Load = 6 N c) Load = 0.1 N e) Load = 5 N
b) Load = 12 N d) Load = 1 N f) Load = 94 N
10 In a lever, the load is 2 N and the load arm is 5 mm. Calculate the effort to
move the load:
a) Effort arm = 10 mm c) Effort arm = 1 mm
b) Effort arm = 25 mm d) Effort arm = 5 mm
11 In which type of lever the load moves faster than the effort?


72
9.4 Gears
Gears are toothed wheels that mesh with each other to transmit
motion or to change speed, force or direction.
The driver gear connects to the engine or motor.
The driven gear connects to the load.
Gears normally reduce the speed and increase the force; but
sometimes they do the opposite.
The teeth of the two wheels are identical, so the two wheels mesh
with each other.
Compared to belts, gears can transmit more power, but are less
efficient, more noisy, and the transmission is less smooth.
We calculate the speed of the driven gear with any of these two
equations:






Spur gears
These are the most common type of gears.
The noise of spur gears is a problem at high
speeds.
We don't have to draw the gears in detail. We
can represent gears using simple diagrams.
The smaller gear (with fewer teeth) is faster but moves with less
force.
The larger gear (with more teeth) is slower but moves with more
force.
Bevel gears
Bevel gears have their shafts at
ninety degrees.
We use bevel gears to change the
direction of movement.

73
Worm gear
Worm gears have a great speed reduction ratio, so
we use them to greatly slow down a movement.
They also have their shafts at ninety degrees.
The worm gear is the driver gear. It is like a screw.
The driven gear is like a normal spur gear, but with
the teeth a bit twisted.
For calculations, the worm gear is like a gear with
only one tooth per revolution.
Rack and pinion
Rack and pinion gears normally change rotary
motion into linear motion, but sometimes we use
them to change linear motion into rotary motion.
They transform the rotary movement of the pinion
into the linear movement of the rack; or vice versa.
We use them for sliding doors. The rack is on the
door and the pinion is on the motor. The motor
moves the pinion which moves the rack and the
door moves.
12 What is the difference between the driver gear and the driven gear?
13 Name the advantages and the disadvantages of gears compared to belts.
14 Calculate the speed of the driven gear:
a) Driver gear: 80 rpm; 10 mm diameter. Driven gear: 40 mm diameter.
b) Driver gear: 200 rpm; 25 mm diameter. Driven gear: 50 mm diameter.
c) Driver gear: 100 rpm; 8 teeth. Driven gear: 32 teeth.
d) Driver gear: 2500 rpm; 16 teeth. Driven gear: 80 teeth.
15 Think of an example where you would use bevel gears and describe it.
16 Think of an example where you would use a worm gear and describe it.
17 Calculate the speed of the rack:
a) Pinion: 200 rpm; 10 teeth. Distance between teeth of rack: 1 cm.
b) Pinion: 30 rpm; 16 teeth. Distance between teeth of rack: 2 cm.
c) Pinion: 1800 rpm; 12 teeth. Distance between teeth of rack: 6 mm.
d) Pinion: 4500 rpm; 24 teeth. Distance between teeth of rack: 15 mm.

74
9.5 Crankshaft
The crankshaft is a mechanism that transforms rotary
movement into linear movement, or vice versa.
For example, the motion of the pistons in the engine
of a car is linear (they go up and down).
But the motion of the wheels is rotary.
Engineers put a crankshaft between the engine and
the transmission to the wheels.
The pistons of the engine move the crankshaft and the
movement becomes rotary.
Then the rotary movement goes past the clutch and
the gear box all the way to the wheels.


9.6 Clutch
This mechanism controls the transmission of movement.
The clutch has two parallel disks. One is connected to the engine
and the other is connected to the load.
With the clutch we can stop the transmission of the movement,
but with the engine or motor running all the time.
When we separate the disks, the disk connected to the engine
or motor moves, but it doesnt move the other disk (there is no
transmission of the movement).
When we press them together, the friction between them
makes the other disk move when the disk connected to the
engine or motor moves.



9.7 Brakes
Brakes are mechanisms that reduce or stop
movement.
Normally they work by friction. The brake pads press
against the surface of the rotating disc and the
friction force stops the motion.
75
Activities
1 When mechanisms reduce
speed, what do they increase?
2 Define what we call the load
in mechanisms.
3 In a belt (or in gears), which
wheel:
a) Moves faster?
b) Moves with more force?
4 Calculate the effort (in
Newtons) to move the load
with a lever:
Effort Effort
Arm
Load Load
Arm
a) 2 m 8 N 4 m
b) 3 m 6 N 2
c) 5 m 10 N 4
d) 6 m 12 N 10
e) 4 m 5 N 8
f) 8 m 4 N 32
g) 2 m 5 N 10
5 Which gear would you use:
a) To greatly reduce speed.
b) To change the direction of
movement.
c) To change rotary motion
into linear motion.
d) In most applications.
6 Calculate the speed of the
driven wheel (in rpm):
Driven
gear
speed
driver
gear
speed
Number
of teeth
driver
gear
Number
of teeth
driven
gear
a) 20 rpm 16 8
b) 70 rpm 36 12
c) 200 rpm 24 6
d) 100 rpm 32 8
e) 40 rpm 30 15
f) 800 rpm 32 8
g) 598 rpm 45 15
7 Calculate the speed of the
driven wheel (in rpm):
Driven
gear
speed
driver gear
speed
driver
gear

Driven
gear

a) 6 rpm 8 mm 4 mm
b) 40 rpm 4 mm 2 mm
c) 500 rpm 10 mm 2 mm
d) 2000 rpm 12 mm 3 mm
e) 4000 rpm 5 mm 5 mm
f) 800 rpm 32 mm 8 mm
g) 1950 rpm 40 mm 10 mm
8 Calculate the speed of the rack
(in mm/minute):
Rack
speed
Number
of teeth
of pinion
Speed of
pinion
Distance
between
teeth on
rack
a) 8 8 rpm 4 mm
b) 12 40 rpm 1 mm
c) 10 10 rpm 2 mm
d) 9 120 rpm 3 mm
e) 16 50 rpm 5 mm
f) 22 280 rpm 8 mm
g) 28 900 rpm 10 mm

9 What is the function of the
crankshaft?
10 Which is closer to the engine,
the crankshaft or the clutch?
11 What happens in the clutch if:
a) We separate the disks.
b) We press the disks
together.
12 Name the parts of a brake
system.
13 Describe how brakes reduce or
stop movement.
14 True or false?
a) Belts have three wheels.
b) Gears can transmit more
power than belts.
c) Brakes work by friction.
76
Chapter 10
ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

10.1 What is an electrical circuit?
Electrons have a negative charge, they are in the negative pole
(-) and want to go to the positive pole (+). Electricity is the
movement of electrons.
A circuit, to be functional, requires three basic elements:
A conducting wire for the electrons to travel along: a
copper or aluminium wire.
A source of power that gives the electrons the force to
move along the circuit.
Appliances: light bulbs, motors, speakers, etc.
The purpose of an electric circuit is to bring electric power to
an appliance, for example a light bulb.
To control an appliance we need a switch.
An electrical circuit is open when the switch doesnt let the
electrons flow (the switch is open).
The electrons wait in the negative (-) pole of the battery for a
connection to the positive pole (+).
An electrical circuit is closed when the switch lets the electrons
flow (the switch is closed).
The electrons run along the conductor wire to the positive
pole. They pass through the light bulb, which has resistance to
their movement, but they complete the journey if the battery
gives them enough force.
1 What is electricity?
2 What is an electric circuit?
3 Which are the three basic elements of an electric circuit?
4 What is the purpose of an electric circuit?
5 What happens when an electric circuit is closed?
77
10.2 Applications of electricity
Electricity is an intermediate energy: another kind of energy
transforms into electricity and then electricity transforms into
another different kind of energy (the last can be the same as the
first).
For example, hydro-electric dams transform the energy of moving
water into electricity.
Later on, the resistance in an electric cooker transforms the
electricity into heat.
Heat
When an electric current flows through a material, the resistance
of the material transforms some electric energy into heat.
For example, the resistances of a cooker become red-hot and we
can cook food over them.
Appliances that convert electricity into heat normally consume a
lot of energy, so they make the electricity bill expensive.
Light
There are many types of bulbs.
In the incandescent light bulbs current passes through a
filament (resistance) which shines.
Fluorescent lamps and high-intensity discharge lamps consume
less power. They are more expensive.
LEDs (light-emitting diodes) are the most energy efficient.
Movement
When electricity flows near a magnet it makes the magnet
move.
Electric motors have magnets mounted on a shaft.
There are copper wires around the motor.
When the electrons move along the copper wire, the magnet
starts to move and so the shaft moves.
6 Name the electrical appliances that you have at home. Which is
the final kind of energy?
7 Name one appliance that uses a lot of energy and one that uses
little energy.
8 Why does an electric motor move?


