AB Calc Final Review

AREA UNDER THE CURVE

There are three ways to find the area under a curve (given y=f(x), and the area is between x=a and x=b)
w/o pesky integrals:
1. Left-hand rectangles: Split the change in x of which you want your area from into rectangles of equal
length: the height is the y-value for f(x) evaluated at the left bound of the rectangle. Add all these
rectangles up.
2. Right-hand rectangles: Same as left-hand, except the height of the rectangles is the y-value of f(x)
evaluated at the right bound of it.
3. Midpoint rectangles: Split the change in x as usual, and the height is y of f(x) evaluated at the
midpoint b/w the two bounds of the rectangle.
4. Trapezoidal: Make trapezoids. The height is delta x, and the bases' lengths are the y-values of f(x)
evaluated by left and right hand bounds. The formula for area of a trapezoid is A = (h/2)(b1+b2)
Area can be negative: this means that the graph is below the x-axis.
The more rectangles, the more accurate the area will be -- these are either over- or under-estimates.
The most accurate way to find the area are with an infinite amount of rectangles. These are Reimann
Sums -- basically, the limit to infinity of the sum of all the rectangles.
Except that's super annoying and all so just use definite integrals.
Given y = f(x) is continuous on the interval [a, b], the area under the curve from x=a to x=b is modeled
using the definite integral. If you don't know what an integral is it's gonna be a long night.
()

FINDING AREA BETWEEN TWO CURVES
Given two functions f(x) and g(x), the area between them (assuming g(x) is above f(x) on the graph):
() ()

where a and b are the two points where f(x) and g(x) intersect.
SPECIAL CASES
1. ()

, since there's no distance b/w a and a so you can't make any rectangles.
2. Context:
- Even functions are ones that are symmetrical about the y-axis, so f(x) = f(-x)
-Odd functions are ones that are symmetrical about the origin, so f(-x) = -f(x)
So, the area from -a to a of a function:
() ()

, if the function is even.

()

, if the function is odd.

FINDING VOLUMES GIVEN SHAPES OF CROSS-SECTIONS
AB Calc Final Review

Integrals are really just the mass sum of an infinite amount of rectangles with the smallest width
possible. This is effectively a bunch of lines. You can build shapes up from these lines: the lines can be
the base of a square or a semi-circle or a triangle or whatever. These shapes look really funky, like:

In this weird thingy, the cross-sections are squares of radius f(x). Since the graph is sorta parabolic, the
base of these squares increase so this shape is made.
Area under curves are an accumulation of the lines there. Volumes are virtually accumulations of the
area of the cross section. So, to find volume from a to b:
()

So in this case, it's
()

since the area of a square is

.
But sometimes they want the area of one between two curves f(x) and g(x). Always remember to draw
that rectangle thingy with Y
T
and Y
B
. Find the distance of the base and apply whatever area formula to
that, then integrate your heart out.
SOLIDS OF REVOLUTION
Picture the area under a curve. Now picture that being rotated around a certain axis. They make some
wicked cool shapes, except it's also the day before the final so let's just get to it.
There are three ways to find the volume of a solid of revolution.
Disk method: When you rotate something around an axis, you get a circle. So, picture the volume of a
solid of rotation as basically a bunch of circles meshed together. f(x) in this case is the radius, so
()

Washer method: This is for when you have two functions, and you want the volume of rotation of the
area between the two functions. Don't forget your Y
T
and Y
B
here. So, you have one smaller function and
AB Calc Final Review

one bigger one, and you want to find the volume of what's in between those two. Here's how a washer
works, complete with Comic Sans:

Basically integrate that area. Make sure you label your R (bigger radius, R
2
in the photo) and r (tiny
radius, R
1.
)
Volume using washers:
(()

()

Cylindrical Shells: The typical case for this happens when you're given an area not touching the y-axis,
and you have to revolve it around the y-axis. When you rotate it, think of it like the washer method, but
with cylinders. So you subtract one cylinder (from the y axis to the lower bound) from the other (y axis
to upper bound). You use SURFACE AREA for this! Because they're shells, y'know? Also none of you are
actually gonna read this part so I'm just gonna spit the formula at you. Surface area formula is Area =
2rh, and
()

x is the radius of the cylinder, and since x is only going from a to b everything will be ok. f(x) is the
height.
Sometimes you're given a function in terms of y. Take a moment to cry on the inside and then flip your
paper 90 to the left. You can solve for y in terms of x or just deal with it and integrate w/respect to y.
FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF CALCULUS
This is basically a joke by now.
FTC I: Given F(x) is the antiderivative of f(x) and both are continuous on [a, b]:
() () ()

AB Calc Final Review

FTC II: Given f(x) is a continuous function along interval I, and () ()

for point A in I, then

() ()
at each point in I.

