Gazetteer of India Assam State. Vol-1

ASSAM STATE
CHAPTER 1
GENERAL
A. INTRODUCTION :
Assamis situated in the north-east corner of India and is aptly described as the land of the Red River and
Blue Hills. The mighty river Brahmaputra dominates the whole of the Assam Valley and the blue hills intersect
most part of the state with their evergreen forest and blue haze. This land is the home to a variety of exotic flora
and fauna including the famous one horned rhinoceros.
Assam is the meeting place of various races and tribes. Long before the coming of the Aryans to India,
millennium before Christ, this ancient land of Assam was inhabited by a people whom the scholars call
Austrics or Austric -Asiatics as they migrated from the Austronesian and other islands of the Pacific Ocean
to Asiatic mainland. The tribes of the Mongoloid stock probably entered Assam long after the coming of the
Austris. It is said that the Tibeto-Burman tribes of the Mongoloid race were followed by the great Bodo tribe.
The earliest literature of ancient India, The Mahabharata mentions Assam as the land of Mlechchas and Asuras,
that is, a non-Aryan country. In the age of Mahabharata this of the country was called Pragjyotisa. It was
however, known as Kamrupa to the Puranas and the Tantras.Ancient pragjyotisa or Kamrupa came into
contact with aryan civilization and culture at a very early age as historically this border land had been the most
easterly acquisition of the early Aryan invaders. In the later part of the twelfth century A.D.,the Muhammadans
embarked on the conquest of the northern India. However,this eastern most land was hardly affected by the
Muslim invaders. In the thirteenth century,the Muhmmadans invaded Kamrupa three times but each time they
were beaten back by the Ahoms Who entered Assam through the eastern gate across the Patkai range and ruled
this state for about six hundred years. The admixture of distinctive and diversified cultures of different races and
tribes who settled in this part of the country built the great Assamese race.
The beginning of Assamese language is traced to the Charyapadas dating back to 10
th
century.
However,independent identity of Assamese language had been noted by Yuan Chang,the Chinese traveler,as
early as in 7th century. It was during 13th-14
th
century that Assamese written literature flourished. In the 16
th
century,prose literature reached glorious heights. Modern Assamese literature as is prevalent today has its origin
in the 19th century.
In the 15th century A.D, noted religious reformers, Sri Sankardeva and his close disciple Sri Madhabdeva
brought about a renaissance in the field of religion through their preaching and they were the pioneers in the
field of socio-
ASSAM STATE GAZETTEER 2
Cultural reforms in Assam. They preached Ek Sarana Dharma,which embraced all its devotees irrespective of
caste and creed. The Satra system which is the innovation of Sri Sankardeva, has been occupying the position of
nerve center in Assamese society. The Bhabana, Ankianat, Bargeet, Ojapali, etc. written by these two religious
reformers also contributed immensely to the Assamese literature and culture occupying a distinctive place of
pride in India.
Assam is land of rich potentialities and is full of mineral resources and other raw materials but these
resources and other raw materials have to a great extent remained unexploited. One of the major industries in
Assam is that of the ''one bud and two leaves'',viz,tea industry. It is for this reason for Assam is known as ''the
land of tea''.Assam contributed more than 33% of the world output of tea. Assam is also rich in oil and coal.
Cottage industry is carried in a traditional manner in almost every household. The skill in the at of weaving and
spinning is always held to be one of the highest attainments of an Assamese woman.
Assam promises a bright future provided proper and due impetus is given in harnessing the rich resources
of the State.
(I) Origin of the name Assam :Opinions differ as to the origin of the name Assam. Some think it is an
anglicized form of the Assamese word Asam meaning 'unequal', 'peerless', a term by which the Ahoms or
the Shan invaders were called by the local people. Its several variants such as Asaam, Aasam, Asam and
Acam are noticed in Assamese literature. Some are of the opinion that the word is derived from Asama
in the sense of ''uneven''as distinguished from Samatata or ''even''. It is certain that the name nowhere
occurs prior to the Ahom occupation of the country, and the name was applied to the Ahoms rather than
to their country. E.A. Gait,however, opines that the Ahom called themselves Tai,and it is not clear how
they came to be known by their present name .It is also suggested that the word Shan, or its variants
Syam or Siam are called derived from a common word. The Assamese historical tradition says that the
name Assam in the sense of ''unequal''has been applied to the Tai conquerors by the local tribes when the
former entered the Brahmaputra valley in the thirteen century. Recent researches conducted by scholars
bring to the notice that all the tribes inhabiting the north-western border of Yunnan and northern
Myanmar call the Tai people Asam,Lasam,Sam,Sem,Siem,Sen,Sham,etc. It is supposed that such terms
were also applied to the Ahoms by the local tribes of eastern Assam who lived in close proximity with
those in Myanmar. Mush later,Asam was given a Sanskriti derivation with the meaning
''unequal''or''unrivalled''. Sunity Kumar Chatterjee suggest that Ahom comes from Rhwam, a term by
which the Burmese called the Shan or the Tai people. B. K.Kakati thinks that Asam as applied to the
Shans is a hybrid formation of Assamese private prefix A with The Tai
GENERAL 3
word cham meaning ''to be defeated'' , and hence Acham means ''undefeated''.
(ii) (a) Location:The present Assam State is bounded by latitudes 24
0
58
0
15
0
N and longitudes 89
o
42
o
05
o
E and 96
o
01
o
'14''E(approx).
1
Assam may be divided broadly into two rivers valleys and a reason of hills and
plateaus. They are the Brahmaputra valley, wanted by the Brahmaputra throughout its length from Sadiya in the
north-east to Dhubri in the west, and by its tributaries on both sides of its banks, the Barak valley,mainly watered
by the Barak river and its tributaries,and the hilly tract of Karbi plateau and North Cachar Hills. The
Brahmaputra valley again may be divided into three regions ,the Uttarpar or Uttarkula, the Dakhinpar or
Dakhinakula and the Majuli and other river rineislands formed by the river Brahmaputra. Incidentally,it may be
mentioned here that the length of the Brahmaputra river with in Assam is about 720 kilometres and it is on the
average 8 to 10 kilometres wide. Geographically, Assam may conveniently be divided into two parts-the plains
and the hills. Currently, for administrative purposes the plain portions of the State are divided into twenty one
districts in both the valley and the hill areas into two.
(b) General boundaries :Assam is situated in the north-eastern part of India. It is bounded by two
foreign countries and seven Indian states. To the north of it is Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh. To the east there
are Arunachal Pradesh ,Nagaland and Manipur. The southern boundary is skirted by Mizoram and Meghalaya
and to the west there lie. West Bengal ,Bangladesh and Tripura. While describing about the general boundaries of
the present state of Assam it may be stated that it is bounded both by the international and inter-state boundaries.
The international boundary of the State lies in three sectors namely (a) Dhubri-Rangpur sector of Indo -Bangla
boundary-134 km (b) Karimganj-Cachar-Sylhet sector of Indo-Bangla boundary-229 km and Indo-Bhuta
boundary -269km.Thus ,there are about 532 kilometres of international boundary of Assam.
In respect of the inter-state boundary, the state of Assam has its boundary with West Bengal, Meghalaya,
Nagaland, Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram and Tripura. The length of state-wise boundaries is as
follows:
2
-
1. Assam-West Bengal boundary 128.0 km
(a)Kokrajhar-J alpaigur 48.0km
(b)Dhubri-Cooch-Bihar 80.0km
2. Assam-Meghalaya boundary 723.2km
3.Assam-Nagaland boundary 434.0km
4.Assam-Manipur boundary 132.8 km
5.Assam-Arunachal Pradesh boundary 704.0 km

1. Source : Survey of India.
2. Source : Assam Survey and (b)Political Department,Civil Secretariat,Dispur,Assam.
6. Assam-Mizoram boundary 130.0 km
7. Assam Tripura boundary 23.3 km
(c) Area:At the time of 1971 census the total area of Assam including Mizoram and excluding
Meghalaya was 99,610 square kilometers. After the creation of Mizoram as a union territory on 21
st
J anuary,
1972, Assam has lost an area of 21,087 square kilometers and accordingly its present area is only 78,523 square
kilometres.
3

It may be mentioned here that just before the Census of 1961,the area of Assam according to the
surveyor General of India was 84,895 square miles (2.19.878.05 sq.km) including NEFA (present Arunachal
Pradesh) and Nagaland. Nagaland with an area of 6366 square miles (16487.94sq.km) was formed into a
separate state just before the census of 1961, and NEFA (present Arunachal Pradesh ) which was then a centrally
administered unit with an area of 31438square miles (81,424.42sq km)had been excluded from the jurisdiction of
the Superintendent of census operations,Assam. Thus,Assam proper as censused by the superintendent of census
operations in 1961, consisted of an area of 47091squae miles(1,21,965.69sq.km) according to the surveyor
General of India ,and 47.257.2 square miles (1,22,396.15sq.km) according to the director of survey,Assam.
Accordingly the censused area of 'Assam proper' in 1961 census consisted of 11 districts namely Goalpara,
Kamrup, Darrang , Nagaon ,Sibsagar, Lakhimpur, Cachar, Garo Hills,United Khasi and J aintia Hills, United
Mikir and North Cachar Hills and Mizo Hills covering an area of 121,965 square kilometers.
But after the creation of Meghalaya as a separate state comprising the districts of United Khasi and J aintia Hills
and Garo Hills ,and Mizo Hills as a Union Territory,the Surveyor General of India in 1971 found Assam's area
as 78,523 square kilometers.
There were at that time (1971) nine districts in Assam excluding Mizoram. But in late 1971 the then
Lakhimpur district was divided into two administrative districts of Lakhimpur and Dibrugarh, thus bringing the
total number of districts to ten. Subsequently,due to administrative exigencies eight more districts were created
by dividing the larger districts between 1980 and 1985,bringing then the total number of districts in the state to
eighteen. Subsequently between 1985and 1990,six more new districts were created but one (viz.
Pragjyotishpur)was marged with Kamrup with the status of a sub -division. The state,therefore ,has now 23
districts .their areas are as follows:

3.Census India,1971,Assam,Series 3, Part II-A,General Population Tables,p-12.
GENERAL 5
Districts Area (Km
2
)
1. Dhubri 2838
2. Kokrajhar 3129
3. Bongaigaon 2150
4. Goalpara 1824
5. Barpeta 3245
6. Nalbari 2257
7. Kamrup 4345
8. Darrang 3481
9. Sonitpur 5324
10. Morigaon 1704
11. Nagaon 3831
12. Golaghat 3502
13. J orhat 2851
14. Sibsagar 2668
15. Lakhimpur 2277
16. Dhemaji 3237
17. Tinsukia 3790
18. Dibrugarh 3381
19. Karbi-Along 10434
20. North Cachar Hills 4888
21. Cachar 3786
22. Karimganj 1809
23. Hailakandi 1327
Total Assam 78438
Source:Director of census operation,Assam.
(d) Population:The total population of Assam as per1991 census data is 22,414,322 of whom
11,657,989 are male and 10,756,333 are female. The following table shows the variation in Assam between 1901
and 1991.
. Population of Assam 1901-1991
Year Population Decade Variation Percentage Decade Variation
(1) (2) (3) (4)
1901 3,289,680 .......... .....
1911 3,848,61 +558,937 +16.99
1921 4636980 +788363 +20.48
1931 5560371 +923391 +19.91
1941 6694790 +1134419 +20.40
(1) (2) (3) (4)
1951 8028856 +1334066 +19.93
1961 10837329 +2808473 +34.98
1971 14625152 +3787823 +34.95
1991 22414322 +7789170 +53.26
Source:director of census operation,Assam.
As there was no census operation in1981 in Assam,the decade variation data are for the period 1971-91.
(iii) History of the State as an administrative unit the changes on its component parts:
(a) Annexation: Prior to the advent of the British, the Ahoms, a Shan tribe ruled over Assam for six
hundred years.''The Ahoms appear to have been a bold race of warriors, who were not afraid to meet the
Mughals face to face in battle and they also processed a highly organised system of Government, differing in
several important particulars from that which prevailed throughout India''4 However,the successors of
Swargadeo Rudra Singha (1696-1714 A.D.),one of the greatest of the Ahom kings, were weak and ease loving
who fell prey to religious and sectarian influence ,and the dynasty began to decay. The acquaintance of British
with Assam dates back to the year 1792 when captain Thomas Welsh was send with a detachment of sepoys to
restore Gourinath Singha who had been dispossessed by the revolt of Krishnanarayan, a Koch prince of Darrang
and religious sect called Moamarias in Upper Assam. Captain Welsh restored Gourinath Singha to his former
position in 1794. The chief of the Moamarias, or Matak tribe inhabiting the Buri Dihing Brahmaputra
area,however ,maintained his independent political authority under the title of the Bar Senapati down to the type
of the British annexation. Soon the Burmese appeared, apparently on invitation of Badan Chandra, but it fact, for
the purpose of extending the political influence of the Burmese monarch in the western border. the Burmese
came thrice in 1817,1819 and 1821,and the last time they did not go back but fully established themselves. They
carried out atrocities of various nature including plundering and raids on those who resisted or refused to submit
to them. Many leading people fled to neighbouring Bengal and some took shelter in the hills.
In course of the war between the British and the Burmese during 1824-26, Assam was ruined by
depopulation and decay. Assam was occupied by the British and it was retained by them after the Treaty of
Yandabo concluded on 24
th
February,1826.The British continued to administer Assam under provisional

4. W.W. Hunter; The Imperial Gazetteer of India, Vol. 1, Second Edition.p.343.
GENERAL 7
administration. However,in 1828,Lower Assam was placed under direct British administration. In 1833, the
upper part of the valley, except the Matak and Sadiya area and the tract occupied by the Singpho, was constituted
into a separate principality and placed under Purander Singha, one of the former rulers, on tributary basis with
J orhat as his capital. He was also placed under several limitation which severely affected his power. Due to
several lapses including his failure of regular payment of annual tribute, his kingdom was annexed to the British
dominion in 1838,and by a proclamation in 1839,it was placed under direct British administration. Purandar
Singha was offered a pension Rs.1000/-per month,but he never accepted it nor did he acquiesce in the
resumption. Upper Assam was formed into two districts viz., Sibpur or Sibsagar (so called from the time the
place was selected as the district headquarters)which included the tract south of the old course of the
Brahmaputra, and Lakhimpur, or the part to the north of the same river.
By the grant of Diwani by the Mughal Emperor in 1765, Sylhet and Goalpara which were parts of Bengal
had come under the jurisdiction of the east India company. After the murder of Kachari Raja Govinda Chandra in
1830, Cachar excluding the North Cachar Hills, had been formally acquired by the British in 1832. It was
formed into a separate district with headquarters at Silchar under the commissioner of Assam till 1836 when it
was transferred to the Decca Division. Later on,the till portion which was enjoyed by the Tularam Senapati, after
his death in 1850 by his sons, was annexed to the British dominion in 1854.The surviving members of Tularam's
family received pensions. During the first few years,the Garo Hills were treated as a part of Goalpara. By
regulation X of 1822, the Garo Hills along with the thanas of Goalpara, Dhubri and Karaibari were separated
from the Bengal district of Rongpur, and formed a special tract called North-East Rongpur. David Scott was
appointed as the first civil Commissioner of the new district. In 1826, it was annexed of Assam .In 1867,
Goalpara with Eastern Duar and the Garo Hills were transferred to the Koch Behar Commissionership. But one
year later while the executive remained with the Koch Behar Commissioner,the judicial administration of
Goalpara and Garo Hills was transferred to Assam. Again in 1869, the Garo Hills was formed into a separate
district with the headquarters and Tura. This measure helped to bring more Garo villages under British control.
In 1874, when Assam was constituted into a chief commissioner's province. Garo Hills district was transferred to
Assam.
The territories of the Khasis were acquired by the British partly by conquest and partly by treaty. At the
beginning of the British occupation of Assam. David Scott entered into negotiations with Tirot Singh, the Syiem
of Nong Khlaw, one of the largest Khasi states, for the construction of a road from Rani in Kamrup to the Surma
Valley. When the construction work was in progress, the Khasis, apprehending British control over their
hills,rose in arms and fell upon the British

party at Nong Khlaw, killing two officers and several others in 1829 . David Scoot narrowly escaped . The
movement soon spread to other states in the Khasi Hills . However , vigorous military operations against the
rebels led many of them to surrender. Tirot Singh surrendered in 1833 and was kept in the Decca jail where he
died in 1834.
One after another, the petty Khasi states engaged themselves with the British in treaty relations. They
came under general control of British political Agent,but the internal administration, except certain serious
offenses,was left to the chiefs. They also acknowledged the right of the paramount power to establish civil and
military cantonments in their territories. In 1835, Nong Khlaw was made the headquarters of the British Political
Agent.In1854, the Khasi Hills were placed under a Junior Assistant Commissioner. In 1864, the headquarters
was shifted to Shillong,which become the capital of Assam in 1871.
Ram Singh, J aintia Raja concluded a treaty of subordinate alliance with the British at Badarpur just at the
out break of the Anglo-Burmese war. After the war,its relation with the British deteriorated due to the
establishment of an outpost at Chaparmukh within the British district of Nagaon and also capture and
immolation of three British subjects at the shrine of Goddess Kali by the Raja Gobha,a dependent of J aintia.
While the British persistence for the surrender of the culprits was in progress, Ram Singh died and was
succeeded by Rajendra Singh. Latters evasion to the demand led the British to deprive him of the plains of
J aintia by a proclamation issued in March 1835.This part was annexed to the British district of Sylhet, and
Gobha was joined to Nagaon. On Rajendra Singhs refusal to retain in possession the hilly tract which yielded
little income,it was also placed under the British administration. The J aintia Raja retired to Sylhet with a
pension. The Jaintias, or the Syntengs revolved in 1860 for the imposition of house tax,but it was suppressed.
Two years later in 1862 there was another widespread rebellion due to the imposition of income tax. Thereafter
the J aintia Hills were formed into a sub-division of the Khasi and J aintia Hills district.
The annexation of Naga Hills into the British territory was gradual and it took may years to consolidate the
British rule over these hills. The first direct contact with the Angami Nagas dates back to 1832 when capt.
J enkins and capt. Pemberton passed through their country on a survey. The Angamis carried on frequent raids on
North Cachar. The British conducted several expedition against them between 1835 and 1851. Lord Dalhousie's
policy on non-interference did not work, and Angami raids continued. In order to control the Angami raids more
effectively,the North Cachar sub-division was created. Still troubles continued,and at last it was decided to
reduce the Angamis, the north Cachar sub-division was abolished and the Naga Hills District was created with
its headquarters at Samagutting in the Angami country. In 1875,the areas of the Lotha Nagas were
GENERAL 9
annexed, and a British officer was posted at Wokha. In 1878,the headquarters of the Naga Hills district was
shifted to Kohima, and in 1881it was finally decided to permanently occupy the hills,and the district boundary
was notified in J uly, 1882.
Soon after the Yandabo treaty, the British made an agreement in 1826with the Bar Senapati of the Mataks,
allowing him to have control over his subjects on certain conditions .On the death of Bar Senapati in 1839, the
British sought to impose new terms on the new chief Maju Gohain. But on this failure to accept the terms and
conditions of the British, Captain Hemilton Vetch, the British representative assumed direct management of the
entire Matak country. The British finding the Khamtis in possession of Sadiya and its surrounding country, made
an agreement with the Khamti chief recognizing him on certain conditions. In 1839,the Khamtis rose in revolt
killing a number of officers and Sepoys including Adam White,the Political Agent of Upper Assam. In
1842,both these tracts were added to the Lakhimpur district with its headquarters at Dibrugarh. The routes or
passes through which the hill tribes had their access to the plains of Assam were generally known as Duars.
These are placed under officials called Duarias appointed by the Ahom kings. For the use of these, the tribes had
to pay annually certain articles in fixed quantity. These duars were integral parts of Assam and were held in
subjection by the Ahom kings. But during the declining stages of the Ahom rule,the duars on the Bhutan border
were occupied the Bhutias on payment of tribute in kind to the Ahom king. Among these included gold-
dust,ponies,musk,cow-tails,swords,blankets and some amount in cash. With the taking over of the Ahom
territories by the British,the question of administration of the duars also came in. There appeared
misunderstanding among the Bhutias as to the payment of tribute to the British. The annexation of two duars
viz.,Kuriapara and Charduar was promoted by the necessity of maintaining peace in the border areas of British
Darrang. Further,plunder and kidnapping of plainsmen by the Bhutias continued which ultimately compelled the
British to annex the duars,
Thus in course of three decades, i.e.,from 1824 to 1854,the different parts of Brahmaputra and Surma
valleys were annexed to the British dominions.
The Mizo district earlier known as the Lushai Hills was annexed after several expeditions to British
dominion in 1891. The North Lushai Hills was placed under the administrative control of Government of
Assam,while the South Lushai Hills was under the Government of Bengal. The Chin-Lushai Conference, 1898,
amalgamated the North and South Lushai Hills as one district and placed under the charge of one Superintendent
under the administrative control of the Chief Commissioner of Assam. There was no change in the territory of
the province upto 1905.
In 1930, one more area known as the Lakher land in the extreme south
of the Lushai Hills was added to the already administered district. Under the provisions of the Government of
India act,1935, Lushai Hills district was, however, declared to be excluded from the operations of the provincial
legislature.
(b) Administrative Reorganisation by the British:After annexation and consolidation of the British rule
in Assam a number of changes were affected in the administrative sphere like the formation of districts and sub-
divisions in the province. In 1834,the British portion of the Brahmaputra valley was divided into four districts,
viz.,Goalpara, Kamrup, Darrang (including Biswanath) and Nagaon. After the annexation of popular Singha's
dominion of Upper Assam in 1839, it was constituted into two districts, e.g., Sibsagar and Lakhimpur. At that
time Guwahati continued to be the headquarters of the district of Kamrupas well as of the Commissioner of
Assam. Goalpara, including the Garo Hills but excluding the Eastern Duars was originally administered from
Rangpur and naturally formed part of the province of Bengal. With the enactment of regulation X of 1822, it was
cut off from Rangpur and formed into a separate district with headquarters at Goalpara .Goalpara came under the
ordinary jurisdiction of Commissioner of Assam since the tract was taken from the Burmese in 1826.
On the formation of Bengal Commissionership of Cooch Behar, the Eastern Duars was included into this
Commissionership in 1867 . In 1869 , the Garo Hills was constituted into a separate district.
In 1874, the districts of the Brahmaputra Valley and adjacent hills together with Cachar and Sylhet were
constituted into a separate Province of Assam under a Chief Commissioner. In carrying out the administration of
the vast territory under the Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal immense difficulties were experienced. To ease the
difficulties of administration, in 1903, it was decided to add to the small province of Assam the eastern portion
of its unwieldy neighbour and to consolidate these territories under a Lieutenant-Governor. In October 1905,
Assam was amalgamated with the districts of Dacca, Chitagong, Rajshahi Commissionership of Bengal with the
exclusion of Darjeeling district and in addition of Malda to from a new province,known as province of Eastern
Bengal and Assam with an area of 106,540 sq. mile (275,937.6sq.km) and a population of 31 million .This
change was ,however, of very short duration. The Province of Eastern Bengal and Assam was again broken up
on 1
st
April , 1912 when the Eastern Bengal districts were united with the Bengal Commissionership of
Burdwan to from the Presidency of Bengal under a Governor-in -council. Bihar, Chota Nagpur and Orissa were
formed into a separate province,while the old province of Assam was reconstituted under a Chief
Commissioner .The revival of Chief Commissionership came into existence on 1
st
April,1912.This arrangement
continued till 1921,when Assam was declared a Governor's province.
The census report, 1921 records that on the break up of Eastern Bengal and Assam in 1912, Assam reverted
to its former status of a Chief Commissionership,
GENERAL 11
but on J anuary 3rd-1921 it was constituted a Governor's province,with an Executive Council and Ministers, the
latter being responsible to legislative council with an elected majority.
The area administered by the Chief Commissioner of Assam covered a surveyed area of 61471 square
miles(159209.88sq.km)which was 5228square miles(13695.92 sq km)in excess of that reported in 1901. In the
census report on Assam,1911, it is recorded that the increase was entirely due to the correction of error in the
area of Manipur state. In British territory, new surveys shows an increase of only 56 square miles(145.04sq.km).
Besides, there was the unsurveyed country of the Eastern Angamis and Semas which was added to the Naga
Hills in 1901.
The province is usually divided into three divisions, i.e.,the Brahmaputra Valley, the Surma(Barak)Valley
and the Hills. The Brahmaputra Valley and Surma Valley are separated from each other by the Assam range
which projects westward from the Hills on the Eastern border. The Valley of the Brahmaputra on the north is an
alluvial plain about 730 km. In length and 80 km. in average breadth. Out of the two districts of the Surma
Valley (including Sylhet in the per-partition period) Cachar formed the Eastern Angel and contained one sub-
division in the hills while Sylhet was wide and flat.
During the period between 1911-21, two frontier tracts, viz, Sadiya and Balipara were separated from the
Assam Valley Division. These two tracts were constituted in 1912 and 1914 from parts of the Lakhimpur and
Darrang districts and for administration purposes they were put in charge of Political Officers directly under the
local Government.
Again during the period between 1921-31,some 900 square miles (2304sqare kilometer)of sparsely populated
and previously unadministered country on the borders of Naga Hills, the Lushai Hills and Sadiya frontier Tract
were incorporated within the province of Assam. For the first time for Census operation in 1931, the Khasi states
had been shown separately from the British portion of the Khasi and J aintia Hills district. During this decade,
two noteworthy changes, namely, the transfer of the Digar Mouza from the Naga Hills to the North Cachar sub-
division and some Abor villages from Lakhimpur to Sadiya frontier were effected.
The following statement shows the area and population of Assam (division wise) as recorded in the census
report of 1911.The area and population of Manipur State as per census of 1921 and 1931 are also shown
separately in the table
1911 Census
Name of State /division Area in sq.mile Area in sq km. Population
Assam 61,471 159,209,879 7,059,857
Brahmaputra Valley 24,598 63,708.82 3,108,669
Surma Valley(including Sylhet) 7,247 18,769.73 2,942,839
Hills 9,626 24,931.34 1,008,350
1921 Census
Name of State /division Area in sq.mile Area in sq km. Population
Assam 61,471 159,209.879 7,990,248
Surma Valley Division 25,317 65,571,029 357,198
Assam Valley Division 26,797 69,404.23 3,991,682
Frontier Tracts 911 261.589 394,016
Manipur State 8456 21901.04 394,016
1931 Census
Assam 67,334 174,395.06 9,247,857
Surma Valley & Hills Division
including Khasi states 27,870 72,183.30 3,888,047
Assam Valley Division 27,084 70,147.56 4,855,711
Frontier Tracts 3,760 9,738.4 58,493
Manipur State 8,620 22,325.8 445,606
At the time of 1961 Census, Assam covered an area of 85,012 square miles (220,181 sq.km) .It may,
however, be mentioned here that after Independence radical changes took place in Assam in respect of its area
and population. In J uly 1947,on the strength of 'Referendum' the overwhelmingly Muslim majority district of
Sylhet with an area of 5,478 square miles (14,188.02sq.km) and a population of 3116,602 went to Pakistan.
The Sylhet Referendum was followed by the Radeliffe Award according to which the district of Sylhet
went to East Pakistan with the exception of the three thanas of Badarpur (47 square miles or 121.73 sq. km.),
Ratabari (240square miles or 717.43 sq.km.) and a portion of the Karimganj thana (145 square miles or375.55
sq.km).Thus, after the Partition in 1947, a total area of 709 square miles (1,836.31 sq. km) and a population of
291,320 persons of the Sylhet District of Surma Valley were retained in Assam and joined with the old district
of Cachar forming a new sub -division, vis ., Karimganj. Consequently,the old province of Assam lost almost the
whole district of Sylhet, where out of total 5,478 square miles (14,188.02sq.km.) an area involving 4,769 square
miles (12,351.71 sq.km.) went in favour of Pakistan.
GENERAL 13
The unification of the country at the initiative of late Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel had also its repercussion in
Assam .As per negotiations with Patel . The petty States in the Khasi and Jaintia Hills numbering twenty five
and covering an area of 3,788square miles (9811 sq. km.) with a population of 213,586 according to 1941
Census were merged with the district of Khasi and J aintia Hills at the inauguration of the Republic of India on
26thJ anuary, 1950, forming the new enlarged administrative district of the United Khasi and J aintia Hills . The
area of Assam in 1941 was 67,359 sq.miles (1,74,459.81 sq. km) against 85,012 square miles (220,181 sq. km)
as determined by the Surveyor-General of India in 1951.
The 1941 figure, however, includes the area of entire Sylhet, 5,478 square miles (14,188 sq, km.) as well
as Manipur, 8,620 sq. miles (22,325.8 sq. km).As the 1951 figure excludes Manipur and includes, as shown
above, only 709 square miles (1836,31 sq. km.) of the old district of Sylhet, the comparable figure for Assam for
1941 should have been 53,970 square miles (1,39,782.3 sq. km) only. This disparity in the area figure between
1941 and 1951 census by the huge margin of 31,042 square miles (80,398.77 sq. km) is due to the fact that the
1951 figure showed the total area of the State both for the regularly censused and non-censused part, while the
1941 figure applies only to the censused portions and omits the unlicensed area of the State. The other fact is that
in the tow frontier tracts, namely the Sadiya Frontier and the Balipara Frontier,the areas locally determined had
been adopted in the 1941 census. But the Survey of India's figures relate to the entire area of the tracts and not to
the administered and censused areas alone. As such,there was enormous difference between the actual mapped
area and the administered area. The census of 1941 covered only 3,880square miles(10049.2 sq. km)of these two
tracts. It appears that the said census ignored a major portion of these two tracts (28,180 square miles or
72,986.2sq.km)which was not regularly censused in that year.
The 1941 census totally ignored the census operation in the Naga Tribal areas whereas 1951 census
covered an area of 3086.4 square miles (5403.77sq.km)in the said region.
R.B. Vaghaiwalla, Superintendent of Census Operations,opines that these two factors as mentioned above,
are alone responsible for a difference of 30,283 square miles (78432.7 sq.km) between the 1941 and 1951 area
figures against the total difference of 31,036 square miles (80,383,23 sq.km).The remaining difference of 753
square miles (1950.27 sq.km)is mainly due to the more exact determination by the Survey of India of the area
figures for all the districts of Assam in general and for the hill tracts of the North East Frontier Agency (now
Arunachal Pradesh) in particular.
5

5. Census of India,1951,Volume XII,Assam, Manipur and Tripura,Part I A Report,p-3
ASSAM STATE GEZETTEER 14
During the decade of 1941-51, there was also a lot of changes in the areas of individual districts and such
changes have been discussed in detail in the concerning districts of the State.
(c)Constitution and reconstitution of the individual districts during the decades of 1941-1961 are as
follows :
Cachar :After partition of Sylhet in 1947, only 709 square miles (1,836.31sq.km) remained with Assam
and it was formed into a new sub-division of Karimganj with headquarters at Karimganj and for administrative
purpose the same was tagged with Cachar. While tracing the modern history of Cachar it may be mentioned here
that Cachar along with Sylhet district was tagged to the newly annexed Assam in 1874 by the British. Likewise
on the formation of the new district of United Mikir and North Cachar during the decade, Cachar lost its old sub-
division of North Cachar Hills when an area of 1,896.8 sq.miles (4,912 sq.km)and a population of 37,361 as per
1941 census.
Darrang: On 1
st
March 1951,the plains portion of the Balipara Frontier Tract has been added to the district of
Darrang(undived).The whole area of the Balipara Frontier Tract was not covered by census and only 531.2
square miles (1375.8 sq.km)were covered in the said census operation.
Nagaon:During the period 1941-51,a part of the Mikir Hills Excluded Area previously tagged with a
Nagaon district (undivided)had been separated to form the new district of United Mikir and N.C.Hills. As a
result Nagaon had lost an area of 1,715.9 square miles (4,444.7 sq.km).
Sibsagar:Before the formation of the United Mikir and the N.C. Hills district in 1951, an area known as the
Mikir Hills Excluded Area was tagged with Golaghat sub-division of Sibsagar district (undivided) since
separated constituted 1,676.3 square miles (4341.61 sq.km).
Lakhimpur :During the decade of 1941-51 a new tract as known as the Tirap Frontier tract was constituted
by excluding 10.3 square miles (26.68 kms) from the undivided Lakhimpur district and joining them with a
portion of the old Sadiya Frontier Tract and a portion of the Naga Tribal Area. In 1951,the plains portion of the
Mishmi Hills (391.7 square miles or 1014.5 sq.km), the Abor Hills (273.9 sq.miles or 709.4 sq.km) and the
Tirap Frontier tract were transferred to the Lakhimpur district. As a consequence ,Lakhimpur District
(undivided)got a total 790.4 square miles (2,047.136 sq.km)in 1951.
United Khasi and J aintia Hills District (now under Meghalaya):After the incorporation of an area of 3,788
square miles (9,810.92 sq.km) of former Khasi state on 26
th
J anuary 1950,with the United Khasi and J aintia Hills
District,the total area of the district increased to 5,533 square miles (14,330.47 sq.km). On the contrary, the
district lost an area of 603.2 square miles (1,562.29 sq.km),i.e., Block1 and Block 11 of J owai sub-division with
a population of 22,554 which had been transferred to the newly created United Mikir and N.C.Hills
GENERAL 15
District the period between 1951 to 1961.
United Mikir and North Cachar Hills : A new district known as the United Mikir and North Cachar Hills was
formed between 1951 and 1961 by transferring the whole of the North Cachar Hills sub division from Cachar
and by carving out the Mikir Hills Excluded Area of Nagaon district,the Mikir Hills Excluded Area of Sibsagar
district (Golaghat sub-division)and Block 1 and 11 of J owai sub-division. Till November,1957,the areas
mentioned above remained under the jurisdiction of the Deputy Commissioners of the parent districts. The said
new administrative came into existence with effect from 7
th
November ,1951.The total area of the district
constituted was 5,892.2 square miles (15,260.798 sq.km). After the formation of the said district,the area of
Sibsagar , Nagaon. United Khasi and J aintia Hills and Cachar District were reduced.
In the next decade of 1961-1971,the district has been bifurcated again and formed into two separate
districts. Viz., Mikir Hills (now Karbi Along)and north Cachar Hills district.
Mishmi Hills: Mishmi Hills originally constituted the Sadiya sub-division of the old Sadiya Frontier tract of
1941 census. In J uly 1948,it was made an independent district in charge of Political Officer. After 1
st
March 1951
an area of 391.7 sq .miles (1014.5 sq.km) of the plains portion of the tract had been joined with Lakhimpur
district.
Abor Hills: Like the Mushmi Hills, the Abor Hills too originally formed a part of the old Sadiya Frontier
Tract of 1941 census. In J uly, 1948, the plains portion of the Abor Hills measuring an area of 273.9 sq.miles
(709.3 sq.km) was made an independent district In charge of a Political Officer .After 1
st
March,1951,the said
area had been joined with Lakhimpur district.
Tirap Frontier Tract:During period of 1941-1951,a new tract known as the Tirap Frontier Tract was
constituted by excluding 103 square miles (266.769sq.km) from Lakhimpur district and joining them with a
portion of a Naga Tribal Area.
Balipara Frontier Tract :The plains portion of the old Balipara Frontier tract measuring an area of 531.2
square miles (1,375.808 sq.km) had been transferred to the Darrang district after 1
st
March ,1951.
Naga Tribal Area :This new political area did not feature at all in the 1941 census. Covering an area of
2,086.4 square miles (5,403.77 sq.km),at the time of 1951 census it was one of the parts B Tribal Areas of Assam
included in paragraph 20 of the Sixth Schedule of the Constitution of India.
Kamrup : In case of the undivided district of Kamrup, there was practically no change in its area and
boundary from 1901 to 1941.But in 1951 by an enactment in the Parliament known as the Assam (Allocation of
boundaries)Act,1951,a strip of territory measuring 32.8 square miles (85.952 sq.km)of Kamrup district was
ceded to the Government of Bhutan on 1
st
September,1951.
Goalpara:No change area and boundary of the undivided district took place during the post-independence
period.
Formation of Nagaland :The Naga Hills district and the former Tuensang division of the North East
Frontier Agency were constituted into a separate state known as Nagaland in 1960. The new state was
inaugurated on December, 1963, by the then president of India, Dr. S. Radhakrishnan.
The NEFA (present Arunachal) though from the point of geography and the Constitution of India was a part
of Assam,was treated as a separate area for the purpose of the 1961 census. Accordingly the area of Assam for
the 1961 census was 47,091 square miles (1,21,965.65 sq.km) excluding NEFA and Nagaland. Under section 7
of the North Eastern Area (Re-organisation) Act, 1971, the entire area of Arunachal was constituted as a Union
Territory and named Arunachal Pradesh which came into existence on 21
st
J anuary,1972.
Formation of Meghalaya: The formation of Meghalaya as a separate state is an important change in respect
of the area and boundary of Assam,Meghalaya as a separate state with the Union of India has been created by
transferring two hill districts,viz., Khasi and J aintia Hills. According to 1961 census, the area covered by these
two districts were 5,546 sq. miles (14,364.14sq.km) and 3,152 square miles (8,163.68 sq.km) respectively.
Thus,on the formation of Meghalaya as a separate state Assam lost an area of 8,698 square miles (22,527.82
sq.km), and the new state came into being with effect from 1
st
April,1970.
Mizo Hills (Mizoram):The formation of Mizo Hills as a centrally administered territory is yet another
notable landslide in respect of the area of Assam. Under section 8 of the North Eastern Areas (Re-organisation)
Act,1971, the territories of Mizoram were constituted a Union Territory under the name Mizoram which came
into existence on 1
st
J anuary.1972. Mr. E.H. Pakyntein, Superintendent of Census Operations, Assam, recorded
the position and area in the ''District Census Hand Book, Mizo Hills'',1961 as follows ''The Mizo District
previously known as the Lushai Hills,is situated at the southernmost corner of Assam,lying between 21o50o'and
24
o
30' North and 92
o
20' and 93
o
20'East. The Tropic of Cancer runs through the district. It covers an area of
8,134 square miles (21,069 sq.km)and is the largest district of Assam. It is bounded on the North by Cachar
district and Manipur state , on the East and the South by Chin Hills and the West by Chittagong Hills tract of
East Pakistan and the Tripura State''
The erosion (separation) of the areas of modern Assam came along with the independence of the country.
There was also practically no change in boundaries in areas of Assam from 1901 to 1941.Thus, partition of
Sylhet in 1947, and subsequently separation of Naga Hills, Khasi and J aintia Hills, Garo Hills, and the Mizo
Hills reduced the area of Assam to a great extent and in
GENERAL 17
1991 census,the area of Assam was found to be reduced to 78,523 square kilometers with twenty three districts.
(iv) Divisions, Districts and Sub-divisions: From the point of view of administration, Assam is divided into
tow general divisions (both Brahmaputra Barak valleys) covers 63,301 square kilometres and the Hills Division
comprise 15,222 square kilometres. Again, the Brahmaputra valley covers the major portion of the plains (area:
56,339 square kilometres ) in the whole state of Assam. The Barak valley representing three districts of Cachar,
Karimganj and Hailakandi covers only 6,962 square kilometres . Recently, the plain Division has been
bifurcated into tow Divisions, viz., Lower Assam and Upper Assam.
It has been noted in the census report Assam,1971 that there was no change in the boundaries of areas of
the districts of Assam during the decade 1961-1971 except in the case of the old United Mikir and North Cachar
Hills district which was bifurcated and formed into two separate district known as the Mikir Hills (Karbi Along)
and North Cachar Hills district was formed with effect from 2
nd
February, 1970 (Govt. of Assam notification
No.AAP.134/68/19dated 30
th
J anuary1970) comprising the whole of North Cachar Hills subdivision of the old
United Mikir and N.C.Hills district. The remaining portion of the district,namely,Mikir Hills sub-division,was
renamed as Mikir Hills district (Govt. of Assam notification No. AAP.134/68/22 dated 11
th
February,1970). After
six years of the formation of the Mikir Hills district it was renamed as Karbi Along as mentioned above (Govt of
Assam notification No. AAD/R/115/74/47 dated 14
th
October 1976).
Besides,the new administrative districts of Lakhimpur and Dibrugarh were constituted on 2
nd
October,1971 (Govt of Assam notification No. AAP.110/70/165 dated 22
nd
September,1971) by bifurcating the
old Lakhimpur district.
At the beginning of the nineteen eighties there were in Assam only eight plain districts and to hill
districts .The district were (1) Lakhimpur, H.Q. Lakhimpur, (2) Dibrugarh.H.Q. Dibrugarh,(3) Sibsagar,
H.Q.J orhat, (4) Nagaon, H.Q.Nagaon, (5) Darrang, H.Q.Tezpur, (6) Kamrup, H.Q.Guwahati,(7) Goalpra,
H.Q.Dhubri, (8) Cachar H.Q.Silchar, (9)Karbi Along, H.Q.Diphu and (10) North Cachar Hills,H.Q. Haflong (the
last two are hills districts).For administrative conveniences these ten districts were divided into twenty district
were divided into 26 sub-divisions.
New Districts and Sub-divisions : In order to bring the administration nearer to the people, most of the
districts of the British period were bifurcated and as a result of this administrative reorganisation, the number of
districts and sub-divisions in the State as in August, 1985 came to be 18 and 35 respectively. Administrative
exigencies, however, necessitated the creation of some more districts and six new districts were further created
between 1985 and 1991, while one, created earlier (Pragjyotishpur) was converted into a sub-division and
merged
with Kamrup district .Thus, at present (1992) there are 23 districts and 48 sub-divisions in Assam. An analysis of
the bifurcation / creation of new districts reveals that from the old (A) Kamrup district alone four districts were
created , three in 1983 and one in 1985.They are (1)Kamrup, headquarters at Guwahati, (2)Barpeta ,
headquarters at Barpeta and (3)Nalbari, headquarters at Nalbari. The fourth district, Pragjyotishpur, created for
the purpose of locating the then purposed state capital,with headquarters at Chandrapur, was subsequently
converted into a sub-division of Kamrup district as stared earlier. Similarly,the following old district were
reconstituted into a number of new district as shown:(B)Goalpara district into four: (1)Goalpara, headquarters at
Goalpara, (2)Dhubri headquarters at Dhubri, (3)Kokrajhar, headquarters at Kokrajhar and (4)Bongaigaon,
headquarters at Bongaigaon, (C)Cachar district into three : (1)Cachar, headquarters at Silchar, (2)Karimganj,
headquarters at Karimganj and (3)Hailakandi, headquarters at Hailakandi. (D)Darrang district into two :-
(1)Sonitpur , headquarters at Tezpur and (2)Darrang, headquarters at Mangaldoi.(E)Sibsagar district into three :
(1)Sibsagar headquarters at Sibsagar,(2) J orhat, headquarters at J orhat,and(3)Golaghat, headquarters at
Golaghat.(F)Dibrugarh district into two:(1)Dibrugarh, headquarters at Dibrugarh and Tinsukia, headquarters at
Tinsukia.(G)Lakhimpur district into two :(1)Lakhimpur, headquarters at North Lakhimpur and (2)Dhemaji
headquarters at Dhemaji,and (H)Nowgong district into two :(1)Nagaon , headquarters at Nagaon and
(2)Morigaon, headquarters at Morigaon .It was only Karbi Anglong and North Cachar Hills district that were left
untouched.
The following table shows name,area,population and sub-divisions of the reconstituted districts of the
state as in 1991.
DistrictArea (sq.km) Population Sub-division
(1) (2) (3) (4)
1.Dhubri 2838 13,32,475 1.Dhubri
2.Bilasipara
3.South Salmara-Mankachar
2.Kokrajhar 3129 8,00,659 1.Kokrajhar
2.Gossaigaon
3.Bongaigaon 2510 8,07,523 1.Bongaigaon
2.Bijni
3.Abhayapuri
4. Goalpara 1824 6,68,138 1. Goalpara
5.Barpeta 3245 13,85,659 1. Barpeta
2. Bajali
6.Nalbari 2257 10,16,390 1. Nalbari
GENERAL 19
(1) (2) (3) (4)
7.Kamrup 4345 20,00,071 1. Guwahati
2. Rangia
3. Pragjyotishpur
8.Darrang 3481 12,98,860 1. Mangaldoi
2. Udalguri
9.Sonitpur 5324 14,24,287 1. Tezpur
2. Biswanath
10.Lakhimpur 2277 7,51,517 1. Lakhimpur
2. Dhakuakhana
11.Dhemaji 3237 4,78,830 1. Dhemaji
2. J onai
12.Marigaon 1704 6,39,682 1. Mariagaon
13.Nagaon 3831 18,93,171 1. Nagaon
2. Kaliabar
3. Hojai
14.Golaghat 3502 8,28,096 1. Golaghat
2. Bokakhat
3. Dhansiri
15.J orhat 2851 8,71,206 1. J orhat
2. Majuli
16.Sibsagar 2668 9,07,983 1.Sibsagar
2.Charaideo
3.Nazira
17.Dibrugarh 3381 10,42,457 1.Dibrugarh
18.Tinsukia 3790 9,62,298 1.Tinsukia
2.Sadiya
3.Margherita
19.Karbi Anglong 10434 6,62,723 1.Diphu
2.Bokajan
3.Hamren
20.N.C.Hills 4888 1,50.801 1.Haflong
2.Maibong
21.Karimganj 1809 8,27,063 1.Karimganj
22.Hailakndi 1327 4,49,048 1.Hailakandi
23.Cachar 3786 12,15,385 1.Silchar
2.Lakhimpur
78438 22,414,322 48 Sub-divisions
Source : Direct of census Operations,Assam.
The table above shows that from the view point of area, Karbi Anglong is the largest district with an area
of 10434 km. The district is covered mostly by plateaus and hills. The largest plains district is Sonitpur with an
area of 5324km. Hailakandi is the smallest district in Assam having an area of 1327km. From the view point of
population as per 1991 census Kamrup is the most populous district (2,000,071) followed closely by Nagaon
(1,893,171).Other populous districts are Sonitpur (1,424.287), Barpeta (1,385.659), Dhubri (1,332,475), Darang
(1,298,860), Dibrugarh (1,042,457) and Nalbari (1,016,390). Each of the remaining district has a population of
less than a million. North Cachar Hills district is the least populous one with 150,801 souls as per census of
1991.
B.Topography:
Topographically Assam is divided into two major divisions,i.e.,the plains and the hills. The plains are
further divided into two units,the Brahmaputra Plain and the Barak Plain. The two plains are separated by the
Karbi Plateaus and the North Cachar Hills. Similarly,the hills can also be divided into two units the Karbi
Plateaus and the North Cachar hills. While the Karbi Plateaus are genetically Plateaus belonging to the Deccan
Plateaus, the North Cachar hills are folded hills genetically akin to the Himalayas. Thus,it is seen that Assam can
be topographically divided into (a)the Brahmaputra plain, (b)the Cachar Plain, (c)the Karbi Plateaus and (d)the
North Cachar Hills. These four topographic units are briefly described below:
(a)The Brahmaputra Plain: The Brahmaputra Plain(56,339 km
2
)is largely an alluvial plain with a length
of about 772.45 km. and an average width of about 80.47 km. It is bounded on the north by the Bhutan and
Arunachal Himalayas,on the east by the hills of the Patkai and its branches lying in Arunachal and on the south
by the hills of Nagaland and the Plateaus of Karbi and Meghalaya. In its upper part,the plain runs from the north-
east to the south-west, but in the lower part it rubs due east-west. The plain is at its widest in the upper part
where it is about 90 km, and narrowest in the middle part where the Karbi Plateau projects north ward to the
bank of the Brahmaputra at Burapahar, constricting the plain to a mere 50km.width.
6
Towards the west, the plain
widens to became narrow again near Guwahati and opens up further west as the Garo hills of the Meghalaya
Plateaus recedes southward. The Himalayan foothill margin in the north of the plain is fairly regular except
where the plain embankments along the large tributaries like the Subansiri, J ia Bharali, Pagladia, etc.,enter into
the mountain tract .The southern margin is, however, irregular with river valley entering deep

6. Tather M.: Physiographic Frame of N.E. India,'Geography of Ne India,NEn.Geography,
Vol. 18,Nos 1&2,1986,G.U.
GENERAL 21
into the hills and Plateaus. For example,the plain extends eastward along the Buridihing valley upto as far east as
Naw Dapha in Arunachal. Similarly, the Dhansiri, the Kapili and the Kulsi also have opened up valleys in the
Plateaus widening the scope of the plain.
The plain as a whole slopes down towards south-west in the upper part and west in the middle and lower
parts. But the gradient is extremely gentle. For example, the altitude of Kobo near the trijunction of the Dihang,
Dibang and Luhit is 130 m. Then,96 km downstream at Dibrugarh the altitude is 103.6,m .Similarly, the altitude
of Guwahati, Goalpara and Dhubri are only 50.5 m, 36.9 m and 27.8 m respectively. The fall of gradient is, as
such, only 13 cm per km on the average. Such a low gradient is one of the principal causes of frequent
occurrence of floods in the plains following heavy and continuous deluge in the season of south-west monsoon.