78
10.3 Elements of an electric circuit
The wire
The wire is the path along which electricity flows,
it has little resistance to the movement of
electrons.
Little resistance is the same thing as good
conductivity.
The conductor is normally a copper or aluminium
wire covered in plastic.
Copper and aluminium are very good conductors.
Silver is the best conductor, but it is very expensive.
Plastic is an electrical insulator.
The battery
A battery stores electrical energy. It gives the force
to the electrons that run along the wires when the
circuit is closed.
Electricity is generated in power stations and
transported through the electric grid to houses,
schools
There is probably a device in your workshop called a
power source, this reduces the strength of the
electric current so that you can use it for small
projects.
Appliances
Appliances transform electrical energy into another form
of energy.
For example, bulbs transform electrical energy into light;
motors transform electrical energy into movement.
Energy saving lights have a tube with gas and an electronic
control circuit to increase the frequency of electricity. The
electricity flows through the gas and the gas shines.
The traditional light bulb has a coil that heats up so much
that it does not just go red hot, it shines. Inside the glass
there is a vacuum, so that the coil doesnt burn.
Motors have magnets inside. The passing of electricity
near the magnets makes them move.
79
10.4 Electric symbols

To draw electric components easily, we use symbols.








10.5 Circuit diagrams

In a circuit diagram we use symbols to draw the
components.
Diagrams are simpler and easier to draw.
We draw the wires as straight lines, horizontal or
vertical. We never draw them at an angle or with
curves.
Look at the example of the diagram of a circuit with
a battery, a motor, a light and a switch.

9 Which materials do we use to make electric wires?
10 What is the function of a battery?
11 What is a power source?
12 Draw the circuit diagrams: a) b)


13 Draw a circuit diagram with 3 of these elements:
80
10.6 Magnitudes in electric circuits

Current (I)
Sometimes called current intensity or current density, the
current is the amount of electrons that flow along the circuit.
The unit of current is the amp; the symbol for amp is A.
To understand what current is, we can imagine the electrons
flowing in the circuit as water flows in a river.
If there is a lot of water flowing downstream, then the current
is big.

Tension (V)
Also called voltage, tension is the force that moves the electrons along the circuit, passing
the resistance in the appliances.
The unit of tension is the volt; the symbol for volt is V.
To understand what tension is, we can imagine the tension as the inclination of a river. A
river coming down from the mountains has a steep inclination, so the water moves with a
lot of force. The tension or force is strong.

Resistance (R)
The resistance is the difficulty for the current (the electrons) to pass through an appliance or
to flow along a wire.
The unit of resistance is the ohm; the symbol for ohm is .
Sometimes we use an element in circuits to provide resistance. We call that element a
resistor.
We can imagine appliances (which have resistance) as rocks in a river. They make the flow of
the water difficult.
14 Write in your notebook the three electrical magnitudes with their symbols.
15 Define: a) Current b) Tension c) Resistance.
16 If we rise the tension, do you think the current rises or drops? Why?
17 What is a resistor?

81
Ohms law
George Simon Ohm discovered that current, tension and
resistance are related:



If the circuit has a battery of 6V and a resistance of 3, then
the current is 2A, because I = V/R = 6/3 = 2A.

We can re-write the equation to calculate the tension or the resistance:



If the circuit has a battery of 6V, and the current is 2A, then the resistance of the appliance is
3 , because R = V/I = 6V / 2A = 3



Examples
1 The light of a torch has a
resistance of two ohms. We put a new
battery in the torch that gives eight
volts.
What is the value of the current?

2 After thirty minutes of using the
torch, the current is only three amps.
What is the new value of the tension?

18 The light of a torch has a
resistance of three ohms. We
put a new battery in the torch
that gives twelve volts.
What is the value of the
current?
19 After thirty minutes of using the
torch, the current is only three
amps.
What is the value of the tension
provided by the battery after
thirty minutes?
20 Now something a bit more
difficult...
We put the new battery (9V) in
a torch with a different light
bulb. We measure the current
flowing through it and we see
that it is 1 amp.
What is the value of the
resistance in this light bulb?
82
10.7 Types of circuits and their properties
Series circuits
In this type of circuit, electrons flow along only one wire.
The receivers are connected one after another along the
conductor (the wire).
All the appliances work if the power is on, or they dont work if
the power is off.
The disadvantage with this circuit is that we cannot switch the
appliances on independently.
Another disadvantage is that a break anywhere along the path
stops the electron flow in the entire circuit.
The total resistance in a circuit is the sum of all the resistances.
The voltage of the battery is the sum of the voltages of all the
appliances in the circuit.

All the current goes along the wire, so the entire current passes
through each appliance.


Parallel circuits
In this type of circuit, some current flows along one path and
some current along the other path.
If one of the paths breaks, then all the current flows along the
other path. This could cause the light or other appliances to
fuse.
The voltage is the same in each path (V
T
= V
1
= V
2
).

If the resistance in one path is big, most of the current flows
along the other path.

The total current is the sum of the currents in each branch.

21 An appliance has a resistance of 6 , another appliance has a
resistance of 20 .What is the total resistance if:
a) They are in series? b) They are in parallel?
22 We put two 3 V lights in a circuit. What battery do we need if:
a) They are in series? b) They are in parallel?

83
Activities
1 Give three examples of
appliances.
2 What is the function of the
switch?
3 Why do we say that electricity
is an intermediate energy?
Give an example.
4 Name three materials that are
good conductors.
5 Why do we use materials that
are good conductors to make
electric wires?
6 Draw a circuit diagram with
one battery, one switch, two
motors and one light bulb.
7 Make this series circuit.
Materials: two light bulbs, 30 cm of
electric wire, a power source (the battery
in the picture) and a base to put the
circuit.
Explain what
happens if you
remove one of
the light bulbs.


8 Make this parallel circuit.
Materials: two light bulbs, 40 cm of
electric wire, a power source (the battery
in the picture) and a base to put the
circuit.
Explain what
happens if you
remove one of
the light bulbs.
9 Using Ohms law, calculate
the missing values:
I V R I V R
a) ? 6 3 e) 5 ? 3
b) ? 12 4 f) 2 8 ?
c) ? 25 5 g) 5 15 ?
d) 4 ? 8 h) ? 14 7
10 Describe two disadvantages of
series circuits.
11 What happens in a parallel
circuit if one light bulb fuses?
12 True or false?
a) An electrical circuit is open
when the switch doesnt let
the electrons flow.
b) Appliances produce electricity.
c) The wire is the path along
which electricity flows.
d) In circuit diagrams we draw
the wires at an angle and with
curves.
e) Ohm discovered that current,
tension and resistance are
related.
f) Current is the amount of
electrons that flow along the
circuit.
g) In a parallel circuit the
receivers are connected one
after another along the
conductor (the wire).
h) In a parallel circuit the total
current is the sum of the
currents in each branch.


84
Chapter 11
NON-RENEWABLE
SOURCES OF ENERGY














We classify energy sources into two categories:
a) Renewable
b) Non-renewable
The non-renewable sources exist in a limited amount and we can only use them once.
There are two kinds of non-renewable energies: uranium and fossil fuels.

Fossil fuels are the semi-decomposed remains of dead
plants and micro-organisms that were accumulated and
buried underground millions of years ago.
There are three types of fossil fuels:
Coal
Crude oil
Natural gas).