LOGARITHMIC/EXPONENTIAL DIFFERENTIATION

DERIVATIVES OF INVERSE TRIG FUNCTIONS

AB Calc Final Review

RELATIONSHIP B/W THE DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION AND THAT OF ITS INVERSE
Given f(x) is a one-to-one differential function with inverse g(x) (meaning that if f(a) = b, then g(b)=a),
and f[g(a)] =/= 0, then the inverse function g is differentiable at x=a, and
()

()

Finding g(a) requires that you find a value of x such that f(x) = a, so then g(a) = x.
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Differential equations are equations involving one of more derivatives. The order of a differential eq is
the order of the highest derivative involved. Remember that dy/dx can also be treated as a ratio: what
you want when dealing with differential equations is to have dy and all y terms on one side, and dx and
all x terms on the other (separation of variables). Then, you can integrate both sides to get rid of the dy
and dx.
When you integrate both sides and end up with an equation involving +C, this is the general solution. If
an initial condition, like y(0) = a or something is given, you can plug that in, solve for C, and find the
particular solution.
Most of the time these involve having dy/y and then you get annoying ln stuff and it goes into annoying
e stuff and that's used to model exponential growth.
L'HOPITAL'S RULE FOR INDETERMINATE FORM
Usually, when we have limits that go into indeterminate forms, we try to rewrite the equation by
multiplying by 1 or adding 0 or whatever. L'Hopital's Rule says that if both lim f(x) = 0 and lim g(x) = 0, or
both lim f(x) = and lim g(x) = , then

()
()

()
()

If lim *f(x) * g(x)+ = 0 * , then rewrite the product f(x)g(x) as either
()
()
or
()
()
to get 0/0 or /.
The following forms are NOT indeterminate:
+=, 0^=0, 0/=0, 0^- DNE (1/0), --=-, /0=.

INTEGRATION BY PARTS
The product rule says that d/dx[fg] = fg' + f'g. Integrating both sides of this gives us that
()() ()() ()()
Substituting u for f(x) and v for g(x) gives us

AB Calc Final Review

So, when we want to integrate a product, we associate one factor (the one whose derivative is simpler)
to u and the other (the one whose integral is easier to find) as dv. List out u, dv, du, and v, and plug it in.
Occasionally you have to integrate by parts more than once, so don't be afraid of that.
INTEGRATION VIA TRIG SUBSTITUTION
Basically when you have something involving 1+x
2
or x
2
-1, you say it looks like 1-sin
2
or tan
2
+1. Draw
out a right triangle using whatever sin or tan is (opp/hyp or opp/adj) and then use the Pythagorean
Formula to fill in the last side of the triangle. Usually this leads you to some convenient expression that
happens to be in the integral, so substitute there too.
Remember you're changing from dx to d, so if you have x = sin , derive both sides to get dx and then
substitute that into the original integral. After that is just some more trig antiderivatives, and use the
triangle you drew to solve for whatever sin , cos , or any other weird trig stuff floating around there. I
totally hate this topic so yeah. Look at some examples from Stoe, I hated this topic.
http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Classes/CalcII/TrigSubstitutions.aspx thank god for paul!!
INTEGRATION VIA PARTIAL FRACTIONS
Let's say you have a fraction with a factorable polynomial in the denominator. Just like how you can add
two fractions of different polynomial denominators and get a fraction with a factorable polynomial at
the bottom, you can work backwards and find what fractions make up a fraction with a divisible
polynomial.
Let's say I have (4x+7)/(x
2
+3x+2). We can factor the denominator into (x+1)(x+3), so we know that the
fraction will be equal to A/(x+1) + B/(x+2). Note that A and B can totally be fractions or 0.
(4x+7)/(x
2
+3x+2) = A/(x+1) + B/(x+2) Multiply both sides by the LCD.
4x+7 = A(x+2) + B(x+1)
From here we can do two things. We can expand the right hand side to Ax+2A+Bx+B and group it to
(A+B)x+(2A+B) and solve a system of equations using the coefficients of the left hand side, or we can
plug in convenient values of x to find what A and B are. This particular example simplifies to 3/(x+1) +
1/(x+2), and we can integrate that to 3ln|x+1|+ln|x+2|+C. This only works when you can factor the
denominator into multiple, non-repeating, linear terms. If there are repeating terms, like if one factor is
(x+2)
2
, then each repeating factor gets its own term (meaning you have x+2 but also (x+2)
2
). If one of the
factors is an irreducable polynomial (discriminant is less than 0), then the numerator of its fraction
changes from simply A to Ax+B.
If you get pretty looking lns, you're probably doing it right.
good luck friends :'(