An interesting feature of the Plain is the presence of a series of hillocks on either bank of the
Brahmaputra, especially in its middle and lower parts. These hillocks are made of old granitic and gneissic rocks
and geologically part of the Karbi-Meghalaya Plateau. Looked from the east the hillocks begin to appear from
Negheriting westward. Next hillock is seen at Biswanath in the north bank. Opposite to these hillocks,there are
the ones in and around Tezpur town in the north bank like the Bhomaraguri, Agnipath, Bamuni Pahar, Da
Parbatia, etc. Further west in the north bank there are Singari and Kurua hills and Mayang hills in the south
bank. In Kamrup district, the Meghalaya Plateau skirts the Brahmaputra, especially near Guwahati and some of
the hillocks and found scattered even in the bed of the river and in the north bank. The hills from Chandrapur to
Nilachal in the south bank, Umananda, Karmanasha, etc, in the river bed and Mandakata-Changsari, Agaithuri,
Garurachal, Barambai,and Hatimura in the north bank are such outcrops of the Meghalaya Plateau. Further west
there are Dakhala and Nagarbera in Kamrup district in the south bank. Almost opposite to Nagarbera in the north
bank there are Phulara, Chatala and Baghbor hillocks in Barpeta district,In Goalpara district,the important river
bank hillocks are Hoolookauda and Pancharatna in an around Goal para town. Opposite to these hillocks in the
north bank,there are hillocks in Bongaigaon district in an around Jogighopa township. It is interesting to note
that some of such isolated hillocks are found to be scattered further north in the Bongaigaon and Kokrajhar
districts reaching as far north as the railway line. Similar isolated hillocks are seen in Dhubri district a
Rangamati and Mankachar. All the hillocks have their underground link with the Karbi-Meghalaya plateau and
apparently seen to stand out and the flat alluvial plan.
Although the Brahmaputra plain is by and large flat,it has some measure of topographic variation. In the
northern part along the Himalayan foothill, there is a narrow high zone made up of coarse river deposits. This
zone is known
as the Bhabar Zone and supports dense forest. To the south of the Bhabar Zone and parallel to it,there lies the flat
Tarai zone where the where the ground remains damp and sometimes springs ooze out. The Tarai zone is covered
by tall grasses and was malarial in the past. To the south of the Tarai zone there lies a strip of relatively firm
ground made of silty loam. It is this zone on which density of population is very high. This zone also holds most
of the towns and commercial centres. Besides, the railway line and national highway pass over this strip that
extends east-west. This trip may be refereed to as the built-up zone. To the south of this zone lies the following
flood plain of the Brahmaputra supporting a series of beels,marshes and swamps. While the bed of the
Brahmaputra itself is more than 3 km wide on the overage its floods-plain extends to a distance of 5 km to 10 km
on each bank As the Brahmaputra is a braiding river,its water flows through several winding channels within its
bed separated by patches of sandy shoals. Thus many riverine islands,some temporary and some semi
permanent,locally known as chaparies and chars come into being.
The south bank plain is irregular in width, being very width in the upper part,moderately wide in the
Nagaon and constricted westward. However,along the foothill region in the south-bank there are higher grounds
known as terraces created by erosional activities of the rivers. These terraces are densely forested or occupied by
the tea gardens in the upper part and by deciduous forest and dispersed settlements in the lower part. To the north
of the belt of terraces,there lies a built-up zone(as in the north bank)where again settlements,roads,railways and
towns and commercial centers are frequent. This zone to the north is replaced by the Brahmaputra flood-plain as
described earlier. The isolated river-bank hillocks are mostly confined to the flood-plain zone.
(B)The Barak Plain:Like the Brahmaputra Plain the Barak Plain is also of alluvial origin. It is the
headward part of the larger Barak-Surma-Meghna Plain,the major part of which now falls in Bangladesh. It is
surrounded in the north by the North Cachar hills, in the east by the Manipur hills and in the south by the
Mizoram hills. It is open only to the west. The plain is about 85 km long from the east to the west and about 70
km wide wide and the average from the north to the south. Total area of the plain is about 6962 km. The gradient
of the plain from the east to the west is very low(from 75m to 51m)and the river Barak flows over it sluggishly
through an extremely meandering course.
The Barak plain is characterised by the presence of scattered isolated low hillocks locally known as
rilas. Their height rarely exceeds 100 m. These rilas are geologically same as the hills of North Cachar or
Mizoram. The middle part of the Barak plain through which the Barak flows is the lowest part and contains

7. Taher. M : Physiographic Framework of North East India,North Eastern Geography,Vol 18
No. 12,1986,Guwahtai.
GENERAL 23
numerous swamps or 'bills and jhils.
(c)The Karbi Plateau :The hills and plateaus of Assam now covers two administrative districts,viz.
North Cachar Hills and Karbi Anglong. The plateaus cover both Diphu-Bokajan unit the Hamren unit of Karbi
Anglong, while the hills cover North Cachar Hills. The plateaus are geologically ancient and a part of the
Deccan plateau,while the hills are young and geologically belong to he Himalayan group. Karbi Anglong itself is
spread over two separated areas. Its Hamren sub-division is a part of the Meghalaya plain while the Diphu and
Bokajan sub-division are located in the Karbi Plateau proper.
The Hamren sub-division is physiographically a part of the J aintia hills of the Meghalaya plain and
hence it is relatively low. Being drained by the head streams of the Borapani and Kapili rivers its northern part
adjoining the Nagaon plain has wide flat tracts not exceeding 500m in altitude. But towards south there are
ranges of hills which rise upto 800 m at places. Hamren Plateauis separated from the Karbi Plateau proper by the
Kapili-J amuna Plain.
The Karbi Plataeu proper is oval in shape and highly dissected along its margins. The central part of it
is,however,high and has such peaks as Chenghehision (Singhasan :1359 m)and Dunbukso (1361 m).The plateau
gives out many streams to the surrounding lowlands of Golaghat and Nagaon districts and there are terraces at
places where these rivers emerge to the plains. These support tea gardens and reserve forests.
(d)The North Cachar Hills :The North Cachar Hills although lie contiguous to the Karbi Plateau are
geologically and structurally different from the latter. The hills here are made of folded sedimentary rocks and
were raised during the later part of the Himalayan mountain building movement. The hills generally have NE-
SW alignment and lie between the Karbi Plateau in the north and the Barak Plain in the South. It is in this district
that the highest hill range of Assam,viz. the Barail range lies. It extends from the south-eastern boundary of
Meghalaya Plateau and run across the North Cachar Hills district and Nagaland in the ENE direction and
ultimately joins with the Patkai Range in the Indo-Myanmar border. The Barail Range within North Cachar Hills
reaches an average height of 1500 m. Haflong town itself is atop a high hill of this range. it is not only the
highest range in the State but it also acts as the divider of the Brahmaputra and the Barak river basins in the mid-
eastern part of the State. The rocks of the region are less compact and hence the hill streams,fed by heavy rainfall
have cut deep channels,giving rise to gorges and steep-sided hills in the region.
( C) Drainage System :Assam is drained by two large rivers,viz. the Brahmaputra and the Barak. Of
these two,the Brahmaputra is one of the largest rivers in the world. This mighty river caught the imagination of
the people even in ancient India and they used to call it Brahmaputra, meaning the son of the creator, Brahma.
The river, from its source in Tibet to its confluence with
Ganga in Bangladesh is about 2880 km long. Out of this 1700 km falls in Tibet, 920 km in India and the
remaining 260 km in Bangladesh. The portion of the river that falls in Assam is about 700 km.
The vastness and mighty nature of the Brahmaputra has always evoked human interest and hence there
are several mythological tales regarding the origin of the river. Some mythological tales describe its origin as the
lake Manasarowar of Tibet and others as the Brahmakunda,a small lake on the bed of the river Luhit a few
kilometeres upstream of Tezu in Luhit district of Arunachal Pradesh. It has however, been found that neither is
the real source of the Brahmaputra. In fact,it originates at a point 30o31' N.L at.and 80o10'E. long,in the area
Tamchok Khambala Chorten near Kubiangiri between the Kailash Range in the north and the Himalayan range
in the south. The origin lies at the altitude of 5150m in a glacier called Chema Yungdung which lies to the south
of the lake Konggyo Tso. Thus its origin lies about 100 km east-south-east of the lake Manasarowar, from where
the Sutlej originates. in its uppermost part, the Brahmaputra is known as the Matsang Tsangpo or Tamchok
Khambam. Lowerdown in Tibet it is called as Tsangpo meaning the 'Purifier'. It runs in this name due east for
about 1200 km. In this course of the river the first tributary that joins in the left bank is the Raga Tsangpo. The
second tributary to do so is the Ngangchu and the third one is the Gya Chu. From the confluence of the Raga
Tsangpo with it near Pindzoling the river is wide, deep and navigable for about 640 km downstream. At Tsela
Dzong the river is joined from the north by the Griamda Chu. The Tsangpo abruptly takes a north-eastern turn
from about 100 km upstream of the confluence of Griamda Chu and runs for about 300 km in the direction. It
then sweeps south-westward through a hair pin bend around the eastern Himalayan peak of Namcha Barwa and
then running through rapids for about 150 km, enters Arunachal near Korba, Siang and Galling .The river then
takes the name of Siang and flows along a deep gorge past many rapid sand cascades firstly through west Siang
and then through West Siang districts. It appears in the plain near Pasighat and takes the name of Dihong and
flows through a series of braided channels for about 35 km towards south-east to meet the river Dibong coming
from the north and Luhit coming from the east at a place near Kobo. It is from this trijuncton that the river is
called Brahmaputra and assumes a really mighty proportion being as wide as 10 km at places. Although lyrically
and a popularly referred to as 'Luit', it is known as the Brahmaputra throughout its 720 km stretch in Assam.
Sweeping round the Garo Hills towards south the rivers enters Bangldesh near Mankachar and flows for a
distance of 270 km before its joins the Ganga at Goalundo. The Ganga is known as Padma in Bangladesh and the
combined course of water flows under this name of about 105 km towards the south-east, meets with another
vast course of water called the Meghna. From this confluence southward the river retains the name Meghna
GENERAL 25
and makes a very wide estuary before its exit into the Bay of Bengal.
In Assam,the river Brahmaputra touches all the plains district of the valley and its absorbs almost ali the rivers
and streams of the valley. In some places where it is all plains, the wide of the river is vast running into eight ti
twelve kilometres. In summer, the river looks like a vast expanse of water moving slowly down. But in
winter,the water level falls down leaving the sandy islands around which the braided water channels wind
leisurely. At places like Guwahati and Pancharatna the river is continued between rocks and hills on both sides
making it comparatively narrow, but even here the breadth of the river is over a kilometre.
The evolution of the Brahmaputra valley of Assam took place during the Quaternary period and its
formative process is still active. During the last 2 million years, alluviation has taken place in the foreland
depression between the newly born Himalaya on the north and the old massif of the Shillong Plateau on the
south. The foreland depression became the cradle of evolution of distinctive geological and geomorphological
units. Besides,the valley is in perpetual flux due to agrading and degrading action of the rivers, migration of
channels,disastrous earthquakes and as such geologically extremely unstable.
Between main banks, there is a wide sandy stretch in which the river oscillates from side to side,
throwing out here and there divergent channels, which after a time may regain the former path or may be silted
up. The water of the river are heavily surcharged with suspended matter and the smallest obstruction in the
current is liable to give rise to an almond shape chapari, which may either be washed away in the next flood or
enlarged by fresh deposits of sand. In the latter case, the chapari tends to be at least semi-permanent and various
species of thatch, reed and other grass begin to grow on it. Thus the process of agradation and degradation are
being carried on a gigantic scale by the Brahmaputra.
8
As regards navigability of the rivers,it may mentioned that before Independence Stream and Navigation
Companies ran regular transport services between Bihar, Bengal and Assam through the Brahmaputra. In fact, it
had been one of the most important inland waterways in India for long. Vessels plied between the Ganga and the
Brahmaputra and this had been the main mode of transport between northern and eastern part of the country. The
river is navigated by large powered inland vessels, 100 m in length with 1800 metric tonnes carrying capacity. In
the past,these vessels navigated in the river as far as Sadiya Ghat on the north bank opposite Saikhowa Ghat on
the south bank. Gradual deterioration in channel conditions, however, rendered the river unnavigable upto
Sadiya and just before the Second World War the steamer companies were compelled to terminate their services
at Dibrugarh, some 96 kilometers downstream. The great

8. Census of India,1961,Vol III, Assam,p.14.
Assam Earthquake of 1950 again rendered the river unnavigable beyond Neamati Ghat in Jorhat district. The
main function of the streamer services then was to carry tea and jute from Assam and hence many river-ports
grew up on the bank of the river. The partition of the country,the creation of east Pakistan (now
Bangladesh)threw the services out of gear. Now the inland navigation on the river can effectively run only within
Assam. Recently the Govt. of Assam has introduced several commercial services on the river Brahmaputra,
through the Directorate to carry cargo and different routes between Dhubri and Dibrugarh and also to places
outside Assam whenever needed.
Tributaries:The mighty river Brahmaputra has a large number of tributaries on both banks. These
tributaries coming from the north as well as from the south feed the master river. Notable tributaries of Assam
from the north are Subansiri, Ranganadi, Dikrong, Bargang, Buroi, J ia Bharali, Jia Dhansiri, Barnadi, Puthimari,
Pagladia, Chaulkhowa, Beki, Manas, Champamati, Saralbhanga, Gangadhar and Sonkosh. The important left
bank tributaries are Dibong, Luhit, Dibru, Buridihing, Disang, Dikhow, J hanji, Teok, Kakadonga, Dhansiri,
Kolang-Kopili, Kulsi, Dudhnoi, Krishnai, J ingiram,etc. Most of the rivers of the north are both rain and glacier
fed but those from the south depend upon annual rains and their water level goes down to a great extent in
winter. the Brahmaputra receives its water from the Himalayas and beyond through itself and its tributaries in
the north and from the Patkai, Nagaland, North Cachar and Meghalaya hills through its left-bank tributaries. All
these tributaries for the most part of their lengths drain the steep slopes of the Himalayas to the south where
rainfall is heavy. Such tributaries erode the slopes heavily particularly where the banks are barren and soils are
loose.
The peculiar feature of the river Brahmaputra is that it has a braided channel along most of its length in
Assam .One can notice the constant shifting of its channels and the sandy shoals on its bed. The flood discharge
and silt charge brought in by the various major tributaries at different points also influence the formation of
these channels and shoals on its bed. Generally, the deep channels of the Brahmaputra lie to the southern bank.
This has been done mainly by the northern tributaries flowing from the Himalayas which bring copious
discharge and heavy silt charge during the flood season. This may be one of the reasons for the shift of the river
towards the south .During winter,when the river flow is low,the high sand bars divide the stream into several
channels. In summer, they are usually submerged. The alluvial islands (Majuli chapari or char in Assamese)
have evolved by the accumulation of both bed load and suspended load. The large tributaries of the north bank
also have braided channels,although the smaller tributaries have meandering or straight channels, traceable from
the Himalayan foothills to the confluence of the Brahmaputra. The Brahmaputra it is a vast sheet of water
throughout its entire length flowing through
GENERAL 27
the valley of Assam, dotted with numerous island, the chief among them being Majuli, Burha Chapari and
Umananda.
In the plains, the Brahmaputra and its tributaries maintain most unstable courses. The geologically infant
stage of the Himalayas, from which these rivers originate,substantially contribute to the high silt content in the
rivers. In the Administrative report of the province of Assam of 1892-93, it is described that Dibrugarh was eight
kilometers away from the cold weather channel of the Brahmaputra. After the 1950 Assam earthquake, half of
this town has been gradually buried in the bowel of the river.
The old township of Sadiya has been naturally wiped by the Luhit. Similarly, the Buridihing, before the
great flood of 1950, was one of the mighty rivers of Assam. It flowed diagonally through the middle of Sibsagar
district to meet the Brahmaputra at the extreme south-western point of the Majuli island. But now it meets the
Brahmaputra at the border of Dibrugarh and Sibsagar district.
The river Tista, which is one of the major tributaries of the Brahmaputra now, had its confluence with
the Ganga prior to the great flood of 1787.
9
The records of discharge data of the Brahmaputra were meagre till recently. Before 1954, the work of
gauge discharge observation was not started in the river. Prior to that only water level was observed in the
Brahmaputra at Dibrugarh, Guwahati, Tezpur and Dhubri in Assam. The gauge records t these points from 1931
to 1966 indicate some interesting features of the channel regime .While there is a gradual rise in the minimum
levels at the three places -Dhubri, Guwahati and Tezpur,the levels at Dibrugarh show a sudden upheaval of the
order of 2.44 metres after 1950.The maximum discharge of the Brahmaputra at Dhubri is considered to be of the
order of 26 lakh cusecs. A study of the maximum discharges at various sites for the years 1956-61 shows that
while Pandu records a peak discharge varying from 50,000 to 70,000 cubic meteres per second in 1962,the
maximum recorded discharge is 72460 cubic metres per second. But the maximum flow at Tselha Dzeng (in
upper reaches)is of the order of 14,000cubic metres per second only.
10
The table below shows are monthly discharge and silt load of the Brahmaputra at Pandu in Kamrup
district.
11

9.Souvenir : Assam Science Society,p.21
10. S.D. MISRA : Rivers of India,1970,p.30-31
11. Souvenir. Assam Science Society.
Month Sediment load Discharge volume Percentage of silt
(Cubic mtr) (million cubic mtr by volume of
per second) discharge
J anuary 986,784 0.12 0.0093
February 6,60,740 0.10 0.0074
March 1,480,176 0.14 0.0120
April 1,973,568 0.10 0.0120
May 8,387,664 0.42 0.0230
J une 46,255,500 1.06 0.0600
J uly 118,167,384 1.37 0.0990
August 99,295,140 1.29 0.0900
September 35,770,920 0.68 0.0620
October 9,867,840 0.45 0.0250
November 2,837,004 0.25 0.0130
December 1,110,132 0.16 0.0080

The maximum discharge of the Brahmaputra, as computed for the purpose of designing the Brahmaputra
bridge at Pandu was measured as 19.5 Lakh cusecs and the corresponding discharge at Dhubri was reckoned to
be about 22 lakh cusecs.
Cross section : No regular records of the cross sections of the Brahmaputra at various important places
throughout its course have been kept, so any significant change which may have occurred cannot be
scientifically discussed or analysed .A few cross sections and gauge reading were recorded at certain important
stations during the earlier part of this century but this will be of little interest and value unless they are compared
with regular and accurate gauge reading recorded over a period of years and converted to the earlier ones .In dry
season, channels vary from 200 m to about a thousand metres in width with large stretches of sandy shoals
(chars)extending for several kilometers in many places .Shoals so formed become sufficiently high to limit the
width of a channel during the flood season but not sufficiently high to escape inundation during the peak periods
of floods. In the vicinity of Guwahati as also near Pancharatna, the width of the river is about 1000 metres
flowing between more or less permanent blanks with the maximum depths of 18-20 metres during the dry season
and 40-50 metres during the rainy season. At these points discharge calculations have been made when the river
was being surveyed for the purpose of spanning.
The approximate average width of the Brahmaputra in Assam is of the order of 5.46 kilometres but the
actual width varies from place to place .
The following table shows the approximately average width of the river in
GENERAL 29
between the places named.
12
The name of the places (in between) Average width
Between Dibrugarh and Neamati 5.04 km
Between Neamati and Tejpur 5.06 km
Between Tejpur to Guwahati 6.1 km
Between Guwahati to Manas confluence 3.78 km
Between Manas confluence to Dhuburi 7.01 km
The Brahmaputra is also a turbulent river which brings sorrow to the neighbouring areas along its course
.This has become so especially in the post earthquake(1950)period when its southern channels became violently
active,probably on account of aggradiation of the northern channels due to deposition of enormous quantities of
silt brought down by the Himalayan tributaries from the landslides. The floods which are so frequent in the
Brahmaputra,cause tremendous changes in the river course,as well as a rise in the river bed by depositing the
detritus carried from the upper reaches.
The fluctuations in the river level begin towards the end of March or early part of April,when the
Himalayan snow begins to melt and the nor'westers bring rainfall to the plains and valleys of north-east India.
From this period onwards. The Brahmaputra river level records a series of rises of short duration till the end of
April,when a steady rise is felt and in early May the first of flood begin to occur. From late May until late
September the possibility of occurrence of flood is always there .The devastation's caused by the high floods of
the Brahmaputra is beyond description. Villages situated on the river bank are submerged and paddy fields are
turned into vast sheets of water. The standing crops are destroyed, some of the cattle are swept away and
hundreds of cultivators, fishermen and other people living in this areas are rendered homeless. All the important
lines of transport and communication are snapped and life hings on the relief provided by government and the
public. When the floods subside, pestilence creates havoc among men and cattle alike.
The Brahmaputra river system has got the highest hydro potential in the country. But in spite of immense
potentially,nothing much have so far been done towards generating power because of many physical and socio-
economic reasons. Many Himalayan tributaries are constrained by lake of storage facilities. The southern
tributaries of the river draining the northern Shillong Plateau,with intermittent steep stretches and series of rapids
and falls are more suitable for

12. Souvenir Assam Science Society.
hydro-power development. Though the catchment areas in upper reaches of these rivers are small,a heavy
rainfall there favours the development of hydro-electric power. The Central Water Power Commission made a
preliminary estimate of the hydro potential of the Brahmaputra river in the year 1957.As per present
investigation data for the Dihang, the Subansiri, the Kameng and discharge records of other major tributaries ,the
hydro potentials of the Brahmaputra river system at 60% load factor has been assessed as follows.
13
River Power W Nature of Development
Potential at 60% Load Factor
The Dihing Upper 1,500 MW Run-off the river scheme.
Power House
Lower Dam Power 6,000 MW Major storage scheme near
House (Dihang Pasighat with 214 mt.high dam
Storage scheme) Preliminary investigation completed
The Dihang 600 MW Mainly run-off the river with
little storage.
The Lohit 200MW Storage Cum-Run Off the river
10,000MW scheme in stages.
The Subansiri 1,000 MW Storage scheme with 150 high
dam. Preliminary investigation
completed.
The Kamega/Tenga 3000MW Mainly run-off the river
1,300MW scheme. Detailed investigation
more or less completed.
South bank tributaries :
The Kopili 500MW Storage scheme in different
stages under execution.
Umiam-Umtru-Khari 300 MW Mainly storage cum-run-off the river
schemes in different stages. Some
are already executed.
Lower and Upper 300 MW Run-off the river cum storage
Barapani Lower Umiam 1,100 MW schemes. Investigations completed.
Grant Total 12,5000 MW

13. Souvenir-- Assam Science Society,p-51
GENERAL 31
But till now no scheme tending the northern tributaries has been undertaken. It may not, however, be
irrelevant to mention that no national expenditure can be considered greater then the possible benefit it can
provide and probable disaster it can prevent to national life in general.
The Barak :Next to the Brahmaputra,The Barak is also an important river of Assam. The Barak rises on
the southern slopes of the lofty Barail Range near the border of Manipur and Nagaland and forms a part of the
northern boundary of the Manipur State with Nagaland where it is known as Kairong. From where it flows a
westerly and southerly course to Tipaimukh, where it sharply turns to the north, and for a considerable distance,
forms the boundary line between Cachar and Manipur. After its junction with the river J iri, it turns again to the
west,and follows a meandering course across the middle of the district till it reaches Badarpur to Haritikar,the
Barak forms the boundary between Cachar and Sylhet district of Bangladesh. At Sylhet, the river is divided into
two branches, the southern arm is called the Kushiyara, while the northern branch is known as the Surma. The
latter continues to form the boundary of Cachar with Bangaladesh as far as J alalpur. The total length of the Barak
from its confluence with the old course of Brahmaputra near Bhairab Bazar is about 900 km,out of this only 192
km lie in Cachar.
14
As it flows down the valley, the Barak is joined by tributaries both from the north and the south. The
main northern tributaries are the J iri, the Chiri, the Madhura, the J atinga, the Harang, the Kalain and the Gumra.
The main south bank tributaries are Sonai, the Katakhal, the Dhaleswari, Singla and the Longai. The Barak is
navigable as far as Silchar. Each of the tributaries has a considerable hill catchment.
The bed of the river Barak has a series of bars and depressions resulting from the erosional and
depositional activities of the river. The banks of the channel are generally composed of stiff silty clay with
outcrops of laterite at places. The bed itself is generally of fine sand and the channel is deep. The cross section of
the river shows that the Barak has built its bank high above the general ground level which falls steeply away
from the bank.
Throughout the Barak valley there are low-lying areas beyond the high banks of either side. The
tributaries have also built up their banks. Thus the areas beyond the river banks have been turned into a series of
bowls. These depressions are locally called hoars. The principal hoar,the Dubri hoa, the chatla hoar, the Bakri
hoar and the Kayajan hoar.
The catchment area of the Barak upto Badarpur is 25,899 sq. km. But

14. Census of India,1961,Vol. III,Assam,General Report,p,15.
the riverine area in the valley upto the same point measures only about 33,66 sq. km. This adverse topography
and heavy rainfall have made the Barak Valley liable to frequent flooding. To control flood and drain out excess
water pose a great problem because of the fact that flood water has to drain through only a narrow width of the
valley opposite Badarpur and the grade available in the river is extremely gentle.
It is worthwhile to mention here that Barak flood level at Silchar which is 643 km from the sea, has an
elevation of the order of only 20.42 metres. Besides, the Barak bed in many places is well below the mean sea
level. This must be ascribed to the fact that the Barak Valley had been a part of the sea before it was built up. The
records show that the maximum discharge of the Barak at Lakhipur was 1,81,000 causecs (on 16-6-59) The
bankful capacity of the river at different reaches are as follows :
Silchar reach -1,50,000 causecs.
Badarpur reach-1,54,000 causecs.
In the cold weather ,the Barak becomes shallow in certain places. The river flows between steep banks
which rise to a height of 13-17 m on either side. After heavy rain in the hills it is subject to strong freshets, and
the level of the water sometimes rises six to ten metres in a very short space of time.
(D)Geology : (1) Geological antiquities :With regard to the Geological history of the earth, only the
early and late periods are recorded in Assam; the palaeozoic and the greater part of the Mesozoic are missing.
Only the Archaean, the late Cretaceous (Maestrichtian to Danian),Tertiary and Quaternary are represented in
Assam.
The Geological succession of undivided Assam is given in the table at page 33 from top downwards.
In Assam, the most ancient rocks are the Archaean rocks, which consist of Gneisses and Schists. Though
the geological data relating to the older rocks of Assam are very fragmentary yet the rocks are correlated with the
Archaean and Pre-Cambrian rocks of other parts of India.
It deems necessary to mention here that in different regions in India there are representatives both marine
and fresh-water formations, of the Palaeozoic Starta; but in the Assam region the only Palaeozoic Starta are the
Permian coal-bearing Gondwans which are met with along the southern side of the Eastern Himalayas
(Arunachal Himalayas)from the Abor country through that of the Daflas, the Akas and Bhutan into the
Darjeeling region about Bagrakot. In this part of the country, crushed seams of coal, equivalent to those of
Raniganj coalfield
have been found. It is expected that these strata might be found to the south also under the alluvium.
Mesozoic Rocks : The geological history of the Assam region is also fragmentary throughout the
Mesojoic era,but there is evidence that a sea extended into ,what is now known as the Khasi Hills towards the
close of Cretaceous time after a period of volcanic eruptions; which are correlated with the out pouring of the
Rajmahal basaltic lavas. The Cretaceous rocks of Assam have been dealt with by many geologists and so has the
Sylhet Trap (equivalent of Rajmahal Traps);and many dykes of this basaltic doleritic material have been found in
Assam including the Abor Volcanic Group in the Eastern Himalayas, and various instrusions seen among the
Archaean gneisses and schists of the Tura Range as well as in the Lower Gondwana Sandstones near Singimari.
the Mesozoic sea has merely left a mark in the Assam region and indicates marine conditions over Sylhet near
the close of the Cretaceous time.
Pre-Cambrian rocks occur over the whole of the Shillong Plateau including the Garo Hills and in some
portions Karbi Anglong Hills of Assam. Patches of such rocks are found near Tezpur,Nagaon,Guwahati,Goalpara
and Dhubri.Near Tezpur,Guwahati and Goalpara,the Brahmaputra is confined to these pre-cambrian rocks.
Territary Rocks : From the beginning of the Teritary era to the present day the geology of Assam is fairly
clear stratigraphically .After a pause,the Mesozoic sea appears to have been followed by a belt of lagoons over
the area of the Assam Range of-to-day,but these marshes were depended into open sea along the southern half of
the main Assam Range early in Eocene times. The so-called cherra sandstone of the Shillong plateau and the
coal-bearing Tura Sandstone of the Garo Hills was deposited during this period,in the lagoons, in early Eocene
times,and followed by the deposit of the Sylhet or Nummulitic Limestone in the warm,shallow and open sea of
the Eocene in southern Assam. This sea appears to have been muddy in the direction of Tura, but to have
continued westwards into what is now south western Bengal. To the east and north-east the Nummulitic Eocene
sea spread upto Karbi Anglong and might have been connected with an estuary, which entered the Assam region
from the north-east and was splited partly south-westwards and partly south-ward into northern Burma, where
Eocene rocks with Nummulites are found.
Although the physical geography of the Eocene period in Assam and Burma areas has not been fully
elucidated across the watersheds between the Brahmaputra and the Barak rivers and the Chindwin river, there are
grounds for believing that the Nummulitic beds were represented in the Naga Hills and the Barail Range by a
Group of Sandstones and related rocks with the well-known coal measure of Upper Assam (once believed to be
Miocene but now recognised as younger Oligocene between Eocene and Miocene).Although the
GENERAL 35
Barail Group is coal bearing and evidently esturine deposits, they are not as old as the coal-bearing rocks south
of Shillong in the so-colled J aintia group which includes the Nummulitic Limestone. The coal-bearing rocks of
the Garo Hills (Tura Standstone) and Karbi Anglong are older and were once believe to be Creataceous in age.
There is hiatus above the Barail Group of rocks, but above this come the Upper Tertiary beds, the next beds
upwards being the Surma Group of Miocene age, the Tipam Group of Upper Miocene age and Dihing group of
Pliocene to Pleistocene age. The estimated thickness of the Assam Tertiary strata has been completed as follows.
Dihing Group approximately 5,000 ft.
Tipam Group ,, 12,000 ft.
Surma Group ,, 13,000 ft.
Barail Group ,, 15,000 ft.
J aintia Group ,, 4,000 ft
Moreover,in respect of the Geological history there is little doubt that until the close of the Palaeozoic
Era the Assam region appears to have been an integral part of the continental mass known as Gondwanaland.
Further,with the volcanic eruptions at the close of the Mesozoic Era,the outpouring of the Abor, Sylhet
and Rajmahal Traps, followed shortly by the vast eruptions of basaltic lavas at the deccan Plateau,there appears
to have began a general uplift of the northern ocean. In early Eocene times the northern area had become land an
estuary had appeared in north-eastern Assam,allowing the drainage to entire Assam and Burma. In middle
Tertiary times,the estuary had extended southward and only shallow muddy seas washed the lands along the
south and west of what is now the Assam plateau.
(ii)Geological structure :With regard to the geological structure a closer studies of the Assam
Himalaya,the Brahmaputra Valley,the Assam range,the Sylhet and Surma Valley and the bordering hills of
Chittagong, the Lushai Hills, and the Naga hills show the sediments which were once laid down horizontally as
sands, silts, clays etc., may be found transformed by pressure and shearing, into sandstones and quartzites, shales
and slates, etc.,which may be inclined at any angle and even overturned as well as buckled and dislocated. Along
the southern side of the Assam Himalaya the strata, from the newest to the oldest including the Gondwana
beds,are seen to be pushed over from the northwards, and indeed, a zone of over-thrusting appears to continue
along the foot hills of the Himalaya. In the Brahmaputra Valley where the rocks are exposed from near Dhubri
eastwards to Karbi Anglong and onto the extreme north-east at daphabhum, only the most ancient Gneisses and
Schists of Archaean age show up from under the alluvium or the youngest Tertiary. The same is largely true for
the northern part of the main Assam Range,but along its southern side the Lower Tertiary beds are seen to bend
over and dip
ASSAM STATE GAZETEER 36
into the alluvium of the Sylhet and Myanmensingh plains. The axis of Assam range is roughly parallel with the
Eastern Himalaya.
South of the Brahmaputra valley in Upper Assam the Tertiary rocks have been bucked by tetonic forces
acting from the southwards(Burma),and shearing (overthrusting)has been from an opposite direction to that of
the eastern Himalaya,so that valley in Sibsagar and part of Lakhimpur are typical structural valley of the Ramp
type. However, traced south-west the Naga Hills and the Manipur Ranges (which continue southwards into
Burma as the Arkan Yoma) show the push to have been from the east, and this push from Burma, combined with
the push from the Himalaya has caused complicated shearing in the 'gap', west of the Barail Range and is
directly responsible for the important dislocation known as the Haflong Fault. Some kind of release of shearing
has occurred in southwest Assam since the hills of southern Sylhet and Tripura have their axis parallel to the
Manipur and Lushai Hills and therefore at right angles to the axis of the Assam Range, as seen in the Garo,
Khasi and J aintia Hills.
The great forces acting from the north and east have produced the up lifts of the Assam range and the
Baril range and caused the structural features of the Brahmaputra and Barak Valleys as clearly visible highlands
and plains,but these slow acting forces have also been responsible for the faulting and dislocation which are only
noticed during geological map making. However,a gradual increase of strain along an old fault and a new line of
stress will,if the strain is released suddenly by shearing,cause the earthquakes which are so common in Assam.
The whole region is subjected to the northward thrust from the Himalaya and to the westward thrust of push
from Burma,and if frequent small earthquake shocks are felt,the general evidence is the release of strain is being
effected and the danger from a great earthquake is largely removed. If, however, a considerable diminution in
small earthquake shocks becomes noticeable, say, in the Garo Hills to J aintia Hills region, then there are
increasing potentialities of stronger shocks.
Economic mineral plays a very significant role in the development of a region. But the mineral
Allophane which has been detected at present in the coal bearing strata near Margherita showing roughly 19 per
cent Silica,38 per cent Alumina with about 40 per cent water, is of scientific interest. However,this important
mineral wealth does not occur a commercial quantities to be used as a substitute for Kaolinite.
Of the major minerals,namely,coal and gas,limestone,sillimanite and corundum,refactory
clay,kaolin,glass sand , silica rock, gold, copper, salt felspar, vermiculite, fluorspar, beryl, iron and pyrite are
reported to occur in the State. Coal, oil and gas, limestone, refractory clays, fire-clay, glass-sand, salt, gypsum
and pyrite occur in the late Cretaceous and Tertiary. The rest occur in sedimentary and igneous rocks of pre-
Cambrian age.
GENERAL 37
The pre-cambrian rocks as occur in the individual districts of Assam are as follows :
In Kamrup district, members belonging to the pre-Cambrian Gnessic-group, exposed sporadically. In the
north of the district, exposures of Siwalik or Teritiary rocks are noticed. As a general rule the distinctive rock
types occur in close association with each other and occasionally enter into the composition of landed, streaky or
composite gneiss.
The geological history of Sibsagar district and for that matter,of the Upper Assam Valley as a whole, is
related to two long narrow subsidiary through (Geosynclines) lying on either side of an old rigid continental
shield (foreland).The foreland is geologically the north-eastern constitution of the Shillong and Karbi Anglong
Hills plateau which is concealed in the valley by a great thickness of alluvium and Tertiary rocks. Oil and
Natural Gas Commission aided by drilling for oil have shown that under the alluvium there are many thousands
of feet of thickness of Tertiary sediments which lie over an Archaean basement complex. The tertiary rocks
represent the foreland facies and are distinguishable from the geosynclinal facies of Tertiary rocks which from
the hills on the south and south-east of the district.
In Darrang , Archaean gneisses which from the base of the district and low hills near the Brahmaputra are an
extension of the pre-Cambrian shield of the Karbi Anglong Hills. Barring the isolated hillocks exposing the
Archaean gneisses in the southern part and occasional outcrops of the Upper Tertiary sandstones at places over
the northern boundary at the foot-hills of the Himalaya, the entire district of Darrang is covered by alluvial
deposits of Recent and Sub-Recent origin. The Archaean gneisses represent a complex group of the biotite and
hornblende gneisses with occasional small granitic and pagmetetic bodies intrusive into them. The Upper
Teritary sandstones mainly covering the foothills of the Himalaya across the northern boundary consist of fine to
medium grained,bluish to greenish grey ferruginious ''pepper and salt'' type sandstones with partings of dark grey
splintery shales and occasional lumps,streaks and fragments of lignite and carbonised wood resemble the Tipam
sandstones of Upper Assam. Along the base of the foothills,these sandstones are covered by a thick accumulation
of unstratifield and unconsolidated terrace deposit of the Sub-Recent age.
The older alluvium is of fluviatile origin being carried down by the Himalayan rivers and deposited
along their original area of inudation which has later been raised to its present position. the recent alluvium
covering the major part of the district consists of loosely consolidated sands,clays,and single beds with
occasional accumulation of vegetation.
In Goalpara district,the Pre-Cambrian rocks are exposed in a number of hillocks. Rock belonging to the
Tipam group (Miocene) of the Tertiary Supper group are exposed along the Bhutan border between the Rekhajoli
and the
schistose rocks are also seen this area,At Gauripur of Dhubri district granite gneiss is exposed in a small hill
pebble bed or older alluvium are seen on the north of the Brahmaputra.
The undivided district of Lakhimpur (present Lakhimpur, Tinsukia, Dibrugarh and Dhemaji
districts)consists of wide alluvial plain composed of mixture of sand and clay in varying proportion and
surrounded on the sides by hills belonging to the Tertiary Time. The hills of the south consists of sandstones and
shales interpersed with valuable col mines and iron stones. The Geological deposits of economic value are gold,
coal, petroleum, lime. kaolin and salt. To the north of the undivided district,the ground is by alluvium. Drilling
for oil has shown the existence of the whole Tertiary succession from the Eocene to the Pleistocene Time.
Seismic survey has revealed the presence of Archaean rocks below the Tertiaries.
In the undivided Cachar, the upper tertiary rocks extend in an unbroken range of the Barail. These rocks
are horizontal, consisting of fine-grained sandstones and shales. In the district, high level alluvial deposits (older
alluvium)occur in the two plateau,one lying at about 61-107 m. above the alluvial near Kumbhir, north-east of
Silchar; and the other near Dewan, east of Silchar, at about 30m.above the alluvial. The Barak Valley appears to
mark the junction of two movements of rocks in different directions,one from the north and the other from the
east, and to have suffered in consequence. The Barail range strike east-west and the Disang and the Barails have
been folded into anticline with an east-west axis. South of the Barak the strata have been folded into north-south
wave like corrugation which rise to the alterations of the lines of hills and valleys. In the corrugation the tops
are usually narrower than the buttoms of the throughs and the inclined flanks separating the crest from the trough
are very steep, the strata dipping at high angels. In many instances, one of the flanks of the fold is much steeper
than the other and in these asymmetric anticlines it is common to find strike-faulting accompanied by vertical
and inverted strata.
So far as the undivided district of Nagaon is concerned,only three periods of the geological history are
represented in the outcropping surface, namely, the Quaternary, the Tertiary and the pre-Cambrian. Quaternary is
represented by the recent alluvium of the Brahmaputra and in some of its tributaries. Similarly rocks belonging
to the Tertiaries are exposed near Lumding .These belong to the J aintia, the Barail and the Surma Group. The
pre-Cambrian rocks are exposed in the low hillocks. They from the eastern edge of the Shillong plateau before it
sinks below the alluvium. They are com posed of gneisses and granite. These older gneisses are uniform in
character having white to light grey colours.
Comprehensive accounts in respects of geological antiquities,geological formation etc.,of the different
district of Assam are available in the gazetteers of the districts and such these are not reproduced here.
GENERAL 39
(iii)Mineral Wealth: It has been mentioned earlier that the state of Assam occupies a very significant
place in the map of mineral wealth of the country. But Assam is lagging far behind the other states in the matter
of proper exploitation of such wealth.
Out of the different types of mineral wealth,only four types of mineral wealth,only four types,namely
coal,oil and gas,limestone, quartz and clay are being exploited at present.
Coal:Coal in Assam at present occurs in the district of Dibrugarh, Sibsagar, Tinsukia and Karbi Anglong
(Erstwhile Mikir Hills).Due to the bifurcation of Assam most of the coalfields of Garo Hills have gone to the
newly state of Meghalaya. In undivided Assam,the most attractive coalfields belong to the Eocene and Oligocene
age (i)The Lower Eocene of the Garo and Karbi Anglong Hills, (ii)the Middle Eocene of the Karbi Anglong, and
(iii)the Upper Eocene to Oligocene of the Naga Hills,etc.
The discovery of Coal in Assam took place when the administration of the province was taken over by
the British Government. The coal of the Naga Hills near Borhat in Sibsagar district and J aipur in the present
Dibrugarh district was reported by Mr. J enkins in the year 1838.Coal also reported to have occurred in the Karbi
Anglong Lunglai areas. The occurrence exposes a 3.64m seam dipping 12 to 20 degrees to the north-west. The
Coal has overage 4 to 5 per cent moisture,50 to 57 per cent volatile matter,about 25 per cent volatile matter,about
25 per cent fixed carbon and between 13 to 20 per cent ash,which is very resinous (high volatile matter)type of
coal or lignite. There are also records of coals of better quality within 12 miles (19.30 km.)of Lumding. It is
stated that coal is also found in the Namber area within Sibsagar district. In the Nazira area with in the same
district the coal mines of Borjan and Kanjan (now in Nagaland) have been worked by Messrs. Shaw Wallance
and Company. The Nazira coal-field is partly drained by the Saffrai river, which exposes coal measures with in 5
miles (8kms) of Saffrai station. Some of the coal from the Nazira coal-field is among the best in India .Analysis
showed that the coal contain 4 to 10 per cent moisture,36 to 44 per cent volatile matter,under 1 to 4 per cent ash.
Much of the low moisture material is of caking quality and some of the samples from wakching,etc.,are strongly
caking character.
Northward from the Disang river at Namrup the coal measures extend north-eastwards into Lakhimpur
(undivided).The J aipur coalfield is now in the present Dibrugarh district and marks the southwestern end of the
richest coal-bearing strata (Tikak Parbat Formation)of Upper Assam,which extends onwards beyond Lakhimpur
(undivided)into the frontier tract beyond the Tirap river and on to the Namphuk river. Coal fields are lso there at
Mergherita and Makum areas .All the coal mining operations in the Makum and the Margherita north-eastwards
area is conducted by the North Eastern Coal Fields,Coal India Ltd. In succession from the west, the collieries of
Margherita area are as follows :
ASAM STATE GAZETTEER 40
Namdang, Bargolai, Tikak, Ledo, Lakhapani and Tipong quarry. Mr. G.E. Hines,Geological expert states that
the coal measures (Tikak Parbat formation)are of Oligocene age. The thickness of the seams and the excellence
of the coal must be unique in India. But the Coal which occurs in the Tikak Parbat Formation of the Barail
Group is conducted under many difficulties where the worst natural conditions in India have to be faced. The
bottom of 120 metres of this formation is very carbonaceous and includes one seam in the Makum Coal-field
varying in thickness from 18 metres to nearly 30 metres and another six metres thick besides a number of thinner
ones. The coal-bearing horizon to the south-east of the Makum Coal field is of great areal extent as revealed in
the oil wells drilled at Naharkatia and Rudrasagar.
In the Makum coal field alone the reserves have been estimated at 1,000million tons. The reserves
estimated in the Namphuk area is 600 million tons.
The hard coke formed in the Makum coal, being high in Sulphur is not used as a metallurgical coke for
iron smelting Sulphide ores such as the lead, Copper and Zinc ores of Upper Burma, and the Sulphur could be
recovered as Sulphuric Acid. In both the low and the high temperature carbonisation the Gas must be excellent
calorific value and therefore useful as fuel in itself.
The Chemical composition of the coals from the different coal fields so far they relate to Assam is given
to the table below:
15
Coal fields Composition in percentage by weight C
M ASH VM FC S CV
1.Dilli Collieries
(a) Seam 1 6.30 1.40 42.80 49.50 1.31 12,999 BTU
(b) Seam 2 5.30 4.10 43.90 46.70 2.58 12,740 ,,
(c) Seam 3 5.90 5.50 41.60 47.00 4.68 12,150 ,,
(d) Seam 4 5.60 6.30 40.50 47.60 4.53 11,730 ,,
2.Namdang 2.10 19.30 35.50 43.00 5.57 14,308 ,,
3.Borgolai 2.40 4.80 42.20 50.60 2.35 13,670 ,,
4.Ledo 1.80 2.46 40.15 55.59 ... ...... ,,
5.Tipong 2.50 5.90 43.70 50.80 2.52 13.870 ,,
6.Disangmukh borehole. 16.30 1.70 37.00 37.40 ... ...... ,,
Abbreviation :-M-Moisture,Vm-Volatile matter, FC-Fixed Carbon.
Among all the districts of Assam,the present district of Tinsukia has huge deposits of coal in
comparatively young Tertiary rocks. But the presence of the injurious constituent sulphur and the inaccessibility
of the coal fields have impeded large scale exploitation