85

Uranium is a very large atom, which liberates
energy when we break it.
Atoms are made of neutrons, protons and
electrons.
Neutrons and protons form the nucleus; electrons
orbit the nucleus.

Non-renewable energy is a great environmental
problem.
Uranium leaves residues that remain radioactive
for fifteen thousand years, and they are
dangerous during that entire time.
There is also the risk of an accident in a nuclear
power station.
When fossil fuels burn, they form carbon dioxide
(which causes global warming) and toxic gases.

We dont know the exact amount of non-
renewable energy resources that are left in the
world.
Some of the mines from which we can extract
these resources are expensive to operate. We
would only put them in production when energy
prices are higher.


1 We constantly use energy. Think and write ten examples of when you
use energy.
2 Which are the two categories of energy? Define them.
3 What are fossil fuels?
4 Which are the two disadvantages of energy from uranium?
5 True or false?
a) Uranium is the semi-decomposed remains of dead plants.
b) Uranium liberates energy when we break it.
c) Uranium leaves residues that are radioactive for 15,000 years.
d) Natural gas is a renewable energy.
e) When coal burns, it produces carbon dioxide.
f) Some mines are more expensive to operate than others.

86
11.1 Uranium

In nuclear power stations, the fission of uranium atoms produces energy.
The nucleus of a uranium atom is bombarded with a neutron, which is a small part of
another atom.






The nucleus of the bombarded uranium atom breaks in two. It releases heat (the equivalent
of burning 1,000 tons of coal), and it also releases two neutrons.
One of the released neutrons collides with another nucleus and continues the fission
process. This is the chain reaction.
We transport the heat produced by the nuclear chain reaction to the steam turbine.
The steam turbine transforms the heat into movement by heating and cooling the steam
which circulates inside it.
The turbine moves an electric generator that transforms the movement into electricity.
The cooling tower cools one part of the turbine; the heat makes water boil and the water
vapour exits to the atmosphere.

87
11.2 Coal
Millions of years ago, very big trees existed on earth.
Some big trees grew in shallow lakes.
As they died and fell, they accumulated under water
without oxygen and they didnt decompose.
Later, sediments covered them.
Finally, geological movements sent this wood deep under
the surface of the earth.
The pressure and the heat and the absence of oxygen
converted the wood into coal.
Coal is the carbon content of wood without water and the other chemical elements of
wood.
Not all coal is the same; some types have higher percentages of sulphur. Sulphur is not good
because when coal burns it produces sulphuric oxides, which are toxic gases that produce
acid rain. Also, if coal is used to make steel, then the sulphur left in the steel makes it brittle.
The percentage of carbon in coal varies because of different geological conditions of
pressure and heat. Another factor is the degree of putrefaction before the vegetable matter
was covered underground.
Depending on the percentage if carbon in coal we classify it into four categories:
Peat: this has very little carbon content. We sometimes use it as a fuel.
Lignite: We use it as fuel for electric power generation.
Bituminous coal: this is a dense mineral (black or sometimes dark brown). It
normally has well-defined bands of bright and dull material. We use it as fuel for
electric power generation and for making coke.
Anthracite: this has the highest content of carbon. Its hard and black. We use it for
residential heating.
Graphite and diamonds have higher percentages of carbon (a perfect diamond is 100%
carbon), but they are not energy sources.
Coal was the energy source of the Industrial Revolution. Today we use it for steel production
and to generate electricity.
The advantage of coal is that it is cheap.
The disadvantage is that it is the most polluting of the three types of fossil fuels because it
produces the most carbon dioxide and the most sulphuric oxides.
6 What is the purpose of the cooling tower in a nuclear power station?
7 Why is sulphur in coal bad?
8 Why is coal the most polluting fossil fuel?

88
11.3 Crude oil
Origin
Millions of years ago, large amounts of dead
micro-organisms accumulated at river mouths
and on lakes.
The micro-organisms didnt completely
decompose because there wasnt enough
oxygen in the water.

Later, sediments covered them.

Crude oil comes from that organic matter.
Crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbon
molecules, for example octane (C
8
H
18
).

Hydrocarbon molecules are hydrogen atoms
and carbon atoms linked together in chains
of different lengths. For example, octane has a
length of eight carbon atoms.
Each carbon atom is a slab of the chain.

Hydrocarbon molecules of different lengths have different properties. For example, a
molecule with one carbon atom: CH
4
(methane), is so small and light that it is a gas.
The four smallest chains - CH
4
(methane), C
2
H
6
(ethane), C
3
H
8
(propane) and C
4
H
10
(butane) -
are gases.
The longer the chains are, the heavier they get.
Chains of between five and eighteen carbons are liquids (C
5
H
12
to C
18
H
32
).
Chains with more than eighteen carbons are solids (at 20C).

9 Why didnt the micro-organisms completely decompose?
10 What is crude oil?
11 What is octane?
12 Which hydrocarbon molecules are gases? Why are they gases?
13 What is the difference between propane and butane?


89
Distillation
Oil is a mixture of different molecules. If we separate them we obtain different products.
These molecules are chains of carbon atoms linked together. For example, octane, a chain of
eight carbon atoms, is petrol.
To separate molecules of different lengths, we pass oil through a hot pipe.
As the oil gets hot, the lighter molecules evaporate and exit the pipe.
As the oil gets hotter, longer (and heavier) molecules evaporate, and only the heaviest
molecules exit at the end of the pipe.














Chains of five to seven carbons evaporate first. They are the liquids called naphthas. We use
them as paint solvents and other quick-drying products.
Chains of eight to eleven carbons are petrol. They evaporate a bit slower than naphtas.
C
12
to C
15
are kerosene, diesel and fuel oils.
Lubricating oils (sixteen to nineteen carbon chains) dont evaporate easily. For example,
engine oil works at 121C without vaporizing. Another example is Vaseline.
Chains with more than twenty carbons (>C
20
) are solids. Examples are wax, tar and asphalt.

Methane
Ethane
Propane
Butane
(Gases)
Naphtha
Kerosene
Lubricants
Wax
Asphalt

Crude
oil
14 Why do we pass oil through a hot pipe?
15 What is the length of the carbon chains in petrol?
16 Which solid substances we get from crude oil distillation?


90
11.4 Natural gas

We call methane gas natural gas.
Methane gas is a small and volatile molecule.
Methane is a molecule formed by one atom of carbon and four
atoms of hydrogen (CH
4
).


Natural gas was formed millions of
years ago, often with crude oil or
coal.
Because it is a gas, methane is at the
top of the oil/gas deposit.
Advantages:
It is cheap.
It is a relatively clean fuel, because:
Of the three fossil fuels (oil, coal and natural gas), natural gas produces the least
amount of carbon dioxide when we burn it, because it has a lot of hydrogen that
produces heat and becomes water.
It doesnt contain sulphur, so when it burns it doesnt produce sulphur oxides.
Disadvantages:
Difficult to store.
Difficult to transport.

Because it is difficult to store and transport, until the 1980s we
didnt use natural gas. Now we transport it as LNG (liquefied
natural gas) in ships or along gas pipes.
We use natural gas as for electricity generation and for
residential heating.


17 What atoms form a methane molecule?
18 Name the advantages and the disadvantages of natural gas.
19 When did we start to use natural gas?
20 What do we use natural gas for?

91
Activities
1 Which are the three types of fossil
fuels?
2 What is uranium?
3 Why are fossil fuels an
environmental problem?
4 How much non-renewable energy
resources are in the world.
5 Would we extract more resources
if prices go up? Why?
6 http://library.thinkquest.org/1794
0/texts/fission/fission.html
Watch the collision of a neutron
with a uranium nucleus. What
happens next?
7 What is the chain reaction?
8 How much heat does a uranium
atom give off when it breaks?
9 In a nuclear power station, why do
we have:
a) A steam turbine?
b) An electric generator?
c) A concrete chamber?
d) A cooling tower?
10 What is coal?
11 List the four categories of coal in
order of percentage of carbon.
12 What is the relation between coal
and the Industrial Revolution?
13 Search on the internet: how many
calories there are in 1 Kg of
bituminous coal? How many Kg of
carbon dioxide (CO
2
) does it
produce when we burn it?
14 Which are the advantages and the
disadvantages of coal?
15 How was crude oil produced?
16 What atoms form a hydrocarbon
molecule?
17 Using the internet, find
where the largest reserves of
natural gas (methane) are.
Do those places also have
large reserves of crude oil?
18 Think. Why do you think that
natural gas is difficult to store and
transport?
19 Think. Would you prefer to heat
up your home with natural gas or
with coal? Why?
20 How do we transport natural gas?
21 True or false?
a) We classify energy sources
into renewable and non-
renewable
b) The four types of fossil fuels
are: coal, crude oil, natural gas
and uranium.
c) When fossil fuels burn, they
form toxic gases.
d) Nuclear power stations
produce electricity.
e) Coal doesnt contain carbon.
f) Oil was the energy of the
industrial revolution.
g) The first product we obtain in
crude oil distillation is
kerosene.
h) Natural gas is a relatively clean
fuel.