15.Census of India,1961,Vol III,Assam Part- 1-A,General Report,p,31.
GENERAL 41
upto Miobum in Arunachal Pradesh. In Dibrugarh and Tinsukia districts, coal exposures are found in the J aipur,
Namdang and Ledo areas upto Tipang river. In all cases, the workable coal seams are exposed along the northern
flank of the Naga-Patkai Ranges facing Sibsagar and Lakhimpur (undivided) districts. It has been stated earlier
that individual coal seams vary in thickness at places from 3.04m to 18.28m. Recently, a 3.04m thick coal seam
has been encountered in the Assam Oil Company's first bore hold at Naharkatiya at a depth of little less than
3048m. The coal is of good quality. The district of Sibsagar is also rich in respect of coal mines. It is mainly
mined in Nazira coal field. Coal is also found in the J hanji and Disoi rivers. The seams in both these cases are
few, thin, and highly inclined. The coal have 3.4 per cent to 6.8 per cent moisture, 4.8 to 6.5 per cent ash, 33.8
per cent to 36.9 per cent volatile matter and 52.9 to 54.9 p.c fixed carbon.
16
The Nazira coal field is nearly twenty-five kilometres long and situated about six kilometres south of
Naginimara railway station upto the Dihang river. But except for a small outcrop of coal measures within eight
kilometres of Saffrai railway station, the coal field lies in Nagaland.
In J aipur outcrops of the seams are seen along a strip of forty kilometres long, about half of which lie in
Dibrugarh district. A thickness of more than 13.71m of coal in six seams is exposed in the Dilli river. The coal-
bearing rocks dip to the east with a high degree of inclination (30o to 80o) on the Sibsagar side the coal is
worked out by the Dilli Collieries (Assam) Limited. The Colliery has an area of four square miles (10.36 Sq.
Kms.),which was closed in J une, 1970.
The following brief statistical table shows the production.
17

year Production.(000 metric tonnes)
1974 507
1975 582
1980 575
1981 646
1985 835
1986 864
1987 922
1988 1000
1989 840
1990 612
1991 982
1992 1069

The Statement below shows the colliery-wise production of coal in Assam.
18

16.District Census Handbook,1961,Sibsagar.
17. Statistical Hand Books,.Assam,1982,p. 171,1987,p.140,191,p.165 and 1993,p.188.
18. Ibid,1993,p.190
(In '000 metric tonnes )
Colliery District 1990 1991 1992 p*
1. Ledo Dibrugarh 196 564 627
2. Bargolai ,, 95 127 105
3. Tipong ,, 145 146 154
4. J aypur ,, 27 26 24
5. B.G/OCA ,, 149 119 81
6. Garampani N.C. Hills 7
7. Assam 612 982 1069
*P - Provisional

Mineral Oil : Like coal, mineral oil also occurs mainly in the Upper Assam region of the Brahmaputra
Valley. In Assam at the present time,the quest for oil has been directed in the northeast of the Brahmaputra
Valley and the broad belt of Tertiary rocks extending from the Moiban range in Arunachal Pradesh to Tripura
through Cachar district and Mizoram. Oil is found in three stratigraphical horizons in the geological column.
Prior to the discovery of oil fields in recent years at Naharkatia, Hugrijan, Rudrasagar, Moran, Lakwa, etc.,
Digboi was the only oil field in independent India. The discovery oil in the Digboi area took place in 1886,when
on the recommendation of the Late H.B. Medlicott, of the Geological Survey of India,drilling for oil was also
started near Margherita and J aipur. These borings met with partial success and due to poor production rates and
lack of good communication, no interest was paid on them. The availability of coal in that area led to
construction of a railway line from Ledo to Dibrugarh for the purpose of carrying the same,the presence of an oil
show near Digboi was discovered by chance. The drilling of the first well was completed in 1890,which gave
200 gallons (908 liters) of oil per day. Within nine years (in 1899), fourteen wells had been drilled. In 1899, the
Assam Oil Company was formed to take over the management of the oil interest in this area. In 1921,the Burma
Oil Company took over the commercial and technical management, giving it much needed financial
assistance,up-to-date equipment and modern transport and refining facilities. In about ten years time,the
production had stepped up to 180,000 gallons (8,18,273 liters)per day compared to about 12,000 14,000 gallons
(55,550-63,640 liters)per day before 1921.During 1931,the Digboi oil field met about 11.5% of the crude
requirements of the then undivided Indian Empire,which included Burma.
19

18. Statistical Hand Book,Assam,1993,p.1990
19. W.B. Metre and y. Nagappa : Oil Products in India,p.7.
GENERAL 43
After failures to find oil at Namphuk, Namchik, Makum-Namdang ,Barjan, Dhekiajuli, Barsilla,
Bandersulia, Nichuguard,etc.,efforts were made to find additional oil fields in the alluvial areas of the Assam
Valley. Drilling in the Upper Assam Valley,on the basis of the results of geophysical and regional geological
survey,has shown that the Barail rocks, from which the oil has migrated into upper Tipam sands in Digboi, is
also oil-bearing in the Naharkatia-Hugrijan area at the depth of about 10,000 (3048 metres )feet. The first well in
this area was competed in 1953 and the area so far explored by drilling stretches between 10 to 20 miles (16 to
32 kilometres) west of Digboi. At Moran ,about 20 miles(32 kilometres), further west from Naharkatiya the first
test-well was successfully completed in 1956 and production was proved in the same rock Groups as at
Naharkatiya. Further drilling in the Naharkatia-Hugrijan area,where 30 wells were completed upto the end of
1957,had already proved a potential of nearly 2.5 million tons of oil per year together with about 45 to 50
million cu.ft.(21.66 to 35.12 million. cu.m.) gas per day.
20
The discovery of oil at Naharkatia in 1953, has radically changed the prospects for oil in Assam. In
earlier period,oil was found in higher horizons,namely in Tipams and the Surmas, although a little was also
found in the top of the Barails and in sharply folded anticlines,whereas at Naharkatiya oil was found in the
Barails in very gently folded beds with definite dips on the flanks but rather indefinite pitches, and oil was found
not only in structural traps but also in fault traps and especially in areas with a thick cover of alluvium and at
greater depth than tested before. In fact, the whole of the alluvial tract in Upper Assam has become oil
prospective. In the Naharkatiya oilfield (including Moran),the reserves of crude oil are estimated at 47 million
metric tonnes and of associated and dry gas 7,90,000 million cubic feet.
21
Mineral oil was also found in Cachar district within the former Surma Valley. Petroleum is reported to
occur in the Patharia Reserve Forest. In the Badarpur-Masimpar field, petroleum was obtained from the Bhuban
stage of the Surma Group. The first well was actively proposed by the Burma Oil Company Ltd. for 18 years
from 1915 to 1933,but oil-bearings sands were of restricted extent and their exhaustion led to the final
abandonment of the field. The Company drilled 63 wells obtained 1,864,000 barrels of crude oil which was
refined at the Digboi refinery. Statement below shows the production of crude oil and natural gas from the oil
fields of Assam.

20. W.B,Metre and Y.Nagappa : Oil Products in India,p.8
21. Census of India,1961,Assam,General Report.
22. Statistical Hand Book,Assam,1978,p.160,1987,p.140.
Year Crude oil (1,000 metric tonnes) Natural gas (utilised million cubic
metre)
1970 3,358 360
1975 4,190 621
1981 5,112 875
1985 4,790 751
1990 4,927 987
1991 4,838 967
1992* 4,703 1030
P* -Provisional
Sillimanite: It is also an important mineral wealth of Assam. The Assam Sillimanite is in the form of
massive rock from which cubes can been sawn for direct use in furnaces. The largest boulder of massive
Sillimanite in Assam and Meghalaya was estimated to weigh 300 tons.
Refactory clay: At present in Assam,it is found only in Karbi Anglong. It has a refractoriness of orton
cone and is stated to be quite suitable for the manufacture of refractories.
Gold :During the Pre-British time this important material was collected in many rivers in Assam. A
section of people,known as Sonowal Kachari was engaged for this purpose. Even now alluvial gold occurs in
many rivers of Upper Assam such as Dikrong ,Subansiri, Sisi, Dihing, Dibong, Noa-Dihing, Dhansiri, Disoi,
Buridihing, Bhoroli, Burigong, Bargang,etc..Although gold-bearing sand used to be panned in ancient items,it is
now no longer an economic proposition.
Alum Shale : It is mentioned in the district Census Handbook, Lakhimpur,1961, that dark-coloured
Pyritiferous shales are found in several places from the coal bearing areas in the district. it is suggested that these
shales could be used for the preparations of alluminium sulphate and alum. For the proper utilisation of this
economic material,an Alum plant is going to be established at Namrup.
Fire-clay: It is known that fire-clays occur with coal measures of the Makum coalfield and that the
Assam Railways and Trading Company prepared fire-bricks and refractories from these clays for their own
requirements. Similar clay my be found in the Karbi Anglong Hills where the lower Eocene (Cherra
State)coal,seam,etc.,occur. It is also known that at the falls of the Nambor river in Golaghat district, such clays
are available in Golaghat. There are thus extensive Occurrences of these white clays in Assam wherever the
lower Eocene beds are met with.
Lithomarge : Lithomarge occurs abundantly in association with the coal-beds. It is stated that some of
the clays or shales found along the coal fields of upper Assam have been profitably utilised for the preparation
of ''oil-well drilling mud'.
Potter's clay: In the alluvial tracts of the State the Potter's clay is found in abundance. The Pottery
industry,which mainly depends upon the availability of local clay,provides employment opportunities to a large
number of persons. In the plains and valleys of the State,the pottery clay is the alluvial material found in the
rivers
GENERAL 45
and beds of bils.
Kaolin or China clay :Kaolin is found in good quantities in the Dora river of the old Lakhimpur district.
Copper: It is mentioned in the Census Report of Assam,1961(General Report),that the occurrence of
copper has been located in two places within Assam, one near Barduar in Kamrup district and another near
Mahamaya Hills in Goalpara district. In both the places,the copper has been found in rocks of the Archaean age.
On account of small and scattered show of the metal in both the places, proper investigation is required for
exploitation of the same.
Salt :In certain places within Cachar district brine springs occur and in the past salt was in the district.
Salt was also made near Sadiya and Borhat in the undivided Lakhimpur district. But now-a days due to the
availability of salt at cheaper rates in market these difficult and remote places have lost their importance.
Felsper: Felsper occurs in small quantity in the Karbi Anglong Hills in Assam.
Beryl :This mineral has been reported from some of the pregmatite veins in the gneissic area in the Karbi
Anglong Hills.
Gypsum :Crystals of selenite have been found near Longloi in the Karbi Anglong Hills. It is known that
gypsiferous shale occurs in the Dimasa Reserve Forest in the said district.
Iron-ore : Quartz-magnetic rocks are stated to be available in the Hahim area within Kamrup district.
These rocks belong to the Dharwar system.
23
The following brief statement shows the volume of production and value of major minerals of the State
(including Meghalaya) for the year 1960.
24
Name of mineral Year 1960
production Value (in Rs)
Coal 663,000 Rs. 187,57,000
(in tonnes)
Limestones 49,000 Rs. 3,81,000
(in tonnes)
Crude oil 118,304,000 Rs. 479,73,000
(in gallons)
Mineral gas 530,482,492 Rs. 21,74,160
(cubic feet)
Sillimimanite 7,000 Rs. 1,38,000
(in tonns)

23. Census of India,1961, Assam,General Report,p.34.
24. Census of India,1961, Vol.III,Assam,General Report.
production of all these minerals increased many times in recent years.
Earthquake: Assam, including the North-eastern region of India lies in the seismic region and liable to
suffer from sever earthquake. The frequency of earthquakes in Assam is closely related to the geology of the
province. A list of dates of occurrence of some big earthquakes in Assam during the last 500 years has been
furnished below.
1.In the year 1548 8.In the year 1759
5.In the year 1660 12.In the year1875 (September)
6.In the year 1696 13.In the year 1897 (June)
7.In the year1732 14. In the year1950 (August)

Amongst the recorded earthquakes, the most severe, according to B.C. Allen, was one which took place
on J une 12 th, 1897. It was perceived over an area of 45,32,000 square kilometres from Rangoon in the South-
East to J aintiapur in the North-West from the Himalayas Masulipatam. Extensive damage was done to masonry
buildings over an area of 78,000 square kilometres. The area of maximum disturbance was a tract of country in
the shape of a cocked hat, whose base line ran from Rangpur to Jaintiapur, while the top of the crown was near
Barpeta in Kamrup district. The second major earthquake that took place in Assam was on August 15 th,1950.
This earthquake with the epicentre at about 200 miles (322 kms) north of Sadiya was one of the most disastrous
events that the State had ever experienced. Upper Assam districts namely Lakhimpur, Dibrugarh and Sibsagar
suffered extensive damage of life and property. The long- range effect of this earthquake was keenly felt in
Assam during the decade 1951-61.The epicentre of this earthquake was near Rima just above the Indo-Tibetan
border, and in most parts in the eastern Himalayas. Heavy Landslides occurred locking mountain streams and
rivers and causing lakes to be built up in the Himalayas. During the decade and afterwards, many of these lakes
burst open carrying an immense amount of soil, sands and debris into the plains of Assam. Large areas of the
present Dibrugarh and Lakhimpur districts between the Brahmaputra and the foot-hills have been converted into
sandy stretches. As a result of the after-effects of the earthquake, the bed of the Brahmaputra has risen above its
normal depths all along the Brahmaputra valley. The river Brahmaputra became the main agent of destruction in
Assam. Many parts of the state like Dibrugarh town, Sadia, Saikhowaghat, Tarabari, Palasbari, etc.,suffered
heavy damages due to after-effects of the earthquake.
GENERAL 47
E. Flora (Botany):
Botanical Divisions, ;According to the type of flora and the nature of vegetation found in it , the forests of
Assam may broadly be divided into (I) Evergreen forests, (II)Mixed Deciduous forests, (III) Riverain forests and
(IV) Savannah. However ,the above classifications are not wholly uniform in all the forests areas of the State .
Variations here and there are noticed as to the type of flora and nature of vegetation found in them.
Generally ,evergreen forests are found in the undivided districts of Cachar , Goalpara, Nagoan ,Kamrup
,Lakhimpur, Dibrugarh ,Darrang and the Hills districts of the state .Most of the reserved forests of the State are
evergreen in character . In 1992-93,there were 47 Forests Divisions in the state and they covered 21 ,488sq.km.
In area .The statement below provides the names of the Forest Divisions and area covered during the years 1979
to 1993.
25
Area of Total Reserved Forest in sq.km. (Excluding unclassed State Forest )
Forest 1979-80 1985-86 1991-92 1992-93
Divisions (Provisional)
1.Goalpara 298.22 377.89 385.25 392.03
2.Dhuburi 549.30 506.15 512.40 512.48
3.Kachugaon 824.18 824.15 925.15 824.15
4.Haltugoan 976.05 693.63 641.86 641.45
5.Aie Valley 507.97 548.97 550.64 547.43
6.Kamrup West 691.64 708.88 705.88 684.56
7.Kamrup East 527.99 588.70 588.03 587.83
8.North Kamrup 704.78 615.24 665.34 600.05
9.Darrang West 820.10 836.91 836.90 847.38(Sonitpur West)
10.Darrang East 757.24 760.63 762.62 760.63(Sonitpur East)
11.Nagoan 875.24 990.16 990.16 478.99
12.Golaghat 1049.60 1040.64 1041.66 1040.66
13.Sibsagar 593.55 594.17 594.17 594.17
14.Lakhimpur 947.41 936.80 940.80 936.77
15.Dibrugarh 458.96 458.96 458.96 458.96
16.Doom Dooma 417.25 414.97 434.60 419.23
17.Digboi 638.00 639.01 646.26 648.09
18.Karbi Anglong West 1233.11 1026.46 1026.46 1026.46
19.Karbi Anglong East 706.26 1118.55 1118.55 1118.55

25. Statistical Hand Book,Assam,1981,p.86-87:1988.p 77-78: 1992.p.80-81;
1993.p.86-87.
1979-80 1985-86 1991-92 1992-93
(Provisional)

20.N.C. Hills 633.58 663.17 617.66 617.66
21.Silchar 1761.78 1746.01 1620.94 1520.94
22.Karimganj 634.42 606.84 904.90 909.61
23.Western Assam 588.72 614.95 518.95 622.60
Wild Life
24.Eastern Assam 576.89 498.07 498.07 490.42
Wild Life ,Bokakhat
25.Hamren - 105.38 105.38 105.38
26.Nagoan South - - - 512.75
27.District Council 2980.32 2798.25 3592.91 3588.91
Assam total 20,753.30 20686 21684.522 21488.14
The reserved forests of the State are distributed mainly in a few definite areas .These are along the foothills
of the Himalayas; in deep alluvial land commonly known as the Bhabar and Terai tracts; along the southern edge
of the Brahaputra Valley , touching the foothills of the central hilly region and lastly in the hills surrounding
valley of the Barak and its tributaries.
The evergreen forests of most of the districts are composed of broad leafed species where rainfall is usually
heavy .Both evergreen and semi-evergreen forests flourish in alluvial soil having capacity to retain water .Heavy
rainfall exceeding 254cms. a year is required for their growth. Distribution of plants depend on rainfall and
geographical configuration of the country. In heavy rainfall areas, the incidence of plants of different varieties is
also heavy. The main species found in these forests are Sal, Bonsum, Titasopa, Hollock ,Khokan, Gameri and
other species .Usually these forests contain from Sal (Shorea robusta) to miscellaneous evergreen forest trees .In
tre riverine forests ,Simalu (Bombax malabaricum )and Sisso (Dulbergia Sissso) are found .In the district of
Kamrup ,evergreen trees contain Bhelu (Trameles grandis),Satiana ,Amari, Gandhsorai, Poma ,Bogipoma
,Titasopa, Bota (Morus Lacvigata) Bhomora ,Silikha, Paruli (Stariospermum Chelenoides), Dhuna, Gogra, Maz,
Seling, Borhamthuri, Jaipoma, Gohara, Owtenga, Sal, Jamuk, Koliori, Uriam, Letaku, Ritha, Rudrakhya,
Thekera, etc. Most of these trees as useful as timber,medicinal matter and food. It appears that both evergreen
and semi-evergreen forests are represented by varieties of important trees. It may also mentioned that Sal is one
of the important naturally durable timber species of India,which predominates in the southern part of Kamrup
district.
There is also variation as to the nature of the species found in the different mixed deciduous forests in
Assam. The major portions of the mixed deciduous forests
GENERAL 49
are at stages of succession towards climax forests with the tendency towards turning to evergreen if left to nature
without human interference or gazing. Usually moat of these forest are found along the main river banks. The
principal species in the mixed deciduous forests are Sida, Jia poma, Kuhir, Simalu, Bhomora, Sonaru
Bajiowe ,etc. It may also be noted that the major part of the mixed deciduous forests of poorly stocked,and
comes under the category of open areas. In some cases bamboo and cane are also found extensively. Among
smaller trees Hengunia, Jegau and Kusial are commonly seen in these forests. In certain forests under this
categoty, Digalotu,Gochbhedeki, Leea, Sorat, Nal and other species and plants are noticed.
The riverine forests of the State are mainly found along the banks of big streams or Chaparis of big
rivers. The forest areas found in Kanamakra, Manas, Beki, Pagladiya and Puthimari, Barnadi, Nanoi etc.,are
instances of riverine forests. Usual combination or Khoir and Sissioais found in this group of forests.
In Kamrup, Nalbari and Barpeta districts, this type of forest with Sissoo first coming in and then khoir
has the tendency to change over to the mixed decidious forests if left to nature alone,by subsequent invasion of
species like Simul, Koroi, Udal, Kuhir, Khokan, Gomari, Sida,etc.,and hence is an early stage of succession
towards the climax forests. In the Brahmaputra alluvium of the State,the principal species of this group of forests
is Simul or Simalu.The J amuna and the Kapili valley alluvoums in central Assam contain the mixed type of
forests and is composed of trees like Koroi, Ajhar, Uriam, Simalu, Outenga,etc., and also in the well drained
soils the better species like Sopa, Poma, Gandhsorai,Amari,etc, are to be seen.
Savannah type : This type of forests occur in patches in most of the reserved forests of the State
particularly in North Kamrup, Darrang, Sonitpur, Kokrajhar, Dhubri, Bangaigaon, Goalpara and Nowgong. In
Central Assam,Dry Savannah type forest occurs in open areas in dry miscellaneous forests and are characterised
by species like Ulu,Khagari and other grasses. Besides,grasses like Ikara and Nal are also in this type of forests.
Sporadiccaly in certain areas under this type species like Bejaowe, Simul Sida, Udal, Jamuk ,Kuhir, Khoir,
Bohera, Kum,etc.,are also found.
Natural lost of forests : The grass forests of Savannah type gets burnt every your making the soil very
dry and unfit for the invasion and establishment of other species towards the climax forests. But whenever for
some reasons fire cannot penetrate, there is a tendency towards mixed deciduous forests. Though at present such
forests have not got much commercial importance except for catering to the needs of the villagers for the grazing
of cattle and requirement of agricultural and constructional materials,great improvement can be made to such
forests by improving the stock by artificial regeneration and complete protection from fire.
Forest Wealth :From the point of view of area and products, forest wealth occupies a very significant
place for the economic development of the State. Every year the forest Department of the Government of Assam
earns crores of rupees as State revenues. It may be mentioned here that except for some wood land grants under
the tea estate,most of the forests of Assam are owned by the State. The acquisition of erstwhile Zamindary
forests has brought a substantial part of forest areas to the state control.
Forest areas under the control of the State fall mainly under the broad categories,namely (i)reserved
Forests,(ii) Unclassed State Forests and (iii) Forests under the control of the Autonomous Bodies in the Hills.
The Reserved Forests are by far the most important which can be considered for scientific management. These
forests,besides providing employment and earning handsome revenue to the State,also help for the growth and
development of large number of local saw mills,plywood factories,match factory and various other forest-based
industries in the State and outside. Moreover, most of the forest areas are also reach in respect of their wild life.
The out turn of the forest wealth includes timber for various constructional purposes,round wood for bridges and
for use by the State Electricity Board,for use in the plywood factories,and lastly as firewood for domestic
purposes.
(F) FAUNA (ZOOLOGY) :
Assam along with its North Eastern parts of India is of exceptional biogeographical interest not only to
India but to the world today. it is from this region that the obliteration of the Pre-Tertiary Tethis Sea began
producing in its wake a land connection between the Indian Peninsula and the main Asiatic mass to its north.
The Assam region then onwards served as a great faunal Homeland and a gateway,through which the
indo-Chinese elements of the Oriental Fauna and also that of Palaeoretic could spread to India and colonize the
country. In fact,the history of the post-Tertiary faunal dispersal in India is peculiar,in as much as all the faunal
invasions have come through two great faunal gateways,the first one in the Assam region and the second one in
the Northwest. This was because of the emergence of the rising Himalayas as a great barrier wall concomitant
with the obliteration of the Tethis Sea so that except for the montane species,the faunal dispersal had to take
place through either of those Faunal Passes. Of them,the importance of the Northwest gateway dwindled after
the disappearance of the Siwalik Fauna in the early Pleistocene and the changes in the physiography of the Indo-
Gangetic trough,of which the formation of the Thar of Rajputana Desert was the major event,constituting
barriers to the dispersal and the recolonization from the Northwest. As a result we see that most of the Faunal
dispersal and the recolonization in the recent period have taken place through
GENERAL 51
the Gate-way of Assam,due to which the Indo-Chinese Faunal elements constituted the most dominant entity in
the Fauna of India in general and the fauna of Assam in particular.
Now, however, when we are speaking of the recent times, there is on the contrary, a geological and
climatic discontinuity between Assam and the rest of the States of India, except only the region of similar
climate and biotope in the Western Ghats. The discontinuity,that is readily vissible at the region of Garo-
Rajmahal Gap by distinctive dispersal breaks acts as a Filter-Barrier in the effective dispersal of Assam Fauna
Complex either way.
Thus today, Assam stands as the western-most boundary of the range of many Peninsular species such as
the Spotted Deer and the Mulbery Silkworm. Primarily therefore, the Fauna of Assam are the Indo-Chinese
Complex rather than Peninsular Indian Complex. Even though with the variatable admixture of the Peninsular
and the Ethiopian elements, the Palaeoretic Monatane elements also found intruded into it, making it more
richer than elsewhere in India. However,many of the relict species of the Southern Peninsular India,mostly
confined to the Western-Ghats, have closely related species only found in Assam,even though separated by a gap
over one thousands five hundred kilometres.
Assam eco-habitat thus hold and important pivotal biohabitat in the historic process of the progressive
evolution of the present day Flora and Fauna of India,serving as Homeland and effective Gate-way to floristic-
faunal influx. The analytical study of the Vertebrate/Invertebrate fauna even though so far very badly
neglected,but for eco-biologists it is most essential for a clear comprehension of the derivation, composition,
distribution, origin and their present day status,etc.,of the Assam and to that matter the Indian Vertebrate and
Invertebrate Faunal complex and their association with forest complex.
Vertebrate Fauna Complex of Assam : The vertebrate fauna of Assam is the richest and most
diversified among the comparable habitat regions in India. Because Assam is favoured with a subtropical,
mesothermal climate with copious rainfall that sustains a Biotope eminently suitable for the Indo-Chinese and
Indo-Malayan fauna that occupies it. Its tropical and sub-tropical moist evergreen and semi deciduous forests
enure the best survival of Mammals,Birds,Reptiles Amphibians,Fishes and Arthropods along with other
invertebrates enhancing the pace of their specification by affording varied ecological riches than would have
been possible in the dry and semi dry deciduous forest habitats and the plains of the rest of India, excepting to a
greater extent the Western Ghats.
THE MAMMALS : Out of the total of one hundred and thirtyfive known genera of land Mammals of
India,about eightyfive genera (63%)are repre-
sented in Assam. Out of the eleven orders, the Carnivora are the richest in genera. Followed by Rodentia and
Chiroptera.
In the member of species and subspecies the Rodentia of Assam ranks the highest. But among the
families. Muridae,Viverridae and Vespertilionidae are very well represented. However,the number of genera of
Viverridae in Assam is more than in the rest of India.
Table 1: Mammalian Fauna of Assam
(Synopsis)
Order/Family Genera Species Subspecies
Insectivora
Tupaidae 1 1 3
Talpidae 1 1 2
Soricidae 4 7 10
Chiroptera
Pteropidae 2 3 3
Megadermatidae 1 2 2
Rhinolophidae 3 17 18
Vespartilionidae 9 19 22
Order/Family Genera Species Sub-species
Primates
Lorisidae 1 1 1
Cercopithecidae 2 5 8
Pongidae 1 1 1
Pholidota
Manidae 1 1 1
Carnivora
Canidae 3 3 3
Ursidae 3 3 3
Mustelidae 6 7 7
Viverridae 8 10 13
Felidae 3 8 8
Proboscidea
Elephantidae 1 1 1
Perinsodactyla
Rhinocerotidae 1 1 1
GENERAL 53
Artiodactyla
Suidae 1 1 1
Cervidae 4 6 6
Bovidae 5 5 5
Lagomorpha
Lerporide 2 2 2
Ochotonidae 1 1 1
Rodentia
Sciuridae 6 12 18
Hystricidae 2 2 3
Rhizomyidae 2 2 2
Muridae 11 25 36
Cetacea
Platanistidae 1 1 1
Total (not exhaustive) 86 148 186
11/28
The sixteen genera of mammals,for which Assam and a small west-ward Himalayan strip extending into
Nepal through Bhutan form the southern boundary of their present habitat range. But at present they are totally absent
from the earlier habitat,the Peninsular India and they are as below :
Order Family Genus
Insectivora 1.Tupaiidae I. Tupaia
2.Soricidae ii. Anourosorex
Primates 3.Lorisidae iii.Nyeticebus
4.Pongidae iv.Hylobates
Carnivora 5. Viverridae v.Arctictis
vi.Aretogalida
Prissodactyla 6.Rhinocerotidae vii.Rhinoceros
Artiodactyla 7.Bovidae viii.Budorcas
Rodentia 8.Hystricidae ix.Atherurus
9.Rhizomijidae x.Rhizomys
xi.Cannomys
10.Muridae xii.Chiropodomys
xiii.Micromys
xiv.Hadromys
xv.Eothenmys
xvi.Dacnomys
Total =order 6 Family 10 Genus 15
Of the above 10 families,the Pongidae and Rhizomyidae are practically confined to Assam,Chittagong
and the adjacent hilly tracts. But the mammalian families,which are also present elsewhere in India as mentioned
below are known to be altogether absent from the Assam region.
1.Erinaceidae 6.Hyaenidae
2. Rhinopomatidae 7.Equidae
3. Embellonnridae 8.Tragnlidae
4. Molossidae 9.Muscardinidae
5.Procyonidae
Because by and large the families are the general inhabitants of relatively drier habitats. Moreover,the study of
their extralimital distribution showed that most probably they entered India through the North Western Route.
These two factors can explain their probable absence in the modern times in Assam.
The order Chiroptera is conspicuous by the absence of a number of families and generation from Assam.
Of the seven families of Bats occurring in India,four of them are not represented in Assam. The group Bovidae
are likewise poorly represented as compared to the number of species occurring in the North-Western India.
However,it is true that,almost all the genera found in Assam are also present in the Indo-Chinese region,
like Carpolagus (Lagomorpha) Golunda and Hadromys (Rodentia), Platonista (Cetacea), etc. Therefore, the dis
junctive distribution in the central and Eastern Sub-Himalayan region and Assam has attracted considerable
research attention.
Birds : During the late Pliocene period,due to the great changes and a wide variety of habitats unique flora and
fauna of Assam came to be highly diversified into many beautiful and varied forms. Assam is characterised by
Bhabar forest and Terai Formation and the Siwalik ranges. In the Bhabar tract the climate is comparatively dry
and in the Terai region there are ample deposits of fine silt,the drainage is poor but the water table is quite high.
The natural monsoon forest is found in this region. It was also possible that the avifauna of the Himalayan
Mountain system might have migrated along the narrow passage ways form by the flood plains and gorges of the
Brahmaputra river system,where there are altitudinal as well as east-west variations in this sub-region
constituting the diversified home and playground of the avifauna. Although considerable depletion of forest
cover has taken place,yet Sal(Shrea vobusta)was the dominant tree. The Terai of this region is characterised by
tall grassy(elephant grass)meadows with the savannah vegetation making ideal ecosystem with lowlying beells
and rivers and magnificent tall trees for inhabiting varied species of birds. The major families of Assam birds are
: (Not exhaustive):
Flying birds (Family) Example
1.Podicipididae (Grebs) Podiceps ruficollis
2.Pelicanidae (Pelicans) Pelecanns philippensis
3.Phalacrocoracidae (shag,
Comorants and Darter) Phalacrocorax niger
4.Ardeidae (Herons,
Ergets,Bitterns) Ardeola Grayii grayii
GENERAL 55
5.Ciconiidae (Stocks) Ciconia episcopus
6.Threskiornithidae
(Ibis, Spoonbill) Plegadis faleinellus
7.Anatidae (Ducks,Geese, Swans) Todorna ferruginea
8.Accipitridae ( Kite,
Hawks,Vultures ) Elanus caeruleus
9.Falconidae (falcons) Falco chieqnera
10.Phasianidae (Pheasants,
Patridges,Quails) Gallus gallus murghi
11.Gruidae (Cranes)- Grus nigricollis
12.Ralliedae (Rails,Coots) Gallicrex cinerea
13.Otididae (Bustards) Ardeotis nigriceps
14.J acanidae (J acanas) Metopidius indicus
15.Charadriidae (Plovers,
Sandpipers,Snipe,woodcock, etc.) Tringat totanus
16.Rostratulidae (Painted snipe) Rostratula benghalensis
17.Resnrvirostridae (Stilts) Himantopus himantopus
18.Laridae (Gulls,Terns) Larus ridibundus
19.Pteroclididae (Sandgrouse) Pterocles exustus erlangeri
20.Columbidae (Pigeon,doves) Treron phoenicoptera
21.Psittacidae (Parrots) Psittacula Krameri
22.Cuculidae (Cuckoos) Cuculus micropterous
23.Otididae (Florican) Eupodotis benghalensis
24.Strigidae (Owls) Bubo bubo
25.Caprimulgidae (Night J ars) Caprimulgus indicus
26.Apodidae (Swifts) Apus affinis
27.Alcedinidae (King fisher) Alcedo atthis
28.Meropidae (Bee eater) Merops orientalis
29.Coraciidae (Rollers) Coracias benghalenpis
30.Upupidae (Hoopers) Upupa epops
31.Bucerotidae (Horn bill) Tockus birostris
32.Capitonidae (Barbets) Megalaima zeylanica
33.Indicatoridae (Honey guides) Indicator Xanthonotus
34.Picidae (Woodpeckers) Dinopium Benghalensis
35.Pittidae (Pittas) Pitta braelyura
36.Aluudidae (Larks) Mirafra assamica
37.Hirudinidae (Swallows) Hirundo rustica
38.Oriolidae (Orioles) Oriolus xanthornus
39.Pycnonotidae (Bulbuls) pycnonotus cafer
40.Dicruridae (Drongos) Dicrurus adsimilis
41.Sturnidae (Starlings) Aeridotheres Fuscus
45.Corvidae (J ays,Magpies,Crows) Dendrocitta vagabunda
46.Bombycillidae (Waxwing,
Hypocolius) Bombycilla garrulus
47.Campephagidae (Cuckoo,Minvets) Coracina novaehollandiae
48.Irenidae (Fairy blue,Loras,
Leaf birds) Chloropsis cochinchinensis
49.Muscicapidae (Babblers,Fly
catchers, Warblers,Thrushes,
Chats) Copsychus sauaris
50.Paridae (Titmica) Parus major stupae
51.Sittidae (Nuthatches,
Creeper) Sitta castanea
52.Motacillidae (Pipets,Wagtails) Motacilla flava
53.Laniidae (Shrikes) Lanius schach
54.Dicaeidae )(Flower peckers) Dicaeumagile
55.Nectariniidae (Sun Birds) Nectarinia asiatica
56.Zosteropidae (White eye) Zosterops palpebrosa
57.Ploceidae (House sparrows,
Weaver birds,Munias, Wax bills,
Avadavats) Passer domesticus
58.Firngillidae (Chaffinches,
Gold finches) Carduclis carduclis
Thus the habitat of Assam harbours the magnificent number if about 59 families,out of the 78 families of
known birds of India. These 59 families contain denizens of about more than 300 species, some of which have
been presented in the above table. However, in the comparative estimates, the hills, plains, beels and marshes of
the flower reach of the Brahmaputra harbours the greater number of birds species of Assam, as it provides a
mesothermal climate with abundant food resources to nearly all types of birds.
The National bird : Peacock (Pavo cristatus L. Neoruithes, Neognathe, Galliformis)-is a native bird of India
and extends upto Nepal, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. Peacocks are found in Assam in forests and
plains,particularly in the lower reaches of Brahmaputra valley. The sexual diamorphism is prominent and the
cock is found attaining a length of 1.8m including the 1.2m tail with a variation of +0.15 to 0.25 m.A tuft of 24
+2 bare shafted gold tipped feathers found on the occiput of the head. The hen is dull coloured without tail
coverts. Head of the hen is chestnut brown and face mostly white, the breast is brownish black and green but in
case of the cook the underpart is purplish and face mostly white. The food of Peacock are grain, seeds,
insects,lizards and snakes etc. Resting is on high trees at night and it prefers to live near rivulets, rivers and
streams.
The mail spread its tail in the form of a fan and dances when happy. It produces a loud harsh,screaming
sound-May awe and short gasping shrieks Ka-ann,Ka-ann repeatedly for 6-8 times. The nesting season is from
J anuary to October and lays 3-5 glossy pale cream colour eggs. They move in groups but seasonally sexes
separate.
The white Pea-fowls are considered to be a mutant variety of blue pea fowls.
GENERAL 57
The Burmese species of white pea fowls is Pavo muticus.
Hunting Birds:There are several types and species of hunting birds in Assam. The most famous are
Vultures,King vulture-Sarcogyps Calvus,Bengal vultures-Gyps bengalensis,Scavenger vultures-Neophrom
perenopterus. They live in groups,are carrion feeders and useful scavengers.
Besides vultures,other hunting birds are kites,hawks and falcons. Special mention of some of the species
are-Lagger falcon-Falco biarmicus,Blackwinged Kite-Ellannus caeruleus, Pariah kite-Milvus migrans,
Brahming kite- Haliacetus indicus, Pale Harrier-Circus macrourus, Hawk Eagle-Spizaetus cirrhatus, Fishing
Eagle-Haliacetus leucoryplus, Serpent Eagle-Spilornis cheela, Tawry Eagle-Aquila rapax,Red handed Marlin-
Falco chicquera, Kestrel-Falco tinnunculus,etc. They have several common characteristics but differ mainly in
colour and size. Breeding season is from February to J une. They build their nest or trees and lay 3-4 eggs at a
time.
Game Birds :
Several varieties and species of birds are eaten as food in Assam, particularly by the new migrants. The
Tribes,both hills and plains are fond of the birds meet of most species of hill and plain birds. The very common
examples of game birds are Painted Sand grouse-Pterocles indicus, common and grouse-Plaerocle exustus,
Partridge-Francolinus francolinus, Painted partridge- Francolinus pictus, Grey Quail-Coturnix coturnix,
Mountain Quail-Ophrysia superculiosa, J ungle fowl-Gallus gallus, Graylag goose-Auser auser, Large whistling
teal-Dendrocyqna bicolor, Buddy Shelduck-Tadorna ferruginea ch are also some of the game birds.
Special mention may be made of Barheaded geese, the Rajhans, described greatly in our ancient
literature and as the vehicle of Saraswati, the godess of learning. Its quils were used for writing. It is found
throughout winter. It is migratory bird,arrives in Assam by the month of October and departs by mid March.
Singing and talking birds :
The best singing bird is Grey winged Black bird Turus merula. It is a plain grey brown bird with a black
cap and orange yellow ring round eyes, legs and bill. It is found in well wooded hills, in groves and jungles near
towns and villages. The male has a lond melodious song with mimicked calls. Several other members of lark
family fall in this category. The order example are Bush lark-Mirafra assamica, the eastern skylark-Alanda
gulgnla. The other example is Shama-Copchycus malabaricus. It is more popular cage bird than in wild,being
highly prized as a songster.
The best talker birds of Assam is Hill Myna-Grakula religiosa followed by jungle Myna-Acridotheres
Fuscus. They are accomplised mimics and talkers. The other favourite talkers are Grey headed Myna-Sturnus
malabaricus and Pied Myna-SturnusCentra.They are popularly known as cage birds as they can imitate and
repeat a few words.
The other song birds are Koel-Edynamys scopacea. The call of male begin with a loud Kuoo and rises in
scale with successive Kuoo. The other singing birds to add are Indian Cuckoo-Cuculas microptesus,Plaintive
cuckoo-Cacomantis merculinus,
Coucal-Centropus sinesis,Brainfever bird-Cuculus varius which sing day and night during the breeding time.
Pheasants : The pheasants or game birds are colourful and many of them have brilliant metallic plumage. The
entire sub-family Phasaninae is concentrated in Oriental region except Afropavo in Africa.
Pheasants are heavy bodied with well developed bills,powerful legs for pecking and scratching on the
ground. They are known to mankind from very long time for their delicious meat. But due to extreme hunting
and loss of habitat these birds are becoming endangered in recent times. They are diurnal in habit and feed on
mosses, ferns, leaves, insects and occur in the North Eastern, Assam in particular are follows :
1. Ithaginis cruentus,size 45 cm.Blood pheasant.
2. Tragopan satyra,siza 60 cm.Satyr Trogopan
3. Tragopan blythii siza 60 cm.Blyth's Trogopan
4. Tragopan teniminkii siza 60 cm. Temmink's Trogopan
5. Lophophorus impejanus siza 70 cm.Monal Pheasant
6. Lophophorus sclateri siza 70 cm. Sclater's Pheasant
7. Crossoptilon crossopyilon siza 72 cm. Elwe's Pheasant
8. Syrmaticus humiae humiae siza 90 c.Baned-back Pheasant
9. Polyplecfron bicalcaratum siza 60 cm. Peacock Pheasant
10. Paro cristatus siza 122 cm. Indian peafowl.
Reptiles :
Testudines or the chelonians constitute the very ancient group of Reptiles with their lineage going back
to 200 million years. Today they are found living in arid waterless wastelands,lakes,rivers and the oceans.
Exceptionally in Assam they are found in wet areas of westlands,beels, marshes, swamps, ponds and rivers.
To our understanding,the usage of the words 'turtle' and 'tortoise' have given rise to some confusion to
some people, although they are easily found differentiated with the total hardness or partly softness
characteristics of the dome shell..But in fact all the members of the order may be aptly called 'turtles'.
The snakes of the order Reptiles are perhaps the most misunderstood creatures in the world today. There
are many baseless myths and superstitions about them and misconceptions that surround snake bites make them
dreaded creatures. There are in India and Assam, a good number of places where snakes are protected and
worshiped regularly with public festivals.
In fact snake constitute the most successful group of all reptiles in India and Assam in particular.
Ophilogy attracted the attention of naturalists since time immemorial as they are found associated with Gods and
Godesses in the India Mythology. Assam with its diverse habitat and climatic conditions harbours a rich snake
fauna. Out of the nearly 235 species that occur in India,just only about 50 species are venomouse,which live in
habitats where human density is very low or no human habitation. Moreover,
GENERAL 59
most of the vanomous snakes venom are not toxic enough to kill a man or domestic animal.
The group Lizards of the order Reptiles dominated the earth for nearly 150 million years and a few of
them are widely distributed and diversified. Most of them are characterised by a short body with four well
developed limbs, a short flat tongue and an external ear opening. The tongue of lizard is used as a sensory organ
and also for lapping up the prey. No vanomous lizards occur in Assam or in India .
Turtle and Tortoises
The Indian chelonians are classified into five families :
1.Dermochelyidae-Leatherback sea turtles
2.Cheloniidae-Sea turtles
3.Emydidae-Fresh water tortoises
4.Testudinidae-land tortoises
5.Trionychidae-Mud and water turtles.
The first two species do not occur in Assam and its adjoining seven states. Of the family Emydidae,the
Cyclemys dentata is the commonest hill stream tortoise of Assam. The other common species is Cyclemys
mouhati that occur nearly in all the tributaries of Brahmaputra. Both the species are omnivorous.
However,it will be better to treat them systematically to understand their present status in the state of
Assam,although very little research work has been done.
Emydidae-Fresh water tortoises :
Spotted pond turtle- Geoclemys hamiltoni : The species is quite rare in Assam and can be considered as
endangered. They were abundant in the Brahmaputra river valley but now restricted to lower Assam region.
They are carnivorous in habit. Another species of pond tortoise Heosemys was known to be dense forest pond
dweller of the lower reach of the Brahmaputra river is becoming very rate now.
Brahminy River turtle- Hardella thurgi in habitants the Brahmaputra river system. It leads a sluggish,concealed
existence in the river bottom and prefers plant materials as food.
The River turtle-kachuaga kchuaga of the Brahmaputra river system can be distinguished from its larger size and
very smooth appearance. It is very agile and dive down at a slightest alarm.
The canal or beel tortoise-Betagur baska is occasionally found in slow-moving rivers and canals but
abundantly found in beels.It is very timid herbivorous tortoise of Assam now becoming quite rare.
Land tortoise-Testudinidae : The true land tortoises are characterised by their clubshaped, short and broad feet
with two phalanges and entirely webless.
Red-nosed tortoise-Indotenstudo elongata is an Indo-chinese form and occur in the hilly regions of Assam. Its
shell is greenish yellow above and below and has power of withstanding oppressive heat.
The Asiatic tortoise-Indotestudo emys is a big size tortoise preferring to live in the hilly
regions of Assam wherever there is a good supply of water. Due to its large size the movement is slow and gets
easily persecuted.
Mud and fresh water turtle-Trionychidae : The characteristics of this group of turtle is that its proboscis and jaws
are concealed by fleshy lips, flipper like limps, webbed digits with three claws.
The Softshell Turtle-Trionys gangeticus is the common mud turtle of the Brahmaputra river system profusely
distributed into the beels and low lying wetland areas. It prefers large beel canals with muddy bottom,and are
both harbivorous and carnivorous in habit.
Narrow Headed Softshell Turtle-Chitra indica :This species is confined to the sandy. section of the Brahmaputra
river system. It is notorious and fierce in temper and tries to bite when handled. It is carnivorous and feeds
mainly on fish, crash, molluses,etc.
Indian Flap-shell Turtle-Lissemys punctata :It is generally found in the main channels of the Brahmaputra and its
tributaries and could be sen swimming in shallow water of running in thick vegetation of the river bunks. It
burrows in the river and beel bottom during winter months when water recedes. It feeds on fish,fruit and
vegetables grown in the char areas.
Crocodiles :
The general appearance of crocodile is too familiar to us. Because they are known from legends to folk-
tales as an elongated, large tail powerful enough for swimming and a long nostril with long jaws and teeth on it.
In Assam, however,the true crocodiles are not found belonging to the genus Crocodylus but the Gharial
belonging to the genus Gavialis found in the Brahmaputra river system.
The Gigantic Gharial-Gavialis gangeticus :It is only surviving species of the ancient Crocodile family. It was
found swarm in the Brahmaputra,the Ganges,the Chambal and the Mahanadi river system including their
tributaries. But at present its population has severally dwindled due to slaughtering for skin. Now hardly less
than 200 individuals are surviving in those four big River systems. Gharial of India is listed as the most
endangered species of wild life.
Lizards :
About kinds of lizards belonging to 8 families are known to inhabit India. Out of them Assam represents
quite a good number. It will be convenient to deal with them here systematically.
Gekkonidae-Geekos :
These are small gentle lizards characterised by soft dull skin and clinging pads on their feet. They are
found in house,on ground,in forests and trees. Geekos are the first among lizards/reptiles to have developed a
true voice, rivalling the croaking of Toads and chirping of birds. They lay eggs and feed on insect. Of them the
Assam species are :
GENERAL 61
House Geekos :
Wall lizards :Hemidactilus brooki
Smooth House lizard :H.frenatus
Tree Greeko :H.leshehenanlsti :The species enters also house sometimes.
Giant House lizard :Gekko geoko or 'Tokay'
Forest Geekos :Golden Hill Greeko-Calodactylodes oureus
Agamidae -Agamas :
Agamids are large group of lizards adopted to a diversified life in trees,on the grounds and in rocks.
Majority are insectivorous but a few are herbivorous. They lay eggs and are known in India by about 13 genera.
Some of them are found in Assam.
Rock lizards :
The Himalayan Rock lizard-Agama tuberculata :It is a gorgeously coloured lizard with shoulder,breast
and flank turning bright yellow. It feeds on ants and butterflies.
The small rock lizard-Psammophilus blanfordamus :It is smaller in size, less versatile in colour and enter
out houses.
Garden lizards :
The garden lizards are characterised by their compressed body,dorsal crests, long tapering tail and the
throat fan.
The Indian lizard for Blood sucker-Calotes versicolor: It is brown body and it turns it throat, sides of the
head and neck into searlet.
Small Indian lizard-Sitana Ponticeriana: It is a fast runner and the male brings its throat fan into play during
courtship.
The Himalayan lizard- salea sp. (assamensis): They are found in the hedges, bushes and in the tea
plantations. They are beautiful lizards when the male gular pouches assume the brilliant yellow hue.
The Flying Dragon- Draco norvilli :The patagia are beautifully coloured. These are free dwellers and
seldom come to the ground. Their favourite food is the tree ants.
Mountain agamid :
The east Himalayan species- J apaluratricarinata is a terrestrial lizard found in the mountainous region
of the State. It is pale-brownish dorsaly in colour.
Chameleon-Chamaeleonidae :
The Chameleon is strikingly different, pronounced by a high body, a springlike tail, a helmet-like knob
at the nape and round bulging eyes. A chameleon can shoot out its club shaped tongue to catch insects,its main
food. Chameleon can change colour from green and brown to yellow, white and black and in different ways on
both sides of the body so much so that it is impossible to tell the colour precisely. The only species so far known
from Assam is the Indian chameleon Chamaeleons Zeylanious that appear in wooded areas and tea gardens.
Skinks Scincidae :
Skinks are burrowing or ground dwelling lizards recognised by their overlapping smooth and shiny
scales, a broad flat tongue and movable eyes. Majority of the skinks lay eggs, only a few bring forth their young
ones. They are primarily insectivorous, although a few feed upon plant matter during adulthood. The so far
known 25 species of Assam are as follows:
1. Mabuya dissimilis
2. M. inotata
3. M. macularia
4. M. carinata
5. M. multifasciata
6. M. tytleri
7. M. rugifera
8. M. quadricarinata
9. M. beddomii
10. M. trivittata
11. Dasia Subcaerulea
12. Spheno morphusindicum
13. S. dussumieri
14. S. Himalayanum
15. S. Ladaceuse
16. S. Macrotis
17. S. Beddomei
18. S. Laterimaculata
19. Ablepharus grayanus
20. Riopa albopunctata
21. R. punctata
22. R. Lineata
23. Chalcides pentadactylus
24. Barkudia insularis
25. Sepsophis punotatus.
Worm Lizards- Dibamidae :
The glassy sealed Indian worm lizard found in Assam is Dibamus novae. This burrowing lizard to a
layman,with its vermifarm body and tiny concealed eyes under the skin appears like a slender snake. It is devoid
of limbs, head is blunt and conical like worms.
GENERAL 63
Lacertids-Lacertidae :
The lacertids are wide spread typical lizards because of the slender bodies, well developed legs and long
pointed tails. They preferably dwell in sandy grassy and rocky areas, shed their tail which is regrown. Majority
are insectivorous although a few practise cannibalism. The following species of lacertids are known to occur in
the geographical boundary of Assam.
1.Trakidromus sexylineatus khasiensis
2.Cabrita leschenaulti
3.C jerdoni
4.Ophisops jerdoni
5.O. Beddomei
6.O.microlepis
7.Eremias guttulata
8.E.brevirostis
Glass snake-Anguidae
The glass snake lizard- Ophisaurus gracilics posses a snake like head and very graceful in its
movements. This lizards in found only in Assam hills, Khasi hills and Darjeeling in India. Despite all its traits
like a snake, it is very mild creature, hide under logs and stones during the day and as darkness sets it feeds on
insects.
Monitor lizard :Varanidae
Monitor is the largest of the living lizards. It has an elongated mobile head and unusually long neck and
tail,snake like forked tongue. All monitors are scavengers or predators and they shallow their food unlike other
lizards. Of the four kinds of monitors, three are living in Assam. The Indian monitorVaranus bengalensis is the
commonest of them and it is made with in the remote forest and outskirts of Assam villages. The water monitor-
Varanus salvator is the second largest living lizard of the world and next to Komodo Dragon of Indonesia.
Adults are dark with yellow sports and climb the trees for food. The yellow Monitor: Varanus flavesceus is very
common. Its colouration is seen at its best during the monsoon with red-cross band but it fades by the retreating
monsoon.
Snakes : Snakes live in a variety of habitat like human dwellings, old building, marshy lands, beels,
rivers, agricultural areas, forests and mountains. No snakes except the blind snakes,boas and pythons have any
trace of legs. They have no movable eyelids, lack external ear opening and hence can not hear normal way,but
their capable of picking up earth-borne vibrations by their sensitive bodies. The tongue is deeply forked and its
function is to probe the senses of taste, smell and touch. Majority of the Assam snakes are egg layers although a
few can produce young ones. Assam snakes vary in size from >10 cm.to 6 m in length-in python.
The snake fauna of Assam comprises the following families.
1.Typhlopidae :Blind snakes :
There are small, worm-like snakes with smooth, shiny scales, hiding under logs, humus and even in the
flower pots. About 14 kinds of them are found in India. Some of the Assam species are:
Brahminy blind snake : Ramphotyphlops braminus :It is reddish brown and black in colour, growing up
to 17 cm.
Indo-Chinese blind snake :Typhlops diardi :It is larger than brahmini, growing upto 43 cm. brown above
and paler below in colour.
2.Uropeltidae:Roughtails.The only species known from Assam so far is the Ocellate roughtail- Uropeltis
ocellatus recognised by the oceli on its back,the tail is orange yellow ending in rugose shield with spicules.
3.Boidae:Pythons: Pythons are primitive snakes, have a stout body and short tail. There are two kinds of boas
and pythons each in India. The Assam species are :
India Red boa-Eryx johni :About 96 cm. Long, colour slightly reddish,the tail is blunt and rounded
exhibiting a two headed snake.
The sand boa-Eryx conica:About 1 m.long, common in dikes and rice fields. It hunts rats at night.
Rock python-Python morulus:About 6m.long, bold spots on the body and short tail. It is a sluggish
creature leaves its resting place when provoked or hungry.
4.Colubridae-Colubrid snakes:
This family compromises a huge number of harmless snakes. Some of them are arboreal,some
terrestrial,some fossorial and some agnatic .About 130 species of them occur in India. The known Assam species
are :
The Rat snake :Ptyas mucosus is a familiar snake, that speeds away in a flash mainly in agricultural
areas. It enters sheds and farms in search of rats.
Wolf snake- Lvcodon aulicus :It is a small slender secretive snake,hides by the day in coil and gets active
at night.
Trinket snake-Elaphe helena is a slender,glossy,chocolate brown colour with two prominent dark tripes.
Kukri snake:Oligodon arnensis :It is a pretty snake occasionally found in out houses and big
bungalows.It can be recognised by the black marks on the head and bars on the neck.
Vine snake:Ahaetulla nasuata:It is the most common tree snake. It is parrot green in colour and has long
tail.
The Green whip-Ahaetulla nasuta :
Bronzeback tree snakeDendrelaphis trisks is a graceful snake with a long tail,it hides most part of the
day in bushes,fast moving and fierce in temperament biting readily.
GENERAL 65
Golden tree snakeChrysopelea ornata is a colourful snake marked with reddish rose spots on its
back,scrub and thick jungle dwellers,with remarkable power of spinning on the tree branches,venomous.
Indian cat snake:Boiga trigonata :is characterised by its bulging eyes and vertical pupils,long feathery
tongue,narrow neck,triangular head and zigzag marks on the body. It can climb trees resting in coil under shade.
Lightly or mildly venomous.
Himalayan cat snake:Boiga sp is a common snake of the thick jungle ,feed on tree frogs and lizards.
Sometimes on birds and mice .
Stripped keelback -Amphiesma stolata is the common grass snake , recognised by the prominent yellow
stripes on the body .It is gentle and hunts on frogs and toads .
Common water snake -Xenochrophis piscator has a thick set body ,nostrils on top of the head .two black
streaks behind the eyes. It is harmless but fierce in temper ,feeds on arthropods frogs.
Green keelback -Macropirluhoden pumbicolor is a water snake ,mostly prevalent in the forest areas.
When threatened, it.flattens its neck into a hood, has a v-mark on its head .