92
Chapter 12
RENEWABLE
SOURCES OF ENERGY



Renewable sources of energy are those
that are unlimited and that we can use
constantly.
The most common renewable energy
sources are: hydro-electric, wind and
solar power. But there are many other
types: geothermal, sea waves, oceanic
currents



Renewable energies have a second great advantage: they dont
pollute.
The construction of a wind turbine or a dam or a solar panel has an
environmental impact, but the impact is less than burning fossil
fuels.
Renewable sources of energy are safe.



1 What are renewable sources of energy?
2 What are the advantages of renewable energy?
3 Why do you think that it is good that a hydroelectric dam:
a) Accumulates water behind it.
b) Raises the level of the water.
c) Is in a river with a big water flow.

93
12.1 Hydro-electric dams
Hydro-electric power is old. The first electric power station was a hydro-electric power
station at Niagara Falls.
On 26 August 1895, the electricity generated at Niagara Falls powered an aluminium
factory. At midnight, 15 November 1896, it began to power the streetlights of Buffalo,
New York.
Hydro-electric power is the most common renewable energy. Like other renewable
energy sources, it produces no CO
2
and no other direct waste.












A hydro-electric power station has a dam, which accumulates water and raises the level of
the water.
A tube passes through the dam and water flows through it to the exit.
Before the exit of the tube, the water passes through a turbine and the water moves the
turbine.
The turbine moves an electric generator.
The electric generator is like an electric motor but in reverse: if you move it, it produces
electricity.

Disadvantages:
The construction of a dam: We move a lot of
soil/rock or use a lot of concrete.
The flooding of a valley: Villages, farms,
etc. are under water.
Blocking the river: Fish cant travel along
the river (salmon, for example).

94
12.2 Wind power

Wind is air in motion. The uneven
heating of the earths surface by the
sun causes the wind.

The air moves from areas of high
pressure (H) to areas of low pressure
(L).



When the air travels a long distance from an area of high pressure to an area of low
pressure, the turning of the earth around its axis makes the wind turn.

Wind power was first used in ancient Persia.
Windmills in those days had a vertical axis.
Persians used them to move grinding stones to
mill cereals into flour.
Many centuries later in Holland, the horizontal
axis replaced the previous vertical axis.
It was then used to raise water to the canals as
well as to mill cereals.
We also use wind turbines to pump water from
wells.
Windmill

95

In the 1970s serious research began in electricity generation with
wind turbines.
By the end of the decade, there were some wind farms in
California.
Now wind power is an important source of energy in many
countries.


The turbine has three blades. When
the wind goes past the blades it
changes direction because the blades
are tilted. The change in direction
produces a force on the blade. This
force moves the blade, and the
turbine rotates.


The rotation of the turbine goes to the
gearbox.
The gearbox increases the speed of
rotation. This is necessary because
the turbine moves slowly but the
electric generator works well at high
speeds.
The gearbox moves the axle of the
electric generator.
There is often a transformer at the base of the wind turbine tower. It raises the voltage
(tension) to transport the electricity through the long distance electric power lines.
Wind turbine
4 What causes wind?
5 What was the technological difference between windmills from
Ancient Persia and windmills from Holland?
6 What are the uses of wind power:
a) In the past.
b) At present.
7 Name the parts of the wind turbine and explain their function.


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12.3 Solar power

The suns rays that reach the earth carry visible light
but also infrared light, ultraviolet light and other
forms of radiation.
For example, infrared light carries heat. We use
solar thermal energy to heat water for homes,
swimming pools, etc.
We also use solar energy to produce electricity
using a photovoltaic device called a solar cell.
A disadvantage of solar energy is that it is not
constant, it doesnt exist during the night and on
cloudy days there is little infrared light. Also, there
is less sunlight during the winter than during the
summer.
Solar thermal energy:
We construct solar thermal collectors in different
ways. The traditional collectors is a flat box with
transparent plastic on the side facing the sun.
Inside the box there is a water pipe with a
serpentine shape. Cold water enters the box and
becomes hot inside the box, so hot water exits the
box.
We paint the inside of the box with matte black
paint.
The colour black is not very important, but it is
important that it is matte, because matte colours
absorb the infrared light energy.
The transparent side of the box faces the sun
(normally to the south at an angle of 60 to the
horizon).
The suns rays heat the pipes and the inside of the
box in general. The water gets hot because the pipe
is hot.

We can accumulate the hot water in a tank and we
can use it when we want.
If the solar collector is powerful, it can also heat a
house.

97
Photovoltaic devices
These transform ultraviolet sunlight into electricity by using
two semiconductor materials.
When photons (light is made of photons) hit one
semiconductor, the electrons jump to the other
semiconductor.
The flow of electrons is electricity.
Photovoltaic devices are also called solar cells.
The main disadvantage of solar cells is their price (they are very
expensive). We use them for things that require little electricity and that are mobile or
difficult to connect to the electric grid. For example: calculators, parking meters (for
cars), lighted road signs, satellites, etc.
Satellites are a perfect example of something difficult to connect to the electric power
grid.

12.4 Nuclear fusion
Some developed nations are
researching nuclear fusion. They
hope to have the technology in a few
decades.
With nuclear fusion we could
generate energy by uniting (fusing)
two small atoms.
The two atoms collide and form a
bigger atom. The collision liberates
energy.

Small atoms, hydrogen for example, are cheap and unlimited.
Nuclear fusion produces a bit of radiation in the form of gamma rays, but less than
nuclear fission.
Radiation is dangerous because it changes the DNA in the cells of animals (for example,
humans).
Solar cells
8 When do we have the most solar energy?
9 How do we transform ultraviolet sunlight into electricity?
10 What is the use of the tank in a solar thermal energy system?
11 What would be the advantages of nuclear fusion compared to
nuclear fission?

98
Activities
1 Search on internet to find a wind map of Europe. Copy the map on your
notebook and answer:
a) Which is the windiest part of Europe?
b) Is there more wind inland or at sea?
2 Find out the average solar radiation in your hometown.
You can search the internet with words such as: solar, radiation, Spain and map.
3 Thermal energy at home:
a) Do you use solar thermal energy at home? How?
b) Is it a good idea to use solar thermal energy in your house? Why?
4 Where would you construct:
a) A hydroelectric dam? c) A solar thermal collector?
b) A wind turbine? d) A nuclear fusion reactor?
5 (Project) Construct a small solar thermal collector and test it.
Materials:
Cardboard box (shoebox)
Aluminium can
Matte black paint
Transparent plastic (clean foil)

Construction:
1. Paint the can with the matte black paint.
2. If the inside of the box is shiny, paint it matte.
3. Fill of the can with water.
4. Glue the can to the inside of the box.
5. Cover the box with the clean foil.
Choose a sunny day, preferably in May or June.
6. Put the box facing the sun.
7. Move the box after ten minutes to keep it
facing the sun (the sun moves).
8. After twenty minutes remove the transparent
foil and check if the water is cold or hot.

99
6 (Project) Construct a wind turbine to produce electricity.
Materials:
An electric motor with a gear mechanism. The gears make the motor move faster
than the turbine. The electric motor, used in reverse, is an electric generator.
A wood board and a wood bar (to make the wind turbine).
A light bulb.
Electric wires.

Construction:
1. Cut a wood bar (1 cm diameter; 20 cm long).
2. Make a hole in the middle of the bar for the
gear shaft.
3. Cut two wood boards (30 cm x 8 cm each).
4. Cut a slot for the bar on the boards, 5 cm
long and 1 cm wide.


5. Glue a support for the gear-motor and the light bulb.

6. Glue the gear shaft inside the hole of the wood bar.

7. Glue the boards to the bar, (at 70 to the wind and in
opposite directions).

8. With the electric wires, connect the generator to the
light bulb.

9. Fix the light bulb to the support.

Test your wind turbine!
Go to www.aemet.es to choose a windy day, or run with
your turbine in your hand to simulate wind.


100
Chapter 13
THERMAL MACHINES



The law of conservation of energy says:
Energy can neither be created nor can it
disappear, it only transforms from one
form to another.
The total amount of energy remains
constant.



Some thermal machines transform chemical energy (fossil fuels) into heat and heat into
mechanical energy.
Some thermal machines take heat from one place and put it in another place.

If they burn fossil fuels, thermal machines are a source of pollution because of the exhaust
gases:
Carbon dioxide, which causes the greenhouse effect.
Nitrogen oxides, sulphur oxides and ozone, which are toxic gases.
Water vapour, which has no negative effects.

We are researching how to substitute fossil fuels for cleaner ones, or how to substitute
thermal machines for non-thermal ones.
Thermal machines produce 85% of all power generated in the world (transportation,
electricity generation, etc.).


There are many different thermal
machines.
We classify thermal machines in
three types:

101
13.1 External combustion engines
These transform heat from an external fire into movement.
The steam engine
Technological developments through the 18
th
century led to the steam engine.
The steam engine soon became the source of power for the textile industry in central and
northern England, starting the Industrial Revolution.

The engine has a backward stroke and a
forward stroke:

Stroke 1
The valve is on the left and so the steam
enters the cavity on the right side of the
cylinder, pressing the piston and moving it to
the left.
The boiler produces the steam at a high
pressure.
The vapour in the left cavity exits through
the exhaust.

Stroke 2
The valve moves to the right.
The high-pressure steam coming from the
boiler enters the left cavity, pressing the
piston to the right.
The vapour in the right cavity exits through
the exhaust.
1 Which exhaust gasses are a source of pollution?
2 Which are the three different types of thermal machines?
3 How did the Industrial Revolution start?
4 Why does the piston of the steam engine move to the right in the
second stroke?

102
Steam turbine
We use steam turbines in electric power stations. They transform
heat into motion to move an electric generator, which produces
electricity.
The heat comes from the burning of fossil fuels or from a nuclear
reaction.
Hydro-electric dams and wind farms are exceptions.
We can draw a steam turbine as a rectangular, closed tube. The
steam gets alternatively hotter and colder:
When the fan spins it drags cold steam (120C) into the heating
area.











After the heating area there is a windmill attached to the fan by an axle, so that if the
windmill moves, it moves the fan.
The heat generated by combustion or by a nuclear reaction heats up the steam (1400C).
Steam wants to expand when it heats up, but it is inside the heating area, so the hot steam
exits through the windmill, making it rotate.
The rotation of the windmill, thanks to the axle, moves the fan.
The fan moves, it drags more cold steam into the tube, the cold steam heats up, and the
cycle starts again.
We control electric power output by burning more or less fuel.

5 In power stations:
a) What is the function of the steam turbine?
b) What is the source of power?
6 Name the parts of the steam turbine.

103
13.2 Internal combustion engines
They transform heat from an internal fire into movement.
The jet engine
Jet engines use Newtons third law (the law of action and reaction) that
says if you push an object with a force, you suffer another force of equal
value and opposite direction.
You can experience this law: stand still on only one foot near a wall, and
then push the wall. You will fall in the opposite direction.
Also, if you are on a small boat, throw a heavy object out of the boat, the
boat moves a bit in the opposite direction.
Aircraft engines push air with great speed.








The engine functions like a steam turbine. There are only four differences:
The fluid is air.
Cooling happens in the atmosphere.
The combustion is internal.
It doesnt move a generator, it pushes the air (Newton`s third law).

The fuel for jet engines is kerosene, a product of crude oil.
Kerosene is transparent or a bit blue or yellow.
In the old days, kerosene was the fuel for gas lamps because it
gives a bright light when it burns.
7 Write two different examples of how to experience Newtons third law.
8 Which are the differences between steam turbines and jet engines?
9 What is kerosene? Explain old and new uses of kerosene.

104
Four stroke petrol engine

This is the type of engine for cars, vans and lorries.

The engine has four cylinders. The
cylinders have these parts:
Admission valve: it opens and closes
the entry of air.
Exhaust valve: it opens and closes
the exit of exhaust gases.
Fuel intake: it injects the petrol into
the cylinder.
Spark plug: it makes a spark, igniting
the combustion.
Piston: it goes up and down inside
the cylinder.
The piston has a shaft that
transmits the movement to the crankshaft, then to the clutch, then to the gearbox and
then to the wheels.
Cylinder: its the container inside which the piston moves. It forms the combustion
chamber and all the parts are mounted onto it.
Each of the four strokes happens alternatively in each of the four pistons.


Stroke one
Both valves are closed. At the beginning the piston is at the top.
There is a mixture of compressed air and petrol in the combustion
chamber.
The Spark plug makes a spark and the mixture burns very fast; it is
almost an explosion.
The combustion raises the temperature and the combustion
gases, which cant expand in the cylinder because both valves are
closed, push the piston down.
Stroke one generates the power to move the car and also to move
the other three pistons in their strokes.
10 What is the function of:
a) The two valves b) The piston

105
Stroke two
At the beginning the piston is at the bottom, but
moves to the top during this stroke.
The exhaust valve is open.
The mixture of air and petrol becomes exhaust gases.
The exhaust gases exit through the exhaust valve
because the pressure inside the piston is high and
because the piston pushes them out.
Stroke three
The piston begins at the top and
moves downward.
The admission valve is open.
As the piston moves down, it drags
air into the cylinder.
The fuel intake injects petrol.



Stroke four
Both valves are closed.
The piston moves up compressing the mixture of air and
petrol in the combustion chamber.
The combustion chamber is the space at the top of the
cylinder where the mixture is compressed at the end of
stroke four.

The cylinder is ready to start stroke one again.
11 Which way is the piston moving in:
a) Stroke 1 b) Stroke 2 c) Stroke 3 d) Stroke 4

106
Diesel engine
The four-stroke engine is called a diesel engine when it uses diesel as fuel and it is called a
petrol engine when it uses petrol as fuel.
There are a few small differences between the diesel and the petrol engine:
In the diesel engine the mixture of air and fuel is compressed more than in the petrol
engine. The very high pressure ignites the combustion, so diesel engines dont need a spark
plug.

Diesel engines are more robust because of the
higher pressure; this makes them heavier.
Thanks to the higher pressures, diesel engines are
more energy efficient.

In the past we used diesel engines for trains, lorries,
and ships. Now, thanks to reducing their size and in
combination with turbo technology, we also use
them for cars.

Two Stroke petrol engine
This is the engine for motorbikes and small machines (water pumps, lawn mowers).

This engine combines the four strokes of a four-
stroke engine into only two strokes so that the
engine only needs two pistons.

The advantages: it is smaller, cheaper and lighter.
The disadvantage: it is less fuel efficient.
12 Which are the differences between the four stroke petrol engine and the
diesel engine?
13 In which vehicles do we use diesel engines? Why?
14 In which vehicles do we use two stroke petrol engines? Why?
15 Search for information and think. Would you substitute combustion engines
for electric engines? Why / why not?

107
13.3 Environmental Effects of Fossil Fuels
Extraction and transport
Oil sometimes spills from pipelines and from tanker ships, producing huge environmental
disasters.
The construction of gas and oil pipelines damages the soil.
Toxic Gases
Carbon monoxide
Carbon monoxide is a molecule made of one carbon atom and one oxygen atom (CO).
It is produced in combustions with little air, where the carbon atom cant find two oxygen
atoms.
It unites to the globulin of blood cells and reduces their capacity to transport oxygen.
Nitrogen oxides
There is a lot of nitrogen in the air. During combustions some nitrogen atoms combine with
oxygen atoms, making nitrogen oxide.
Sulphur oxides
There is a small percentage of sulphur in crude oil and in coal.
During combustion, the sulphur atom combines with oxygen atoms, making sulphur oxide.
Carbon dioxide
Light is a wave that travels across air, space or a transparent
body.
The different wavelengths are the different colours.
The surface of the earth absorbs some sunlight and reflects the
rest with a different wavelength.
Carbon dioxide is transparent for the wavelength of sunlight,
but opaque for the wavelength of the reflected light.
Carbon dioxide absorbs the reflected light and warms up the
atmosphere.