Dasypeltidae-Egg eating snake:
Indian egg eater Elacliston westermanni is a unique snake as it feeds exclusively on birds
eggs. Harmless but mimics dreaded variety because of its body coloration and black and yellow spots .
Elapidae-Cobras and Kraits (common venomous)
Common Cobra -Naja naja live in plains and jungles, natural hunting places are old termite mounds
,ruined buildings, rock pilesand rat holes
Assam Cobra- Naja naja Kanothia recognised by a white circle round a black spot.
The imposing characteristics is its hood formed as it raises the anterior portion of the body and spread
the ribs in the neck region.
King CobraOphiophagys hannah is the most feared snake,in size next to python. The temperament of this
deadly snake is highly unpretictable.
Common KraitBumgarus caeruleus is recognised by its bluish black marks with white cross lines.It
has a very large pupil and nocturnal in life. It eats lizards mice,rats and other snakes.
Bandad KraitBungaraus fasciatus is distinguished by the prominent broad yellow and black stripes on
its back.It is a plains living snake rarely seen in jungle.
ViperidaeVipers and pitvipers
Big India viperVipera russelli is distinctive in colouration and markings,as it posses 23-30 large
reddish brown oval spots.It prefers rock crevices,grassy and thorny bushes as its abode.
Bamboo Pit ViperTrimeresurus gramineus It is a green snake living in bamboo bushes,harmonising
the colour with the background. It is timid and slow to defend itself. It lives on small mammals,birds,lizards.
Amphibia
Assam is land which enjoys wide variety of landscape, vegetation, climate and attitude having within
this limits scrub-jungles,forests of various types,inland waters and even altitudinal zones. As such,the Amphibian
fauna of the State is rich and varied. But the large scale destruction of habitats,particularly deforestation,lowland
earth filling,hill cutting and other industrial activities threatened the Amphibia fauna to such proportion that
some of the species known about 75 years back are no longer available in their earlier range of habitats. Of late,it
is heartening to note that there is some attempt to save whatever left over.
Amphibians includes frogs,toads,newts,salamanders and caecilians .They exhibit endless
variations,diverse colour patterns and adaptations to the prevailing habitats. They are seen on land,in water,on
trees,under stones,and even underground.
The known(not exhaustive)order and families of Amphibians of Assam are as below:
1.Order:Cymnophiona or Apoda : Fam- Ichthyophidae
The Caecilians :
Limbless amphibia,primarily confined to the forest where they lead a concealed life,in damp, slushly
earth,snake like a general appearance and seldom seen above ground,except during very heavy rains. The trail is
short or waiting ,eyes are minute and functionless.
The Eastern Himalayan Caecilians- Gegeneophis carnosus, G.fulleri and G.ramaswami,The Indian
caecelian -Ichthyophis sikkimensis.
2.Urodela or Caudata :family -Salamandridae :
The Newts :
The newts are sometimes confused with lizards as their body is lizardlike and the laneal tail retained throughout
their life. Limbs are short and feeble,incapable of rapid movement,spend more time in water. The only species
found in Assam is the Indian Newt-Tylototriton verrucosus. It is characterised by tuberculen skin and large
parotids.
3.Order Anura or Salientia :Frogs and Toads :
Members of this order are the most conspicuous of all Amphibians. However,for a layman,the confusion
between Frogs and Toads persists. A toad may be a real frog but a frog not necessarily be a toad. We call an
Amphibian a Frog which lives in or near water with a smooth slimy skin,while the toad is terrestrial with a rough
and warty skin.
Family :Ranidae -The true frogs :
Skipper frog - Rana cyanophlycyis is the commonest frog of Assam. It is recognised by a presence of rounded
dark spots on its back and limb,has good ability for floating,small in size.
Cricket frog -Rana Limnocharis,small size,commonly met with a marshy areas, paddy fields and
ditches,recognised by a vertebral band.
GENERAL 67
Green frog-Rana hexadaetyla, most aquatic of all frogs. Lives in dense aquatic vagetation, leaf green in
colour.
Bull frog- Rana tigerina. Known for its loud voice and big size, having leopard like spots and median
longitudinal trip .Call is resonant quonk-quonk.
Himalayan Frog-Rana liebigii, it exhibits the secondary sexual characters, male has thickened forelegs
with conical black spines.
Assam Frog- Rana assameus.s is endemic to Assam and commonly found throughout the State.
Arunachal Frog -Micrixalus borcalis, a small frog whose vomerines is lacking.
Assam Frog- Amolops afghanus .A formosus and A himalayanus . The tadpoles of them found in Assam
hills with unusual large oval parotids.
Family- Rhacophoridae (Pat Beng) :The rhacophorids or tree frogs:
They are found in the plains human dwellings and thick jungles of Assam. They are represented by two
genera- Rhacophorus and Philantus throughout India . Some of the known species are :Rhacophorus bedimii .R.
lencomystax ,R. moloch .Philantus annandalei, P. beddomii, P. charrapnnjiae, P.garo ,etc.
Family -Microhylidae (Narrow mouthed Frogs):
The microhylids are small, stout legged ,burrowing Amphibians, which are not found in or near water
.except during the breeding season. The narrow pointed head and tiny bulging eyes are the marking character to
spot a microhylid. They remain hidden during the day in their soil burrows in loose sandy soil and become active
at night .
The Melanobatrachus indicus , known as black microhylid, is black with a scarlet band near groin and
blotch scarlets on the chest. It is very rare. The microhyla is well represented in Assam . Microhyla berdmorei
are abundant in lower Assam and Garo hills. The ornate Microhylid ,Microhyla ornata is a beautiful frog with a
median sepia marking . It is slender and found among the dried grassy bushes. The Red microhylid , Microhyla
rubra is astout bodied frog whose back is marked by broken patches with a red streak in the middle. The genus
Uperodon is represented by Uperodon systoma , the fat frog with plumpy body and Uperodon globulosum,
whose adults are remarkable burrower and emits characteristics sound like the bleating of a goat. The genous
Kaloula is represented by a single .species, the Kaloula taprobanica is the prettiest of all the Indian frogs . The
back is dark brown ,head in yellowish ,and a yellow band runs from the eyes to the hind feet . It produces deep
guttural call like Wau -auhh and are nuisance at night. There are three species that are known inhabiting
Assam, of the genus Ramenella . They are Ramanela variegata,the termitaria frog, Ramanella minor ,R,
montona and Ramanella tringuleris.
Family =Bufonidae (Chuck Vekuli) .
The Bufos or Toads are the largest group of Amphibians. They could be easily recognised by their fat
body , short legs ,awkward hopping and the presence of a pair of parotid glands behind the eyes. These glands
secrete a poisonous substance that cause burning sensation in the eyes and mucus linigs.
The common Indian toad is the Bufo melanostictus. It has got black tipped spines in the body with wasts.
They haunt mainly the dwelling places hiding in crevices, corners,below stones, logs, etc. It is found on
roads,gardens and courtyards. The bufo partictalis is recognised by the well defined parietal ridge and half
webbed toes. The Padostibes Kempi abundantly found in Garo hills and lower Assam is an expert climber. The
Ansonia ornata is known as Torrent toad, developed webbs between the toes and the larvae undergo a hazardous
aquatic growth phase in running hill or forest streams developing snakelike mouth and flat body with a muscular
tail. The species Bufoides meghalayana itself constituted a genus, the Bufoides that are available in Assam and
Meghalaya. The peculiarity of the toad is absence of parotid glans.
Family=Pelobatidae (odd looking anurous)
The members of this family are called odd looking anurous, with wide mouth, vertical pupil, moist
glandular skin and spade shaped horney projections on the sides due to which they are popularly known as
'Spade-foots'. The dig down in mountainous and sandy areas,keep away from light for weeks or months together.
The genus Leptobrachium is represented by a single species,the Leptobrachium hasselts from Assam and khasi
hills. The other species belong to Megophrys genus with four species Megophrys lateralis, M.parva,M.boettgeri
and M.monticola. The tadpoles of the Megophrys posses umbrella mouths.
Family =Hylidae (The Tree frogs):
The Tree frogs are recognised by the original finger tips and toes with an adhesive disc for clinging on
trees. They are tree climbers and lead and arboreal life. Most of them are green in colour and change their boy
lines to pale green to shining green depending upon the seasons.
The Hyla annectens is a danizen of the forests of Assam and Meghalaya. It makes its presence felt by its
loud voice,inflating the vocal sac that buldge the whole throat far exceeding the size of the head. After
mating,the male and female swim together for several days.
Endemicity The endemicity and distribution of Amphibia are usually governed by the availability of
the breeding sites and dampness of the habitat. The North Eastern Sub-Himalayan Assam and its adjoining
states experience more than 400- 500 cm. for rains annually,so this region is one of the favourite areas of
Amphibian fauna above that of Western Ghats which processes moist evergreen forest with rainfall of about 400-
500 cm annually. Therefore,the Amphibian endemicity is basically localised in those two areas of India.
Fishes:
The fresh water fish resources of Assam and N.E. india are very rich and varied in forms. Because in the
Brahmaputra and Barak valley there are many rivers,streams,hill streams,ponds,natural beels and extensive wet
land and marshes which support a great diversity of fish life. Zoogeographically also the fresh water fauna of
N.E. India is very interesting and offers exceptional opportunity to study the diversity of forms.
GENERAL 69
From the known distribution of primary fresh water fishes it has been indicated that the fish fauna comprised of
three components:Indian, Indo-Chinese and Indo-Malayan with indigenous Gondwana elements and intrusive
components. Of course the Assam fish fauna is dominated by the Indo-Chinese elements as the Indo-Malayan
component is comparatively poor. The original fauna found retained on isolated sub-Himalayan hilltops and the
hill-tops of the peninsular India,as in those areas even today the suitable ecological niches are available. It is
now well known that there was fish faunal transgression from the N.E.India via the Assam valley gate-way and
also through Eastern Ghat.
The accounts of primary fresh water fishes occurring within the limit of N.E India with special reference
to Assam have been tried to be given here. So this account is not exhaustive but informative and in certain cases
accounts of fishes which visit the fresh water through the Brahmaputra river course via Bangladesh and West
Bengal have been included but not the exotic species.
FamilyAnguillidae (freshwater Eels)
The body elongate,cylindrical,stout,pointed,scales rudimentary,anal fin long. The Anguilla anguilla a
fresh water visitor known to occur in the lower reach of the river Brahputra.
FamilyOphicthidae (snake eel)
The body elongate,snake like,head short and conical,no caudal fin. The species Pisodonophis boro is a fresh
water visitor of the river Brahmaputra and its tributaries.
Family---Clupeidae (Shads)
The abdomen with scutes,barbels absent,single dorsal fin. The Corica soborna was a visitor to fresh
water in the lower reach of the Brahmaputra. the Hilsa ilisha is a regular visitor of the Brahmaputra river
course. The other species,Gudusia chapra with oblong compressed body is found in Assam valley.
FamilyNotopteridae (feather backs):
The body strongly compressed laterally,dorsal profile is remarkably convexed,eyes large,no barbel. Two
species are known from Assam,they are Notopterus chitala and Notopterus notopterus.They are mostly pond and
river inhabitants in the Brahmaputra valley,and the Barak valley.
FamilyCyprinidae (carps):
The family contains the largest group of fresh water fishes of Assam. The body of the carps is generally
compressed,abdomen rounded of cutting,eyes not covered with skin,scales present,jaws toothless,mouth
protrusible,gill openings wide,dorsal ray osseous or articulated.
The carp genus Schizopyge contains about nine species of Snow trouts.with elongate subcylindrical
bodies,abdomen rounded,without suctorial disc but with four barbels,mostly in the Kashmir Himalaya,of them
two species namely Schizopyge esocims and S.progastus were known to occur in the Brahmaputra upper reach
hill streams flowing from Arunachal Pradesh.
The other genus Schizothorax -snow trouts,whose lower slip modified into papillated sucker having four
barbels contains three species of which Schizothorax richardsoni along with S. guttatus and S. plagiostomus
(synonyms)occur in the hills streams flowing from Bhutan hill of sub Himalayan region.
The genus Chela whose body long compressed,abdomen keeled contains two species,the chela cashius
and C.laubuca are known to be distributed along the Brahmaputra drainage system.
The genus Securicula with strongly compressed elongate body and sharply keeled abdomen, contains
only one species,Securicula gora known to occur in Assam.
The genus Salmostoma, having compressed elongate body and keeled abdomen contains nine species of
which Salmostoma bachaila, S.clupeoides and S.phulo are known to occur in Assam,but the occurrence of other
species also can not be ruled out.
The genus Esomus, with compressed elongated body,rounded abdomen and four barbels, known to
contain only two species of which Esomus danricus known to occur in Assam and adjoining states.
The genus Danio having subcylindrical compressed and elongate body with rounded abdomen and
longitudinal band represented by six species and two sub-genera Danio and Brachydanio. The species of Danio
that occur in Assam are Danio aequipinnatus,D.dangila and D.deyario. The sub-genus Brachydanio is known by
one species only,the Brachydanio (Danio)rerio.
The genus Rasbora,with compressed elongated body and rounded abdomen is also represented in India
by six species,of which Rashbora daniconius and R.rasbora are found in Assam.
The genus Aspidoparia has subcylindrical elongate body, rounded abdomen and without barbels
represented by one species,the Aspidoparia jaya in Assam.
The genus Amblyaryngoden having moderately elongate subcylindrical bodywithout upper lip and
barbels represented in Assam by one species,the Amblypharyngodon mola.
The genus Barilius having subcylindrical moderately elongate body with sharply pointed head is
represented by Barilius barna,B.bendelists,B,vagra and the game fish species B.bola,the Indian trout.
The genus Semiplotus with compressed deep and short body,inferior transverse mouth without barbels is
represented in India by one species from Assam,the Semiplotus semiplotus.
The genus Oreichthys with deep short body,transverse small mouth without barbels is represented by a
single species,Oreichthys cosuatis.
The genus Puntius having compressed,deep,moderately elongate to short body with short head is
represented in Assam by five species. They are Puntius, Chala p.conchonius, P.sophore,P.ticto and P.sarana the
culturable species and favourite to the fish eaters of Assam.
The genus Osteobrama with compressed, deep short body is represented by one species in Assam,the
Osteobrama cotio. The other five species do not occur in Assam.
GENERAL 71
The genus Lebeo has moderately elongate body somewhat inferior narrow mouth, lips continuous
forming a lateral fold represented by twenty one species in India,of which Labeo rohita, L.calbasu, L.gonius,
L.bata, L.buggut and L.dyochelus are found in Assam as important fish. However, the last two species are very
uncommon in their distribution in the North Eastern States and Assam.
The genus Acrossocheilus having compressed elongated body with medialy interrupted labial fold and
two pairs of barbels,represented by only one species from Assam. This single species is Acrossocheilus
hexagonolepic.
The genus Chagunius with elongate body subterminal U-shaped mouth and two pairs of barbels is
represented by a single species,the Chagunius chagunio.
The genus Tor (Mehseer) with moderately compressed elongate body and two pairs of barbels,is
represented by five species in India,of which Tor putitora,Tor progenius and Tor tor are found in Assam mostly
along the Bhutan hills and sub-Himalayan tracks.
The genus Cirrhinus has compressed elongate body, with transverse broad mouth and small barbels
present or absent,found represented in India with five species. Of these are Cirrhinus mrigala and C.reba are
found in Assam.
The genus Catla having deep shaped body,anteriorly arched wide mouth,without upper lip and barbels
has only one species,the Catla catla in Assam.
The genus Crossochelus having somewhat elongate body,very prominent snout overhanging the mouth
with a pair of rostral barbels has three species of which Crossocheilus latius and C.burmanicus is known to be
found in Assam region.
The genus Garra has compressed short body,rounded abdomen,semicircular transverse inferior mouth
and a suctorial disc on the chin with one or two pairs of barbels has been represented by twelve species of which
three rapid stream inhabiting species are found in Assam. They are namely,Garra gotyla,G.lamta,and G.mullysh.
Family Psilorhynchidae
The psilorhynchid cyprinoids have characteristically ventrally attend body,devoid of scales and barbels.
The genus Psilorhynchus having ventrally flattened sub cylindrical body with obtusely pointed flat snout
with interiorly transverse small mouth has been represented by four species. Of these,the Psilorhynchus balitora
and P.sneatio are found in Assam.
Family - Himalopteridae
The family possesses ventrally much flattened,moderately to greatly depressed body.
The genus Balitora having ventrally fattened, anteriorly greatly depressed flat head with transverse
inferior small mouth and paired barbels has been represented by three species,of which the balitora bruice is
found in Assam.
Family Cobitidae
The family fishes possess anteriorly compressed,somewhat cylindrical short body,with papillated thick
fleshy lips.
The genus Aborichthys have compressed, greatly elongated body with transverse,narrow inferior mouth
papillated thick lips and barbels but without per-orbital spine. Three species are known from India of which
Aborichthys garoensis and A. Kempi are found from the lower reach of the Brahmaputra, Garo and Abor hills.
The genus Noemacheilus having almost depressed almost cylindrical body,the small mouth transverse
and inferior, lips are thick,fleshy and papillated and 4-8 barbels, are normally seen. There are about 48 species of
this genus. of which so far only Noemacheilus botia and N.rupecola are known from Assam.
The genus Botia having moderately deep sort oblong body with narrow inferior mouth and 6-8 barbels is
represented with 8 species in India. Of these Botia dario,B.lohachata and the B.rostrata are known to be present
in Assam.
The genus Neoeucirrhichthys having slightly compressed elongate body with horse -shoe shaped inferior
mouth and rudimentary mandibulan barbels at the corner of mouth is represented by only one species,
Neocuicirrhichthys maydelli from Assam only in India.
The genus Acanthophthalmus have a strongly compressed elongate body, small inferior. Mouth with 6
barbels is known by only one species. The Acanthophthalmus pangia from lower reach of Assam, N.E. Bengal
and Bangladesh.
The genus Somileptes having stout cylindrical elongate body with horse-shoe shaped inferior mouth,
long snout and swollen head with 6 barbels is known by one species only the Somileptes gongota from Assam.
N. Bengal and Bangladesh.
The genus Lepidocephalus having moderately compressed elongate body, somewhat arched, inferior
mouth and six barbels are represented in India by 8 species. Of these except Lepidocephalus thesmalis,which is
found in South India, rest of the species including the well recognised L. guntea are represented from Assam and
the Himalayan drainage.
Family Bagridae
This family contains these fishes which have compressed,more or less elongated body with wide gill-
cleft,and non-protractible mouth.
Of this,the genus Rita fishes have compressed short body,depressed large head and three pairs of barbels
are known by 4 species from India,of which Rita rita is known to be found in Assam.
The genus Batasio has compressed short body, crescentic inferior mouth and 4 pairs of barbels and
represented in India by three species.Of these the Batasio batasio and B.tengana species are found in Assam.
The genus Aorichthys look like Mystus and represented in India by two species, Aorichthys aor and
A.seenghala and both the species are found in Assam and adjoining parts.
GENERAL 73
Family : Siluridae
This silurid fishes has compressed elongate body,depressed broad and small head,obliquely cleft superior
mouth,2-3 pairs of barbels and without spine anal fins quite long.
The genus Ompok has compressed elongate body, depressed but broad small head, mouth superior with
oblique cleft,two pairs of barbels. This genus is represented by three species,all of them found in Assam. The
species are Ompok bimaenlotus,ompok pabda and Ompok pabo.
The genus Wallago has a compressed elongate body,depressed large head, snout spatulate and two pairs
of barbels.It has got only one species the Wallago attu which is found abundantly in Assam.
The Genus Silurus has a compressed elongate body with an obtusely rounded snout and two pairs of
barbels and is represented by three species of which Silurus cochinchinensis is widely distributed in Assam but
the other two species S.goae and S.berdmorei are yet to be properly studied in Assam.
Family : Schilbeidae
The fishes of this family has compressed body very wide gill-opening,2-8 barbels,the anal fin is very
long and separated from the caudal fin.
The genus Ailia has compressed short body generally compressed short head and 4 pairs of barbels is
represented by two species,Ailia coila and A Punctata are found in Assam and its adjoining areas.
The genus Pseudeutropius has compressed elongate body with four pairs of barbels, and adipose short
dorsal fin.The genus is represented by two species but uptill now none of them have been reported from Assam.
The genus Clupisoma having compressed elongate body,blunt oval head and four pairs of barbels is
represented in India by four species. Of them the Clupisomo garna and C.montana occur in Assam. Another
species,the clupisoma prateri is quite prevalent in the Himalyan drainage system,but its occurrence in Assam is
quite rare.
The genus Eutropiichthys has compressed elongate body,conical head,four pairs of barbels and a short
dorsal adipose fin is represented in India by three species of which Eutropiichthys murius and E.vacha are
recorded from Assam and N.E region.
Family :Pangasiidae
The fishes of this family are larger in size, have 4 barbels,and fin long but not confluent with caudal.
The genus Paggasius has compressed elongate body,slightly longer upper jaw with two pairs of
barbels,is represented in India by three species. Of these the species Pungosius pungosius occurs in Assam and
its adjoining states.
Family : Amblycipitidae
ASSAM STATAE GAZETTEER 74
The fishes of this family are Loach like, having anteriorly depressed and posteriorly compressed body.
There are 8 barbels and the adipose dorsal fin smooth.
The genus Amblyceps having compressed,subcylindrical elongate body.four pairs of brbels and wide
transverse mouth represented by only one species,the Amblyceps mangois abundantly available in the foothills of
the Himalaya and in some parts of Assam.
Family : Sisoridae
The fishes of this family have anteriorly depressed body and compressed tail,the adhesive apparatus
sometimes present or absent but there are 8 barbels.
The genus Bagarius having elongate body,flattened abdomen upto pelvis, greatly depressed, large head,
crescentic wide mouth and 4 pairs of barbels with forked caudal fin each part producing flamentus prolongations
is represented by one species,the Bagarius bagarius which is quite prevalent in Assam.
The genus Gagata has short compressed body transverse ventral mouth and 4 pairs of barbels is
represented in India with 3 species. Of which,the species Gagata cenia could be found in Assam and adjoining
states.
The genus Nangra has short compressed body,narrow transverse ventral mouth and 4 pairs of barbels is
represented in India by 3 species. Of these the species Nangra viridesceus is known to occur in Assam and
adjoining areas.
The genus Erethistes having compressed short body,flattened abdomen upto pelvic base narrow
crescentic ventral mouth and 4 pairs of barbels is represented by one species,Erethistes punsilus in Assam and
adjoining states.
The genus Erethistoides has greatly compressed elongate body with a hoodlike projection of the snout
and 4 pairs of barbels is known from India with two sub-species of which,the Erethisloides montana occurs in
Assam.
The genus Hara having compressed moderately elongate body,flat abdomen transverse ventral mouth
and 4 pairs of barbels known from Assam by two species,Hara hara and H. horai. The Hara jerdoni is common
species of Assam.
The genus Conta has a compressed short body, transverse ventral mouth,the plaited abdominal skin fold
forms an adhesive pad and there are four pairs of barbels. The genus is presented by two species, Conta conta
and Conta elongata which is profuselyfound along the Garo and Meghalaya hill tracts and in the Brahmaputra
valley.
The genus Laguvia has compressed short body,subcylindrical abdomen,wide subterminal transverse
mouth and 4 pairs of barbels,is represented in Assam by Laguvia showi out of the 4 species known so far from
India.
The genus Glyptothorax having greatly or moderately depressed elongate body,slightly flat to rounded
body,narrow transverse inferior mouth, the ventral surface with and adhesive pad and 4 pairs of barbels,is
represented by 20 species in India. Of them the Calyptothorax brevipinnis,G.horai,G.pectinopterus,G.striatus
and G.trewavasae are well known from this region.
The genus Euchiloglanis has an elongate body,flattened abdomen upto the pelvic fin,transverse ventral
mouth and 4 pairs of barbels,is represented by two species from
GENERAL 75
the N.E. States including Assam. They are Euchiloglanis hodgari and E.Kamengensis.
The genus Exostoma havingelongate body, flattened abdomen upto pelvis,more or less crescentic ventral
mouth and 4 pairs of barbels is represented so far by one species, Exostoma labiatum from N.E. Hills and
Assam.
The genus Pseudecheneis has an elongate body, flat abdomen upto palvic base. The head is having
ventrally a broad, oval adhesive apparatus,transverse inferior mouth and 4 pairs of barbels, is represented by
only one species the Pseudecheneis sulcatus from foot hill region of N.E. States and Assam.
Family : Clariidae (Catfish)
The fishes of this family posses large, compressed elongate body, gill opening wide and there are well
developed 4 barbels. The anal fin long and not confluent with the caudal fin.
The genus Clarius has a compressed elongate body, fairly wide transverse terminal mouth and 4 pairs of
barbels,is represented in India by three species,of which the Clarias baitrachus abundantly occurs in Assam and
adjoining parts.
Family : Heteropneustidae (Stinging catfish)
The fishes of this family have compressed but moderately elongate body,gill-openings wide and there
are well developed 8 barbels.The anal fin long, nearly reaching or united with the caudal fin.
The genus Heteropneustes has a compressed elongate body,transverse, narrowterminal mouth Gill-
Chamber with accessory air sacs extending backward to nearly caudal region and 4 pairs of well developed
barbels,is represented by a single species Heteropneustes fossillis from Assam.
Family : Chacidae
The chacid fishes have large size robust body,but the head and the anterior part of the body is
depressed,there are feebly developed 6 barbels,the adipose dorsal fin is smooth and confluent with the caudal fin.
The genus Chaca has anteriorly depressed short body,abdomen flat,very wide arcuate subterminal
mouth and there are three pairs of barbels,is represented by a single species the Chaca chaka from Assam and
adjoining areas.
Family :Olyridae
The Olyrid fishes have a loach like elongate body,8 barbels, pectoral fin with a sharp serrated spine and
the anal fin is of moderate length.
The genus Olyra has an elongate body,a crescentic narrow anterior mouth, four pairs of barbels is
represented by 3 species, Olyra horae, O.Kempi and O.longicauda in Assam.
Family :Belonidae(Gars)
The fishes of this family have a slender,elongate body,jaws are elongate like a beak,wide gill openings
and dorsal fin without spine.
The genus Xenentodon has a compressed subcylindrical elongate body,jaws are
elongated into a break, abdomen rounded, is represented in Assam by the species Xenentodon cancila.
Family : Syngnathidae( pipe fish)
The fishes of this family have tubular body with cristae and ridges, a single dorsal fin without spine,the
tail not pretensible and there is an egg pouch on the abdomen to tail region.
The genus Dorichthys has an elongate body covered with transversely striated shields, rounded abdomen
and the jaws are produced into a beak like projection. There is no barbel and the abdomen has an egg pouch.
Two species are known of this genus of which Dorichthys unculus so far known to occur in Assam.
Family : Channidae (Murrels)
The fishes of this family have anteriorly subcylindrical elongate body with single dorsal and anal fins.
The genus Channa having anteriorly cylindrical elongate body,the dorsal and anal fins are free from
caudal,is represented by 8 species in India. Of those, Channa marulius, Corientalis, C.punctatus, C.amphibious
and C.striants are very commonly found in Assam.
There is small to medium species which is very commonly distributed in Assam and known by the
species C.gachna gachna.
Family :Synbranchidae (Mud eels)
The fishes of this family have small to moderate body, the dorsal and anal fins are represented by the
median folds only.
The genus Monopterus having compressed much elongate body,the gill opening without lateral folds but
internally attached to isthmus and the caudal tip is bluntly rounded,is represented by 4 species in India of which
Monopterus albus and M.cuchia are found in Assam.
Family :Chandiae (Glass fish)
The fishes of this family have compressed, oblong elevated short body with two dorsal fins and the anal
fin without spines.
The genus Chanda has a deep,compressed short body and the anal fin with three species,is represented
by 4 species in India of which Chanda nama and C.ranga are found in Assam.
Family :Nandidae (Mud perch)
The fishes of this family have compressed, elevated oblong body, head covered with scales and a single
dorsal fin.
The genus Badis having compressed moderately elongate body,the head compressed and large and a
single dorsal fin,is represented in India by species,Badis babis and B.dario and both of them are found in Assam.
The genus Nandus has a compressed oblong body and a large compressed head is represented by one
species the Nandus nandus from Assam.
GENERAL 77
The genus Preistolepis having compressed short oblong body and compressed short head is represented
in India by two species, the prestolepis marginata was known to occur in Assam.
Family :Gobiidae
The fishes of this family have oblong to very elongate body,sea inhabitors but many species found
visiting fresh water rivers.
The genus Glossogobius having anteriorly cylindrical,compressed elongate body with oblong united
pelvic fins is represented by one fresh water species the Glossogobius giuris which is known to occur in Assam.
Family :Anabantidae (Climbing pers)
The fishes of this family have compressed moderately elongate body and a single dorsal spinous fin,the
body and the head is covered with etenoid scales.
The genus Anabus having compressed oblong body and spinous dorsal fin,is represented by two species
in India. Of them the Anabus testudineus is very commonly known from Assam.
Family :Belontidae
The fishes of this family have short compressed body,a single dorsal fin with spine and rays and an anal
fin with spines.
The genus Colisa has an elevated compressed body,the head moderate and compressed,is represented in
India by three species, Colisa fasciata, C.lalius and Colisa sota. All these three species are found in Assam along
the Brahmaputra drainage system.
Family :Mastacembelidae (spinny eel)
The fishes of this family have eel-like compressed elongate body,fleshy long snout accommodating
concave prolongation of the upper jaw,the nostrils tubular and placed anteriorly on the sensitive snout,the pelvic
fin and girdle absent.
The genus Macrognathus having eel-like compressed elongate body,snout long and fleshy, the caudal fin
distinctly separated from dorsal and anal fin, scales present, is represented by one species,the macrognathus
aculeatus from Assam.
The genus Mastacembelus having eel-like compressed elongate body, conical long snout without
transversely strained bony plates on the under surface and scale present,is represented by three species in India.
All these three species, Mastachembelus armatus, M.pancalus and M.guentheri occur in Assam.
Family :Polliaiidae (Hill-stream eel)
The fishes of this family have subcylindrical elongate body,the upper jaw possesses a single stony large
bone bearing teeth and the dorsal and anal fins long and without spine,the pelvic fin and the girdle absent.
The genus Pillala having eel-like subcylindrical small body,rounded abdomen,the snout with indistinct
fleshy rostral appendage bearing the anterior tubular nostrils and no spine anywhere on the body, scales absent,
is represented by only one species,the Pillala nidica from Assam and adjoining states.
The genus Garo having eel-like naked body,the dorsal and anal fins confluent with the caudal fin,no spines on
the body,scales absent,is represented by a single species,the Garo khjuriai from Assam and adjoining Garo hills.
Family :Tetraodontidae (Puffers)
The fishes of this family are more or less short bodied. The skin covering is modified into small or large
spines or lemina in the from of a beak with a cutting edge and covered with a layer of ivory like substances.
There is a single dorsal and anal fins without spines, the pectoral fin present but the pelvic fin absent.
The genus Tetraodon having a more or less short body with a broad back compressed into ridges, jaws
with median sutures, pelvic fin absent, is represented by only one species,the Tetraoden cutentia from
Assam,and adjoining states.
The Game fishes of Assam :
Before the birth of Ichthyology,fishes were known by their local names only. Therefore,there was some
confusion in regard to Game Fishes of India upto the third part of the present century. But Thomas (1887,1897),
Lacey (1905), Dhu (1923)Phayre (1949),etc., defined game fishes as the fishes of Angling and Sports. The
Angling and Sports fishes of Assam are mainly :
1.The Tor Mahseer Tor tor :
It is astoutly built fish with a deep body,head is shorter than the body depth. The colour of the body is
green and gold,the belly is grey and the lateral sides are pinkish. Light orange,yellow and light blue patches are
there in the head. It is having moderately orange and pinkish fin. But sometimes they are uniformly dark in
colour. They are omnivorous and breed during August and September of the year.
2.The Putior Mahseer Tor Putiora :
It is a Grey hound and Thick lipped Masheer commonly called Golden Masheer. The body is
somewhat compressed and streamlined with both the profiles greatly arched. The length of the head is greater
than the depth of the body.The colour of the fish varies with the nature and background of the waterbody it
inhabits. It is herbivorous usually. It breeds three times in a year during (i)J anuary-February (ii)May-J une and
(iii)J uly-September.
3.The Mosal Masheer Tor mosal :
It is closely allied to Tor Mahseer except the length of the head is equal to or shorter than the depth of
the body. There are 4 barbels. The body is anteriorly olivaceous yellow and posteriorly amber colour,the sides
are yellowish and the belly is silvery. It is commonly known as copper Mahseer. The young is herbivorous and
the adult feeds on carbs,molluses,etc.,being a bottom feeder.
4.The Jungha -Tor progemus :
The body is greyish above the lateral line but the belly is silvery. The base of the scales possesses dark
blotches. The head is equal to the depth of the body and the eyes lie in the anterior half of the head. In general
look,it is similar to Tor mosal except the fan shaped structure behind the upper lip. Endemic to Assam.
GENERAL 79
5.The Bokar- Acrossocheilus Hexagonolepis:
The Bokar of Assam possesses large scales and therefore, it should have been considered a mahseer.
However, It only differs in the interrupted post labial groove and the red eyes. It is a graceful fish, the ground
colour of the body is olive on back, yellow brown and blue on the laterals and the belly is silver in colour. There
are four barbels.
6.The Indian Trout- Raimas bola:
This fish is not a true trout but it has the appearance of a trout having streamlined body and body spots.
The head is pointed, body is compressed and the scales are small. The back is greenish grey and the ventrum is
silvery separated by a longitudinal golden stripe. It weighs below 1 kg but get hooked nicely with fly jump out of
water. It is restricted to the hilly parts of Assam.
7.The Alwan-- Schizothorax richardsonii:
It is a streamlined fish, scales are small, but slightly larger along the anal aperture. There is no adipose
fin, the chin bears a sucker. The body is greyish silvery above and light silvery below with many black spots.
8.The Dinnawah- Schizothoraichthys progas:
It occurs in the same habitats as Alwan but differs tus from the S. richardsonii in the absence of ventro
cephalic hard papillated plate.
It is a deep bodied fish, uniformly silvery in colour, rarely dark spots may occur but the tip of the fins are
usually black.
9.The Rohu (Labeo rohita):
It is a graceful fish with thick and fringed lips, the snout is depressed, mouth ventral, 4 barbels, the
dorsal fin is long,15-16 rays. The back is brownish and the sides are silvery, abdomen is more silvery but fins are
dark.
It is a valuable food fish of India, vegetable feeder, attains a length nearly upto a metre. It can be stocked
in tanks, usually found in slow moving water, pools, rivers and is one of the commonest major carps of India.
It is prevalent in North East, North and central Indian natural water, although introduced nearly in all
parts of India as pond or flood culture fish.
10.Thekalbose (Labeo Calbasu):
It is a blackish green fish becoming lighter below, fins are black, upper tip of the caudal fin usually
tipped with white, the lips are fringed, horney covering inside each jaw,snout bears pores, 4 barbels.
They can be stocked in ponds and flood culture in North East Indian natural water. They are prevalent
more or less throughout India.
11.The Katla (catla catla)
The back of this fish is greyish, silvery on the sides and abdomen, fins are dark coloured, scales have
grey silvery tinge.The dorsal profile is more curved than the ventral,
mouth wide, lower jaw prominent, upper lip absent,pores are sometimes present on the snout.
It is an important,more productive food fish which attains up to 1.83 metres in length and can be easily
employed in pond and flood culture in Assam and North East, but found throughout India.
12. The Mrigal (Cirrhinus mrigala)
The dorsal profile is slightly more curved than the ventral,upper lip is entire,dorsal fin long,two sides
and belly silvery,pectoral,ventral and anal fins are orange, ujheyes are golden.
It grows upto 91 cm in length,excellent for stocking in tanks and flood culture in Assam,herbivorous,
breeds in running water, found throughout India.
13. The White Carp (Cirrhinus cirrhosa)
The body is silvery, scales having a reddish centre, abdomen dull yellowish, fins are Grey, dorsal profile
is more concave than ventral, 4 barbels, small tubercles on the snout.
It grows up to 46 cm in length, remains mostly in the lower section of water,can be stocked in tanks in
Assam.
14.The Chaguni (Chagunius Chagunio)
The body is uniformly silvery with dispersed pink tinge, fins are reddish with lighter edge, dorsal fin
edged black, the head is compressed with flat sides, overhanging snout is divided into central and lateral
lobes,the snout and seeks in males are with tubercles, fewer in female, dorsal spine serrated, scales are small, 4
barbels.
It grows up to 46 cms in length,found throughout India except peninsular region.
The Cat-fishes
The next largest group is the catfishes with scalless body, strong teeth in the jaws,snout with 1-4 pairs of
barbels,the dorsal and pectoral fins bear strong spine.
15.The Boali(Wallago attu)
The dorsal side of the body olive with golden, lower part of the body and slides lighter ,anal and caudal
fins are somewhat blackish, sides often cream coloured. The head is large,snout depressed,mouth wide,jaws with
conical teeth, posterior body laterally compressed, dorsal fin very small,anal fin long.
It is a powerful fish of large size, omnivorous, stays near the bottom of the water,
GENERAL 81
it grows upto 180 cms in length and 45 kg in weight,undesirable in big reservoir, natural in flood prone beels in
Assam, found throughout India.
16. Seenghari or Tengra (Mystus Seenhala)
The back is brownish, sides and belly are silvery, a black spot at the base of the posterior end of the
adipose fin, snout is flat and wide,a bony inter neutral shields between the basal bone of the dorsal fin, median
groove on head is short, maxillary barbels extend upto the end of dorsal fin. Distributed throughout India in
riverine habitats.
17. Aar (mystus aor)
Allied to Seenghari but differ in the wider mouth and longer maxillary barbels,median groove on head is
long,dark bluish on the back, gradually becoming whitish on the sides and belly,fins yellowish,dorsal and caudal
stained black,tip of adipose fin bears a dark spot. It attains 1.8 metres in length,freshwater dweller,restricted
mostly to rivers and riverine flood areas in Assam.
18. Khagga (Rita rita)
The back is greenish grey, sides and abdomen silvery, head is granulated, pectoral process is massive and
stout, anterior and posterior nasal opening are away from each other,6 barbels. It is also found in north India.
19. Pungus (Pangasius pangasius)
The body and the head dusky green above and white below with a purple gloss on the sides,sides of the
head golden yellow, fins are whitish. Body laterally compressed,head somewhat depressed,eyes are on the lower
anterior of the head, nostrils wide apart, mouth ventral,there are 4 barbels.
It feeds on decaying matter,resides mostly in the lower reach of river,grows upto 1.5 metres in length and
commonly known as fresh water shark, nocturnal in habit,found throughout India.
20.Silond (Silonia silodia )
Elongated and compressed body, eyes lateral,nostrils wide apart,mouth is slightly ascending,back dusky
green,sides silvery,dorsal and caudal fins greenish,others white, opercule orange to yellow, irish orange,dorsal
fin much in advance than ventral,2 maxillary barbels.
It is carnivorous,feeds on prawns,crabs and small fishes,remains in strong streams and grows upto a
metre in length,found in Brahmaputra and Gangetic plains.
21.Vacha (Eutropitchthys vacha)
Body elongated and compressed, mouth cleft wide slightly oblique, dorsal fin lies opposite to
ventral,body silvery with black greyish with tint of cobalt blue, patches of vermilion on jaw,orbital margin,gills
cover pectoral fin and ventral sides of the body,fins are greyish, 8 barbels.
It is carnivorous on small fishes and insects mostly surface feeder, destructive to pond fisheries,length
about 35 cms, prevalent mostly in the North east, and Eastern
states of India.
22. Garna Bacha ( Chupisoma garna )
Body elongated and compressed, herring like, part of the abdomen keeled, mouth sub-terminal,nostrils
are posterior and wide, back is green, sides and belly silvery, fins are translucent,dorsal and pectoral fins dotted
with black,head and shoulder bear golden gloss.
It is a carnivorous bottom feeder and feeds on crustaceans, small fishes and insects, grows upto a metre
in length, weighing upto 12.2 kgs. It occurs in Brahmaputra,Ganga etc.
23. Goonch (Bagarius bagarius )
The head and anterior body part depressed, head is bony and rough on upperside, tail is narrow and whip
like mouth behind the snout,ventral,dorsal and pectoral fins with strong spines,caudal fin deeply forked, both the
part producing filamentous processes, body colour yellowish green or to its habitat background, the yellowish
sides sometimes with patches of pink, black spots are irregularly scattered on the body, fins and there are two
irregular black markings behind the dorsal adipose fin.
It is predaceous in habit and known as fresh water shark,grows upto 2 metres in length and weighs up to
135 kgs,hence is the largest fresh water fish of India.
It is also known as living fossils as it has been existing for the last 5 million years (Tertiary period)
without evolution and fossils of this fish have been recorded from Tertiary deposits of Siwalik rocks in India.
24.Brown Trout
The body is brownish,dark spots along the upper part not below lateral line,the dorsal fin above the
pelvic and adipose fin above the anal fin . In India, it is found in higher reaches and River Brahmaputra, Beas
and Jhelum.
25.Murral (Channa marulins)
The colour of the fish differs in different environment, normally the body is greyish green, lighter
below,somewhat snake like,covered with scales sometimes with red, dorsal and anal fins are long, amphibious,
as it can stay outside water for quite a long time. Youngs are brilliant orange with lateral bands and adults have
5-6 cloudy bands below the lateral line, a large black ocellus occurs at the upper base of the caudal fin.
It grows up to 1.2 metres in length and found throughout India.
GENERAL 83
Conservation of fishes
A few few words added on the conservation of fishes particularly the game fishes are found to be
essential as in recent years the quality and quantity of fish fauna of the inland water of Assam and adjoining
areas have shown a sudden annihilation.
The major causes are :
1.Pollution of water by sewerage disposal and chemical wasters to running and standing water bodies.
2. The absence of fish ladders due to construction of embankments and dams.
3. Introduction of exotic fast breeder like tilapia in fresh water carp habitats.
4. Over-fishing and blasting of big water bodies by unlawful killers and uses of unapproved fish gears for
fishing reduced tremendously the fish population of Assam water bodies in particular.
Rodents (Rats and Squirrels).
Rodents,specially the rats,mouse,etc. are known from the dawn of human civilisation. Not only in the
multiplicity but also in the enormous, swarms of individuals, the group stands unique among mammals. They are
cosmopolitan in their distribution and have adapted themselves to all sorts of ecological
habitats,arboreal,terrestrial,subterranean to aquatic. They are equally at residential home, godown, fields,
bamboo grooves, at the snowy height of Himalaya as well as in the hot sandy deserts.
Rodents create immense problem in the field of agriculture,horticulture and other material possessions .
They are also responsible for the spread of some dreadful diseases like plague, murine, typhus, etc.They are also
known to be the source of a number of Zoonotic diseases such as leptospiral jaundice, salmonellosis ,rat-bite
fever,etc.
Taxonomy :The rodents in India are represented by seven families,39 genera and 99 species,out of
which the status of 9 from Andaman and Nicobar Island is not yet very clear. However, all the families are not
discussed here,as many of them do not occur in the North Eastern India States and Assam in particular. Therefore
,here only those families that occur in North eastern States including Assam,have been included.
Family Sciuridae
1.Petaurista candidulus. Wronghtoni's flying Squirrel
2.Belomys pearsoni.Hairy flying squirrel
3.Petaurista petaurista.Giant flying Squirrel
4.Hylopetes alboniger.Pasty coloured flying squirrel.
5.Tauniops macelellandi.Himalayan Squirrel.
6.Calloseiurus pygerythrus.Geoffroy Squirrel.
7.Dremomys lobriah.Orange belly Squirrel.
8.Dremomys pernyi.Long nosed Squirrel.
9.Rotufa bicolor.Malayan Squirrel.
Family Rhizomydae :
10.Connomys badius.Bamboo rat.
11.Rhizomys pruinosus.Hoary bamboo rat.
Family Hystricidae :
12.Arherurus macrourus.Asiatic porcupine
13.Hystrix indica.Crested Porcupine
14.Hystric Hodgson.Himalayan Porcupine.
Family Cricetidae :
15.Eothenomys melanogaster.david's vole.
16.Pitymys sikimensis.Sikkim vole.
17.Apodemus sylvaticus.Common field mouse.
18.Micromys minutus.Harvest mouse.
19.Chiropodomys gliroides.Tree mouse.
20.Vandeleuria obracea.Indian Tre mouse.
21.Rattus rattus.Mouse Rat.
22. Rattus uitidus.Himalayan Rat.
23. Rattus bowersi.Bower's Rat.
24.Raflus manipulus.Manipur Rat.
25. Rattus niviventer.White belly Rat.
26. Rattus fulvescens.Chestnut Rat.
27. Rattus eremoriventer.Dark tailed Rat.
28 Rattus edwardsi.Edward's Rat.
29. Rattus sabanus.Noisy Rat.
30.Dacnomys millardi.Giant Rat.
31.Hadromys humei.Hume's Rat.
32.Golunda ellioti.Bush Rat.
33.Bondicota bengalensis.Bandicoot Rat.
34. Bondicota indica.Large Bandicoot Rat.
35.Mus musculus.House mouse.
36.Mus dunni.Field mouse
37.Mus booduga.Indian field mouse.
38.Mus cerbvicolor.Fawn mouse.
39.Mus pahari.Sikkim mouse.
GENERAL 85
(g) Climate, Rainfall and Temperature :
Assam at present consists of two hill districts and twenty one plain districts. The climate of the hills is
generally salubrious while that of the plains is comparatively warm in summer but cool in winter.
Accordingly,the climate of Assam is characterised by alternate cool and warm periods with a highly
humidity,Especially from May to November. Between March and May at the time when precipitation in
Northern India is at the minimum, Assam gets some amount of rainfall from the Norwesters which keep the
temperature low in the season of spring. In the plains of Assam, the maximum temperature does not go beyond
90oF.or 32oC and in winter the plains of Assam have a minimum temperature of about 8oC or about 47oF.The
climate of the plains and the sub-montane region becomes unpleasant,especially in the summer season. It
happens to be so because of the extreme humidity which comes with the monsoon. In the plains of
Assam,including the district of Cachar the temperatures in summer may be only about 32oC. But the humidity
may be so high that one will perspire and feel very uneasy, especially during the period between two bouts of
rainfall.
From the climatic point of view the year in Assam can broadly be divided in two, the cold season and the
rainy season. However,there are two other short seasons namely spring and autumn representing the transition
between cold and rainy seasons and that between rainy and cold seasons respectively.
From the middle of November to the middle of February the cold season prevails with the sky becoming
clear and temperature going down below 15oC. Fogs also appear during these months, especially in the morning
and evening but they disappear during the daytime. From March temperature begins to rise,dust,storms begin ti
blow in western Assam and occasional Northwesters visit with thunderstroms. The showers of this period
prevent the temperatures from rising and they settle down the unwanted dusts which appear in the air. Besides,
they also help to make the vegetation green after the dry winter. After the short spring the south west monsoon
bursts in the third week of J une and rains continue to pour with short spells of drought. The atmosphere there
becomes sultry and temperature stands at 30oC to 35o C. Towards late September,the rains peter out and
temperature also decreases and the short autumn sets in,while the sky begins to become clear mists appear in the
horizon. With the farther fall of temperature, winter sets in from late November.
There is a slight variation of climate from region to region within the State. For instance, the climate of
the region covering Kamrup, Nalbari and Barpeta in west-central Assam is characterised by plentiful rains and
foggy winter. The cold season in this region is from December to February and this is followed by the sand-
storms and thunderstorms from March to May. The rainy season,
as in rest of Assam begins in late J une and continues upto late September. October and November constitute the
post-monsoon period. In western Assam comprising the districts of Goalpara, Bongaigaon, Kokrajhar and
Dhubri,the climate is intermediate between that of the North Bengal Plains and the west-central Assam Valley. In
this region,the day temperatures in April and May are nearly the same as in the monsoon months. The climate of
the Barak Valley districts is characterised by abundant rainfall, moderate temperatures and high humidity. The
year may be divided into four seasons and the cold season is identical with Goalpara and Kamrup. The climate of
the east central Assam comprising Darrang, Sonitpur, Marigaon and Nagaon is characterised by the absence of a
dry hot summer season,the highest temperature being experienced during the period of south west monsoon
along with abundant rains and a humid atmosphere throughout the year. The climate of the eastern Assam
districts (Golaghat, J orhat, Sibsagar, Tinsukia ,Dibrugarh, Dhemaji and Lakhimpur)is somewhat identical to
Darrang and Nagaon with temperature remaining slightly lower than in the latter.
Humidity : In most of the plain districts of Assam the air is highly humid throughout the year. In Kamrup
district,during the months of J anuary to April relative humidities are comparatively less being only 50 to
60%.The same condition holds good in case of Goalpara district where humidities are less,especially in the
afternoon,when they are between 50 to 65 per cent. During February and March in the district of Cachar,the air
is comparatively less humid,the afternoon humidities being less than 60 per cent. In Darrang too, the air is highly
humid throughout the year,except during the period February to April when the relative humidity is
comparatively less,particularly in the afternoon(less than 70 per cent).But in the Lakhimpur and Dhemaji
districts and in Majuli sub-division of J orhat district,the air is very humid throughout the year,the relative
humidity being usually over 70 %.In Nagaon district, during the period February to April relative humidity is
comparatively low,especially in the afternoon when it stands between 55% to 65%.In Golaghat, J orhat and
Sibsagar too, the atmosphere is highly humid throughout the year. The two hills districts of Assam,namely Karbi
Anglong and North Cachar Hills, have also almost similar humidity with the rest of Assam particularly so during
the period of south west monsoon season when the relative humidities are above 80%.The period from February
to April is comparatively drier here with the relative humidities are in the afternoon between 50 to 60 per cent.
Rainfall-Assam receives typical monsoon rains. The south-west monsoon rains starts from the third
week of June and they continue up to the middle of September. The State receives during this period about 180
cm of rainfall on the average. This constitutes about 80% of the average rainfall of the State while
GENERAL 87
the remaining 20% come in the form of occasional rains in J anuary (as a result of the extension of the westerlies
that come to the north-western India causing rainfall in Panjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh and snowfall
in J ammu and Kashmir, Himachal and the Himalayan region and in March-April (nor'westers or
Bordoichila).There is however . religion variation in the rainfall pattern. It is found that as the Maghalaya
.Plateau stands on the way of the main branch of the rain -bearing south-west monsoon winds .the southern
portion of the Brahmaputra Plains skirting the Plateau fall in the rainshadow zone . Hence the south-eastern part
of Kamrup district from Guwahati eastward. Southern part of Nagaon district .northern part of Hamren sub-
division and the eastern foothills of Karbi -Rengma hills receive less rainfall than the other parts of the
Brahmaputra Plains. In fact, the Lanka-Lumding receives hardly 100 cm of average annual rainfall. Similarly,
the Diphu-Nambar region also receives a small quantity of rain. In other parts of the Bhrahmaputra Plains,
rainfall increases as one goes to the east or north or west. The heaviest rainfall exceeding 200 cm is received in
Tinsukia, Dibrugarh, Dhemaji and Lakhimpur districts and along the Himalayan foothill region. The average
annual rainfall is around 200cm all over the middle part of the Brahmaputra Valley from the east to the west.
While the western part Of Karbi Anglong receives 200cm of average annual rainfall. North Cachar Hills and the
Barak plains receive more than 200cm.
The tables below show the monthly data of rainfall, temperature and relative humidity of different
stations of Assam.
Rainfall (in Milimetre)in 1967
Station J anua
ry
Feb March April May J une J uly August Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual
Total
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Source-Meteorological Centre,Calcutta.
A.P.-Air Port
1.Goalpara 21 0 172 169 179 426 390 245 500 50 9 0 2161
2.Dhubri 2 0 100 89 329 476 407 261 244 82 2 0 1992
3.Guwahati
A.P 7 14 114 154 246 124 211 238 296 20 36 1 1461
4.Rangia 4 0 90 73 426 373 407 222 136 30 17 0 1773
5.Tangla 0 0 54 78 388 373 314 141 113 73 0 83 1567
6.Majbat 1 22 87 53 264 304 506 142 145 100 0 0 1624
7.Tezpur 4 15 100 48 269 408 498 69 146 50 5 8 1615
8.Gohpur 3 71 74 84 332 621 453 286 437 107 13 5 2486
9.Chaparm 4 0 73 127 226 184 391 216 141 45 16 12 1435
10.Lumding 13 10 80 86 176 82 195 159 294 122 6 9 1282
11.Dibrugarh
A.P 26 38 121 75 213 410 360 268 298 46 22 4 1881
12.Digboi 12 130 144 60 230 210 465 384 348 154- - 2137
13.North
Lakhippur 18 65 149 38 264 582 525 374 485 96 8 0 2604
14.Silchar 40 16 144 219 372 523 620 329 363 187 8 0 2838
15.Haflong 53 143 117 230 260 352 270 192 241 165 6 0 2029
10.Lumding 13 10 80 86 176 82 195 159 294 122 6 9 1282
11.Dibrugarh
A.P 26 38 121 75 213 410 360 268 298 46 22 4 1881
12.Digboi 12 130 144 60 230 210 465 384 348 154- - 2137
13.North
Lakhippur 18 65 149 38 264 582 525 374 485 96 8 0 2604
14.Silchar 40 16 144 219 372 523 620 329 363 187 8 0 2838
15.Haflong 53 143 117 230 260 352 270 192 241 165 6 0 2029
GENERAL 89
Rainfall (in Millimetre) in 1971
Station J anua
ry
Total
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Source Meteorological Centre,Calcutta.
1.Goalpara 4- - - 313- - - - - - - 317
2.Dhubri 6 0 27 139 444 514 332 219 318 172 32 0 2203
3.Guwahati
A.P 4 1 67 171 186 331 331 302 112 78 82 0 1665
4.Rangia - - - - - - - - - - - - -
5.Tangla 2 7 45 139 94 236 181 263 239 150 55 22 1433
6.Majbat 0 13 5 67 96 21 98 39 28 21 6 1 395
7.Tezpur 7 19 28 84 142 259 434 228 222 208 43 11 1685
8.Gohpur 322 40 81 98 276 452 348 528- - - - 2145
9.Chaparmukh- - - - - - - - - - - - -
10.Lumding - - - - - - - - - - - - -
11.Dibrugarh
A.P 49 46 27 202 250 392 571 470 301 346 69 0 2723
12.Digboi 47 45 121 74 186 344 518 518 176 274 109 30 2442
13.North
Lakhimpur 57 85 40 98 260 392 724 728 379 376 0 0 3139
14.Silchar
A.P 16 31 28 294 331 480 407 513 293 254 99 1 2737
15.Haflong - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Rainfall(in Millimetre)in 1974
Station J anua
ry
Total
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Source- Meteorological centre,Guwahati
N.A.-Not Available
1.Goalpara 0 0 29 127 182 358 359 359 248 41 14 0 1762
2.Dhubri 0 0 21 331 65 439 569 323 231 64 30 0 1983
3.Guwahati 28 0 23 127 208 411 615 210 193 141 6 0 1962
A.P
4.Rangia 9 0 51 36 136 146 207 180 114 169 6 2 1056
5.Tangla 2 0 72 13 215 207 1170 297 148 34 0 0 2158
6.Majbat 3 11 36 84 52 180 230 149 316 44 0 1 1106
7.Tezpur 32 0 37 145 106 568 399 390 157 160 2 0 1893
8.Gohpur N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A.
9.Chaparmu 0 0 13 178 20 209 401 369 277 163 36 0 1665
10.Lumding 0 0 51 85 106 191 165 85 103 149 5 0 939
11.Dibrugarh 51 1 70 268 176 344 798 366 407 120 16 5 2822
A.P
12.Digboi 0 5 46 128_ 33 308 23 113 6 0 6 668
13.North
Lakhippur 41 58 34 95 133 448 351 257 269 165 12 4 1867
14.Silchar
A.P 0 15 112 200 78 638 681 465 347 2536
15.Haflong 0 0 20 3 1 58 88 146 92 39 37 0 484
GENERAL 91
Station J anua
ry
Total
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Source-Meteorological Centre,Guwahati.* Annual normal rainfall
N.A.-Not Available
A.P.-Air Port
1.Goalpara N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A.
2.Dhubri 0 5 52 432 368 484 608 664 209 491 36N.A. 3849
3.Guwahati
A.P 13 4 64 415 248 465 650 271 93 238 45 13 2519
4.Rangia N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. *1860
5.Tangla 28 13 97 235 394 458 424 308 131 57 19 19 2183
6.Majbat 9 0 35 352 428 320 427 597 202 128 16 15 2529
7.Tezpur 14 70 54 313 411 242 373 449 62 114 28 11 2141
8.Gohpur N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. *2160
9.Chaparmu 21 6 14 596 452 622 542 677 32 236 148 80 3426
10.Lumding 0 20 39 97 194 276 482 134 79 112 14 20 1467
11.Dibrugarh
A.P 18 68 102 392 313 485 589 710 210 199 49 54 3189
12.Digboi 142 88 47 140 270 119 213 172 143 89N.A. N.A. 1423
13.North
39 25 74 358 520 675 614 445 251 157 42 51 3251
14.Silchar 15 49 83 698 707 418 463 477 148 240 132 25 3455
A.P
15.Haflong N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. *2540
Lakhimpur
Rainfall(in milimetre)in 1980
Station J anua
ry
Total
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Source: Meteorological Centre,Calcutta,
N.A-Not Available
1.Goalpara N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A.
2.Dhubri 0 0 0 3 249 244 141 106 42 62 0 49 896
3.Guwahati
A.P 0 16 64 56 191 443 315 327 69 76 0 0 1557
4.Rangia 0 23 27 134 120 237 107 92 121 83 0 14 958
5.Tangla 16 13 9 75 255 174 162 109 69 27 0 0 909
6.Majbat 0 8 73 123 88 207 256 151 52 253 0 11 1222
7.Tezpur 4 16 77 110 198 310 285 370 197 78 0 0 1645
8.Gohpur 0 1 1 19 7 17 39 30 33 7 0 0 153
9.Chaparmukh 0 0 0 48 43 118 204 66 42 54 0 0 575
10.Lumding 0 1 11 15 93 139 169 8 39 90 16 10 591
11.Dibrugarh
A.P 8 54 128 198 182 235 433 506 243 150 0 9 2146
12.Digboi N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A.
13.North
49 44 130 126 295 275 632 562 352 66 0 0 2531
14.Silchar
A.P 0 63 135 194 200 405 160 144 322 149 17 0 1789
15.Haflong 22 56 52 77 59 51 152 59 272 142 0 0 942
Lakhippur
GENERAL 93
Station J anua
ry
Total
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
NB: not reported
(1)-Total of less than 10 days reports
00-Nil
tr-rainfall 0.1 to 0.4 mm
Source:-Directorate of Economics & Statistics,Assam;Statistical Hand Book,Assam,1987.
1.Goalpara N.R. N.R. N.R. N.R. N.R. N.R. N.R. N.R. N.R. N.R. N.R. N.R. 377
2.Dhubri N.R. N.R. N.R. N.R. N.R. 190 87N.R. N.R. N.R. N.R. N.R. 277
3.Guwahati
A.P tr 35 45 130 142 206 492 119 264 9 4 23 1469
4.Rangia 0 0 50 258 172 10664(1) 28(1) N.R. N.R. N.R. 0 678
5.Tangla 0 4 0 19N.R. 330 471 110N.R. 34 0 26 994
6.Majbat 0 2 34 13 2 17418(1) 13(1) 62 3 52 60 373
7.Tezpur 0 9 89 215 225 326 487 471 288 15tr 12 2137
8.Gohpur N.R. N.R. N.R. N.R. N.R. N.R. N.R. N.R. N.R. N.R. N.R. N.R. N.R.
9.Chaparmukh 0 0 0 42N.R. 152N.R. 36(1) 66(1) N.R. 0 42 338
10.Lumding 0 10 17 135N.R. 98N.R. 28(1) N.R. N.R. 0 0 288
11.Dibrugarh
A.P 18 24 163 340 150 326 800 352 69 82 14 15 2353
12.Digboi N.R. N.R. N.R. N.R. N.R. N.R. N.R. N.R. N.R. N.R. N.R. N.R. N.R.
13.North
21 62 139 302 43 570 1054 528 346 109 6 1 3481
14.Silchar 2 86 437 427 88 281168()1 37574(1) 56 41 0 2035
15.Haflong N.R. N.R. N.R. N.R. N.R. N.R. N.R. N.R. N.R. N.R. N.R. N.R. N.R.
Lakhippur
Monthly Rainfall(in Millimetre)in 1990
Station J anua
ry
Total
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Source-Statistical Hand Book,Assam,1991,p-28-31
1.Chaparmukh 4.2 23.4 161.6 392 145.8 511.6 384.2 241.4 420.2 252.5 0 0 2536.9
2.Rupsi 0 16 39.4 253.3 356.1 878.7 424.5 538.8 477.5 294.6 0 0 3278.8
3.Dibrugarh 13.5 78.4 59.3 255.9 216.9 703.4 641.9 343.5 648 93.3 1.7 15.3 3071.1
4.Guwahati 1.2 21.2 87 342.3 106.5 193 565.5 66.8 203.7 165.1 0 0.3 1752.9
5.Lumding 0 31.6 68.3 157.2 207.3 285.7 115.2 201.2 185.4N.A. 2.8 1.3 1256
6.Majbat 11.2 49 9.7 105.8 263.1 330.1 146 84 68.5 103.7 0 0 1171.1
7.North
57.1 85 75.9 256.2 169.8 832.2 908.4 503.8 585.5 196.3 0 8.2 3678.4
8.Silchar 10.5 39.2 146.9 570.7 282 517.8 432.8 404.2 483.4 298 47.4 32.8 3245.7
9.Tezpur 17.7 37.5 73.8 382.7 250 275.2 446.8 159.9 292.1 227.8 0 0.11 2114.6
Lakhimpur
GENERAL 95
Monthly Rainfall(in Millimetre)in 1992
Station J anua
ry
Total
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Source-Statistical Hand Book,Assam,1993,p-50-53.
1.Chaparmukh 8.1 3.2 8 0 263.1 491.7 244.7 230.4 555.4 54.5 0 0
2.Rupsi 6.3 1.1 4 163.6 458 484.9 474.1 628.8 45.6 0 0 0
3.Dibrugarh 36.2 140.9 151.5 264.6 231.5 429.4 475.1 223.7 443.4 134.2 8.9 3.8
4.Guwahati 0 33.1 19.3 103.5 271.4 404.6 357.1 373.4 185.9 55.3 7.2 16.5
5.Lumding 2.6 16 3.5 28.4 103 93.8 167 188.2 177.1 75 47.8 28
6.Majbat 0 49.4 32.4 102.7 251.2 417.4 487.4 180.4 205.2 44.8 6 9
7.North
53.4 122.8 68.1 132.2 24.92 430.8 516.8 567.8 144.8 106.6 7 3.2
8.Silchar 11.4 53.8 150 196.6 955.9 512.1 494 371.1 463.7 341.1 19.4 7.8
9.Tezpur 9.9 25.8 26 98.5 243.3 394.9 354.7 163.8 172.6 55.7 5.1 23.8
Lakhimpur
Relative Humidity (Monthwise),1974
Station J anu
ary
Feb March April May June July August Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Source:Meteorological Centre,Guwahati.
1.Goalpara 91 77 70 83 85 88 93 92 89 88 77 94
2.Dhubri 91 75 73 86 87 88 94 90 90 89 80 91
3.Guwahati
A.P 90 74 69 79 84 85 88 84 84 85 86 87
4.Rangia 85 66 63 78 77 82 86 84 84 86 74 79
5.Tangla 87 76 75 71 88 92 92 85 88 81 74 85
6.Majbat 78 85 88 87 68 95 91 90 86 87 83 88
7.Tezpur 87 76 74 79 83 87 93 89 90 87 85 88
8.Gohpur 93 88 92 94 93 95 95- - - - 91
9.Chaparmukh 87 88 70 78 82 90 87 85 82 91 97 83
10.Lumding 83 78 71 73 81 75 86 81 80 80 90 87
11.Dibrugarh
A.P 87 75 68 82 79 86 94 85 90 90 75 84
12.Digboi 91 79 79 83 90 77 80 88 84 87 89 89
13.North
83 75 70 83 79 75 97 87 89 84 72 80
84 76 76 77 74 90 92 84 89- - 80
15.Haflong 78 68 74 90 92 98 97 88 89 89 89 84
Lakhippur
14.SilcharA.P
GENERAL 97
Station J anuar
y
Feb March April May J une J uly August Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec
.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Source: Statistical Hand Book,Assam,1982,p-54-5.
1.Dhubri 90 81 78 82 83 85 91 91 91 84 79 85
2.Guwahati 89 77 69 78 80 78 88 83 85 77 82 86
3.Majbat 84 81 73 69 75 76 86 83 84 76 67 75
4.Tezpur 84 80 72 74 78 82 89 88 86 80 72 86
90 79 78 75 85 76 85 85 84 83 85 83
6.Lumding 91 90 87 87 84 89 89 82 92 90 92 88
7.Sibsagar 91 86 66- 73 80 95 95 95 88- 73
8.Dibrugarh 84 86 79 77 81 82 90 87 86 82 69 80
9.North
81 82 79 78 79 87 91 87 81 84 73 81
10.Silchar 80 79 74 78 85 83 84 88 83 74 70 76
11.Haflong 88 81 83 95 87- - - - - - -
5.Chaparmukh
Lakhimpur
Station J anua
ry
Feb March April May June July August Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Source-Statistical Hand Book,Assam,1993,p-46-7.
1.Chaparmukh 79.65 75.24 79.9 78.97 81.74 82.97 83.32 84.03 82.93 83.42 76.63 74.1
2.Rupsi 85.23 82.17 62 65.33 80.8 84.63 87.77 84.1 82.66 85.43 75.73 80.81
3.Dibrugarh82.58 82.34 79.1 79.07 79.65 84.3 86.35 85.61 85.67 79.16 69.03 74.32
4.Guwahat87.64 80.96 70.03 65.77 80.22 83.3 86.61 83.06 81.9 82.84 84.1 87.55
5.Lumding 92.16 88.45 88.74 92.8 94.45 94.1 92.74 94.48 95.43 93.94 94.07 93.42
6.Majbat 89.42 82.89 74.65 71.83 80.55 84.13 92.29 84.8 82.67 80.16 75.93 80.94
7.North
80.84 84 80.97 78.06 78.61 85 88.87 86.06 83.47 75.19 69.9 73.03
8.Silchar 87.74 83.66 80.74 79.4 81.58 82.07 83.94 83.45 84.3 80.74 77.87 77.26
9.Tezpur 85.87 78.76 66.74 73.3 80.06 87.43 87.48 87.45 86.76 81.61 79.27 81.51
Lakhimpur
GENERAL 99
Monthly Average Maximum and Minimum Temperature(in Centigrade)in Assam,1974
Stations J an
Maxi Mini
Feb
Maxi Mini
March
Maxi Mini
April
Maxi Mini
May
Maxi Mini
J une
Maxi Mini
J uly
Maxi Mini
Aug.
Maxi Mini
Sept.
Maxi Mini
Oct.
Maxi Mini
Nov.
Maxi Mini
Dec.
Maxi Mini
1.Goalpara
2.Dhubri
3.Guwahati
A.P.
4.Rangia
5. Tongla
6.Majbat
7.Tezpur
8.Gohpur
9.Chaparmukh
10.Lumding
11.Dibrigarh
A.P
12.Digboi
13.North
Lakhimpur
14.Silchar A.P
15.Haflong
22.9 4.0
22.2 12.5
22.3 10.0
21.1 9.5
23.9 10.2
23.7 8.9
22.8 11.3
21.3 9.4
_ 15.8
24.1 7.5
21.6 8.4
1.7 7.0
22.2 10.0
21.2 11.9
18.7 13.2
27.0 _
26.4 13.3
34.3 10.4
23.7 11.7
25.8 12.3
26.0 11.6
26.6 13.2
25.1 10.6
_ 13.8
26.8 8.4
24.6 11.9
23.3 12.0
24.2 12.1
24.7 13.4
21.3 15.8
31.0 11.2
30.6 17.3
29.5 15.1
27.5 14.7
28.8 15.6
30.2 14.6
30.7 16.4
27.3 13.9
_ 16.4
31.1 21.1
27.0 15.2
_ 15.3
26.2 15.5
26.8 18.4
25.2 20.3
29.8 14.4
296 21.2
29.9 19.9
28.4 19.3
30.2 18.6
31.8 18.3
29.5 30.0
28.3 17.9
20.0 21.6
32.7 17.2
26.9 18.2
30.5 16.7
27.7 19.6
29.1 22.0
24.5 19.8
32.5 17.2
32.3 25.3
30.3 22.6
31.0 22.2
30.1 22.7
33.6 22.8
31.7 22.9
29.8 21.7
_ 26.4
32.5 21.2
29.6 22.0
_ 16.0
29.8 23.2
30.5 24.3
27.0 21.7
31.6 17.9
31.3 24.6
31.6 24.5
31.9 23.6
32.3 22.8
31.8 24.5
31.8 24.1
29.0 24.5
_ 25.3
32.9 22.8
31.5 24.1
_ 23.3
31.2 24.4
29.4 27.7
30.0 22.0
29.3 17.6
29.5 24.9
30.3 24.9
30.3 23.8
31.1 22.4
31.7 23.5
29.8 24.3
29.0 24.0
_ 25.5
31.7 23.3
29.6 23.8
_ 23.2
30.0 24.2
27.0 24.8
25.6 22.4
31.3 16.2
30.9 25.7
31.7 25.6
30.8 24.4
32.3 22.8
33.3 24.2
31.5 24.8
_ _
_ 25.7
33.7 24.2
31.5 24.7
32.5 24.2
30.1 24.2
29.5 25.4
29.4 23.3
30.6 16.2
28.8 24.5
30.6 23.9
29.6 23.0
30.8 21.3
31.8 22.8
30.5 23.1
_ _
_ 24.7
32.9 26.4
29.6 22.6
29.0 22.0
30.4 23.8
28.1 24.2
33.6 26.0
32.4 15.6
29.5 24.5
30.6 23.0
29.8 21.7
30.5 20.6
32.7 22.1
32.9 21.9
_ _
30.0 24.3
32.2 21.8
28.6 21.8
30.2 22.3
31.4 23.1
_ _
26.7 20.3
28.8 13.7
27.3 19.4
28.6 18.3
29.0 17.6
30.3 14.3
29.9 16.6
33.9 20.0
_ _
28.5 19.6
29.6 17.1
28.3 15.9
_ 17.2
28.9 15.9
_ _
24.0 16.7
29.5 7.0
22.1 13.0
23.6 10.7
20.0 9.9
23.5 11.1
24.0 10.0
32.8 13.3
23.9 10.5
23.9 11.8
25.3 8.4
22.8 9.1
_ 10.2
24.3 9.7
_ 12.0
19.6 9.9
Source : Meteorological Centre. Guwahati.
Maximum and Minimum Temperature(in Celsius)
recorded in Assam during the year.
Stations 1980 1981 1984 1985
Maxi------Mini Maxi------Mini Maxi------Mini Maxi------Mini
Source -Staistical hand Book,Assam,1982,p-56 and 1987,p-44
1.Dhubri 37 8 36 9 - - - -
2.Guwahati 35 8 36 7 39 8 35 8
3.Majbat 37 6 37 6 33 11 37 11
4.Tezpur 34 7 37 10 36 9 35 9
38 8 37 8 35 9 38 9
6.Lumding 37 5 37 8 39 9 37 6
7.Sibsagar - - 32 39 - - - -
8.Dibrugarh 36 6 36 6 37 8 36 6
9.North
Lakhimpur 35 6 36 6 36 5 35 6
10.Silchar 34 8 34 9 33 8 35 6
11.Haflong 34 5 35 5 - - - -
5.Chaparmukh
GENERAL 101
Monthly Average Maximum and Minimum Temperature(in Celsius)in Assam,1992
Source : Statistical Hand Book,Assam 1993,p-42-45
Jan Feb. March. Apri l . May. June. Jul y. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
Stati ons Maxi Mi ni Maxi Mini Maxi Mini Maxi Mini Maxi Mi ni Maxi Mi ni Maxi Mi ni Maxi Mi ni Maxi Mi ni Maxi Mi ni Maxi Mi ni Maxi Mi ni
1.Chaparmukh 24.5 9.1 27.5 10.5 32.1 11.5 38.5 16.1 35.1 14.5 36.5 18.5 36.1 21.1 37.6 24.1 36.7 21.1 34.1 17.5 29.1 13.5 26.5 9.1
2.Rupsi 27.5 10.2 26.1 5.3 37.9 10.1 40.5 16.7 38.9 18.8 35.9 20.3 35.6 22.7 36.1 23.7 34.9 24.2 32.4 14.5 30.0 8.3 25.8 7.1
3.Dibrugarh 27.4 4.6 26.5 11.8 31.5 12.4 31.5 15.1 33.8 18.7 36.0 22.5 35.8 23.1 36.0 22.2 36.4 21.0 34.3 15.5 31.3 10.4 24.8 5.6
4.Guwahati 26.8 5.9 26.2 8.9 36.8 11.9 39.4 16.2 34.4 20.2 35.8 22.4 33.8 23.9 35.1 23.7 34.8 1.0 32.8 17.1 30.5 12.2 26.4 8.1
5.Lumding 18.5 5.0 25.5 9.0 29.5 11.0 30.0 20.0 30.7 21.0 33.1 22.5 30.6 22.0 31.6 23.0 33.0 21.0 28.0 26.5 23.6 10.5 19.0 6.5
6.Majbat 28.0 6.0 26.0 9.0 32.0 14.0 34.0 17.0 32.0 17.0 34.0 20.0 33.0 23.0 34.0 24.0 34.0 15.0 31.0 16.0 28.0 7.0 28.0 5.0
7.North
28.2 4.2 25.7 7.5 31.4 12.2 31.2 15.3 33.0 18.1 35.8 22.5 35.2 22.6 35.4 23.0 35.4 20.6 33.0 13.8 31.5 9.0 27.7 4.2
8.Silchar 27.7 10.0 29.2 11.7 23.7 15.0 29.5 18.7 24.1 18.3 26.8 22.4 38.4 21.3 38.2 20.2 26.2 22.9 34.1 20.9 34.0 14.5 27.8 10.5
9.Tezpur 27.0 7.6 26.1 7.6 32.6 13.3 34.6 17.1 38.0 18.0 36.4 21.4 35.0 22.9 35.4 22.6 34.4 21.5 33.3 16.6 30.5 12.5 26.6 8.1
Lakhimpur
Chapter II
HISTORY
PRE-HISTORY AND ANCIENT PERIOD
Pre-History of Assam :
Pre-history period is the period which is anterior to recorded history .Sources for study of this period,etc.
Pre-history of Assam, is almost and uninvestigated field of study. Caves, tools and geological stratas of
Paleolithic, Neolithic and chaleolithic ages discovered in the North-East region so far, in combination give an
idea of human habitation in this part of the country in the hoary past. During the past few years, however, several
sites and a large number of tools belonging to the Paleolithic age have been discovered in the Garo hills. Relics
ofthis culture are also found in the Lohit district of Arunachal Pradesh and in the excavations of a cave at
Khangkhuti in the Ukhrul Sub-division of Manipur.
1
Besides, some caves in the Khasia-J aintia hills of
Meghalaya,
2
in the Mikir hills
3
(present Karbi Anglong district) and North Cachar hills
4
with traces of
rudimentary paintings and carvings
5
were discovered and some caves in the undivided district of Kamrup and at
J ogighopa and Surya Pahar in the district of Goalpara are noticed. But these have not been properly studied and
explored yet.
The stone tool so far, collected, in and around Assam,give an idea regarding the Neolithic culture of this
part of India. John Lubbock was the first person to refer to finds of jade neolithic implements in Upper Assam.
In 1872, S.E. Peal reported the find of a celt below the foundation of a tea factory in Upper Assam. In 1875,
Medlicot mentioned the find of a stone hatchet in a tea-estate near Dibrugarh.
6
Of the earlier neoliths, there is
very meagre evidence. But some specimen of the later Neolithic period have been discovered and these are
supposed to be made by the speakers of the Mon-khmer Speech which began some time in 2500 B.C. or a little
earlier.
The first large find was made by Mr W. Penny, a tea-planter of Biswanath in the present Sonitpur
District,while digging a ditch in his estate.
7
It had been kept in the Indian Museum,Calcutta,Amongst other
notable persons who had collected a number