16 Which are the three toxic gases from combustions? How are they produced?
17 How does carbon dioxide warm up the atmosphere?

108
13.4 Refrigerators and air conditioners
The refrigerator is a machine that takes heat
from one place (the compartment for food)
and puts it in another place (outside, normally
the kitchen).
To understand how it works, remember that
gases warm up when we compress them and
cool down when they expand.
The refrigerator compresses and decompresses
a gas and moves it from one place to another.

The compressor compresses the gas (and it
gets hot).
The compressed gas in the radiator loses heat
to the atmosphere (the atmosphere of the
kitchen) until it is at room temperature.
At the exit of the radiator, the gas is still
compressed but at room temperature.
At the entrance to the food compartment
there is a restriction valve. The gas loses
pressure to pass through the valve and
decompresses (expands).
As the gas expands after the valve, it becomes
cold.
The cold gas flows along tubes inside the food
compartment and absorbs heat.
Because heat goes from the food to the cold
gas, the food becomes colder.
After absorbing heat, the gas is not very cold,
and it goes to the compressor to start the cycle
again.
An electric motor moves the compressor.


18 Where does the heat from the food go to?
19 What is the function of
a) The compressor c) The restriction valve
b) The radiator d) the tube inside the fridge
20 Why does the heat from the food go to the gas?

109
Activities
1 Search for information on how
people lived when the steam
engine was invented. Write a page
about the invention of the steam
engine and its social impact.
2 Name the parts of the steam
engine.
3 Why does the steam turbine need
cooling?
4 Which are the parts of the four
stroke petrol engine?
5 In which stroke does the four
stroke petrol engine produce
power? Why?
6 Why does food get colder in the
refrigerator?
7 Leave an empty plastic bottle
open in a warm place (for
example, near a radiator if it is
winter, or under the sun if it is
summer).
After some time,
close it and put it
inside the fridge
for thirty minutes
Has the bottle
changed?
What has happened in the fridge?
8 Thermal machines are common in
our lives.
For example, the two stroke
engine of a motorcycle is a
thermal machine.
Name and describe ten other
things in which we use thermal
machines.
9 Write a page about some
alternative fuels (non-fossil fuels).
Name these fuels and describe
their advantages and
disadvantages.
10 Boilers have heat exchangers.
a) What is a boiler?
b) Do you have a boiler at home?
c) What fuel does your boiler
use?
d) What is a heat exchanger?
e) What material is the heat
exchanger made of?
11 Which engine would you use for:
a) Car
b) Small water pump
c) Motorcycle
d) Van
e) Aeroplane
f) Electric power station
g) Ship
h) Old-fashioned train
12 True or false:
a) We classify thermal machines
in three types.
b) In steam turbines, the
windmill moves the fan.
c) Jet engines use Newtons third
law (the law of action and
reaction)
d) Kerosene is the fuel for
motorbikes.
e) The gas loses heat in the
radiator of the refrigerator.

110
Chapter 14
HARDWARE AND
SOFTWARE


14.1 What is a computer?
Computers are not intelligent; they are tools that
follow instructions perfectly and quickly.
They follow instructions from the user and from the
computer programmer.
Applications (word processors, video games, etc.)
are sets of instructions.

14.2 Hardware
Hardware is the part of the computer that we can
touch.
The hardware is the components that are
interconnected. The computer needs all those
components, but they are independent and we can
change any of them.
The basic components are the CPU, the memory, the
graphics card and the peripherals.
CPU
The CPU (Central Processing Unit) is a big, green,
plastic board with a lot of chips and many other
electronic components mounted on it.
The central processing unit is also called the
processor. It is the brain of the computer; it looks
at the information and takes decisions based on
logic.

111
Memory
Memory stores information.
There are various types of memory in the computer:
Fixed memories
They normally stay inside the computer.
1. Hard disc: Also called hard drive, it is a set of rigid discs
with a magnetic surface.
It stores all your programs and files.
Advantages: It can store a large amount of data (today around 1 TB).
We can save and erase the information when we want.
Disadvantages: It is relatively slow: compared to other types of memory, it takes
longer to read and write information.
2. RAM (Random Access Memory): This is a green
plastic card with chips.
The RAM is installed in a slot on the mother board.
Mother boards have empty slots so that we can add
more RAM if we want.
The RAM stores the applications and files that we are
using.
Advantages: It stores (writes) and retrieves (reads) quickly.
Disadvantages: We lose the work if there is an electrical power cut.
Small memory capacity (around 6GB) compared to the hard disk.
Portable memories
They are easy to connect and disconnect from the computer. Also,
they are easy to carry.
CDs, DVDs: We call them optical memories because they use
light to work.
Advantages: Cheap.
Disadvantages: Not good to rewrite.
Pen drives, memory cards: They store the information
in chips.
Advantages: Rewritable.
Quick.
Disadvantage: More expensive than a CD or a DVD.

112
Graphics card
The graphics card looks similar to the RAM. It is also a green plastic card with chips.
It defines the format of the graphics and helps the processor to process the graphics faster.
We need a powerful graphics cards to play video games, to watch movies and for graphic
design.
Peripherals
Peripherals are elements of communication between the computer and the outside world
(including ourselves).

Entry peripherals
Entry peripherals give information to the
computer: keyboard, mouse, microphone,
thermostat



Exit peripherals
The computer uses the exit peripherals to give information to us or to
an actuator: screen, speakers, printer, light bulb, motor



A peripheral can be both entry and exit; an
example is the router to connect to the internet.
The router receives information from the internet
and sends information to the internet.
1 Which two components of the hardware look similar?.
2 Which type of memory do you think would be best to store:
a) A collection of films. Explain why.
b) A letter that you are writing. Explain why.
3 What is the difference between entry and exit peripherals?

113
14.3 Software
Software is the part of the computer that we cant touch.
It is the logic that the computer follows.
The programmer writes instructions. A set of instructions is a program. When we use a
program, the computer follows the instructions in the program.
The Operating System (OS)
There is one OS per computer; not more, not less.
The OS defines the internal logic for the functioning of the computer.
To program the OS, we must know which are the components of the hardware and how
they are connected.
For example, when we tell the computer to switch off, the OS decides to first close the
applications, then to transfer all data from the RAM to the HD, and finally to switch itself off.
Operating systems evolve along with computers. In the 1980s only one user could interact
with a computer and computers only had text, not images.
Computers had one processor, one application, one floppy disc, one keyboard and one
screen.
The OS was programmed only to manage those hardware components.
In those days, the OS was stored on a floppy disk, which was loaded after switching on the
computer.
The user first loaded the OS, (stored on an external disk) and then the application (stored on
another external disk). The user could then start to use the application.
Todays OS
It is stored in the hard disc (the applications are also stored in the HD).
It can manage multiple applications at the same time.
It has a graphic display, so we can interact with the computer using a mouse.
It can connect to the internet.
Today, the most common operating systems are those sold by
Microsoft: Windows Vista, Windows 7
Microsofts Windows has a long history which started with the OS
called DOS (Disc Operating System).
Apple Macintosh is another company which offers an OS for
computers. The Mac is preferred by graphic designers and artists.
LINUX is a free OS. Free means that users dont have to pay to
use it, and that programmers can modify the OS as they like.
There are also various OS for mobile telephones.