1. H.D Sankalia and T.C. Sharma : '' The Prehistoric Age''. The Comprehensive History of Assam.
(ed.(H.K.Barpujari),pp.28-30.
2. Hutton : Journal of the Asiantic Society of Bengal,XXII (NS),p-341
3. R.M. Nath : Journal of the Asiantic Society of Bengal VII., pp.19-23.
4. Ursala Graham Bower : Naga Path, pp.121-129.
5. J .P. Mills : Journal of the Assam Research Society,Vol. 1,pp.3-6.
6. K.L. Baruah: '' Pre-Historic Culture in Assam'',Studies in the Early History of Assam.(ed.)M.
Neog,p.211.
7. A.H. Dani : Proto-history of Eastern India,p.75
HISTORY 103
of materials of neolithic origin,mention may be made of J .H. Hutton, J .P. Mills, G.D. Walker, T.H. Grace, K.L.
Barua and P.C. Choudhury.
Numbering about 385 specimens of stone tools are preserved in the Pitt Rivers Museum,Oxford,and they
come from almost all the regions of North East India,the largest number,156 pieces,being from Biswanath in the
Sonitpur district. J.H. Hutton in his article ''Pre-history of Assam'',classified the ground and polished stone tools
into three types :(1) long,narrow and triangular,(2) more or less rectangular and (3)the shouldered type. Of the
shouldered types,one is found at Kanarpara (Cachar)and one at Biswanath (Sonitpur). Two more stone celts of
that very type were discovered at Singbhum in present Bangladesh. According to La Toche, Beatric, Blackwood
and Smith,these neolithic tools were used by stone-age men in killing their species in combat.
E.A. Gait, explain for non-availability of neolithic and other stone-age evidences in Assam as
follows-''The Brahmaputra Valley is an alluvial country and the impetuous, snow-fed rivers which debouch from
the Himalayas, find so little resistance in its fertile soil that they are constantly carving out new channels and
cutting away their banks,consequently no building erected in their neighbourhood can be expected to remain for
more than a limited time''.
8
A.H. Dani divided the erstwhile state of Assam into six district zones for the study of neolithic culture.
They are-
1.Cachar Hills zone
2.Sadiya Frontier zone
3.Naga Hills zone
4.Khasi Hills zone
5.Garo Hills zone
6.Brahmaputra Valley zone.
The grooved hammer stone is peculiar to the Brahmaputra Valley, as no such other neoliths have been
discovered in other parts of Assam. This suggest that the people using this tools,at first,lived in the Brahmaputra
Valley but were forced later to take shelter in the hills. It is certain that they are the pre-Dravidian Neolithic
aborigins,who are now represented by the Austro-Asiatic Mon-Khmer speaking Khasis and Syntengs of
Meghalaya. But linguistically and culturally,this people are akin to Mundas of Chota-Nagpur.
9
In recent years, several neolithic sites have been discovered in this region and excavations were also
undertaken in these cities, viz. (1) Daojali Hading in the North Cachar hills, (2)Sarutaru in the Kamrup district
and (3)Sebalgiri in the Garo hills. Besides, different type of the stone tools, etc.,have been found in all these
excavated sites.
10

8. E.A. Gait : A History of Assam,Reprint,1967.p 21.
9. K.L. Barua : Pre-Historic Culture in Assam,Loc,cit.,p 210
10. H.D. Sankalia and T.C. Sharma : ''The Pre-historic Age''. Loc.Cit..pp.31-33
Thus the antiquity of human civilization in Assam has been established beyond doubt by the discovery
of stone celts used by the neolithic people in various part of it. These neoliths as well as linguistic and
morphological evidence prove that the ancient inhabitants of Assam were of the Austric stock and note of the
Dravidian as it was once supposed to be.
The next wave of migration to this country brought the Dravidians, whose history is at least as old as the
Austro-Asiantics. They were cultured people belonging to the Chacolithic age, who, in the remote past, inhabited
Northern India supplanting the Austric races. The Aryans adopted many elements of Dravidian culture and
religion,including the cult of Linga and yoni, The antiquity of this cult in Assam is proved by the temple of
goddess Kamakhya. The Dravidians got so mixes up with the Mongoloids, who came to the Brahmaputra Valley
a little later after them that as a result of their inter-fusion,a new typed called Mongoloi-Dravidian originated.
The Mongoloids belonging to the Tibeto-Burman family of the Indo-Chinese group,who now
predominate the indigenous population of Assam,migrated to this country from their original home in Western
China. To quote S.K. Chatterjee,'' Different branches of the great Sino-Tibetan speaking people which had their
nidus near the head-waters of the Young-tsze-Kiang and the Hoang-Ho rivers, to the west of China, pushed south
and west,probably from 2000 B.C onwards and their tribes of these infiltrated into India mostly along the
western course of the Brahmaputra''.
11
They entered Assam through various routes at different times. The Ahoms
of the Tai or Shan group Mongoloids entered Assam in the early part of the 13
th
Century. The Khamtis, Phakials,
Aitongs, Khamjangs and Turungs who are of the same origin came to Assam in the 16
th
Century or a little later.
Linguistically, the Tibeto-Burmans are divided into two main groups-North Assam and Assam-Burmese.
To the first group belonging the Arunachali tribes like the Adis, Nishis, Akash, Mishings and Mishimis. The
second group includes the Bodos, The Nagas and the Kuki-Chins. The large Bodo group, in its turn, includes
most of the tribes and communities of the North-East region like the Garos, Rabhas, Kacharis, Dimasas,
Chutiyas, Morans, Koches, Hajongs, Lalungs, etc. In classical Indian literature they are called Kiratus
The Aryans were possibly the last to enter Assam. According to S.K. Chaterjee. they arrived in North
Bengal by 700 B.C., if not earlier,
12
from where they moved eastward in small groups at different times. Assam's
early contact with the Aryans is borne out by the two great epics, the Ramayana and Mahabharat. According to
the Kalika Purana, Aryan settlements were made by Naraka and Bhagadutta, the early rules of ancient Assam.
The inscriptions of Bhaskaravarman make definite reference to the presence of Aryan settlement of ancient
Assam in the 5
th
Century A.D.