114
The Applications
Sometimes we call them programs, but any piece of software is a program, including the
operating system.
Applications are programs that we use to do things on the computer; they are our tools.
You probably know a lot of them already: Word (word processor), Excel (spreadsheet),
Access (database), PowerPoint (presentations), FIFA 11 (game), Messenger
(telecommunication software), Autocad (CAD)
An application suite is a group of applications in a package. For example: Open Office,
Microsoft Office or iWork09.
Application suites normally include a word processor, a spreadsheet, a web browser and
other applications.
The applications in the suite have a common user interface so that the user can easily learn
how to use all of them.
The different applications of an application suite can interact with each other. So we can, for
example, insert a spreadsheet in a word processor document.

PowerPoint
To make a presentation with PowerPoint 2010, follow these steps:
1
When we open PowerPoint a window asks what kind of presentation we want,
select Blank Presentation.
2
Another window offers a selection of layouts; select the default layout.
3
Click on the rectangle that says Click to add title and write Presentation About
Mechanisms.
4
Click on Click to add subtitle and write This presentation is about the most
common types of mechanisms.
5
Click on Insert and then click on New Slide. The window with a selection of
layouts appears again; select the layout called Bulleted List (it is normally offered
as default) and click on OK.
6
With the mouse, click on Click to add title and write Types of Mechanisms.
7
Click on Click to add text and write:
Pulleys
Levers
Gears


115

8
To add an image, click on insert.
Then click on Picture.
You can choose any picture from any
folder.
9
We can also insert tables, clip art images,
shapes, charts, etc.
Insert a table and a chart.
10
To change the colour of the text, select the
text with the left mouse button, then select
the colour icon and then choose the colour
you would like.
We can choose the colour before we start
to write, so we dont have to change it
later.




4 To learn more about PowerPoint, visit http://www.actden.com/PP/ and
learn how to add motion or sound.
Click on 5 Adding Motion or on 6 Adding Sound.
5 Make a two slide PowerPoint presentation about the part of the hardware
that you like best.

116
Word












1
When we open Word 2010 we can start to write; the text appears on the page.
2
We can change the size of the letters. Click on the size button and select the size you
want before you start to write. To change the size of something already written,
select the text with the left mouse button and change the size.
3
We can also underline, click on U (underline) to start writing with underline or
select text with the mouse and then click on U.
4
To change the colour of the text, we do the same as for size or underline. When we
click on the colour button we have different colours to choose; choose the one you
would like.
5
We can change from one menu to another, for example click on Page Layout.
There are several layout options, for example we can change the margins. Click and
hold with the left mouse button on the triangular/rectangular margin sign and drag
right or left. The margin changes immediately.
6
We can also change the colour of
the page.
7
The Indent is the distance from
the margin to the start (Left) or
end (After) of the line.
8
The Spacing is the distance from
the paragraph to the previous
(Before) or following (After)
paragraphs.

117
9
The ribbon is the area with the sub-menus, we can hide it to have more screen
space. Click near the bottom of the ribbon with the right mouse button and select
minimize the Ribbon
To see the ribbon again, click on any of the main
menu options, the ribbon temporarily shows. We can
click again near the bottom with the right mouse
button and de-select minimize the Ribbon
10
In the insert menu we can insert Shapes. Click on
Shapes and insert an oval (the second Basic
Shape and two other shapes that you like.

Keyboard shortcuts
All the things that we can do in Word are in the menus, but sometimes it is faster to use the
special keys of the keyboard.
To use them, we press at the same time a special key and another key. For example:
Ctrl+b If we press the control key and the b key the text becomes bold.
Ctrl+c To copy text, images, etc. we select with the mouse the text/image that we
want to copy and then we press the control key and the c key.
Ctrl+v To paste text, images, etc. we click with the mouse where we want to paste
the text/image and then we press the control key and the v key.
Alt + print screen (sometimes only print screen) it copies what is on the screen as
an image. Then we can paste the image in another place, or print it.
Alt + v + u the menus disappear and we can see the document better. To see
the menus again, click on the Esc key, on the top left corner of your keyboard.

6 There are several function keys on the keyboard. To activate them
press at the same time Ctrl (the control key) and any of the function
keys (F1, F2, etc.).
Write in your notebook what is the use of each of the function keys
in your keyboard.
7 To learn more about Word, go to the page
http://www.baycongroup.com/wlesson0.htm and click on The Quick
Access Toolbar.
Scroll down to find the answers to these questions:
a) What is The Ribbon?
b) What is The Text Area?
c) Where is the icon to check spelling and grammar?
d) What are the Nonprinting Characters?

118
Activities
1 What is an application?
2 What is the hardware?
3 Which component of the
hardware is the brain of the
computer? Why?
4 Which are the two types of
peripherals?
5 Visit the web page
http://www.geocities.com/howco
mpworks/hd3.htm
a) What is a sector?
b) What is a track?
c) Going Back to the previous
page:
d) What material is the box made
of?
e) Describe the surface of the
discs in a hard disc.
f) Going further Back to the
previous page, watch the
video how to install a second
hard disk and write down a
five-line summary on how to
install a hard disk on a
computer.
6 Classify these components:
keyboard, router, processor,
mouse, screen, speakers,
microphone, printer, motor,
thermostat, RAM.
Into the these categories:
a) Entry peripherals
b) Exit peripherals
c) Entry and exit peripherals
d) Not peripherals
7 Copy in your notebook and match
the related words with a line:
Mouse Fixed memory
Speaker Portable memory
Hard Disc Entry peripheral
DVD Exit peripheral
8 Why do you think that there are
different types of memories in one
computer?
9 Which portable memory do you
prefer, a CD or a pen drive? Why?
10 Find a photograph or make a
drawing of the following internal
parts of a computer: hard disk,
DVD player, RAM, mother board.
11 Visit the page
http://electronics.howstuffworks.
com/cell-phone.htm and watch
the video How Cell Phone
Recycling Works.
Write a summary of the benefits
of recycling mobile phones.
12 What is a program?
13 What do programmers need to
know to program an OS?
14 What has changed between the
old OS and the new OS?
15 Name two OS that are not from
Microsoft.
16 What is an application suite?
Name three famous application
suites.
17 What do we do with PowerPoint?

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18 Impress is the presentation
application of the Open Office
Suite.
Impress is similar to PowerPoint,
with the advantage that it is free.
http://inpics.net/impress.html
a) Create a slide
b) Add new slides
c) Insert pictures
d) Format text
e) Format pictures
f) Preview a presentation
g) Insert tables and charts
h) Employ design templates
i) Employ a master slide
j) Rearrange slides
k) Animate text
l) Animate graphics
m) Create slide transitions
n) Advance slide automatically
o) Add speaker notes
19 With a presentation program,
make a two or three slide
presentation about the different
tools in the workshop.
Add a few pictures to your
presentation.
20 Writer is the text processing
application of the Open Office
Suite.
Writer is similar to Word, with the
advantage that it is free.
http://inpics.net/writer.html
a) Create a new document
b) Cut, copy and paste
c) Format words
d) Format paragraphs
e) Use bullets and numbering
f) Adjust page settings
g) Check spelling
h) View pages
i) Format text with styles
j) Find and replace
k) Set tabs
l) Insert breaks
m) Employ headers and footers
n) Format pages in columns
o) Employ drop caps
p) Insert pictures
q) Draw and paint
r) Employ tables
s) Employ templates
t) Use the thesaurus
u) Count words
v) Insert a table of contents
21 Using a word processor, write a
letter to your grandparents
explaining how to use the menus
of the word processor.
22 True or false?
a) The hardware is the logic of
the computer.
b) The CPU is the brain of the
computer.
c) RAM is a plastic card with
chips.
d) The graphics card is an entry
peripheral.
e) There are five or six OS per
computer
f) The OS is stored in the
graphics card.

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Chapter 15
COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGY: THE
INTERNET

The internet is not the first
telecommunication technology; it is the
most recent of many telecommunications
developments during the 19
th
and 20
th

centuries.
Some important developments were the
telegraph and the radio.
Now we use internet to search and access
web pages, to send emails, to buy things, to
do video-conferences
Do you know how internet started and how
it works?


15.1 History of the Web
The web began in 1989 when Tim Berners-Lee and Robert Cailliau designed a system to link
documents stored in different computers.
They wanted to access library information that was in multiple
servers.
In 1990 Tim Berners-Lee proposed the World Wide Web with a
system called HyperText, to link documents.
They created the first web page, the first web browser and the first
server.
In 1993 a program called Mosaic sparked the popularity of the
World Wide Web.