11. S.K. Chatterjee : The Place of Assam in the History of Civilization of India. University of
Gauhati. 1970. p.9.
12. Ibid., p.7.
HISTORY 105
Among the population of Assam,Alpine or Armenoid and Irano-Scythian are also found to be present. At
what time and by which route,They came to Assam, it is difficult to ascertain.
Thus the process of influx of various races across the borders went on through successive waves and in
course of time, different cultures mingled so thoroughly in the composite Assamese culture that it now becomes
very difficult to distinguish one from the other.
History of Ancient Assam :
Ancient Assam was known as Pragjyotisha in early times and as Kamarupa in later times. The name
Pragjyotisha stood for both the kingdom and capital city. The earliest mention of the city of Pragjyotisha is found
in the Ramayana and Mahabharata. According to the Ramayana,this city was founded by Amurtaraja son of
Kusa and grandfather of the famous stage Viswamitra. There are different options regarding the origin of the
name''Pragjyotisha''. According to the Kalika Purana,''here Brahma first created the stars and hence the city is
called Pragjyoitishpur,a city equal to the city of Indra.''
13
Gait says that the name,Pragjyotishpur ''is interesting in
connection with the reputation in which,the country has always been held as a land of magic and incantation,and
with the view that it was in Assam that the Tantrik from of Hinduisim orginated.''
14
The name
Pragjyotisha,however,is most probably derived from the termPrag-jyotish,meaning the eastern light. Hence it
appears to mean ''the city or land of eastern light.''
15
The kingdom came to be known as Kamrupa during the Purantic times,based on the legend that
Kamadeva, the god of love, the Indian Cupid,who was destroyed by the fiery glance of Siva returned to life in
this country,
16
According to B.K. Kakati, the name ''Kamrupa'' is derived from an Austric formation like Kamru
or Kamrut, the name of a lesser divinity in Santali, which justifies the association of the land with magic and
necromancy.
17
All this can be explained in the light of the cult of magic and sorcery prevalent in the land. The
first historic reference to the kingdom of Kamarupa is made in the Allahabad Pillar Inscription of Samudragupta,
assigned to the middle of the fourth century A.D.
Geographical Extent :
The geographical extent of the kingdom of Pragjyotish-Kamarupa varied from time

13. K.I.. Barua : Early History of Kamrupa.1996,p.7.
14. E.A. Gait : Op.cit..p.15.
15. D.C. Sircar : ''Pragjyotisha-Kamarupa'',The Comprehensive Historyof Assam,(ed.), H.K.
Barpujari,p.60.
16. K.L.Barua : Op.cit., p.7
17. Ibid : Op.cit.,p.1
to time. But one thing is certain that its northern and south-western limits extended much beyond the present
state of Assam. The references in the Ramayana and the Mahabharata that the country stretched as far as the
sea and that it was a partly hilly country. The Ramayana locates the city of Pragjyotisha on a gold-crested
mountain called Varaha,which was 64 yojans in extent and''which stood or abutted on the fathomless varunalaya
(sea).''In the Mahabharata,Bhagadutta,the king of Pragjyotisha is called Sailyalaya, (dwelling among the
mountains)and refers to his troops as consisting of the Kiratas, Chinas and dwellers of the sea-coast. The Varaha
mountain referred to the Ramayana was possibly the Assam range,while the sea mentioned there was the very
low-lying and water logged country immediately to the south of these hills which in old days was perhaps
connected with the Bay of Bengal by the estuary of the Brahmaputra .This was no doubt '' the eastern sea known
to the ancients''. Kiratas were the Mongoloid people of this region and the Chinas probably meant the Tibetans
and the Bhutanese. The dwellers of the sea coast were evidently the people living in the marshy of Sylhet,
Mymensingh and Tripura.
18
On the other hand, it is stated in the Ramayana the Amurtaraja, the founder of Pragjyotisha performed
his austerities on the bank of the Kausika,which indicates that its western limit extended as far as the river Kosi.
On the basis of these references, Pargiter concluded that at the time of the great Mahabharata war,the kingdom of
Pragjyotisha included the greater part of modern Assam,and together with J alpaiguri,Koch Bihar, Rangpur,
Bogra, Mymensing,Dacca, Tippera, part of Pabna and probably a part of eastern Nepal. It appears from the
Buddhist records and the Greek accounts of the 14
th
century B.C.,that the southern boundary of Pragjyotisha was
the Lohita Sagara, the western boundary was the river Kousika,and the northern boundary was the Bhutan hills
and part of Nepal. From the accounts of Yuan Chang,it has been surmised that the kingdom of Kamarupa of his
description included a portion of Bihar,a portion of Northern and Eastern Bengal,and nearly the whole of Assam
Valley. Some portion of Bengal were under Kamrupa from the time of Bhaskara Varman who ruled in the first
half of the 6thcentury A.D.to the time of Harshadeva.
19
(c.725-750A.D.)
According to the most of the Puranas,the Kingdom of Kamarupa extended upto the river Karatoya in the
west. The eastern limit of the kingdom,however,cannot be definitely ascertained. According to the Kalika
Purana,when Naraka was ruling in Pragjyotisha,his friend Bana was ruling in Sonitpur, identified with the
modern town of Tezpur. It is generally believed that Bana's Kingdom included the modern districts,of Darrang,
Sonitpur and Lakhimpur. About the same time,there existed in the extreme eastern part,another independent
Kingdom called Vidarbha. It is also doubtful if the

18. K.L. Barua :pp.1-2.
19. P.L. Paul : Early History of Bengal. pp.20-32.
HISTORY 107
Kapili valley was initially a part of the Kingdom of Pragjyotishpur-Kamarupa, because Davaka identified with
the Kapili valley is mentioned as an independent kingdom in the Allahabad pillar inscription of Samuragupta. It
was Kalyanavarman (c.420-440A.D),a predecessor of Bhaskaravarmana,who incorporated Davaka with the
kingdom of Kamrupa in the first part of fifth century A.D.
20
From this it can be concluded that eastern Assam
valley was outside the perimeter of Pragjyotisha but subsequently the kingdom extended towards the east even
beyond the Dikhou river. Foundation of the city of Harupeswara by the Salastambha kings, the Tezpur grant and
the Parvatiya plates of Vanamala, and the Nowgong grant of Balavarman during the 9
th
-10
th
century A.D. also
point to the extension to the Kingdom to its eastern limits.
21
In the Jogini Tantra,which is probably a later work, Kamarupa was said to have extended from the
Karatoya river on the west to the Dikshu (Dikhou)on the east,and from the mountain of Kanjagiri on the north to
the confluence of the Brahmaputra and the Laksha on the south. The kingdom thus included not only the whole
of the Brahmaputra valley but also parts of northern and eastern Bengal, parts of Bhutan,the Khasi and the Garo
hills and the northern part of the district of Sylhet. In any case,it is clear that Pragjyotisha or ancient Kamrupa
was a much larger kingdom that most of the other kingdoms mentioned in the Mahabharata and most of the
sixteen Mahajanapadas existing during the time of Gautama Buddha.
22
The Tantras and the Pauranas divided Kamarupa into four parts of divisions,but the names and
boundaries of this divisions are conflicting. The generally accepted names and the boundaries of the divisions
are found in the Hara-Gauri-Sambada. This work divided Kamarupa into four Pithas or divisions marked by
river boundaries as follows:
(1).Ratnapitha from the Karatoya to the Sonkosh.
(2).Kampitha from the Sonkoch to the Kapili.
(3).Suvarnapitha from the Puspika to the bhairabi.
(4).Saumarpitha from the Bhairabi to the Dikrong.
Capital Cities :
According to the traditions,all the king of ancient Assam starting from Mahiranga Danava,had their
capital in and around Guwahati, which was known as Pragjyotishpur meaning of the capital of the Pragjyotisha
kingdom. The Mairang hill, named after Mahiranga Danava,which is situated at a distance of about 12 km.south
of Guwahation the Shillong-Guwahati Road,indicates his historicity. In the like way Naraka's historicity is
indicated by the existing village of Narakasurgaon,which includes the Narakasur hill,

20. P.C. Choudhury : The History of Civilization of the People of Assam to the Twelfth Century A.
D..pp.138-40
21. Ibid. p.44
22. K.L.Barua : Op.cit..p.7
at a distance of about 5 km. to the south west of modern city of Guwahati. According to K.L. Barua, the modern
site of Dispur, situated about 3 km. to the east of Narakasurgaon, is believed to be the abbreviation of
Pragjyotishpur.
23
In later period, during the rule of the Salastambha dynasty, king Hajara Varman (c.815-835 A.D.) is said
to have shifted his capital to Haruppeswara, identifies with the modern town of Tezpur. Subsequently during the
rule of the Pala dynasty the capital was again shifted to Pragjyotishpur and named as Sri Durjaya . About the end
of the eleventh century, the capital of Dharmapala (c.1095-1120 A.D.) was at Kamarupnagar, which is identified
with North Guwahati. According to P.C. Choudhury, Kamarupanagar was ''but an extension of the old capital''
24
of Pragjyotishpur. Kamarupanagar remained the capital until the later part of the thirteenth century A.D., after
which it was shifted to Kamatapur.
It is very probable that the king of ancient Assam, who ruled over territories extending from northern
hills to the southern sea, had more than one camp capitals, which were also capital of some other dynasties
ruling at those sites at different times. One such site is Sonitpur (modern Tezpur), where once the traditional king
Bana or Banasur ruled till he was vanquished by Sri Krishna after the secret marriage of Aniruddha, the grand-
son of Sri Krishna with Banas daughter Usha. Another such site is at Kundila Nagar (modern Sadiya)in the
easternmost corner of the Brahmaputra valley, where the legendary king Bismaka, the Father of Rukmini who
was the consort of Sri Krishna ruled. Mention may also be made of Bitargarh fort of J alpaiguri and Kamatapur of
Koch Bihar. But there is no doubt that throughout the ancient period, when the kingdom of Pragjyotisha or
Kamarupa included, besides the Brahmaputra valley, part of east Bengal, its capital was situated at
Pragjyotishpur, which is known as Guwahati in the modern times, as there is no other place which all exactly fit
in with the description of the ancient inscriptions,wherein the capital is stated to be ''situated on the bank of the
Lauhitya'' being surrounded by hills on all sides and crowded with dense forests.
25
The Traditional Kings :
The earliest known king of ancient Assam was Mahiranga Danava. He had his capital at Mairanka,
identified with a hill called Mairang Parvat near Guwahati. He was succeeded in turn,by Hataksur, Sambarasur
and Ratnasur .The epithels ''Danava'' and ''Asura'' show that they were of non-Aryans origin. After them came
Ghatakasura who is called the ruler of the Kiratas. Ghatakasura was overthrown by Narakasura, who is the hero
of various stories narrated in the Purana and the Tantras. Narakasura founded a new dynasty known as Bhouma
or Varaha dynasty. The legends goes that Naraka was born of Prithivi (the earth)by Bishnu, in his Varaha (boar)
in carnation and was brought up the Janaka, the king of Videha or North Bihar. It is for this region that Naraka is

23. Op.cit. p.19.
24. Op.cit.p.245
25.K.L.Barua: Op. Cit..p.88
HISTORY 109
called Bhauma (born of the earth) and on account of his supposed divine origin, all dynasties ruling in
Pragjyotishpur-Kamarupa claimed their descent from Naraka and called themselves Bhauma. Naraka away the
Kiratas to the country near the sea coast and settled the Aryans in this country. This was perhaps the earliest
settlement of the Aryans in Assam.
26
Naraka built a fort in a few place surrounded on all sides by hills and it is said that this stronghold was
inaccessible even to the gods. Naraka was worshipper of goddess Kamakhya and favoured by Vishnu. In his
early career, Naraka was pious and prosperous, but later, he came under the influence of Banasura, the king of
Sonitpur, and grew so irreligious and presumptuous that finally he proposed to marry mother goddess
Kamakhya. The goddess assented to the proposal on condition of construction by Naraka during the course of
one night,a temple,a tank and a road from the foothills to the temple at the top. All these were nearly
completed,when the goddess made a cock crowd before the usual hour to indicate dawn. Thus Naraka's proposal
came to a naught. The arrogant Naraka even refused admission to the famous sage Vasistha to worship in the
temple of Kamakhya. When the news of his atrocities reached Sri Krishna, the incarnation of Vishnu, the latter
came to Pragjyotisha with his army, defeated and killed Naraka in a battle and placed Naraka's son Bhagadatta
on the throne of Pragjyotisha.
Bhagadutta was a powerful king. It is said that he married his daughter Bhanumati to Durjyodhana, the
eldest of the Kauravas, and for this relation participated in the Kurukshetra was an ally of the Kauravas.
Bhagadutta is a well-known figure in the Mahabharata, which calls him the mighty king of the Mlechchas. He is
celebrated in this epic as a powerful warrior king ''not inferior to Chakra in battle'' and described as ''the best
wielder of the elephant squad'' among the Kauravas allies. He is dignified with the title ''Siva's friend'' and
always talked of with respect and friendliness by Sri Krishna.
27
After he was killed in the Mahabharata war,he
was succeeded by his son Vajradatta. The geneology of the rulers after Vajradutta is uncertain.
The Nidhanpur copper place inscription of Bhaskaravarman who ruled over Kamarupa in the early
seventh century A.D., states that a period of three thousand years elapsed between the death of Vajradutta and the
accession of Pushyavarman, the ancestor of Bhaskaravarman, who was the twelveth in the line.
The Bhagavata and the Vishnu Purana narrate the story of another traditional ruler, Bhismak, who ruled
in Vidarbha popularity identified with the Sadiya region. His capital was at Kundil. He had a beautiful and
accomplished daughter named Rukmini.Lord Krishna having heard of her came to Vidarbha and married her by
defeating the other kings at Kundil Nagar.
TheKalika Purana, Bhagavata Purana and the Vishnu Purana contain account of

26. K.L. Barua : Op.cit. p.,19
27. Ibid : Op. Cit.,p.21
a king named Bana or Banasura, whose daughter Usha was believed to have been married to Aniruddha, the
grandson of Sri Krishna. From his title it appears that he was of Asura or Danava clan, hence a non-Aryan. It
appears from a number of sources that Bana was a contemporary of Naraka. According to P.C. Choudhury, the
historicity of Bana is established by the remains of Agniparvat, Mahabhairab temple, Bhairavi temple and other
remains in Tezpur associated with his name.
28
From the extant of architectural remains in different places in the
undivided Darrang and the Lakhimpur districts,it is believed by some that the kingdom of Bana included the
whole of these areas.
Ruling Dynasties of Ancient Assam :
The Varmana Dynasty :
The real political history of ancient Assam begins with the foundation of the Varmana line of kings. The
inscriptions of Bhaskaravarman, the greatest king of this dynasty as well as of ancient Assam, Banabhatta's
Harshacharita and the accounts of the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen-Tsang furnish considerable materials relating to
the history of the Varmanas. It is learnt from epigraphical sources that Pushyavarman, born in the lineage of
Naraka-Bhagaduta was the founder of the Varmana of Bhauma line of kings.
29
When and how Pushyavarman
came to power is not known. He probably taking advantage of the political instability of the time,made himself
king and to justify his claim,traced his descent from Naraka-Bhagadutta. According to B.M.Barua.''
Pushyavarman was the first Indo-Aryan ruler set up by Samudragupta over the two territories of Kamarupa and
Davaka unified into a single kingdom.''
30
But this view is not tenable because Pushyavarman assumed the
important title of Maharajadhiraja which indicates his independent status.
Pushyavarman was probably a contemporary of Samudragupta. In the Allahabad pillar inscription of
this Gupta emperor, the name of Kamrupa occurs as a frontier kingdom Samalata, Davaka, Nepal and
Kartipur,whose kings owed allegiance to Samudragupta on their own accord. The unnamed king of Kamarupa of
this inscription is usually identified with Pushyavarman. If we count the date of Pushyavarman on the basis of
the Badaganga epigraph of Bhutivarman, (dated 234 Gupta era which corresponds to 553-54 A.D.) who was the
eighth king of the dynasty and allow its king an average reigning period of 25 years, Pushyavarman's reign
would fall between c.355-80 A.D..he would thus be a contemporary of Samudragupta (c.320-80 A.D.).It was
perhaps in honour of his overlord that he named his son as Samudravarman and his daughter-in-law as Dattadevi
in imitation of the names of the Gupta emperor Samudragupta and his queen Dattadevi.

28. Op.cit,p.115
29. P.C. Choudhury : Op.cit. p. 128
30. Quoted in P.C. Choudhury,Op. Cit p.132
HISTORY 111
Rajatarangini, a book of fifth century A.D., by Kalhan, mentions a Kamarupa princess named
Amritaprabha, who was given in marriage to Meghavahana, a Kashmir prince in an open Sayambara. This
Amritaprabha is believed to be the daughter of Balavarman, the grandson of Pushyavarman. Rajatarangini
relates that Amritaprabha erected in Kashmir,a lofty Vihara for the benefit of the foreign bhikshus and that this
Vihara was known as Amritabhaban. It is farther stated that Amritaprabha took with her a Tibetan Buddhist
monk named Stunpa, who was a preceptor of her father. This Stunpa erected a Stupa in Kashmir known as Lo-
Stunpa.
31
Ou-Kung and M.A. Stein also support the historicity of this event. During the reign of Kalyanavarman,
the son of Balavarman,the Davaka or the Kapili valley (comprising possibly the present district of Nagoan,
Karbi Anglong and North Cachar area) was absorbed into the empire of Kamarupa. To signalise this victory, he
sent a diplomatic mission to China in 428 A.D. Mahendravarman, grandson of Kalyanavarman expanded his
empire to south-east Bengal upto the sea by shaking off the last vestiges of the Gupta influence in Kamarupa.
32
He was the first king of Assam to perform Aswamedha and he did it on two occasions.
Mahendravarman's grandson Bhutiavarman was a powerful king. He conquered Pundravardhana (North
Bengal) sometime between 545-50 A.D. and donated lands to more than 200 Brahmanas in the Chandrapuri
visaya located within the Pundravardhana bhukti. He might have also extended his sway in the south and the
west and brought the outlying regions of Samatata, Sylhet, Tripura and other regions under his control.
33
He has
also performed one Aswamedha sacrifice. The glory of Kamarupa suffered a temporary set back during the reign
of Bhaskaravarman's father Susthitavarman,who suffered a defeat at the hands of the Later Gupta monarch
Mahasenagupta and as a result of this defeat lost the possession of Pundravardhana.
Bhaskaravarman (c.600-650 A.D.), ascending the throne at a time, when the reputation of his family
was at a low ebb, not only restored it but made Kamarupa, a power to be reckoned with whose alliance was
welcomed by a monarch of Harsha's (606-648 A.D.)fame, the last great monarch of ancient Northern India. By
this alliance, Bhaskara not only recovered Pundravardhana but also brought Gauda with its capital
Karnasuvarna under his control. In fact,it was from his victorious camp at Karnasuvarna that Bhaskara issued his
Nidhanpur grant by which he renewed the grants of land made earlier by Bhutivarman in Pundravardhana.
It was during the reign of Bhaskaravarman that the great Chinese pilgrim Houen Tsang visited Kamarupa
in 643 A.D. and stayed in his capital for nearly two months. The pilgrim speaks highly about the noble qualities
of Bhaskara and his prowess. In the religious assemblies held at Prayag and Kanauj by Harsha, Bhaskara was
shown special honour in the presence of all the kings assembled there. After the death of Harsha in 648 A.D.,
Bhaskara became the supreme lord of Eastern India extending his sway
ASSAM STATE GAZETTER 112
as far as Nalanda. He had also brought under his control Sylhet and Tripura including south-east Bengal. This is
testified by Hiuen Tsang who refers to Bhaskara as ''King of eastern India''and stated that the rules of Kamarupa
had the sea-route to China under their protection.
34
Inscriptions bear testimony to the many-sided qualities and achievements of Bhaskara. Because of his
depth of knowledge,he is called in the ''second Brihaspati''.He made Kamarupa a noted centre of learning
attracting students from outside. As pointed out by P.C. Choudhury, with the expansion of the political sway of
the Varmana line of kings large portion of Eastern India came under the cultural ideas of Kamarupa.
35
This
influence even spread to the islands in the pacific and some of the architectural remains in Combodia, Annam
and other places are possibly to be attributed to the influence of the rulers of Kamarupa.
36
The Salastambha Dynasty :
Bhaskaravarman remained a celibate throughout his life. It is for this reason that he is called Kumara
Raja in the Harshacharia and in the account of Hiuen Tsang. Naturally, therefore, at his death an anarchical
situation arose, taking advantage of which a non-Aryan chief named Salastambha usurped the throne. Who was
the immediate successor of is not known for certainly. According to K.L. Barua, Bhaskara was succeeded by one
of his near relations,whom he identifies with Avantivarman of Visakhadatta's Sanskrit Drama Mudrarakshasa.
He holds the view that Salastambha,the leader of governor of the Mlechchas usurped the throne by deposing
Avantivarman,who did not reign for more than five years.
37
That Salastambha was a usurper is indicated in the
text of the Bargaon grant of Ratnapala which runs as follows :''After thus,for several generations,kings of
Naraka's dynasty had ruled the whole country,a great chief of the Mlechchas, owing to a turn of adverse fate,
took possession of the kingdom. This was Salastambha. In succession to him,their were chiefs altogether twice
ten in number...''.
According to the Hara-Gauri-Sambada, after the end of the period of the family of Naraka-Bhagadutta,
came a prince from the west,named Madhaba, who established himself in Kamarupa a new line of kings having
twentyone kings. As the number of kings given in this source exactly tallies with that given in the inscriptions as
belonging to Salastambha, P.C. Choudhury rightly identifies Salastambha with Madhava of the Hara-Gauri-
Sambada and holds that Salastambha and Avantivarman were the same person, who was referred to as
Devavarman, ''King of Eastern India'' by the Chinese

34. cf. P.C. Choudhury,Op.cit.p.178
35. Op.cit p.186
36. N.N. Vasu : Social History of Kamarupa,Vol. III. pp.13f.
37. . Op.cit.,p.69
HISTORY 113
pilgrim It-Sing.
38

The Salastambha kings called their descent from the ancient Bhaumas of Bhauma-Narakas like the
Varman kings,whom they supplanted. Salastambha's reign can tentatively be placed between 655 to 675 A.D.
Though there were twentyone kings in his family,names of only fifteen have so far been found. During the rule
of this dynasty,the capital city was located at Haruppeswara, identified with the modern town of Tezpur.
The sixth king of the dynasty, Sri Harsha or Harshadeva (c.725-50 A.D) was the most famous, being
credited with the overlordship of Gauda, Odra, Kalinga, Kosala and other lands. It is recorded in the Pasupati
epigraph of the Nepal king, Jayadeva II, that Sri Harshadeva who was the lord of these lands gave his daughter
Rajyamatiin marriage to this king. It appears that after conquering Kalinga and Kosala, Harshadeva led an
expedition to the south and was defeated by the Cahlukya king of Karnataka, Kirtivarman II. Soon after, he was
overthrown and killed by Yasovarman of Kanauj.
39
Thus though for a short period, Kamarupa, during the rule of
Harshadeva reached the highest point of its military glory ''when its suzerain power extended from Sadiya in the
east to Ajodhya in the west, and from the Himalayas in the north as far as the Bay of Bengal and Ganjam in the
south''.
40
It is presumed by Gait that the family of Salastambha came to an end with the death of Harshadeva.
41
But according to the Hayunthal epigraph, Harshadeva was succeeded by his son Balavarman II (c.750-
765A.D.),who was also a powerful monarch.
Pralambha the great-grandson of Harshadeva was contemporary of Gopala, the first king of the Pala
Dynasty of Gauda. Pralambha's son Harjaravarman was perhaps the first of this line of kings to perform his
coronation ceremony according to Vedic rites. He assumed the High-sounding title Maharajadhiraja
Parameswara Paramabhattaraka. He was left us two inscriptions, the Hayunthal copper plates found at Nagaon
and the Tezpur rock epigraph. The second one is dated Gupta era 510=829-30 A.D. Harajaras reign is tentatively
placed between c.815-35 A.D. The Tezpur inscription was sasana or royal charter regulating the plying of boats
in the Brahmaputra within certain boundaries specified therein. This sasana indicates that Harjara had a big navy
at his command.
Hajaravarman built a lofty Siva temple and rows of stately buildings in the capital city at Haruppeswara.
Extensive ruins of temples and buildings in and around the modern town of Tezpur along with the existence of a
big tank called Hajarapukhuri bear

38. P.C. Choudhury,Op.cit.,pp.187 ff. Choudhury also opines that Salastambha was probably established,as a
ruler of the Nalanda region by Bhaskara and immediately after the latter's death without leaving an heir,he came
to Pragjyotisha and declared himself as king
39. For detail,see P.C. Choudhury. Op.. cit.. pp. 199-207
40. K.L. Barua,Op.cit.,p.71
41. Op. Cit..p. 33
testimony of Harjara's patronage of art and architecture and his attention to public works.
Hajaravarman's son Vanamalavarman (c.835-65A.D.)was perhaps the last powerful king of Salastambha
dynasty .He recovered Kamarupa's lost possession of Pundravardhana and to signalise this victory donated lands
to a Brahmana near about the area where Bhutivarman of the Varman dynasty made land-grants in the middle of
the 6thcentury A.D. This is recorded in the Tezpur grant issued in his 19
th
regal year. He made several other land-
grants. He rebuilt the Siva temple erected by his father and made grants of lands,elephants and temple girls to it.
42
From his Nagaon grant it is learnt that his capital city was inhabited by virtuous men, merchants and learned
scholars and people of all classes lived there happily. Vanamala, a devout worshipper of Siva abdicated the
throne in favour of his son J ayamala (c.865-85A.D.) and himself fasted unto death.43
Vanamala's grandson Balavarman III (c.885-910A.D.)also made several land grants in different parts of
his kingdom. In his grants he too assumed the high-sounding epithet Maharajadhiraja Parameswara
Paramabhattaraka.
Nothing is known about the successors of Balavarman III. There is a gap in the historical account of the
period between the reign of Balavarman III and Tyagasingha, the last king of the family. They possibly ruled
during the period c.910-970 A.D., after which Brahmapala started the rule of Pala line of kings.
The Pala Dynasty
Tyagasingha possibly died childless, but the danger of rebellion centering round his heirless death was
tactfully avoided by the officers by choosing Brahmapala to the throne.
44
This is evident from the Bargaon grant
of Ratnapala which states:''Seeing that the twenty-first of them (the line of Salastambha ), the illustrious
Tyagasingha by name had departed to heaven without leaving any of his heir to succeed him, his officials,
thinking it well that a Bhauma (of Naraka's race) should be appointed as their lord chose Brahmapala from along
his kindred to be their king on account of his fitness to undertake the government of the country,''According to
the Hara-Gauri-Sambada, the family of Madhava, who is identified with Salastambha, was followed by that of
J itari, who ruled for eight generations. The epigraphs of the Palas also give the names of eight kings beginning
with Brahmapala and J itari were the same person. Brahmapala possibly hailed from the western part of the
kingdom of Kamarupa for which he is said to have come from the Dravida country in the Hara-Gauri Sambada.
The title 'Pala' is an abbreviation of the Sanskriti term Palaka, which means protector, i.e., a ruler or
administrator. It seems that this title was a popular one among the rulers

42. Nagaon Grant,vv.16,19,24 f; Pravatiya plates vv.15,19,24f.
43. Nagaon grant,vv,16,17.
44. S.L. Baruah : A Comprehensive History of Assam,p.121.
HISTORY 115
of north eastern India of the time and in imitation of the contemporary Pala kings of Bengal, Brahmapala also
assumed that title. Brahmapala's reign may be placed between 990-1010 A.D. Towards the close of rule of the
Salastambhas, Pundravardhana passed on to the hands of Bengal's ruler. The western boundary of the Kamrupa
kingdom at the time of Brahmapala's accession to the throne was, therefore, again regressed to the river
Karatoya. Brahmaputra abdicated the throne in favour of his son Ratnapala.
Ratnapala (c.1010-40A.D) was a powerful king. He made several land-grants. He shifted the capital city
of his kingdom of Pragjyotishpur, strongly fortified it and named it as Durjaya or Sri Durjaya (impregnable).He
defeated a king of Gouda named Rajyapala,which is evident from an inscription belonging to one of his
successors, Gopala.
45
Ratnapala appears to have encouraged trade and commerce as well as learning and
education.
Ratnapala's son Indrapala (c.1040-65A.D.) defeated Kalyana Chandra, son of Sri Chandra of Bengal and
to mark this victory made land-grants in Pundravardhana to a Brahmana hailing from Sravasthi. Indrapala
married Rajyadevi, a Rashtrakuta princess. He was succeeded by his son Gopala (c.1065-85), who was a man of
merit and intelligence. His Grachtal inscription contains important information about his predecessors. During
the reign of the next king Harshapala (c.1085-95), J atavarman, king of East Bengal snatched away a part of
Pundravardhana, then under the sovereign rule of Kamarupa. However, this was soon recovered by Dharmapala
(c.1095-1120), son and successor of Harshapala. Three inscription belonging to Dharmapala's reign are found,
which speak about his prowess and manifold qualities. He was a great patron of religion and learning and
himself a poet. The first eight verses of the Pushpabhadra grant were composed by him. Towards the end of his
reign,Dharmapala was conducting his administration from his capital at Kamarupanagar,which can be
considered only as an extension of the old city of Pragjyotishpur to North Guwahati.
J aypala, the son of Dharmapala, who is identified by P.C. Choudhury with Ramchandra mentioned in
Ram Charita of Sandhyakaranandi,
46
ruled sometime between 1120-30A.D. During his reign, Kamarupa was
attacked by Mayana, the general of Ramapala, the Pala king of Bengal,and as a result of the war,the
Kamarupadhipati lost his possession in North Bengal.
47
The Bengal king placed Tingyadeva as his vassal king in
the part. Later when Tingyadeva rebelled, Ramapala's son Kumarapala, who then ruled Gauda, sent Vaidyadeva
to suppress him. Vaidyadeva not only suppressed Tingyadeva,but also conquered Kamarupa and declared his
independence in 1138 A.D..He assumed the title Maharajadhiraja Parameswara Paramabhattaraka.
Later Kings of Kamarupa :

45. Guwahati Inscription V.16
46. P.C. Choudhury : Op. Cit,pp. 246-47.
47. Ibid : p. 250; K.L. Barua,Op.cit.,p. 94.
Though there is no definite account of Kamrupa and its king for the few decades following Vaidyadeva,
from the Tezpur grant of Valabhadeva dated 1107 Saka, which corresponds to 1185 A.D., it is learnt that his
grandfather Rayarideva had an encounter with king Vijaysena of Bengal to P.C. Choudhury, Rayarideva was
probably a feudatory of Vadyadeva in the Darrang area.
48
After Gopala III,owing to the weakness of Pala kings of Gauda, the Sena king of Bengal,Vijayasena,
conquered the whole of Gauda and thus became the immediate neighbour of Kamarupa. In the Deopara
inscription of Vijaysena (1125-57 A.D.), reference is made to an event, wherein Vijayasena had an encounter
with the Kamarupadhipati, who can be identified with Vaidyadeva. In the opinion of P.C. Choudhury,
Rayarideva helped Vaidyadeva, who was then occupying the throne of Kamarupa to resist Vijayasena. In the
war, Vaidyadeva was killed, but in the hands of Rayarideva, Vijayasena experienced reverse, as indicated in the
Tezpur grant of Vallabhadeva, after which, Rayarideva established himself as an independent king of
Kamarupa.
49
Rayarideva was succeeded by Udayakarna and thereafter Vallabhadeva became the king of Kamarupa
in the 9
th
decade of the 12
th
century, as his Tezpur grant was issued in 1185 A.D..Lakshmanasena (c.1175-1205
A.D.) the son of Vallabhasena, who ascended the throne at very late years, invaded Kamarupa during the time of
Vallabhadeva and defeated him, but his successor Viswasundardeva immediately recovered his kingdom and
established his independent status. Viswasundardeva was also popularly known as Prithu of Barthu. He was a
very powerful king. He not only defeated and destroyed the entire army of Muhammad-bin-Bakhtiyar in 1205-
06 A.D. but also overthrew Sultan Ghiyasuddin-Iwas Khilji in 1227 A.D., and finally faced defeated in the hands
of Nasiruddin, the son of Iltutmish in 1228 A.D.
Viswasundardeva was followed by Sandhya,who was established by Nasiruddin as a tributary king
and,thereafter at the death of Nasiruddin, Sandhya threw off his allegiance to the Turkish ruler of Bengal. At this
juncture,the Bhuyan chiefs of Kamarupa joined with Sandhya,who brought the whole region upto Karatoya and
also a part of the area beyond,under his control and assumed the title Gaudeswar. He was followed by his son
Sindhu(c.1260-85A.D) and there after his grandson, Rupanarayan (c.1285-1300A.D).
50
From a narrative in the
Gurucharia, written by Ramacharan Thakur,it is found that Sandya was a very powerful king, who thwarted the
invasion of Kamrupa by Malik Yuzbeg alias Sultan Mughisuddin
51
in 1257 A.D..Thereafter, he shifted his capital
to Kamalpur in Koch Bihar and assumed the title Kamateswara and used it as a synonym for Kameswara
meaning''the lord of Kamarupa.''Thenceforth, the kingdom

48. Op. Cit. p.255
49. Ibid,pp. 254-55.
50. Garucharita by Racharan Thakur,cf. K.L.Barua,op., p.162
51. cf. N.N. Acharyya : The History of Medieval Assam, pp. 144f.
HISTORY 117
came to be known as Kamata or Kamrup-Kamata. Sandhya is said to have given his daughter in marriage to
Ratnadhvaja,the powerful Chutia king of Sadiya.
52
The last king of this line was Singhadhvaja (1300-05A.D.).who lost his kingdom to his minister,
Pratapdhvaja(1305-25A.D). Pratapdhvaja has been referred to as Manik Chandra in the traditions prevalent in
Koch Bihar. His daughters, Rajani and Bhajani were given in marriage to the Ahom king Sukhangpha (1293-
1332A.D).
53
At the death of Pratapdhvaja, the throne of the Kamata kingdom was seized by his nephew Dharampala
alias Dharmanarayan. This usurpation was challenged by the Bhuyans but Dharmanarayan subjugated them all.
Dharmanarayan shifted his headquarter's to Dimla in the district of Rangpore. He possibly conquered certain
portions of Gauda for which he took the title Gaudeswara. Meanwhile, Durlabhnarayan, the son of Pratapdhvaja
and hence the legal claimant to the throne with the help of some Bhuyans, challenged the authority of
Dharmanarayan,and occupied the eastern part of the Kamata kingdom. He established his headquarters at Garia
near the modern town of Koch Bihar. This was followed by a long and protracted warfare. At last a peace was
concluded,possibly in 1330A.D., by which the kingdom was divided between them, Durlabhnarayan taking the
northern and eastern part along with the city of Kamatapur and Dharmanarayan retaining the rest,which included
Rangpore and Mymensingh,
54
After the conclusion of the treaty, Gaudeswar Dharmanarayan sent,at the request of
Kamateswar Durlabhnarayan,fourteen families of Brahmanas and Kayasthas to the latter's kingdom.
55
Thus
Dharmanarayan was ruling over the undivided kingdom of Kamata possibly from 1325-30 A.D. After the
partition of the kingdom,he continued to rule over its western part for some years.Dharmanarayan was succeeded
by his son Tamradhvaja,who established himself at Ghoraghat in the Rangpore district.
Durlabhnarayan was a great patron of learning,. His court was adorned by the famous Assamese poets
Harihar Bipra,Ram Saraswati and Hem Saraswati.
Durlabhnarayan was succeeded by his son Indranarayan(1350-65 A.D.),who assumed the title''Pancha
Gaudeswara''.This indicates that he wrested the western part of the Kamata kingdom,which fell into the hands of
Dharmanarayan.
The history of the Kamata kingdom after Indranarayan in uncertain. Possibly towards the end of
Indranarayan's reign, some unruly elements raised their heads in the kingdom and Indranarayan himself may
have been killed by an adventurous upstart,who is usually identified with Sasanka alias Arimatta. Arimatta was
possibly a related nephew of Indranarayan and as because he became king by killing his paternal uncle,he has
been condemned in popular traditions of Assam as a patricide. Arimatta established his capital near Betna,
covering the fort constructed by Vaidyadeva in the early part of the 12
th

52.Ibid : pp.145,152.
53. Harakanta Barua Sadar Amin,Asam Buranji, (ed.)S.K. Bhuyan,p.15.
54. N.N. Acharyya : Op.cit., p.157-58.
55. K.L. Barua : Op. Cit., p.163.
century.
56
Phengua, probably a relative of Indranarayan challenged him but he was killed by Arimatta. Arimatta
ruled probably during the period 1365-85 A.D..He was succeeded by Gajanka, Sutaranka and Mriganka
successively. Their rule can be placed between 1385-1440A.D.The Ahom king Sudangpha (1397-
1407A.D.)invaded the Kamata kingdom towards the close of his reign, when Gajanka was ruling over it and the
latter sued for peace by offering his daughter to the Ahom king.
57
The Khan or Khen Dynasty :
During the rule of the successors of Arimatta, the Bhuyans rose their hands in different parts of the
kingdom .when Mriganka, the last king of Arimatta's line died childless, the throne was occupied by one
Niladhvaj Khan (c.1440-60A.D.),who assumed the title Kamateswar and rebuilt the city of Kamatapur. The
dynasty founded by Niladhvaj came to be known as Khan or Khen dynasty. According to the Kamrupar Buranji,
Niladhvaj and his successors were the rulers over the Singimari region, upto the bank of the Brahmaputra
opposite Hajo.
58
Niladhvaj was succeeded by his son Chakrodhvaj (c.1460-80A.D.), who in his turn, was followed by his
son Nilambar (c.1480-98A.D.). Taking advantage of the anarchical situation in Bengal under the Abysinians or
Habshis, Nilambar occupied the north-eastern part of Bengal and consolidated his conquest by building a road
from his capital to the frontier fortress of Ghoraghat on the Karatoya. He was overthrown by the Bengal Sultan
Alauddin Hussain Shah (1493-1517A.D.) in 1498A.D..With this event, the rule of the Khan or Khen kings of
Kamata came to the end. The Bhuyans then became powerful and were ruling in different parts of the kingdom
till the rise of the Koches in about 1515 A.D..
Confliciting Accounts relating to Arimatta :
The accounts relating to the kings after Indranarayan, specially Arimatta, are very conflicting.
However,it can be said that whatever his identity had been, Arimata was a powerful warrior, who made his
influence felt in different parts of the Brahmaputra valley. There are many legends centering round Arimatta in
Assam. There is a tradition even amongst the Daflas (Nishis)that once he took refuge at Hita Rokp, present
Itanagar.
59
According to one account given in the Kamrupar Buranji, Arimatta was descendant of king
Dharmapala,who came from Gauda. Dharmapala was succeeded by Ratnapala, Somapala and Pratap Singha, one
after another. Arimata was the son of Pratap Singha, who had his capital at Kanayka (which came to be known as
Pratapapura)near Viswanath in Sonitpur district. Arimatta's mother Chandraprabha being offered to

56. E.A. Gait : Op. Cit., p.18.
57. Ahom Buranji, (Trans & ed.). G.C. Barua, pp.50-51
58. (ed.)S.K. Bhuyan, p.4.
59. D.N. Das : '' Ruins of Mayapur'',Journal of the Assam Research Society,Vol. III. No.2,pp.43-49
the river god Brahmaputra by Pratap Singha when she was pregnant, he was brought up by a Brahmin, who
rescued his mother. Arimatta had an adventurous career and in course of his military exploits, he killed his own
father, not knowing his identity. According to this account, Arimatta was defeated by Phengua, after which,
he drowned himself to the river.
60
The genealogy of the Dimarua Rajas,on the other hand, states that Somapala of
Pratapapura was the father of Arimatta.
61
The Rajas of Rani and Dimarua claimed their descent from Arimatta.
62
It is said that Pratap Singha was also known as Ramchandra and Bhalukpung.
According to another account given in the Kamrupar Buranji was a descendant of Jitari,who came from
the Dravida country and established himself at Kamarupa. Arimatta killed the Kamateswara Durlabhendra, who
was probably a descendant of Indranarayan and occupied the throne of Kamata. Arimatta was followed by
Sukaranga,Sukaranga and Mriganka respectively. These four kings ruled from 1160 to 1400 Saka,i.e.,1238-1478
A.D.
63
In the Saharai mauja in Nagaon, there are remains of an old fort with high embankments known as
J ongalgarh.This is believed ti have been the capital of J ongal Balahu,another son of Arimatta, who was defeated
by the Kacharis and drowned himself in the Kalong river.
64
To conclude, no authentic and comprehensive account of Assam following the Palas, is found available
till now. However,it is certain that since about the close of the 12
th
century, the empire of Kamarupa shrank to the
small kingdom of Kamata, which also, after the death of Indranarayan got disintegrated into several
principalities ruled by a class of petty land-lords called Bhuyans. In the eastern and central Brahmaputra valley,a
number of Mongoloid tribes like the Chutiyas, Marans, Borahis and the Kacharis founded their independent
kingdoms,who were finally subjugated by the Ahoms.
The Muslim Invasions :
The first Muslim army to enter Kamarupa was led by Mahammad-bin-Bakhtiyar in 1205-06A.D..The
even is recorded in the Kanai Barasi Stone Inscription at North Guwahati in a few words in Sanskrit which
means that ''on

60. pp. 2-3.
61. N.N. Acharyya,op, cit., p.180.
62. E.A. Gait,Op, cit, p.19
63. P.4.
64. E.A. Gait : op. Cit., p.19
the thirteenth of Chaitra, in the Saka era 1127, the Turks coming into Kamarupa were destroyed.''The
destination of the invaders was perhaps beyond Kamarupa. But the army advanced through this land against the
advice of the king and while it retreated, the Kamarupa king Prithu (Bartu) alias Viswasundardeva inflicted
severe defeated upon the invaders.
65
The second invasion in 1226 A.D. was led by Sultan Ghiasuddin Iwaz, who is said to have advanced as
far as Sadiya.
66
But in the end,he was defeated by Prithu and driven back to Gauda. Ghiasuddin was ultimately
overthrown by Nasiruddin, son of Iltutmish in 1228 A.D.,and it was Nasiruddin,who overthrew Prithu in that
year. Nasiruddin retired from Kamarupa on promise of an annual tribute which,however,was stopped after some
time by Sandhya,the son of Prithu.
The third invasion was led by Ikhtiyaruddin Yuzbeg Tughril Khan in 1256-57 A.D..For a time Tughril
was successful and he erected a mosque in commemoration of his victories. But when the rains set in and disease
overtook the invaders,the Sultan and his soldiers were defeated and killed by Sandhya's men. Only few could
return to Bengal to tell of the catastrophe of the army.
According to the Alamgirnamah, Mahammad-bin-Tughlug despatched a huge army of 1000,000 to
conquer. Assam in 1332-33 A.D..But when the imperial army entered the frontier of Kamata, they were all
relegated to oblivion. It is further mentioned in the same source that to avenge this defeated Mahammad-bin-
Tughluq sent another expedition to invade Kamata, but''when it arrived in Bengal,it was panic-striken and shrank
from the enterprise.''
67
The next invasion was led by Sikandar Shah in 1362 A.D.,during the reign of
Indranarayan. The army possibly advanced as far has Gachtal in Nagaon district,but having heard of the invasion
of Bengal by his overlord Firoz Shah Tughluq, he hurried back to his domain. After this,for a period of more
than one hundred years, barring certain marauding campaigns, Assam was free from any serious Muslim
invasion till the end of the fifteenth century.
According to a Persian Manuscript said to have been written in 1633 A.D.,one Shah Ismail Ghaji was
sent in an expedition by the Bengal Sultan Rukunuddin Barbak against the king of Kamata, who was probably
Chakradhvaj, father of Nilambar. Ismail by performing feats of supernatural power succeeded in obtaining the
submission of the Kamata king. But the Hindu Governor of

65. E.A. Gait : op. Cit., 36-37; J .A. Vas, eastern Bengal and Assam District Gazetteer, Rangpore, p. 24; K.L..
Barua,op. Cit., pp. 136-45
66. E.A. Gait : op. Cit., p. 37.
67. Alamgirnamah, p.731: N.N. Archaryya, op. Cit., p.161.
HISTORY 121
Ghoraghat represented to the Sultan that the alleged submission of the Kamateswara was a fraud and Ismail was
only forming an alliance with the Kamateswara to set up an independent kingdom for himself. The Sultan
believing the information to be true sent an army against Ismail,who repulsed the Sultan's forces several times
but at last submitted. Ismail was finally beheaded. From the story it appears that Ismail concluded a true with the
Kamateswara,to whom he had to cede some territory probably in Golaghat. It has already been stated that
Chakradhvaj's son Nilambar built a road from Kamatapur to Ghoraghat and erected a fort at Goraghat.
68
This
took place possibly during the period 1470-74A.D.
69
The next Muslim expedition to Kamata took place in 1498 A.D,wherein Alauddin Hussain Shah of
Gauda defeated the Kamata Raja Nilambar through treachery and left for his territory leaving his son Danial
with a garrison at Hajo. After Danial's death, Musunder Ghazi ruled in Kamrup and Sultan Ghiyasuddin Aulia
founded a Muslim Colony in Kamrup and built a large Mosque on a hill at Hajo called Poa Mecca. Reputed as a
darwesh in J ahangir's time, he is venerated as a saint in Assam. His tomb in the Mosque is sacred to both
Muslims and Hindus.
70
In 1501 A.D.,the Bhuyan chiefs of Kamrup joined together,attacked the Muslim garrison at Hajo and
destroyed it,making Kamrup again free from Muslim yoke.
It is learnt from the buranjis, that a certain Bar Ujir invaded Assam in 1527 A.D.,during the reign of
Suhungmung Dihingiya Raja (1497-1539A.D.). The invaders advanced as far as Temani in the Kalang
valley,where a serious battle took place. The Ahom army led by Kancheng Barpatra Gohain defeated the
invaders.
71
This is the first Muslim invasion to the Ahom kingdom. In 1532 A.D.,another Muslim general named
Turbak marched upto Kaliabar and defeated the Ahom troops stationed there. But subsequently, he was defeated
and killed in a bloody battle on the bank of the Bharali river in the very same year.
Twenty-one years later, Kala Pahar, a Hindu apostate is said to have made marauding expedition into
Assam, and in his fanatical zeal for the propagation of his new religion, made attempts to demolish the temples
at Kamakhya and Hajo.
72

68.K.L. Barua : op. Cit., pp. 157-58,According to Barua,this story with a myth.
69. Ibid : pp. 155-57
70. J .N. Sarkar : Freedom Struggles in Medieval Assam,p. 34.
71. Deodhai Asam Buranji. p.21; S.L. Baruah, op.cit., pp. 23 lf.
72. Riyaz- us- Salatin, pp. 151; N.N. Archarya,op. Cit.. p. 196.
Medieval Period :
The history of medieval Kamrup after the rule of the Pala dynasty is disconnected. No inscription or
coin,nor any contemporary comprehensive historical account of his period has yet been discovered. But the
history of Medieval Kamrupa has come to light on the basis of certain legitimate historical study/investigation. It
seems that during this period the Kacharis became powerful and advanced towards the west up to the boundary
of the present district of Kamrup. Owing to the expansion of Kachari power, the Kamarupa kings were, it
seems,compelled to remove their capital from Guwahati further west to Kamatapur as already mentioned earlier.
There after,the kingdom of Kamata came into existence.
Kachari dynasty:The late Pandit Hem Chandra Goswami stated that Maha Manikya was a king of the
Barahi Kacharis and that he ruled about the middle of the fourteenth century at Dimapur. It is evident that
Kachari or Bodo sovereignty was exercised in Assam in different places. As Sir Edward Gait says,''the Kacharis
are believed to be very closely allied to the Koches, and also so far,at least as language is concerned, to the
Chutiyas, Lalungs and Morans of the Brahmaputra valley,and to the Garos and Tipperas of the Southern Hills.
Having regard to their wide distribution,and to the extent of country over which Bodo languages of a very
uniform type are still current, it seems probable that at one time,the major part of Assam and that some at least,of
the Mlechcha kings mentioned in the old copper-plate inscriptions belong to the Kachari or some closely allied
tribes.
73
Captain Fisher, the first Superintendent of Cachar, who took great pins in ascertaining the early history
of the Kacharis, was of opinion that in the remote past, this rude tribe gradually acquired and empire over
Assam, Sylhet, Mymensing and the Valleys to the east of the Brahmaputra,their original seat being at Kamarupa,
and that their rule ultimately embraced everything from Kamrup down to the sea. But there is no authentic
epigraphic or historical account discovered on the mater uptil now. The founder of the Kachari kingdom is said
to be one Manik. Tradition states that there was a powerful Kachari kingdom at Sadiya founded by one Manik
and his son-in-law Mukuta ruled after him. Kacharis belong to the broadly constituted Bodo group of Tribeto-
Burman races.

73. Sir E. Gait : A history of Assam, Reprint 1967,p 300
HISTORY 123
Diversity of option exists regarding their pre-Assam habitats. About their first home in Assam it is believed that
they lived originally in a land called Kumkuli (Kamrup)by which flowed a river in a great Valley. From there
they were driven out and got to place called Kundilo (Kundil or Sadiya).The Kachari Kingdom of Sadiya as per
chronicle, bounded by Sadiya on the east, the River Dikhou on the west, the south bank of the river Dihing on
the north and Kenduguri on the south,was probably the first attempt of the Kacharis to build up an independent
State after their expulsion from Kamrup. But the history of origin of Chutiya and Kachari is still
controversial,though the old legends traced their origin as the Chutiya rulers traced their descent from Raja
Bhismak, father of Rukmini; at least the southern Branch,from Bhima and Herambha Rakshasi.
The legend says that the first king of Herambha branch of Kachari was Susampha. According to another
legend the earliest Kachari king was one Birahas, who abdicated in favour of Bicharpatipha, prior to the
establishment of the Kachari capital at Dimapur; the venue of Government had shifted between Sonapur,
Banpur, and Lakshindrapur.
The kingdom of Cachar, of which Tamradhwai Narayana was the ruler during the reign Rudra Singha,
and Govinda Chandra at the time of British occupation, is only one of the numerous states brought to existence
by the political genius of the Kachari people. It seems that the rulers of Barahi Kachari, at one time ruled over
the Kapili Valley also .It was during the reign of Maha-Manikya-a Barahi king who ruled in their earlier part of
the fourteenth century that Sri Madhab Kandali composed the Assamese version of the Ramayan in verses. The
Kacharis,who have been described as ''the original autochthones of Assam had built up political and
administrative units,vestiges of which have lingered till this day. The first note-worthy conflict between the
Ahom and Kachari occurred in the reign of Suhungmung Dihingia Raja (1497-1539A.D.). In the battle the
Kacharis were defeated. The legend says that among the spoils of war was the Assamese Cleopetra Garama
Kunwari,who extended her hand from king of Gauda to Kachari Raja and finally to Ahom king Dihingia Raja.
Her son Madan Konwar was also taken to the Ahom capital.
After the death of Dersong-pha, the Kacharis lived from sometime without an overlord. And as desired
by them,the Ahom king appointed Madan Konwar as their Raja at Cachar, with the name Nirbhayanarayan and
the Kachari Rajya became an annual tributary state to the Ahom king. During the reign of Swargadeo
Rajeswar Singha the refractory Kachari Raja Sandhikari and the fugitive Manipuri Raja were produced
before the Ahom Monarch by Kirtichandra Barbarua. It was through the intervention of the Ahom
Victors that the Kacharis obtained a ruler of their own together with the necessary paraphernalia of
sovereignty. The Ahom kings regarded the Kachari Raja as their vassal, and always resented any move
on the part of the Kachari Rajas which tended to repudiate their time-honoured obligations to the Ahom
king.
The Ancient Tripura kingdom in the Kapili valley : Like the Ahom kings of Assam the rulers of
the kingdom known as Tripura also maintained regular historical account of their dynasty. Legends say
that, Madhava Kandali alias Kaviraj Kandali composed the Assamese Ramayana by order of Shri
Mahamanikya, the Barahi Raja. Whether this Barahi Raja was a king of the Barahi Kacharis as
supposed by Late Pandit Hem Chandra Goswami or some other person who ruled Tripura is a
controversial matter.
The Tripura kings trace their descent from Drukyo, the son of Yajati. It is said that Pratardana,
who was twentyfifth in descent from Drukyo, conquered the Kiratas and founded a kingdom the capital
of which was on the bank of the river Kapili. The Sanskrit Rajamala describes that the ancient kingdom
of Tripura, called Trivega comprised the Kapili Valley, the North-Cachar Hills and also the modern
district of Cachar to the west of Manipur.
Vincent Smith writes that a king of the Ka-pi-li kingdom named ''Yue-Ai'' sent an embassy to
China in the year 428 A.D. And he identifies Ka-pi-li with the Kapili of Assam. It seems,
therefore,very likely that he was the king of the ancient Tripura dynasty and that this kingdom in Kapili
Valley lasted till, at least, the fifth century A.D. It further appears that the Kapili Valley is still knows as
Davaka. Hence, this tract has been identified with the kingdom mentioned as Davaka in Samudra
Gupta's inscription of the fourth century A.D. It seems, therefore, that through the Tripura kings may
have themselves called this kingdom Trivega, it was well known to outsiders as 'Kapili' or 'Davaka' and
both these names still persist; one attached to the river and the other applied to the valley of this river.
Tripura, the son of Daitya; and Trilochan the son of Tripura, were both powerful kings. Dakshin
was the second son of Trilochan. The eldest son Drikpati having married the daughter of the sonless
king of Herembha (Hedamba) succeeded to the throne of his father-in-law. When Trilochan died, the
younger brother of Dakshin, together with the help of nobles raised Dakshin to the Tripura
HISTORY 125
throne. Thereupon Drikpati, the king of Hedamba, claimed both the kingdoms by right of succession
and fought a great battle where Dakshin and his brothers surrendered to the king of Hedamba. The
ancient Trivega, Kapili or the Davaka kingdom became absorbed in the Hedamba kingdom in about the
fifth century A.D.
The copper plate inscription of Harjaravarman has been found at Hayungthal within the Kapili
Valley indicating that in the ninth century A.D. the area of Kapili Valley was absorbed within the
Kamrupa kingdom.
Ratnapha, who was twenty second in descent from Adi Dharmapha, first assumed the surname
Manikya. Mahamanikya was the great grandson of Ratnamanikya and can be placed in the middle of
the fourteenth century. On the other hand, Pandit Hem Chandra Goswami has placed Madhava Kandali
and his patron,the Barahi Raja Maha Manikya, also in the middle of the fourteenth century. As the
royal families of Tripura and Cachar claimed relation with each other and also because ethonologically
they belong to the same group,it is very likely that during the fourteenth century Barahi Kingdom
extended over Kapili Valley, Cachar, North Cachar and also Tripura and that Mahamanikya ruled over
this vast kingdom, in the middle of that century. His Highness the Maharaja Manikya Bahadur of
Tripura is therefore, the lineal representative of one of the oldest ruling houses in the whole of India.
Bhuyan Chiefs : It was the thirteenth century when a line of Chutiya kings ruled the country
east of the Subansiri and the Disang, and the Kachari kingdom was flourishing in central Assam on the
south bank of the Brahmaputra, and prohably extended at least half way across the Nagaon district.
Towards the west of the Kacharis on the south bank of the Brahmaputra and of the Chutias on the
north, a number of petty chiefs called Bhuyans held sway over a vast territory. The boundary between
the tract ruled by these chiefs and the kingdom of Kamarupa altered from time to time. A powerful
prince might bring many of them under his control, but they regained there independence under weak
prince. Gait mentioned that these chiefs were remembered in Assamese legends as the Bara-Bhuyans.
As correctly stated by Gait, each chief was independent of the others within his own domain, but they
seem to have been in the habit of joining their forces whenever they were threatened by a common
enemy. ''
74
But why the Bara (twelve) number is always mentioned both in Bengal and Assam is still
controversial.

74. E.A. Gait : A History of Assam, p.38
Gait explained the term ''Bhuyan'' as nothing to do with caste. It meant the ''lord of the Land''. Sri
Sankardeva himself used the word ''Bhowmik''as a synonym of the term 'Bhuyan'. It was the practice in Eastern
India for kings to appoint twelve advisers of Governors. Naranarayan had twelve ministers of state, twelve
Dolois were placed in charge of the hilly portion on the J aintia Raja and there were twelve state councillors in
Nepal. The number thus became connected in the minds of the people with all dignitaries ranking next to Raja
and so came to be used in a purely conventional sense.
There were various stories about the Bara-Bhuyan, which often refer to entirely different groups of
chiefs and they are to a great extent mere legends.
According to H.N. Dutta Barua the petty Chieftains were known as 'Bhowmik' during the time of Pala
kings. Their domain was called 'Bhuma'. Perhaps, the word Bhuyan thus originated from the term ''Bhuma''.This
view is supported by the fact that Chandibar who came from Kanauj became a Bhowmik under king
Durlavanarayan of Gaud. Subsequently. he came to be known as Siromoni Bhuayn.
The Guru Charita and the Sankar Charita version of the origin Bara-Bhuyan of Nagaon is that, after the
war between Durlavnarayan and Dharmanarayan, Kamateswara and Gaudeswara respectively, a treaty was
executed between the two kings and Dharmanarayan sent seven families of Brahmins and seven families of
Kayasthas to Durlav Narayan, who settled them on the frontier as wardens of the marches. The ablest of these
seven Kayastha families was Chandibar who subsequently became their leader. Their head quarters were at
Paimaguri. Once the Bhutiyas raided their territory and carried off many people including the son of Chandibar.
Chandibor and other Bhuyas pushed the raiders and compelled them to release the captives. Chandibar
subsequently settled at Bardowa in Nagaon where his great grandson Sankardeva was born.
75
According to Sarbananda Rajkumar a branch of the Bara-Bhuyans set up numerous petty kingdoms on
the north bank of the Brahmaputra, extending from the Subansiri in the east, down to the Barnadi in the west.
76
Another branch of Bara-Bhuyan ruled over certain areas which now form part of Nagaon district south of the
Brahmaputra.

75. Ibid, pp. 40-41.
76. S. Rajkumar : Chutiya, Bhyuan aru Matak Rajya, pp. 45-52.
HISTORY 127
Nakul Chandra Bhuyan supports the tradition which links Bara-Bhuyans with Samudra and Samanta
connected with Dharmapala and Arimatta. Probably, there were two branches of Bara Bhuyans one of which is
connected with Chandibar and his group; and other with Samudra whose sons were Santanu and Samanta
Prior to the fifteenth century, these Bara- Bhuyans maintained their independence against the Kachari
and Chutiya kings. But with the entrance of the Ahoms into the power-race, the glory of the Bhuyans started
declining. From the middle of the fifteenth century the Ahom kingdom expanded towards the west at the expense
of the Bara-Bhuyans, Kachari and Chutias. In 1535 A.D.the Ahom king, the Dihingia Raja defeated the Bara-
Bhuyans and ransacked their territory and made them feudatory chiefs.
In the field of religion and culture the period had a unique position. The period witnessed an
efflorescence of the Assamese mind, symbolised by Sri Sankardeva a member of Bara- Bhuyan's family by
whose message of love and forgiveness the whole of eastern India was carried off its feet. During the time, when
Assam was divided among the Bhuyans, Ahoms, Koches, Kacharis, J ayantias,Chutias and Nagas, Shri
Sankardev, the great saint poet of Assam,stepped up the epoch making Neo-Vaishnavite movement in Assam.
The great Shri Sankardeva was born at Bordowa in Nagaon district in 1449 A.D.
Taking advantage of Koch invasions of the Ahom territory about the middle of the sixteenth century, the
Bhuyans discontinued to pay tribute to the Ahoms. It was Pratab Singha (1603-1641 A.D.) who finally subdued
the Bhuyans whose domain extended between the Bharali and the Subansiri. In 1623 A.D.the Bara-Bhuyans
again came to declare their independence and one of the Bhuyan chiefs Uday declared independence during the
reign of Pratap Singha. A great number of followers arrested and executed and the followers getting frustrated
submitted themselves to the power. Thenceforth the Bhuyans between the Subansiri and the Bharali, were bereft
of all their powers.
77
Koch king :The Bhuyan chiefs, who were undoubtedly the feudal barons of the later Kamrupa rather
Kamatapur combined against the common foe, attacked Danial's Garrison at Hajo and destroyed it. Thereafter,
for about a decade or more, there was not a common king for Kamatapur in ancient Kamarupa empire, and the
petty Bhuyans again became independent and ruled the country.

77. Sir E. Gait : A history of Assam,1967, p.121
In 1515 A.D. Bisu, The son of Haria Mandal, through his courage took advantage of small Bhuyan
principalities and strifes amongst them forced his way to the front,and subsequently became king under the name
Viswa Singha.
Bisu, the founder of Koch kingdom of Kamrup had a humble origin and defeated the Bhuyans of Ouguri
and Luki but was repulsed by the Bhuyan of Phulguri. But later on, Bisu took advantage of the Bhuyan's soldiers
being engaged in a festival and caught the Bhuyan unprepared and killed them. Thereafter,he subdued the
Bhuyan chiefs of Bijni and other places as also defeated a confederacy of Bhuyan chiefs headed by the Bhuyan
of Karnapur. Then he took Gauhati by defeating the Bhuyan of Pandu and later on turned his attention to the
Bhuyan's of Northern Kamrupa. Thus,the entire country from Karatoya to Barnadi was brought under his sway
by defeating Narayan Gomatha or Head-Bhuyan,Gandhabar Bhuyan of Baushi and their confederacies in Bajali
and Kshetri areas.
78
According to DarrangRaj Vansavali,written by Suryakhari,the Bar Bhuyans and Saru Bhuyans subdued
by Bisu were Brahmans. The Bhuyans of Ouguri was also a Brahmin and Chuti Bhuyan was a Doivogya.
79
It is
found from Guru Charita that, Narayan Gomatha and other Bhuyans of North Kamrup,who were subdued by
the first Koch king were Kayasthas.
80
The account of Koch kings was brought to light by the Vansabali of the Darrang Rajas, which ends
abruptly with the death of Parikshit.
According to M. Neog, Biswa Singha, the first Koch king conquered Darrang together with other
principalities viz., Dimarupa, Beltola, Rani, Luki, Boko, Chaygaon, Barnagar, Karaibari, Athiabari etc.
81
Gait,
however, holds that the river Barnadi formed the eastern boundaries of Biswa Singha's territory. S.K. Bhuyan
also confirms this view and holds that the Karatoya in the west to the Barnadi in the east was the Koch territory
under Biswa Singha.
82
Viswa Singha subdued the petty princes who surrounded him,founded a magnificent city in Koch Nihar
and set his state in order.
Viswa Singha died after a region of 25 years and was succeeded in 1540 A.D. by his Malla Deva, who
assumed the name of Nara Narayan. The reign of this prince reached the zenith of the Koch power and his
armies,which

78. K.L. Barua : Early History of Kamarupa, pp.190
79. Ibid, pp.190.
80. H.N. Dutta Baruah : Prachin kamrupar Kayastha Samajar Itibrittya.
81. M. Neog : sankardeva and His Times, p.60
82. S.K. Bhuyan : Anglo Assamese Relations, Gauhati,1949 p.260
HISTORY 129
were led by his brother Sukledwaja met with almost unvarying success. In this capacity, he displayed such skill
and promptness of action that he was nick-named ''Chilarai'' or the ''Kite-king'', during his expeditions against the
people of Assam.
Nara Narayan's conquering tour against the Ahoms was successful under Chilarai, his commander-in-
Chief and he ascended to the north bank of the Brahmaputra as far as Dikrai river. Then followed two other
engagements at Kaliabar and Sala in which,also the Ahoms were defeated. But in the last engagement on the
bank of the Pichala river, Suklengmung, the Ahom king ousted the Koch army inflicting a disastrous defeat. In
course of these operations the Koches constructed an embankment road from their capital at Koch Bihar to
Narayanpur in the south west of present Lakhimpur district,a distance of some three hundred and fifty
miles(560km.).The worked was carried out under the supervision of Gohain Kamal,the kings brother,and is
known to this day as ''Gohain Kamal Road''.
83
Nara Narayan entered the Ahom capital Gargaon, (the modern
Nazira) but the outcome of the war was an absolute defeat for the Koches many of them were slain and their
arms were captured.
The decisive defeat of the Koches at the hands of Ahoms had not discouraged them at all and the two
brothers proceeded with conquest and compelled the rulers of Manipur, J ayantia, Tipparah, Sylhet, Khyarim and
Dimarua to accept the Koch suzerainty. But the tide of fortune turned when at attack was made on the kingdom
of Gaud. It was Kala Pahar,who fought successfully and repulsed the first attack on Gaud by Nara Narayan in
1565., when the ever victorious Koch prince Chilarai was captive in the hands of the Sultan of Gaud.
Naranarayan would not, however,accept this defeat as final and a few years later joined with the Emperor Akbor
in second attack upon the Badshah of Gaud, and Gaud was divided between the Emperor of Delhi and the Koch
king. Shortly before this expedition Nara Narayan had restored the famous temple at Kamakhya,which had been
injured by the Muhammadan invader Kalapahar in 1565 A.D.
Decline of Koch kingdom, Raghu Raj, 1581-1603 A.D. :As for a long time Naranarayan had no male
offspring, Chilarai's son Raghu Rai was regarded as his heir. But in his late age, Naranarayan begot a son called
Lakshmi Narayan. Raghu Rai, losing hope of succeeding to the throne withdrew from the capital to Barnagar in
the Barpeta Sub-division of the Kamarupa district. Naranarayan

83. N.N. Archaryya : The History of Medieval Assam, Gauhati, p. 195.
endeavoured to compel him to return,but his soldiers were defeated and the king weekly resolved to divide his
kingdom.
84
Raghu Rai thus, came into possession of the country now included the the Mangaldai Sub-division and
the district of Kamrup and Goalpara. He rebuilt the Manikut of Haygrib temple at Hajo, which had been
destroyed by Kalapahar. On Naranarayan's death Lakshmi Narayan ascended the throne.
85
Raghu Rai was succeeded by his son Parikshit in 1603 A.D. The prince mounted cannon at Pandunath,to
the west of the Kamakhya hill, and built a town at North Guwahati,whose fortification can still be traced for
many kilometres even at the present day. A struggle for independence was continued by Parikshit involving him
in incessant hostilities with Lakshmi Narayan. Lakshmi Narayan made his submission to Mughal and Parikshit
to Ahom. Ultimately in 1614 A.D. Parikshit surrendered to the Mughal emperor after a long and desperate war
and his dominion upto the Barnadi was annexed to the Delhi empire with headquarters at Hajo. Parikshit's
son,Chandra Narayan alias Bijit Narayan was confirmed by the Mughals as the Zamindar of the territory
between the Sonkosh and the Manah with establishment at Bijni.
In 1615 A.D., Parikshit's brother Bali Narayan fled away and sought shelter under the Ahom king Pratap
Singha. He was cordially received by the latter. In 1616 A.D. the Ahom king Pratap Singha inflicted a crushing
defeat on the invading Muslims on the bank of the Bharali in Darrang district and appointed Bali Narayan as the
tributary Raja of Darrang and renamed him Dharma Narayan. His brother Gaj Narayan was set up as a tributary
chief of Ahoms at Beltola.
Dharma Narayan helped the Ahoms to fight the Mughals and at first succeeded in wresting out a part of
Goalpara and Kamrup for the Mughals but subsequently had suffered a retreat and defeat. In 1639, a treaty
between the Mughal Commander Allah Tar Khan and the Ahom General Momai Tamuli Barbarua was signed to
fixed the boundary between the two powers at the Barnadi on Darrang-Kamrup boundary on the north bank and
Asurar Ali near Gauhati on the south bank of the Brahmaputra.
86

84. According to Buchanam Hamilton,the kingdom was founded by Hajo, father of Hira and grand father of
Viswa Singha, and divided by Biswa Singha who allotted the portion on the east of the Sankosh to Sukladwaj or
Silarai, and that on the west of the river to Nara Narayan. On general grounds,however,this account seems to be
less probable than given in the body of the text.
85. Sir. E. Gait : A History of Assam, pp. 57-64.
86. S. K. Bhuyan : Anglo Assamese relations, 1949, pp 262-63.
HISTORY 131
Assam in the Ahom Age (1228-1826):
The Advent of the Ahoms :
It has now been well-established that the Ahoms were a section of the Tai race. Historically, these
people are known for their valley-dwelling and wet-rice-growing character. The particular branch to which the
Ahoms belong is known as the Tai-mao, or the Mao section of the Tai but widely known through the Burmans as
the Shan. Ahom chronicles, or buranji, make specific mention that the Ahoms were led by Prince (Chao-lung)
Sukapha who left Mong Mao-lung in 1215 A.D. Sukapha's followers included several nobles (thao-mong),a
number of officers of various ranks, nine thousand men, woman and children. After a westward march for
thirteen years and staying at several places for periods ranging from one to three years, they arrived at the Patkai
in 1228 A.D. Posting a governor at the Khamjang valley, their first territorial unit, situated on the shore of the
Nongjang lake, Sukapha and the rest of his party at first followed the Namrup, then the Buri Dihing (Nam-jin),
thereafter the Brahmaputra, and the Dikhow before finally arriving at Charaideo, which became his permanent
capital. On the way,he also organized several other territorial units along the bank of these rivers. In this way a
small kingdom bounded by Patkai, the Buri Dihing, the Brahmaputra, the Dikhow and the Naga hills was
founded in Upper Assam over which Sukapha ruled till his death in 1268 A.D.
This territory was peopled chiefly by the Morans and the Borahis, and a few villages of the Chutiyas and
the Kacharis evidently of Bodo origin; Nagas were also included in the hilly region of the Patkai. Sukapha won
over the chiefs of Morans and the Borahis, and even encouraged intermarriage with them,and appointed some of
them in various capacities in the royal household.
The Early Ahom State :
From the thirteenth to the fifteenth century A.D.,Ahoms were busy mainly in consolidating their newly
acquired territory and also protecting it from neighbouring powers. However,the reign of Sukhangpha(1293-
1332),the fourth Ahom king, saw the first war with the ruler of Kamata kingdom. The reason for the war is not
given in the buranji. It was brought to a close when the Kamata ruler sued for peace by offering a princes, Rajani
by name. This event indicates the growing strength of the Ahom power. Tao-Kham-thi (1380-89),the seventh
king, led a successful expedition against the Chutiya king for murdering his brother Sutupha (1369-76) at a
regatta. The reign of Sudanghpha(1398-1407), better known as ''Bamuni Konwar'' for his birth in the house of a
Brahmin at Habung, is important in several respects. It was for the first time that Brahmanical influence had its
entry into the Ahom royal palace,The capital was transferred to Charagua near the bank of river Dihing. On the
report of
some nobles who were dissatisfied with Sudangpha for his subordination to Hindu influence, the Tai rulers of
Mong Kwang (Mogaung) sent an expedition to annex the Ahom kingdom. In the battle fought at Kuhiarbari, the
invaders were forced to retreat and came to terms in a treaty concluded on the shore of the Nongjang Lake in
1401 A.D. By this treaty the Patkai was fixed as the boundary between Assam and Mong Sudangpha suppressed
a revolt of the Tipamiyas, and he also asserted his sovereignty over the three eastern dependencies viz.,Tipam,
Aiton and Khamjang.
The reigns of four successive Kings Sujangpha (1407-22), Suphokpha (1439-88), and Supempha (1493-
97), covering a period of ninety years were comparatively peaceful barring a brief war with the Dimasa Kacharis
in 1490 A.D. The bordering Nagas, who made some raids were kept in check.
Expansion of the Ahom Kingdom :
The real expansion of the Ahom kingdom began with Suhummong (1497-1539) better known as
Dihingiya Raja,as he belong to the Dihingiya phoid (clan)of the royal family. By this time the Brahmanical
influence grew considerably in the Ahom court so much so that the king is said to have received the Hindu title
Swarganarayan,an equivalent of chao-pha In Tai and the Saka era was also adopted. He transferred his capital to
Dihing. A census of population was done during his reign.
After a serious of armed conflict caused by boundary dispute, the Chutiya king was defeated and killed
and his kingdom centering Sadiya was annexed to the Ahom dominion as a province over which was placed a
governor titled Sadiya Khowa Gohain. He also defeated the Kacharis of the Doyang-Dhansiri Valley and brought
their territory under the Ahoms as a province called Marangi,and placed a provincial governor titled Marangi
Khowa Gohain. This was in 1526.The Kachari royal family moved to Maibong leaving Dimapur. After
sometime, on an appeal, the Kachari king at Maibong was given recognition as Thapita-sanchita (established
and preserved) by Suhummong. The same king also brought the Bhuyans on the north bank under Ahom control.
It was during the reign of Suhummong that the first major invasion of Assam by the Pathan rulers of Bengal
occurred. After an initial expedition by Bir Malik and Bar Ujir, the two Bengal generals, Turbuk was
commissioned by the Sultan of Bengal. In a major encounter,the Ahom side lost several of their generals and
many soldiers. However,in a renewed naval war after sometime,the Ahom side gained superiority leading to the
defect and the death of Turbak. A large number of arms,cannons,horses and soldiers were captured by the
Ahoms. The defeated army was pushed through Kamrup and Kamata where the people co-operated with the
victors. The ruler of Kamata, Durlabhendra accepted Ahom
HISTORY 133
protection by offering his daughter. The Ahom army marched westward as far as the Karatoya, the eastern
frontier of Bengal, and built a small brick temple on its bank. Thus by 1534, the Ahom army liberated Kamrup
and Kamata king. Suhummong established relation with Manipur and Orissa; and Viswa Singha, the rising Koch
chief visited his court and acknowledged his allegiance. By his great zeal and enterprise, Suhummong extended
the Ahom dominion from the eastern confine of Sadiya to the Karatoya,and successfully failed the invasions of
Assam by the Muslim rulers of Bengal. Due to the expansion of the Ahom dominion during his reign, non-Ahom
population in the Ahom kingdom greatly increased.
The reign of Suklenmong (1539-52) and Sukhampha (1553-1603) were mainly important for Koch
expeditions to the Ahom kingdom.The first was conducted by Viswa Singha which,however,did not materialise
as the Koch army. The second major invasion led by king Naranarayan, with his younger brother Sukladhwaj
popularly known as Chilarai occupied the Ahom capital Garhgaon. However, the Koch army soon returned after
a peace treaty. This was the last Koch invasion of the Ahom kingdom.
The Period of Ahom-Mughal Conflict
The history of the Ahoms during the seventeenth century was mainly the history of the Ahom-Mughal
conflict which arose of the imperial ambition of the Mughal emperors to extend their dominions to further east
beyond Bengal,and if possible to seek routes to China and Tibet;at the same time to collect certain articles such
as gold dusts, long pepper, elephant teeth, musk, lack, etc., obtained in Assam which were valued greatly by the
royalty and nobility in the Mughal courts. The absorption of the Koch kingdom into the Mughal dominions made
the Ahom kingdom coterminous. The long reign of Susengpha (1603-41)better known as Pratap Singha was
important in the history of Assam in several respects. The Mughal claim on the Koch territory to the east of
Barnadi and the trading adventures of certain Mughal merchants caused conflict and tension along the border
leading to the first serious battle with the Mughal army and navy at Bharali near Tezpur in which the enemy side
was completely routed. This was in 1616 A.D.A vivid description of the plight of the Mughal soldiers is given in
the Baharistan-i-Ghayli by Mirza Nathan,a Mughal general. About 1700 men of the enemy side were
killed,double this number were wounded and 9000 men were taken as prisoners. This was followed by a series of
campaigns against the Mughals. In 1618,there was another serious battle at Hajo in which the Ahoms lost nearby
4000 boats, and an equal number of men were killed. The war, however, did not stop,but continued with
occasional outburst, and the pendulum of victory moved from one side to another in
Kamrup. Ultimately, peace was restored by a treaty concluded by Momai Tamuli Barbarua and Allah Yar Khan
in 1639 where by the Barnadi on the North and the Asurar Ali on the south were fixed as the boundary between
the Ahom and Mughal territories. It did not, however, last for a very long time.
During the early years of Pratap Singha's reign, the Kachari king, who was always considered thapita-
sanchita status by the Ahom kings, was bold enough to show his defiance by declining to comply a request for
passage of a J aintia princess through his country. An Ahom army led by Sunder Gohain was badly defeated and
the general himself was killed by the Kacharis led by Prince Bhimbal in 1606 A.D. Soon, however, relation with
the Kachari king was restored. Pratap Singha also cultivated good relations with the J aintia king.
Pratap Singha introduced certain reforms in the administration and reorganized the paik. Two very
important posts that of the Barbarua and the Barphukan were created;the former was placed as the head of the
secretariat and judiciary immediately under the king; the later was placed in charge of lower Assam west of
Kaliabor, and also head of diplomatic relations with the west. Several other new posts of lesser important were
also created. A census of population was undertaken, and the paik system was extended to newly acquired
territories. All free adult population were registered as paik for state services. A squad for four paiks constituted
the lowest unit called got,and twenty such units were commanded by a Bora, one hundred by a Saikia ,and one
thousand by a Hazarika. Departments were usually headed by Phukan, Baruah, Rajkhowa according to their
importance. Among other notable works of Pratap Singha included construction of several important
roads,bridges,excavation of tanks and ramparts. He also built several towns. The king was liberal and catholic in
his religious policy.
The short reigns of his two immediate successors Surampha (1641-44) and Suchingpha (1644-48)were
not of much importance. The reign of Sutamla, better known by his Sanskrit title J ayadhwaj Singha(1648-
63)was marked by a major invasion of Assam by the Mughal army headed by Mir J umla, the newly appointed
Nawab of Bengal. It was apparently a retaliatory action taken against the occupation of Sarkar Kamrup by the
Ahom army by taking advantage of the confusion that ensued following the disposal of Shah J ahan by his son's.
The large army of infantry and cavalry supported by a strong navy mostly manned by Europeans chiefly the
Portuguese and the Dutch proceeded towards the capital of Assam by overrunning the defenses put up at
Hatichala-Baritala, Pancharatan-J ogighopa and Pandu-Saraighat. After the occupation of the fort at Samdhara
following a stiff battle and a keenly contested naval victory near Kaliabor on the Brahmaputra, the Mughal army
advanced towards the Ahom capital, Garhgaon, J ayadhwaj Singha with his family and close associates evacuated
the capital,and retreated to Namrup hills close to the Patkai. The
HISTORY 135
Mughal army occupied Garhgaon, and established outposts at several places in Upper Assam ;Mir J umla himself
made his headquarters at Mathurapur . However,when the rainy season started,these outposts had been cut off by
flood and became isolated while the Mughal navy with big war boat which remained at Lakhnow could not help
them. The Ahom army then started to harass by adopting guerilla method of warfare. Due to disruption of
communication,the Mughal army was placed under great hardship;the physical as well as moral condition began
to deteriorate. The health of Mir J umla became worse as he had been suffering from consumption. Under the
circumstances,a peace proposal initialed by the Ahom side was ultimately agreed upon. The treaty of
Ghiladharighat at Tipam on the Buri Dihing was drawn up on J an.9, 1663 by which J ayadhwaj became a
tributary of the Mughal Emperor. He agreed to pay a huge war indemnity, the cessation of all territory west of
the Bharali on the north bank on the state of 'Dimarua', Beltola west of the Kallong on the south bank of the
Brahmaputra. J aydhwaj Singha's daughter accompanied by the daughter of Tipam Raja was sent to Delhi and the
sons of the ministers were sent as hostage with the Mughal till full payment was made. Mir J umla and his army
left Assam. Soon after his return to Bakotha,as Garhgaon, as Garhgaon was despoiled by the Mughals,
J ayadhwaj Singha passed away in 1663. He was the first Ahom king to embrace Hinduisim by receiving
initiation from a Vashnava priest. He made large revenue free land grants with paiks to several Hindu satras
(monasteries). One of the notable achievements of J ayadhwaj Singha's reign was the planned settlement of
villages in certain tracts of the country. However, Mir Jumla's invasion caused devastation of the economic and
social condition of the kingdom.
Mir J umla was accompanied by a news reporter ( waqia navis) named Mirza Mahammad Wali,
Poetically known as Shihabuddin Talish, who left a very valuable account of Assam, its climate, population,
manners and customs, products, and of its capital Garhgaon. A few excerpts may be of interest.
''Although most of the inhabitants of the neighbouring hills pay no tax to the Rajah of Assam,yet they
accept his sovereignty and obey some of his commands.''
''From Lakhaugarh to Garhgaon,also, there are roads,houses and farms in the same style;and a lofty and
wide embanked road has been constructed upto Garhgaon for traffic.''
The people of the country are free from certain fatal and loathsome diseases such as leprosy, white
leprosy, elephantiasis, cutaneous eruptions, goitre and hydrocele, which prevail in Bengal.''
''It is not the custom here to take any land tax from the cultivators; but in every house one man out of the
three has to render service to the Raja.''
''In all the past ages no(foreign) king could lay the hand of conquest
on the skirt of this country, and no foreigner could treat it with the foot of invasion.''
''And all the people of his country, not placing their necks in the yoke of any faith,eat whatever they get
from the hand of any man,regardless of his caste,and undertake any kind of labour.''
''Their language differs entirely from that of all the people of Eastern India.''
''They cast excellent matchlocks and bachadar artillery, and show a great skill in this craft. They make
first rate gunpowder..''
''The common people bury their dead with some of the property of the deceased,placing the head towards
the east and the feat towards the west.''
Talish also left a vivid and valuable description of Garhgaon, and the royal palace.
Chakradhwaj Singha (1663-70)himself to be a person of indomitable courage and firm determination
who refused to put on the gown (siropa) sent by the Mughal court to him as a tributary king.'' Death is preferable
to a state of subordination to Bangal'' he uttered. Preparations for war were soon complete, and Kamrup was
again recovered by a strong Ahom navy ,and infantry under the Command of Lachit Barphukan in 1667. The
Mughal occupational army was badly mauled. Following this several fortifications had been raised on both
banks surrounding Guwahati to protect it against any further attack. Having received the news of Mughal
reverse, the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb despatched a Rajput general Raja Ram Singh, son of Raja J ay Singh of
Amber with a large force with order to chastise the ''wicked tribe''(the Ahoms).Ram Singh advanced towards
Guwahati by occupying several posts which the Ahoms evacuated for strategic reasons to concentrate at
Guwahati. Ram Singh made his camp at Hajo. The Ahom army under Lachit Barphukan and other generals
including Atan Buragohain foiled every attempt of Ram Singh to occupy Guwahati by war and diplomacy,and
the war dragged on for several years with loss on both sides. In the meantime,Udayaditya ascended the throne in
1669. The Battle of Saraighat fought in 1671 was the last determined attempt of Ram Singh which met
ignominious defeat at the hands of the Ahom. The defeated army was pushed back beyond the Manaha river. It
may be mentioned that in the war against the Mughals, many of the neighbouring hill people sent their
contingents and successfully fought against the invaders.
From the death of Ramdhwaj Singha, the successor of Udayaditya Singha, in 1675 to the accession of
Gadadhar Singha in 1681, there ensured a period of weak and unstable government during which several weak
and young kings were placed on the Ahom throne the quickly removed by ministers and high officials for their
own selfish gains than for the welfare of the kingdom . By
HISTORY 137
taking advantage of the situation, Laluk Barphukan, the Viceroy of Lower Assam at Guwahati treacherously
handed Guwahati over to the Mughals.
The first major achievement of Gadadhar Singha (1681-96), who was installed king at Kaliabor by the
nobles and officers, was the expulsion of the Mughals from Guwahati and Kamrup by defeating them at the
Battle of Itakhuli. They were pursued down to the Manaha, which henceforth became the Ahom-Mughal
boundary till 1826. The king then suppressed all conspiracies to weaken the power of the Monarch, and reduced
the tribes who created troubles in the border. He also controlled the growing power of the Hindu religious
heads,but he was no bigot in his religious policy. Possessing a towering personality, Gadadhar Singha restored
the authority of the king, and brought peace and order to the country.
Rudra Singh's reign (1696-1714) marks new turning point in the history of Assam. Inherited from his
father a strong monarchy and a peaceful kingdom, Rudra Singha now found time and resources to build a new
capital at Rangpurnear the present town of Sibsagar on the Dikhow by importing artisans and masons, and
know-how from Bengal. When the Rajas of Cachar, who was treated by the Ahoms as thapita-sanchita, and
J aintia showed signs of insubordination, they were captured and brought before Rudra Singha and were
compelled to acknowledge the sovereignty of the Ahoms. The king had planned to invade Bengal with the
support of the rulers and chiefs of the neighbouring states like Tripura, Koch Bihar, Burdwan and Nadia. When
all preparations were complete and the vast army assembled at Guwahati for the march, Rudra Singha suddenly
fell ill and passed away in that city. The king is known for his liberal policy; he allowed to grow trade with
Bengal, and also imported several cultural items like dress, festival, songs, etc.,from that country. This resulted
in a slow cultural synthesis.
Later Ahom Kings :
The first half of the eighteenth century was peaceful,and the reigns of two kings Siva Singha (1714-
44)and Pramatta Singha (1744-51),saw the unprecedented growth of Hindu religious proclivities, and the
building of Hindu temples. A great number of endowments of land and man were made for sustaining these. Siva
Singha's queen Phuleswari,who acquired great influence over him, even dared to insult Vaishnava mahantas by
forcing them to bow down to the Goddess Durga . From this time onwards, the Ahom kings became more
attached to Sakta faith which introduced a new element in the social and political life. The traditional Ahom
religious institutions fell into negligence ,and the Ahoms who remained stuck to their own religion and
customs,became a degraded class. At the same time ,cultural penetration from Berigal continued unabated.
The reign of Rajeswar Singha (1751-69),a younger brother of Siva Singha saw the rise of Kirti Chandra
Barbarua to power and status. One of the important
events of his reign was the despatch of the Ahom army against the Burmese in Manipur whose legal ruler J ai
Singh (known as Bhagya Chandra in Manipur) was driven away by them and who came to Assam through
Kachari country. J ai Singh strengthened his relation with Rajeswar Singha by giving his daughter Kuranganayani
in marriage to the latter. This followed the policy of his predecessors by making endowment of land and men to
religious persons and institutions.
Lakshmi Singha's reign (1769-1780)was disrupted by the revolt of the Moamarias, the followers of the
Mayamara Mahanta of orthodox Vaishnava persuasion. Several causes are attributed to the revolt of which one is
the physical punishment meted by Kirti Chandra Barbarua to Nahar, the chief of the Morans who came to make
annual offer of elephant which was found lean and haggard. Nahar was mortified at this and was looking for
support to taker revenge on the Barbarua. Already Phuleswari's action had inflamed the situation. The climax
was reached when the Moamaria Gossain was abused by the Barbarua for being indifferent to him. The Morans
were then ready to fight. They were joined by three exiled Ahom princes. The rebels advanced towards the
capital Rangpur and after defeating the royal troops at several engagements they arrived at Rangpur. The king
who attempted to flee was pursued and captured, and was put in confinement at the temple of J aysagar.
Ramakanta was declared king and Nahar became the Barbarua. The Morans preserved the entire structure of the
Ahom govt. However, after a few months, the Moran rule was overthrown and the insurgents were punished.
King Lakshmi Singha was released from captivity and was restored. Like his predecessors, the king made a
number of grants of rent free land with men, and built several temples.
Decline and fall of the Ahom Kingdom :
The Kingdom began to decline from the time of Gaurinath Singha (1780-95). In 1782, the Moamarias
insurrection rose again with renewed vigour and increased violence. They advanced to Garhgaon and created
panic among the population. The advance was halted and the rebels were treated with severity and many were
executed. Such a step aggravated the situation. After a brief pause, the disturbances caused by the Moamarias
swept down across the north bank. After defeating the royalists, the Moamarias advanced towards the capital.
Assistance was sought from Manipur, Kachari, J aintia and the chiefs of Rani, Beltola, Luki. Before the help
arrived, the rebels occupied Rangpur; Gaurinath Singha with the members of his family sailed downstream, and
reaches Nagaon, and then to Guwahati. At Rangpur, the Moamarias set up Bharath Singha as king; but the
Hatisungi Morans set up Sarbananda as their king of the territory to the east of Dihing and both minted coins in
their names. Krishnanarayan of Darrang had also organized a large force and occupied North Guwahati.
HISTORY 139
Purnananda Buragohain shifted the centre of administration of Dichoi,later known as Jorhat,which became the
new Ahom capital.
Under the circumstances, Gaurinath Singha appealed for help of men and materials to the East India
company's authorities through Raush, a salt merchant and Mr. Dauglas,Commissioner of Koch Bihar. In
response to this, Lord Cornwallis, the Governor General despatched Captain Thomas Welsh with sepoys who
arrived at Goalpara in early November, 1792; and from there, on receiving urgent message from the king moved
upstream the Brahmaputra. The meeting between the king and Capt. Welsh took place at Nagarberra on the
Brahmaputra. Advancing further,Captain Welsh suppressed the rebellious elements at Guwahati and on the north
bank. He also pacified Krishnanarayan, the rebellious prince at Darrang and expelled many of the Burkendazes
who assisted him. Sometime later he advanced to Jorhat, and then to Rangpur where he defeated the Moamarias,
and restored the authority of Gaurinath Singha at Rangpur in 1794. In the midst of this success, Capt. Welsh was
recalled by Sir J ohn Shore, the new Governor General,and he left Assam. During his stay in the kingdom, he
concluded a commercial treaty in 1793 by which commerce between Assam and Bengal was sought to be put on
''reciprocal basis''. The Report of Capt. Welsh which he submitted to his government in response to certain
queries gives certain important information in regard to the system of Ahom govt., trade and commerce,
products,etc. Although Gaurinath Singha is depicted by some as cruel and vindictive,he had certain pieces of
good work like the abolition of human sacrifice at the Kechaikhati temple at Sadiya.
Kamaleswar Singha's reign (1795-1810) witnessed localised revolts at several places in Kamrup which
was successfully suppressed,at Sadiya by the Khamtis, Pani Noras, Miris and others, fresh Moamaria
insurrection in league with the Daflas. In spite of these,he connected the new capital Jorhat by constructing
several new roads like the Na-ali, the Rajabahar Ali,the Mohabandha Ali, the Kamarbandha Ali,etc. and also
built a copper-house at Kamakhya. The reign of Chandra Kanta Singha (1810-18) saw the Burmese invasion.
Friction between Purnananda Buragohain and Badan Chandra Barphukan and a conspiracy by Satram to
overthrow the former led the latter to go to the Burmese capital Amarapura where he pleaded for assistance
against the Buragohain . Bodoupaya, who had already had his eyes on Assam,seized the opportunity to send an
army of about sixteen thousand men with Badan Chandra to Assam. The Burmese army after defeating the
Assamese army at several engagements arrived at J orhat. Chandra Kanta Singha was retained as king, and Badan
Chandra assumed power as minister. The Burmese then retired to their country with large presents. But soon the
assassination of Badan Chandra,and installation of Purandar Singha by ousting Chandra Kanta Singha,once
again brought the Burmese under the command of Ata Mingi to Assam in 1819. On their advance, Purandar and
his prime minister Rudinath fled to Guwahati,
and Chandra Kanta Singha was once again restored to the throne despite his mutilation of person caused in the
meanwhile. After the departure of the Burmese, Chandra Kanta Singha sought to raise a fort at J aipur against
further Burmese invasion. However,a Burmese force sent by their Monarch with presents of ornaments and dress
to Chandra Kanta Singha seeing such preparations killed Patalong under whose supervision the fort was raised.
Thinking this hostile move on the part of the Burmese army, Chandra Kanta fled to Guwahati and did not come
back in spite of Burmese assurance. This was in 1821. The Burmese then set up an Ahom prince, J ogeswar
Singha. Chandra Kanta Singha crossed the border and entered Bengal where he tried to collect arms and men to
fight the Burmese. At the battle of Mahgarh, Chandra Kanta's army was badly defeated, and he once again
entered the British territory.
The period from 1821 to 1824 is called period of Burmese rule. During this period,the Burmese
devastated the country and committed atrocities by plunder and killing. The Burmese also threatened the
Goalpara frontier of Bengal by demanding the surrender of Assamese refugees including Chandra Kanta Singha,
and their supporters who often gave trouble of them across the border. In that time, the border conflict in the East
India Company's Chittagong frontier with the Burmese empire took serious turn. Anticipating a threatened
invasion of Bengal,the prized possession of the Company in India,lord Amherst,the Governor General decided to
declare war on Myanmar (Burma). War was declared on the 5
th
of March 1824. This is the First Anglo Burmese
War which lasted for nearly two years.
Immediately after the declaration of war,the British army entered Goalpara frontier of Assam and after
defeating the small Burmese garrisons in Lower Assam,it advanced to Upper Assam. By taking advantage of a
dissension among the Burmese commanders,the British occupied Rangpur in 1825 and drove the Burmese and
their allies, the Singphos out of Assam. A section of the Burmese army surrendered to the British remained in
Assam.
Immediately on the occupation of Assam by the British, martial law was declared; David Scott was
appointed as civil officer in charge of civil matters, and Col. Richards in charge of the army,and the British
started their administration.
By Article II of the Treaty of piece and friendship which was concluded between the British and the
Burmese at Yandabo on 24 February 1826, the Burmese monarch renounced all claims upon and promised to
refrain from all interference with, the principality of Assam and its dependencies. As Assam was already
occupied by the British during the Anglo-Burmese war, it was kept under British occupation and started
introducing British administration.
HISTORY 141
The Ahom system of Administration :
The system of Government was partly monarchical and partly aristocratic. The king or Swarga
Maharaja as he was called,was the supreme head of the State. All honours, titles, offices, decisions and war-
measures emanated from him, but he had to act according to the advice of the five hereditary councilors of State,
the Buragohain, the Bargohain, the Barpatra-gohain, the Barbaruah and the Barphukan.
The state of J aintia, Cachar, Khrim and Manipur were in friendly alliance with the Ahom Government.
The province of Darrang enjoyed complete autonomy in its internal administration,as well as the other vassal
states. There were six establishments of princes introduced by Suhummong Dihingia Raja at Charing, Tipam,
Tungkhung, Dihing, Samaguri and Namrup. Each of these princes had their own estates and dependents. All of
them were entitled Raja and belonged to the royal family which started with Sukapha, the first Ahom king.
Subsequently,the title of Charing Raja was reversed for the heir apparent while the title of Tipam Raja and
Namrupia Raja were meant for other nearest blood relations of the reigning monarch. Ambition for the throne
nurtured by some of these families without any political and military training became the cause of the downfall
of Ahom rule in Assam.
The Patra-mantries occupied important position in the political administration and enjoyed enormous
powers. The Barphukan governed as viceroy or deputy to the king,in the tract between the Brahmaputra and the
Kalang in Nagaon, but after extension of the Ahom kingdom in the westward direction he was put in charge of
the country from Kaliabor to Goalpara with his headquarters at Guwahati. He had conduct diplomatic relations
with Bengal, Bhutan and chieftains of Assam frontiers. Other local governors such as Sadiya Khowa Gohain,
Marangi Khowa Gohain, the Solal Gohain and the Kajali Mukhia Gohain,etc., were appointed for the
administration of the outlying areas of the country. Besides,there were other position recruited from respectable
Ahom families for high posts. Among them,the highest rank was of the Phukan,next in rank were the Baruas.
There were twelve Rajkhowas, a number of Khatakis and Dolois.
Adult population of Assam was divided into Khels, Khels into Paiks and areas were constituted into
Chamuas for revenue administration. It was not the usual practice in Assam to pay the revenue in cash. It was
paid through services or paiks etc. The currency of Assam consisted of gold and silver coins.
The liberal and practical outlook shaped the religious of the Ahom monarchs. The image of ''Chom-
Cheng''which Sukapha had brought with his from his ancestral home was the tutelary deity of the Ahom rulers
till the end of their rule.
The general success of the Ahoms in their dealings with the hill tribes was
admitted by the Mughal chronicler Shihabuddin Talish who accompanied Mir-J umla's expedition in 1662-63
A.D. He wrote-''Although most of the inhabitants of the neighbouring hills pay no tax tax to the Rajah of Assam yet
they accept his sovereignty and obey some of his commands.''
87
Regarding the military system of the Ahoms, Ram Singh, the Mughal general had to admit that every
Assamese soldiers was an expert in rowing boats,in shooting arrows,in digging trenches and cannons and that he
did not such specimen of versatility in any other part of India. This proves that the orginasation of army under
the Ahom rulers was efficient and effective.
Law and justice was in action during the Ahom reign. The criminal law was characterised by sterness
and comparative harshness. The penalty for rebellion was various forms of capital punishment.
(e) The Modern Period : Annexation of Assam :
The condition of Brahmaputra valley at the time of the expulsion of the Burmese was most deplorable.
During the transition period the civil administration of Assam was entrusted to David Scott with the title 'Agent
of the Governor General for the whole eastern frontier' from Cachar and Sylhet in the south to Sikkim in the
north. He was at the same time Special Civil Commissioner of North-East Rongpur, ie.,Goalpara and the Garo
Hills. Mr.Robinson says,''Hithero the affairs of the province had been conducted on much the same system that
previously prevailed before the conquest. The officer-incharge exercised a general superintendence and specially
devoted their attention to fiscal business whilst the criminal and civil duties were performed by councils of the
Assamese gentry under the name of Panchayat .There were two or three such Panchayats in each division of the
province. Appeals lay from the court of one Panchayat to that of the next superior court and finally to the court
of the Commissioners.''
In judicial cases, the executive officers were both magistrates and judges trying the accused with the
assistance of the Panchayat but referring all heinous offences accompanied with their options to Mr. Scott for his
final judgement.
The revenue administration was carried on just in the same manner as it had existed the conquest. David
Scott had introduced the improved method of assessing land revenue but it could be completed he breathed his
last in August,1831.
Thus the history of the State under the British rule began after the appointment of David Scott.
The promise made by the British on the eve of the Anglo-Burmese war,that they had no intention of
annexing any portion of the Brahmaputra valley and preferred to stay as conquerors only,had became doubtful.
And,as a result,rebellion broke out. The first rebellion broke out. The first rebellion started by Assamese nobles
against the newly founded authority with demand to withdraw the new administrative system of