121
15.2 The technology behind the Web

Web Servers:
A web server is a computer that stores web pages
(HTML documents).
When we visit a web page, the internet copies the web
page from the server to our computer.

URL (Uniform Resource Locator):
The URL is the address that we write in the web browser to connect to a web site. It has
four parts:




Protocol:
The protocol are the characters before the hostname. Examples are http, ftp, telnet
A colon (:) and two forward slashes (//) separate the protocol from the hostname.

Hostname:
The hostname is the address that we want to visit. For example, if we go to the address
http://www.esobook.net/firstyear/chapter1.html , the hostname is www.esobook.net
A forward slash (/) separates the hostname from the path.

Path:
This is where the file is in the server and the file name.
For example, in the URL http://www.esobook.net/firstyear/chapter1.html , the path is
firstyear/chapter1
A dot (.) separates the path from the language code.

HTML
Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML) is the programming language for web pages.
http://www.esobook.net/firstyear/chapter1.html
1 Go to some of your favourite web pages and copy in your notebook their:
a) Protocol c) Path
b) Hostname d) html or htm


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15.3 Structure of the internet







What is a router?
The internet is many routers connected to each other.
The routers pass the message, making the connection from the computer that sends the
information to the computer that receives the information.
There are normally tens of thousands of possible routes to the desired destination, so it
is important that the routers chose the best route.
If, for example, we send a message from a desktop computer to a laptop, the router
connected to the computer sends the message to the router that it thinks that will be
the best to then continue all the way to the router (wireless in this case) connected to
the laptop.
Another example is when we visit a web page. The server where it is stored sends the
page from one router to another to another to our computer or laptop.

Internet Protocol: the IP Address
Each computer connected to the internet has a unique identifying number, called an IP
Address (Internet Protocol, which is the language that computers use to communicate
over the internet).
An IP address has four numbers separated by dots: 209.17.05.217
IP addresses are in decimal format, but computers communicate in binary. The same IP
address in binary is: 11010101.00010001.00000101.11011001
2 What happens when we visit a web page?

123
15.4 Searching for information on the internet

There are some web pages that have programs called search engines. These programs
dont look for the information, they look for web pages with a similar title.
The most famous search engine is Google ( http://www.google.com ).












1
st
The user can select what kind of information to search for: web pages or images, for
example. Web pages are selected by default because that is what most people search
for.
2
nd
The user types in keywords. Keywords are the words that best describe what the
user wants to find.
The search engine (Google in this case) searches for web pages that contain those key
words.
People that write web pages give them keywords that are relevant to the content of the
page. If, for example, a programmer writes the web page for a shoe shop in Rome,
she/he writes keywords like: shoe, shoes, trainers, boot, boots, Rome, Italy,
comfortable, nice, durable, fashion...
So when a user searches for shoes and Rome, the search engine will probably find
that web page, among others.
3
rd
Click on Search.
Other There are other options; for example, if the screen is not displayed in English and
you want to change the language, click on preferences and then in the option interface
language select the desired language.

3 What is a search engine?
4 Imagine you make a web page for a Technology museum. Which key
words would you write for the web page?

124
We can also change other things in Preferences, such as the search language (to
search only for web pages written in a specific language) or the filter.
There are other common search engines, like AltaVista or Yahoo!








Search engines normally have a horizontal text bar in which you write some words that
describe what you are looking for (the keywords).
Search engines look in the servers to see if they have web pages with the key words that
we want.
The search engine gives us a list of web pages. The first pages on the list are those that:
Have the same keywords.
Are popular and have high traffic.
5 In a search engine, change the language preferences to search for
web pages in English or in any other language.
6 Type in a search engine the words pulley system.
a) Are the first web pages about pulleys?
b) Is the first page in the list better than the tenth?

125
15.5 The computer as a communication tool:
email, chats, video-conferencing.
Email
You probably know what email is: a way to send a letter
from one address to another address.
The advantage of email over normal mail is that it only
takes seconds or minutes to arrive.
You probably use one of the web pages that offer this
service for free: Hotmail, Gmail, etc., to send email.
Video-conferencing
Video conferencing is a telecommunication technology
that allows several individuals to communicate
simultaneously with voice and image.
Video-conferences with several people require relatively
expensive hardware, but we can do a conference
between only two people with cheap equipment. The
users of the conference need:
a computer connected to the internet
a web cam
a microphone and speakers
the video conference software, which is normally
free, such as Skype or Messenger
This technology can be a good way for students in a
bilingual project to communicate with students from
schools in other countries.
7 What is more expensive, a videoconference for two people or for
several people? Why?
8 What equipment do we need to make a video conference?

126
Blogs
A blog is a place where a person writes information for
other people to read.
Blogs normally contain opinion articles or photographs.
Blogs are similar to web pages. The difference is that a
blog is specially created for readers to respond to the
author of the blog with their own opinions or
comments.

Blogs are easier to create than web pages and they are
especially easy to edit, as they are normally edited
periodically: daily, weekly
Blogs are like the opinion section of a newspaper, with
the advantage that anyone can easily create and edit
their own blog, even if it is only for a small number of
readers.

Chats
Chats are a way to exchange messages instantly
with one or several other users who are online
simultaneously.
We often use chats for fun, but we can also use
chats to communicate with, for example, exchange
students from another country.
Some people think that video-conferencing is
better than chatting, but most students continue
to use chats.
Their use is mainly recreational; they are not used
very often at work.

9 What is a blog?
10 Which are the differences between blogs and web pages?
11 Which do you prefer, chatting or videoconferencing? Why?
12 What is the main use of chats?

127
Activities
1 What is the function of the routers
in the working of internet?
2 What is an IP address?
3 Open a search engine and look at
all the options on the screen.
Write a list with the different
options and explain what they do.
4 In your notebook, match the
related words with a line:
Host Name Search Engine
Electric Signal Binary Code
01011100 Wire
Information URL
5 Communicate with a student from
another school using chat
software.
Open an account in a webpage
dedicated to chats.
You could, for example, do a team
project with members from both
ends of the chat.
6 Find out more about how to
video-conference with students
from other schools:
http://www.etwinning.net/en/pu
b/tools/more_tools/communicati
ng_with_your_team.htm
7 Make a video-conference with
another school.
You can communicate with email
and/or chat before the
videoconference.
Visit the Skype web page
http://www.skype.com . Change
the language to international
English (to practise your English!),
download Skype and open an
account.
Test that the system works
correctly. You can do this by
video-conferencing with other
students in your class in the
computer room.
Exchange Skype names and say
when you will do the video-
conference.
8 Create a blog in blogger.com
https://www.blogger.com/start
Click on language and change to
English.
Click on create a blog.
Fill in the forms and press
continue. Finally, press Start
Blogging.
Write what you like and press
save now and publish post to
have your blog correctly
published.
9 Using a search engine, find
information about the Eiffel Tower
and about Mr Eiffel.
10 True or false?
a) The hostname is the internet
address that we want to visit.
b) HTML is the programming
language for web pages.
c) The internet is two routers
connected to each other.
d) Keywords help us find
webpages.
e) Skype is a search engine.
f) We create a blog to give our
opinion to other people.

128




















Gonzalo Morillo Dez, Madrid, 1973.
After completing his secondary education at the Spanish School in London, G.M.D. graduated from the University of the West of
England (Bristol) with a degree in mechanical engineering and finished postgraduate studies at the University of Wales. He worked
for three years at Rolls Royce plc in Derby and then for various European consultancies.
Since September 2004 Gonzalo has taught Technology in English as part of the MEC-British Council bilingual programme.
This book is a result of his experience.

Thanks to Mathew Mendoza and Alexander S. Cano-Yates for editing the book, to Sevasti Nasika for her photos, to Brnice Mige
for her illustrations, to Noelia Calle Hernndez for designing the cover, to Almudena Sants Garca for her materials, to my family and
friends and to all those who have contributed to this book.
Autor:
Pgina personal:
Pgina del libro:
GonzaloMorillo-Diez
http://gonzalomorillo.bubok.com
http://www.bubok.com/libros/202955/Technology-12-ESO