87. S. K. Bhuyan : Anglo- Assamese Relation, p.47.
HISTORY 143
revenue,which reduced many of them to abject poverty.
British occupation of lower Assam could not but be viewed with serious concern by the Khasi Chiefs
who held the low hands,commonly known as nine-duars north of their hills. The initiative was taken by
Barmanik, the ruler of Khyrem, who in August 1828 descending down upon the plains of Dimarua a few
kilometres from Guwahati seized collection made by the revenue officers and publicly demanded his
independence on the duars. Next year the second rebellion had broken out the Eastern Assam under the
leadership of the ex-nobility of Assam. But the British Government somehow managed to put off their joint
rebellion.
Nearly all the principalities of Brahmaputra Valley and the hilly regions of Cachar and Jaintia were
annexed to the company's dominion in Assam one by one in the courses of two decades.
Accordingly David Scott,agent to the Governor General,North-East Frontier,extended British suzerainty
over Cachar under an agreement with Raja Govinda Chandra in early March,1834. Raja Ram Singha of J aintia
later in his agreement with Scott, acknowledged the authority of the British Government.
Thus the process began, though slowly, for the extension of British dominion into Assam or the North-
East Frontier. The people submitted to the inevitable;in fact,they ''hailed with unbounded joy''their deliverers
who saved them from the tyranny of the Burmese and offered them the most loyal co-operation. Even Maniram
Dewan,later an arch-enemy of the British, Heavily welcomed the advent of the English.
Scott's policy of conciliating the former official aristocracy proved a dismal failure. And towards the
close of 1828 the Ahom, the Khasis, the Singphos and also the Bhutias in the north were committing on the
British subjects.
The repeated uprising and the administrative confusion of the period demanded above all a change from
an imperfect British administration. T.C. Robertson succeeded Scott as the agent of the Governor in 1832.
However, in 1832, Upper Assam except Sadiya and Mattak territories was made over to the Ahom prince
Purandar Singha, who set up as a vassal king. In October, 1838,Purandar Singha's territory was taken over by the
British on recommendation of Mr.J enkin, East India Company's Agent, and Assam as a whole became a ''non-
regulated'' province of the Indian Empire. This was done contrary to their earlier assurances with purely
commercial motive. Purandar Singha was unnecessarily humiliated and it could have been done only with tacit
consent of the rival group of Purandar Singha. The same tactics were followed by the British in finally annexing
Cachar in 1830 and Sadiya were annexed to British India in 1842.
88
Likewise J aintia, which was kept under the
rule of a vassal king for some years,was annexed in 1835 and Manipur was restored to its ruling dynasty. Along
the southern frontier of Bhutan there were eighteen mountain passes, called

88. B.C. Chakravarty : British Relation with Hill Tribes of Assam, P.16
Bhutan duars .By means of these passes the Bhutan highlanders held their sway over this border and established
their de facto right over this whole belt of border territory. As a result of incessant outrages committed by the
Bhutias on the British subjects, the British Government attached all the Assam duars in 1841 A.D. as the only
means of security and peace in this part of frontier. These duars were the main channels of trade between Tibet
and Assam.
Hostilities with the Mishimis started from a simple incident, when in 1854A.D., French Missionary M.
Kich and his friend N. Bourri crossed the Mishimi country into Tibet. On their return they were murdered by the
Mishims. The Mishimis were defeated in a series of attacks and in 1843 A.D., the rebels made their submission
to the British. The Lushais committed their first raid in 1849 A.D. and the punitive expedition that followed was
so successful that they gave no further trouble till 1858 A.D.
Meanwhile, T.C. Robertson had felt that multifarious activities of a far flung frontier to the frontier
provinces was not justified. He realised the necessity of European officers in Assam for good supervision and on
his recommendation in March, 1833, the supreme Government accorded its approval for the division of the
province into four districts-Goalpara, Kamrup, Darrang and Nagaon; over each was placed a Principal Assistant
vested with the powers of a Collector,J udge and Magistrate.
For many years after British occupation of Assam, Guwahati remained the headquarters of the province,
but on the erection of Assam into a separate province under a Chief Commissioner, the headquarters of the new
administration was shifted to Shillong.
The district boundaries underwent changes since its formation into separate districts in 1833 A.D .The
Dhansiri river originally formed the boundary in the east and the district of Sibsagar included some areas of the
present Karbi Anglong district, North Cachar Hills and Naga Hills. In 1853 A.D.,North Cachar was separated
from a sub-division and in the next year the territory of Tularam was added to North Cachar sub-division. During
1867 A.D.,the Naga Hills and a large part of Karbi Anglong were combined together into a separate district,and
the sub-division of North Cachar was abolished, and considerable area of North Cachar sub-division was placed
in charge of the Deputy Commissioner of Cachar.
The province of Assam was created in 1874 A.D. with a view to relieving the Lieutenant Governor of
Bengal of a part of his huge administrative responsibility. The head of the newly created province was given the
title of ''Chief Commissioner''. In 1905 A.D., Lord Curzon combined the eastern district of Bengal with Assam
but this was reversed in 1912 and Assam was restored to its former territorial position. In 1921,in accordance
with the provisions of the government of India Act, 1919, Assam was given the status of a Governor's province.
HISTORY 145
Condition of the Province on the eve of British occupation and its effects:
The peace and tranquility of the province in the event of British occupation was disturbed by the
disputed succession. Anarchy prevailed in the later Ahom period resulting in maladministration in the State. The
situation was further aggravated by the successive rebellions, the province of Assam had been depopulated to the
extent of half of her population,and under the stress of protracted wars and oppression, the peasants had to give
up cultivation and depend mostly on wild roots and plants. Famine and pestilence stalked the land.
''Mills's report on Assam''stated that, it was not to set the clock back,as desired by Maniram or the people
of his thinking, but to consolidate the possession of the British and to tighten their grip over the administration.
David Scott organised the administration to his best capacity and introduced British system in general
outline and spirit with accommodation for indigenous system prevalent at that time.
The general administration of Assam including justice was vested in the Commissioner of Assam with
his headquarters at Guwahati. A Deputy Commissioner was posted there in 1939 to relieve the commissioner as
Civil and Sessions J udge. Each district was placed in charge of a Principal (Senior)Assistant assisted by a J unior
Assistant and a Sub-Assistant. In 1861,deputy Commissioner was redesignated as J udicial Commissioner;
Principal Assistant as Deputy Commissioner; J unior Assistant as Assistant Commissioner and Sub-Assistant as
Extra Assistant Commissioner.
There was a separate civil judicial establishment consisting of one Principal Sadar Amin six Sadar
Amins and seventeenth Munsiffs. The separate establishment of Sadar Amin and Munsiffs was abolished in
1872. David Scott was mainly responsible for working out the principles of administration in both upper and
lower Assam. The British administration in Lower Assam actually began in 1824-25. The revenue collections
increased in each succeeding year and this must have reduced the people to dire straits.
The British introduced new method of revenue administration. The new system placed paraganas under
Choudhuries who were entrusted with the collection of revenue and administration of justice in petty criminal
cases in their respective paraganas.
The Choudhury was in the nature of a revenue collecting contractor,for he had to pay six months'
revenue to the Government before any collection could be made. Revenue was assessed as per the category of
the cultivated area. Besides revenue, the people was subjected to pay a per capita poll tax of Rs.2/-. On failure to
pay taxes,property of the defaulting tenants was confiscated with the result that peasants at times could not save
their hearth and home. So mounting resentment grew amongst the Assamese peasants who,in fact,were in great
need of undisturbed rehabilitation for some considerable length of time.
The introduction of a new judiciary system by the foreigners also contributed
to the suffering of the people.
To protect lives and properties in the interiors, there existed a police establishment, the thana with a
thanadar or daroga in charge. He was empowered to arrest suspected persons, to detained them and even to hold
preliminary trial before sending them to sadar station.
Under the Chartered Act of 1833 Special lease grants and Fee simple lease grants were introduced in
respect of revenue administration to encourage tea plantation and a company called Assam company was
established by the British. By 1858,almost the entire erstwhile Lakhimpur and Sibsagar were covered by this
company for tea plantation and subsequently expanded its operation to Cachar. Expansion of tea industry
necessitated import of labour from outside the State. Mill gives the figure of such immigrants in Assam in 1881
to be 3 lakhs which reached over six lakhs by 1901.
The commercial treaty of Gaurinath Singha with Captain Welsh in 1793 had opened the gates to the
merchants of Bengal to enter into the interior of the province. Avenues of employment both in office and trade
caused a steady inflow of population from the districts of Sylhet, Dacca, Mymensingh and Rangpur to Assam.
After it came under British administration,the policy adopted by the British in the other parts of India was
pursued in Assam. So, the British, in order to supplement the Chartered Act of 1833, encouraged the
establishment of English schools in Assam as they needed English knowing people to help running of
administration. The Assamese people who were then enjoying a respite after a long and bitter struggle with the
Burmese invaders,were totally unaware of these developments. Besides,there were very few English educated
people in Assam .In April ,1831,Government of Bengal made Bengali in place of Persian the language of the
court. The influx from Bengal not only made the revenue and judicial departments their sole preserve, but their
services became equally indispensable to the newly started Government schools for death of local teachers
specially to impart instructions in Bengali which had since been made the medium of instruction in Assam.
Finally,Assamese was abolished from the schools and courts of Assam in 1839.
Anandaram Dhekial Phukan who was one of the few English educated Assamese was appointed as
Assistant Commissioner. His enlightened mind saw that the lot of the peasantry could not be improved without
knowledge of modern scientific applications and a better mode of living which cannot be acquired without
Western education. He laid stress on the necessity of raising the standard
HISTORY 147
of education and, his was the first voice of protest against the imposition of Bengali as the medium of
instruction, and pleaded for its replacement by Assamese.
Concrete steps were, however, taken by the Christian missionaries who not only carried on a propaganda
through their mouth piece the Arunodoi but also set up a few schools for girls. The first missionary school was
started at Sibsagar by Rev. Nathan Brown and O.T. Cutter in 1840 and this was followed by the schools set up by
Bronson at Nagaon (1843) and Mrs. Barkes at Guwahati in 1850.
With the spread of western ideas the need was gradually felt for the formation of political association
and organisation to ventilate the grievances of the people. The Chartered Act of 1833 was a handy instrument of
the British colonialists who already began spreading out their financial tentacles to serve the interest of the
empire and colonialism. Assam began to suffer from the basic evils of foreign domination as other parts of India
did.
The Freedom Movement :
Anti British movement-Later phase,
The question of revenue collections dominated the relationship between the Government and the people
throughout the 19
th
century.
The rule of the East India Company ended in 1858 and the whole of India came under the direct control
of the British Crown. The assessment of land revenue was increased, and income tax, stamp duties, etc., were
also imposed by the new administration. The Government carried on trade in opium and salt in the State and
earned considerable profit thereby. The people of Assam who were not accustomed to payment of revenue in
cash began to resent. The British Government undoubtedly introduced beneficial measures like abolition of cruel
practices as chopping off ears, noses, abductions of young women, forced labour, etc., but the evils far out-
weighed these few good measures, Thus in 1853, Moniram Dewan petitioned Mills.''Illustrious Sir, we are just
now, as it were,in the belly of a tiger''. Moniram Dewan was responsible for associating Assam with the rebellion
of 1857. Being disillusioned with the British he turned a rebel in 1857 when the class interest of a section of the
Indian feudal class coincided with the broad national interests against foreign rule. The sepoys of Assam like
infantry battalions both at Dibrugarh and Guwahati remained absolutely passive and strictly loyal to the British.
The Commissioner of Assam in the middle of August 11857 got information from Holroyd, the intelligence
Officer, that several officers of the Assam Light Infantry with the detachment at Golaghat had entered
into a conspiracy with the young prince, Kandarpeswar. Major J enkins lost non time and drew the attention of
Government of India to the seriousness of the situation and urged it to despatch, as hurriedly as possible,
European force to save the province from the revolutions. The simultaneous outbreak of the sepoys in scattered
areas rendered it difficult to send reinforcements into Assam. To tide over the immediate crisis a small European
force of 104 sea-men,half of them raw recruits, was despatched under Lieutenant Davis on board the
Haroonghatta on Sept', 1857. Moran Dewan from Calcutta sent secret letters through rebel conveyers to
individuals in Assam to win over these sepoys whose brethern in different parts of India fought the British. In
Nagaon, Mr. Morton, the Principal Assistant, destroyed the bridges over the rivers Missa and Diju and cut off the
communication with J orhat lest the mutineers get into the district from that direction. Enthusiastic stories of the
fall of British power in different parts caused a great deal of excitement among the hillmen as well. The people at
large were in a discontented state,Though not organised. At such a time the Government tightened up security
measures and enforced operation of Act XIV. A large number of arrests took place. The potential rebels were
tired,many were executed while others were deported. Kandarpeswar Singha was arrested and despatched to
Calcutta and kept confined as a state prisoner in Alipur. This was followed by the arrest of Moniram in Calcutta
and his collaborators, both officials and non-officials, Dutiram Baruah, Mayaram Nazir, Marangikhowa Gohain,
Bahadur Gaoburah, Shaikh Formud and several others. This ended the endeavours made by Moniram to
overthrow the British Government in Assam. The great rebellion of 1857 left Assam without much convulsions.
Queen Victoria's proclamation in 1858,ending the Company rule and establishing direct Government
under the Crown promised to respect the rights of the native princes, but exception was made in the case of
Assam and the wrong of 1838 was not undone. Struggle against expatriation's and for land reforms entered the
countryside.
The land revenue assessment which had remained unchanged for the last twenty to thirty years was
enhanced in 1894 and as such the ryots of different places viz.,Rangia and Lashima in the Kamrup district and
the ryots of Patharughat in the Mangaldoi district were the first to react against the enhancement of revenue of
land. The aggrieved,both Hindus and Muslims,met in their Raijmel and protested against the new measure.
Movement of a serious nature occurred for nearly two decades. The renaissance movement of the post 1857
period and the series of aggrarian outbreaks during the last four decades of the 19
th
century contributed to the
growth of a conscious national movement for freedom from foreign rule.
HISTORY 149
Freedom Movement in the post 1857 period : The great rebellion of 1857 was directly responsible
for the birth of the national movement in the country. The uprising of 1857 had imposed severe financial strain
on the British Indian Government. The deficit in budget in 1858-59 compelled them to introduce new taxes as a
result,on the advice of J am es Wilson,in 1860,income-tax was introduced and this was extended in the following
year to the province of Assam. New economic forces were brought into play and the new social forces though
expressing themselves in their different ways,contributed to the growth of the conscious national forces. After
1857,the character of the struggle against the foreigner changed but the struggle was continued with renewed
intensity depending upon the growth of consciousness from area to area,and Sabhas and Raijar mels became the
most popular institution for solving all sorts of problem faced by the indigenous people of this State.
The uprising at Phulguri was the earliest popular movement in Assam organized with the object to
compelling the Government to yield to the will of the people by the withdrawal of unpopular measures of
taxation. Though the movement failed,the precedent was not lost upon the people and was followed up in other
parts soon after.
In 1861, Hopkinson sought to double the tax on land on the plea of utilising the excess revenue on works
of public utility. The proposal did not receive the approval of the Board of Revenue,and in 1865, Hopkinson
renewed his proposal in a different from proposing to raise the revenue on land with the object of equalising the
rates in all the districts. He also wanted to raise the rates of ''house-hold and garden lands.'' Hopkinson's
proposal, on this occasion, received the approval of the Government of Bengal and consequently rates of rupti
and non-rupti lands increased from 25 to 50 per cent in almost all the districts.
From early 1869, mels were frequently held at Gobindapur, Hadira, and Bajali in Kamrup. A no tax
campaign on a vigorous scale was launched by the
ryots of Rangia and Lachima in the district of Kamrup and Patharughat in Darrang. During the month of
December,1892,people belonging to Tahsils of Pati Darrang ,Nalbari,Barama,Bajali and also of the five mouzas
of upper Borbhag and Sarukhetri in their mels resolved not to yield to any sort of Government pressure and
excommunicate those who would pay revenue to the Government. The movement started with the looting of the
Rangia bazar.
The firm resistance of the ryots and the apprehension of further troubles compelled McCabe to
strengthen security measures. Without prior permission of the Deputy Commissioner,meetings of the mels were
banned. But this could not suppress the people. Troubles of serious nature broke out again at Patharughat,where
the police chased the ryots ,firing continuously along the Mongaldoi road and scores of them lay dead and
wounded. There was also firing at Rangia to disperse a huge and rebellious gathering which demonstrated their
resentment against imposition of enhanced revenue.
The popular uprising,was termed by the British as the ''Assam riots'',and it considered as a very serious
affair and the suppressive measures of the Government were viewed very seriously. The editorial in the Indian
Nation declared that ''the burden which now press upon the land in Assam are considerably heavier than on land
owned by Zamindars in Bengal.'' The Amrita Bazar Patrika observed on its editorial that ''in the Deccan the furry
of the ryots was directed against money lenders,in Bengal against indigo-planters in 1860, in Pabna against
Zaminders in Assam,at this movement,it is open rebellion against the Government.''
89
Direct British rule after the Queen's proclamation changed the form of Government but internal
administration changed only for the worse. The multiplication of taxes, like stamp duties, income-tax, etc., could
not but be a matter of serious concern to the agricultural ryots,and consequently the Phulaguri riot of 1861 took
place where the tribal peasants of the area demonstrated a popular discontenment protesting against the gradual
enhancement and introduction of new taxes by the British and finally engulfed the entire rural population of
Assam by 1893-94.
Impact of the rising : The peasant movement of Assam had its echo in the Imperial Legislative where
Dr.Rash Bihari Ghosh questioned the propriety of realising land revenue by the agency of special constables.
The authorities could give only vague replies to the pointed questions. Though the risings failed at last,the
lessons were not lost. The national movement was baptised in this economic struggles and it found political
outlet with the birth of national consciousness.

89. Political History of Assam,Vol,1, p. 100-102
HISTORY 151
With the spread of western education during the last part of the nineteenth century a new awakening
surcharged the patriots of the land. The public grievances were forwarded to the Government for consideration
through Raijmels of the different parts of the province. The year of 1885 was recognized as the birth year of
Indian national Congress. Before the birth of this organization,The Ryot sabha was formed by a group of
enlightened people primarily to protest against the enhancement of land revenue and to ventilate other public
grievances in the province. Though the Indian National Congress was not started in Assam in 1885,the delegates
from different Raijmels or sabhas of different districts of the province were sent to attend the congress Session
wherever it held. Devicharan Baruah was the first Assamese to joined in the second Indian National Congress
held in 1886.
British authority had a mortal fear of the authority of the mels which they compared with the Nihilist
organization. The Raij-mels increased popular consciousness and confidence in strength. The Ryot-sabha or
Raij-mels were active in districts like Sibsagar, Nagaon, Darrang, Kamrup and Lakhimpur. The mels in Assam
played an important role in making the people conscious of the utter helplessness in which they lived under the
alien rulers.
The Tezpur Ryot Sabha was established in and around 1884 at the initiative of the new elites,the Ryot
Sabha had a wide base in the villages. It collected small subscriptions from hundreds of peasants and in 1887
built the Tezpur Town Hall, the first of its kind in Assam.
The Assam Desh Hitaishini Sabha in 1885, at Sibsagar and Gyan Pradayini Sabha in 1857, at Nagaon
with object of spreading advanced knowledge among people were formed under supervision of Anandaram
Barua and Gunabhiram Barua.
The foundation of the Sarbajanik Sabha held at Jorhat in 1884 by J agannath Barua is a landmark in the
history of political association in Assam. The Sarbajanik Sabha desired abolition of the cultivation of the poppy
by gradual doses and also urged upon educational policy of the Government. The Sabha not only demanded
large employment of the natives of the soil,but also emphasised on the improvement of their service condition
and emoluments. All these Sabhas desired reintroduction of Assamese as the medium of instruction by which the
scope of education would be widened and thus the ''Jonaki Age'' in Assamese literature began.
The impact of the west replaced the blind faith of age-long beliefs,customs and conventions by a spirit of
rationalism. Orthodoxy continued to be the order of the day,but its gradually relaxed. The outlook of the
orthodox sections gradually changed and before the close of the century students from the high caste
Hindus were seen proceeding to the Presidency College at Calcutta for higher courses in English education
though the aim of English education was primarily for the purpose of creating a set of clerks to run Governments
offices.
The establishment of the Cotton College at Guwahati in 1901 contributed to the spread of higher
education. The educational policy of the Government was also viewed with serious concern by the J orhat
Sarbajanik Sabha.
During the years 1874-1905,Assam has no legislature of its own and the people then had no chance of
participating in legislative activities of any kind.
In March,1990,Lord Curzon paid a visit to Assam. It afforded the European planting community the
golden opportunity to represent their interests for expansion of industrial and commercial undertaking in Assam.
In an address of welcome, J .Alstone, the Superintendent,Assam Frontier Tea Company Limited, Dibrugarh,
appealed to the Viceroy to improve the lines of communication and means of transport in the province and also
to conduct a survey of the mineral resources in the neighbouring hill tracts. As Assam has no legislative council
of its own,a permanent seat for Assam in India Legislative Council was pleaded for.
The demographic changes also took place during the years 1874-1905, in the Assam Valley. The
epidemic appearing in the Brahmaputra and the Surma Valleys caused retardation of agricultural growth in the
province,and the influx of immigrants more than neutralized the decline in the indigenous population. Non-
indigenous elements came to constitute at least one quarter of the population of Assam proper in 1901. The
composition and distribution of population affected the peasant's economy adversely.
90
The period of preparation and growth of political consciousness :(1901-1918): The year of 1903 was
recognized in the Assam history with redmark, as the educated gentry of Assam led by Manik Chandra Baruah,
Ghanashyam Barua, J agannath Barua, Faizner Ali and others of an All-Assam Political Organization gave birth
to the Assam Association. Raja Probhat Chandra Barua of Gauripur, Assam,was one of the chief promoters who
presided over the inaugural session at Dibrugarh, Karmabir Nabin Chandra Bardoloi presiding over the 1917
session of the Association at Dibrugarh, elaborately described the necessity of the Association and
remarked,''organise, knock at the door and you find the door opened.'' Further,the Association strongly expressed
the feelings of popular resentment against the Rowlatt Acts and the J alianwalla Bagh massacre in Punjab,in
April,1919.
Presiding over its Goalpara session in December, 1918, T.R. Phookan said,''The Government is bad and
bureaucratic. It should be democratic. The English officers and English traders and also section of Indians do not
advocate popular

90. A. Guha : Planters Raj to Swaraj. P 42-43.
HISTORY 153
Government and Lord Sydenhem and others say that Indians are not fit for self Government. But one cannot
learn swimming without plunging in water. If India is not fit for self Government even after a century and half of
British rule, who is responsible for this?'' The members of Assam Association later distinguished themselves as
leaders of the freedom struggle and introduced an element of extremism into the politics of the Association and
replaced it in 1921,by the provincial Congress Organisation.
The Assam Association focused its active attention on all questions of public importance in the province.
It served as the mouth-piece of the people of Assam in presenting to their''needs and grievances,hopes and
aspirations.'' It launched a strong agitation against the unpopular grazing-tax imposed by the Government of
grazing of cattle in the forest reserves of Assam. The Association also kept a vigilant eye over the opium policy
of the Government. The growth of nationalism in the 19
th
century Assam was a two track process;people were
increasing by turning as much to the great nationalism at the all-India level as to the little nationalism at the
Linguistic regional level. Towards the close of the nineteenth century,a partition of Bengal was imminent and
Assam's status as a separate province also came to came to an end on 16th October,1905,and Fuller was
promoted as the first lieutenant Governor of the new-born composite province of Eastern Bengal and Assam.
The anti-partition agitation was meanwhile in full swing in Bengal and the Surma valley. The province
of ''Eastern Bengal and Assam came into being consisting of an area of 275937.5346 square kilometres and a
population of 31 million souls'' as Mr. Fuller mentioned in his speech addressed at Guwahati Municipality on
Nov. 1,1905. He assured the people of Assam that the proposed change will not affect their privileges. The
Assam Association and the J orhat Sarbajanik Sabha organised protest meeting against this undesirable tagging.
Meetings were held at Dhubri, Gauripur, Goalpara, Guwahati and Dibrugarh against the formation of the new
province in the following years. This anti-partition movement strengthened people's belief in Swadeshi and
Swaraj. British goods were boycotted totally and the shops were started in different places of Assam for the sale
of Swadeshi goods.
Evidently the anti-partition agitation turned into a popular movement based on Swadeshi boycott and
national education. The Muhammedan population of both Valleys also joined the movement. Though the tussle
between Bengal and Assam continued on language, employment, and land issue; the people of Assam and
Bengal joined hands on the thresh hold on nationalistic movement in the struggle for freedom from British toke.
At Guwahati in 1905 an attempt was made by Ambika Giri Roy Choudhury and Gobinda Lahiri to organise the
local students
in Swadeshi spirit. A group of Assamese students volunteered to work as labourers in Railway stations and
steamer ghats and to donate their earnings to the common found organised for Swadeshi cause. Even the Pandas
of Kamakhya ceased to use beet-sugar and liver pool salt. Ambika Giri Roy Choudhury, Tringuna Barua and few
others attracted towards the cult of terrorism under the influence of Barin Ghose and Khudiram, but this
movement ended with Ambika Giri Roy Choudhury being interned at Barpeta for a long stretch of 8(eight)years
from 1907 to 1915.
In Nov. 1912 the first Assam Lagislative Council was created with 13 nominated and 12 elected and 12
elected members with the Chief Commissioner as the Chairman. The provincial council had no power to control
the budget of the province though the representatives were allowed to criticise it. The budget,in fact,was an
estimate from which the Government could at any time depart. No nation-building programme could be
undertaken by the Council due to this prevalent rigidity of financial system. Tarun Ram Phukan and Radha
Govinda Das (Sylhet) resigned on the ground of the futility of the Council. Phani Dhar Chaliha, a planter's
representative also resigned in protest against a deregatory remark from the Chairman. Of the leading
members,mention may be made of Kamini Kumar Chanda, Manik Chandra Baruah, Padmanath Gohain Baruah,
Radha Binode Das, Muhammad Saadullah and Raja Prabhat Chandra Baruah. Padmanath Gohain Baruah
criticised the policy of the Government in giving undue representation to the planters in the Local Boards, and
he argued that their interest in Local Boards was not so ''universal''as those of native population.
When the Morley-Minto reforms opened the problem of the minorities in India,It was but natural that
members belonging these communities would plead for their special needs and requirements in the Council.
Deprecating the predominance of the official elements in the Local Boards,Muhammad Saadullah demanded
communal representation of the Muslims in these bodies. As a result,power and responsibilities of legislators
were greatly circumscribed.
An event of considerable importance to be recorded was the formation of the Assam Student Conference
in 1916,the first session of which was held amidst great enthusiasm at Guwahati under the presidentship of the
great Assamese literature and patriot Lakshminath Bezbaruah.
91
The Assam Students Conference helped to create
a cadre of student leaders who played important part in the Non-co-operation and subsequent movements.
Leaders like Chandranath Sarma. Omeo Kumar Das,Hem Chandra Barua, Padmadhar Chaliha came into
prominence first as student leaders.
A demand for full provincial status for Assam was being voiced by Assam Association for very long
time and expected the aspiration to be materialised through proposed constitutional reforms of 1918. A
deputation from Assam.

91. K.N. Dutta : Landmark of the freedom in Assam.
HISTORY 155
Association,headed by N.C. Bordoloi was sent to London to represent Assam's case before the Selbourne
committee of house of Lords. As the result of the meeting,Assam acquired the status of a full fledged Governor's
province under the Government of India Act,1919. Gradually,affected by the Jaliwanwalla massacre,political
pivots of Assam were being drawn by the non-co-operation movement and call for Hindu-Muslim unity made by
Mahatma Gandhi under Congress banner. Assam was prepared to march with the rest of India towards the
common goal of freedom and the struggle for freedom in Assam formed an inseparable part of the India struggle.
Assam was thus slowly drawn into the orbit of the new action-oriented all-India political agitation.
Non-co-operation and Dyarchy on Trial (1918-1947): Assam had played a significant role in the
struggle for freedom though in the earlier stages,her political development was too slow due to want of
intellectual contact with the rest of India as a result of backwardness in English education and lack of
communication. As a response to the call of non-co-operation, Kaliram Barman of Guwahati withdrew
nomination paper after scrutiny and Kumudram Bora, an already elected member to the council resigned.
1919 was an eventful year in the political history of India. Gandhiji launched the Non-co-operation
movement on 1
st
August 1920, which was the direct outcome of Khilafat movement. In Assam, both the Hindus
and Muslims equally responded to the cause of Khilafatist. In response to the Khilafat movement, Guwahati,
Goalpara, Jorhat, Sibsagar and North Lakhimpur observed hartals and held public meetings respectively.
Although, Nabin Chandra Bordoloi and others did not support Gandhiji at Calcutta(Sept.1920);had apparently
realised the direction in which the wind was blowing. And after returning the Guwahati Bordoloi started a
propaganda campaign, seeking the support of the Assamese intelligentsia to the non-co-operation movement.
The Assam Association held district-level meetings at Nagaon, Sibsagar, J orhat, Dibrugarh throughout
October,1920 and discussed the non-co-operation issue. While the issue of non-co-operation was being hotly
debated,N.C. Bordoloi, the general secretary of the Association,C.N. Sarma and Tarunram Phukan moved from
one corner of the province to the other to mobilize public opinion. The Guwahati Bar Association at the initiative
of young lawyers,even decided to boycott the Viceroy's visit. Almost all the district level Associations took
decision to boycott Council elections also raised objection to take titles, honour and honorary posts from British
Government.
The boycott agitation of the students had almost automatically led to the demand for setting up national
schools and national colleges in the province. Finally,a national school was established in Feb.1921, in the
premises of the residence of Rohinikumar Choudhury, at Bharalumukh, Guwahati. Such establish-
ment was followed in other parts of the province.
The outbreak of the World War I had disturbed the equilibrium of the commercial world. The Secretary
of food stuff and other necessaries gave rise to economic crimes like theft and burglary in many places of both
the valleys. Phanidhar Chaliha in his speech in the council held on 13
th
March 1918, urged upon the Government
to take necessary step. In March1918,the retail price of salt in the Assam Valley was fixed by a notification and
similar measures followed soon in the other valley and the hills districts. The deep rooted economic malady had
hit the labour population of the plains districts. The Chargola exodus,a well-known historical episode in which
the tea labourers of the tea gardens of the Cachar district were brutally treated by European planters,enraged the
nationalist leaders who took up their cause. And finally,an economic struggle at the beginning,the sporadic
strikes later on culminated into a mass political action in the form of a collective escape from the bonded labour
system. It was the product of an interaction between the Gandhian impact on primitive minds and the incipient
class militancy. There were strikes in Dibrugarh, Sibsagar and Darrang. Labour of entire Assam raised general
complaints about low wages,excessive work-load,inadequate facilities of leave,high prices of food and cloth in
the State. Prolonged labour troubles caused some anxiety in the official circles.
As proposed by all-India Congress Committee,the Congress leaders of Assam kept fully alive the tempo
of Civil Disobedience. Based on the Civil-Disobedience movement,the Congress Working Committee urged
upon the people to be prepared to face all sorts of hardships and indignities with calm fortitude and unflinching
devotion to the cause of Swaraj . To meet the Purna Swaraj, large number of people began to enrol themselves
as volunteers,strengthen the National Volunteer Corps. Soon, Phukan and Bordoloi, the top leaders of the Assam
Congress were arrested on 30
th
Nov., 1921, followed by arrest of quite a number of leaders. In terms of arrests
and convictions,the sub-division of Tezpur, Golaghat, Guwahati, Sibsagar and Sylhet suffered badly. The
economic depression of the thirtees was so wide spread that the phased Civil Disobedience Movement tended to
grow into an anti-imperialist mass revolt. Not only British rule, but land-lordism and capitalism also came under
fire from the emergent leftist youths.
The peasants refused to pay land-revenue to British agents. A number of police and Government official
resigned from Government services. ''Saptahik Assamiya''a weekly published from Guwahati was prosecuted for
defamation of British officer,for publishing a report on defilement of Sundaridiya Satra at Barpeta by Captain
Calvert,in course of his repressive operation. J ails were filled with non-co-operators. The British Government
exerted its full strength to repress the participants and to suppress the movement by use of arms,and finally
succeeded in qualling the agitation.
HISTORY 157
In 1922,after the Choiri Choura riots in Uttar Pradesh, Mahatma Gandhi called a halt to the movement
and the Congress Working Committee endorsed the decision. Since then,the leaders of Assam began to stress on
the constructive programmes such as temperance work,spinning of yarns and weaving of khaddar, being
prosecuted withdrawal.
In 1922, Omeo Kumar Das attendent the All-India Congress committee meeting and related to it the
story of severe repression which was then going on in Assam. Two-member committee of Dr. Rajendra Prasad
and Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya came to Assam to study the political situation in Assam. The two leaders
visited several places in Assam and were deeply impressed with the progress of the movement in Assam and the
contribution made by the people,in the shape of suffering and sacrifice for the attainment of freedom. Orthodox
non-co-operators of Assam stood firm in their commitment to the implementation of constructive programmes,
as a result of which the Swaraja party in Assam was formed within Congress in 1923.
As the result of the movement,the British Government in Assam agreed to introduce measures for
gradual decline of opium consumption in Assam. This was the most important achievement so far Assam was
concerned. The next achievement of importance was introduction of Local self government Act and passing of
Assam Municipal Act,1923, with provision for more elected members and elected chairman.
Election to the Legislative Council was held in 1923,which was more than one surprise for the Congress
and the country. The Swarajya party contested almost all the seats and their candidates everywhere received
support from the local Congress and Khilafat organisation. Tarun Ram Phukan was elected to the Indian
Legislative Assembly unopposed. Out of the 39 elective seats of the Assam Council only 13 members of the
previous council could retain their seats. The Swarajya party failed to secure absolute majority in the council and
therefore,carried on negotiation with the Independents. With a view to wrecking the constitution and attacking
the Government inside the council,the first meeting of newly elected council decided to form Assam Nationalist
Party in 1924,as happened elsewhere in India. This policy of infiltration proved fruitful as in April,1924,the
Assam Legislative Council succeeded in cutting the salary of ministers from Rs.3,500/- P.M. to Rs.1500/- P.M.
And the opium Prohibition Act was also passed on 3
rd
March,1925.
But split occurred in the Coalition party in March 1925 last,and the Swarajists realized that they could
no longer command a majority. The Assam Court Fees(Amendment)Bill in the Assam Stamp(Amendment)Bill
of 1925 were passed,despite the opposition of the Swarajists. Finally, they lost the majority
and the All India Congress Committee in 1926 too directed the Swarajists to stage walk-out in all the legislative
bodies.
The forty-first Congress Session was held from 26thto 28
th
Dec.1926,under the presidentship of
S.Srinivas Iyenger, at Guwahati. The Swarajist no changers and the responsive co-operators, all came to the
Guwahati Session.
92

In December, 1929, in response to the call for Civil Disobedience movement launched by the National
Congress,Assam spontaneously celebrated 'Independence Day' on 26thJ an,1930. In Feb,1930, the old leaders
resigned their offices in the Provincial Congress. At this critical hour Bishnuram Medhi came forward to save the
situation,who volunteered to shoulder the responsibility of the Congress presidentship in Assam. In
April,1930,after the historic Dandi March of Mahatma Gandhi,the Assam Congress to joined in the Civil
Disobedience Movement. The national week of ''war against salt tax''was observed and the law breaking
movement spread by way of violating the Forest Laws.
93
The struggle in Assam took the form of a boycott of
foreign cloths, excisable drugs and the shops selling such goods. Picketing was resorted to.
Sri Bishnuram Medhi helped by Tyagbir Hemchandra Barua, Dr. Bhubaneswar Barua, Omeo Kr. Das,
Sidhinath Sarma, Pitambar Goswami, Gormur Satradhikar, Lakhidhar Sharma and others conducted the
movement very successfully. Srimati Chandra Prabha Saikiani and Srimati Durgaprava Barua took up picketing
in front of Cotton College Guwahati. The arrest of the national leaders included a spirit of fearlessness amongst
the general mass. The authority clamped section 144Cr. P.C. in Nagaon, Tezpur and Dhubri to suppress this
popular consciousness. But people from different places participated in the protest demonstration. As a
result,police attacked the crowd with lathis and batons in such places.
The movement got spontaneous support from the rural mass. Stream of innumerable Satyagrhis faced
lathi charge, arrest and other tortures and went to jail. Meanwhile the student unrest begun in protest of
Government circular demanding from the students and guardians an undertaking to abstain from joining politics.
Some public high schools like Kamrup Academy, Barpeta Bidyapith, etc.,were established by the Nationalists.
The movement dragged on till May,1934,and most of the leaders like Nobin Chandra Bordoloi were sent to jail
for the 2
nd
time.
To cripple movement,the Government also adopted a policy of penal action after arrests. Most of the
active members of the Civil Disobedience movement were convicted. The persons that were convicted in
proportion to arrest made in Assam up to 31
st
March,1932,were males 885,females 54 and convicted males 672
and females 42.
94

92.A.C. Bhuyan : Political History of Assam, Vol.II,Govt. of Assam.
93. A.C. Bhuyan : Political History of Assam,Vol. II, 1978,p.161-64.
HISTORY 159
Between 1930 and 1938,in spite of occasional difference amongst the leaders,Congress organisation got
very strong. But,as in a bid to open up fallow waste lands in Assam for cultivation,influxes of landless peasants
from East Bengal were being invited to Assam by the then Assam Ministry headed by Sir Md. Saadullah, and
because flow of innumerable jobseekers continued to Assam unabated,a section of Assamese nationalists got
alarmed and Ambika Giri Roy Choudhury, a staunch nationalist to the core,founded''Assam Sangrakshini Sobha''
and without seceding from the Congress, began to voice through this organisation, demands ''for vindication of
right of the Assamese people,the children of the soil as against aggression of outsiders.
95
As most of these people from East Bengal were Muslims there was a general sympathy of a section of
Assam Muslims to them. As a result a section of Assam Muslims barring the Assamese Muslims,the old east
Bengal Muslims and Hindus did not take part in the Civil Disobedience Movement of 1930-32. Assam
Sangrakshini Sabha was later on converted into Assam Jatiya Mahasabha. All those ryot sabhas organised by
Assam Sangrakshini Sabha became the strong holds of Assam during the later movements sponsored by the
National Congress under the guidance of Mahatma Gandhiji.
Rani Gaidinliu played major role in the Civil Disobedience in Assam. Gaidinliu organised a revolt
against the constituted authorities.
The meetings of the Assam Provincial Ryot Sanmilan,Assam Association and Ryot Association were
held in different places of Assam and devoted mainly to non political matters in 1933. The political movement of
the Civil Disobedience Movement was restarted after the declaration of the communal award. Instead of ideal of
purna swaraj heading the list of priorities,the Harijan suddenly gained prominence at this point time. In fact,
after the Poona pact, the upliftment of the Harijan and the removal of untouchability was taken up by the
Congress leaders in Assam with immense fervour.
The persuance of Congress decision to let the reforms introduced by the Government of India
Act,1936,Assam Congress also participated in 1937 election and won 33 seats in a House of 108 and formed the
largest single upon in the Assembly. But non-acceptance of ministry being the Congress policy then , a Coalition
Ministry was formed by the other groups with Sir Saadullah as the Chief Minister. Sir Saadullah being
associated with the legislature and the British administrative machinery for more than 15 long years, he was
naturally the most likely selected one for the position by the Governor of Assam.
But on 13
th
Sept.1938, this ministry had to face acute discomfort due to its communal policies and total
neglect of the preservation need of the ''the children of the soil''and in order to avoid defeat in no-confidence vote
in the Assembly,

95. K.N. Dutta : Landmark of Freedom Movement in Assam,1959,p.70
Sir Saadullah had to resign. Thereafter, the Congress Coalition Ministry was formed with Gopinath Bordoloi as
its head. This Ministry took up the causes of labour in the Assam Oil Company labour Dispute, and this won
over the industrial labour also to the side of Congress organisation. But in the meantime,in Sept., 1039, the
Second World War broke up and a consequence of the Congress refusal to be a party in the Imperialistic
War,during Oct.-Nov.1039, the ministry in Assam resigned,and on 17.11.39,Md. Syed Saadullah again formed a
Coalition Ministry . This, however, created acute problem as Sir Saadullah was always a very ardent supporter of
the British. In December, 1941, in protest against a Government circular for participation of students in the War
Fund Exhibition held at Guwahati J udge Field, a student's demonstration was held by the students of Cotton
College. Police attacked students with lathi. Such lathi charges took place in other places of the country also.
Rohini Choudhury, a number of the Coalition Ministry of Syed Saadullah resigned from ministry in protest of
police atrocity on students. On 24.12.41 the Saadullah ministry also had to resign The British Government
organised Village Defence party to courterpoise Santi Sena organization of Congress. But, in fact, the Village
Defence parties organised by the Government were swallowed up by the Santi-Senas in rural areas.
In Oct.1940, on refusal of the Viceroy to concede to the National Government as demanded by Congress
a campaign of individual Satyagraha was launched under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi in Assam,
Gopinath Bordoloi, Bishnuram Medhi, Omeo Kumar Das and many others also took part in the satyagraha and
got arrested. In the meantime, the allies of the British advanced towards India,and Sir Stafford Cripps had to
come to India in March,1942 and put forward an offer of Dominion. Congress refused and took up the famous
''Quit India'' resolution on 8
th
August, 1942. Assam jumped into the movement with a quick stride and on 9
th
August,1942, Md.Tayabullah, Fakaruddin Ali Ahmed, Bishnuram Medhi, Debeswar Sarma, Dr. Harekrishna
Das, Lila Barua with many others were arrested by the British as preventive measure. Gopinath Bordoloi and
Sidhinath Sarma who were away at Bombay in connection with the All India Congress meeting got arrested at
Dhubri immediately on their return. All organisations including Ryot-sabhas which subscribed to the Congress
fund were declared unlawful. But the tremendous pace of the growing movement could not be halted.
The abrupt official action intensified the Quit India Movement. Acting under their local leaders,the
people stood up in a massive protest against the Government's action.
Santi Sena organisations were set up throughout the State under the leadership of local Congress
Socialists.
HISTORY 161
Mahendra Nath Hazarika, Lakshmi Prasad Goswami, Sankar Barua built up an underground resistant movement.
A Mritya Bahini or death squad was formed in the State under the leadership of Mahendra Nath Hazarika. The
party carried out some serious acts of sabotage throughout the State.
In Darrang district, Jyoti Prasad Agarwala, Gohon Chandra Goswami went underground and carried out
sabotage at various places by organizing Mrityu Bahini.
To suppress the movement,the police restored to severe from of violence. Firing was restored to on many
occasions.
Firings caused death to many people including Kanaklata, Taleswari, Numali, and Khahulis who were all
teen aged girls. The judgement in the Dhekiajuli firing case contained severe structures on the police which even
the High Court saw no grounds to relax. Victim of police atrocities in North Lakhimpur and Dibrugarh were
Madhuban Chutia, Bhogeswar Chetia and Pohor Gogoi,
In Sibsagar, the individual Satyagraha movement was started by MoulanaTayebulla, the President of the
Asom Pradesh Congress Committee. Entire Sibsagar district responded to the call of ''Quit India Movement''.
The police made lathi charge on processions in every place. Many were arrested and imprisoned or detained.
Kushal Konwar, who was believed to be innocent,was however,declared to be guilty of sabotage and awarded
capital punishment by the court that tried him. He was hanged in J orhat J ail in 1943. The Government also
levied collective fines on the people of different district in the Province to undermine the movement.
In Kamrup district at Bahjani in Nalbari sub-division and Bajali in Barpeta sub-division, the village
Panchayats were formed and schemes of Panchayat administration was drawn up. Madan Barman and Rawta
Kachari lost their lives in the police firing in Bajali. People's hatred against repressive bureaucracy mounted up.
Rising high prices and food shortage added fuel to the fire and they put all efforts to paralyse the Government.
The district of Nagaon played the most important role in the ''Quit India Movement''. At Barhampur,a
village situated about 11 Kms east of Nagaon town, there was a huge gathering, upon which Police opened
firing. As a consequence, Phuleswari Konwari, Lakhimi Hazarika, Thagi Sut and others embraced death for the
cause of the country.
Supply to military was stopped for a mouth and hats and bazars were closed down. Huge agglomeration
of troops took place throughout the state. But in Spite of all,sabotaging by the guerilla Santi Senas remained
unabated.
In 1943, the Azad Hind Fauz organised by Subhas Chandra Bose who,
attempted to win freedom of India with the help of the Germans and the J apanese, advanced to India through
Burma and entered Assam. This alarmed the British Government in India,and in May,1944, prompted release of
Mahatma Gandhi who was in sick-bed in jail. In J anuary,1945,Mahatma Gandhi visited Guwahati along with
four other leaders of Assam and performed mass-prayers. This was his last visit to Assam.
The stormy days of the Quit India Movement passed over. The message of the movement failed to
convince the British Government about the necessity of leaving the shores of India soon.
In the meantime,the cry for a separate country for Muslims who are the religious in India,grew very strong and
as a result of the communal policy undertaken by the pro-Muslim league Saadullah ministry in Assam and the
increasing number of mutually apathetic East Bengal Hindu and Muslim immigrants entry into Assam ,rose a
strong communal feeling amongst the people of Assam and the Assam Muslims also felt leaning towards the
Partition of India Movement.
In December,1945, Pandit Nehru made a swift tour to Assam making an impact in the public mind in
favour of the Congress. So the congress won over 50 seats out of 108 in the election,two Independents joined
later making the number 52 and the congress ministry with Gopinath Bordoloi as the Prime Minister was formed
on 10
th
Feb.,1946.
The Muslim League went for secret organizational activities to constitute ''Banglo-i-Islam'' comprising
Bengal Bengal with its hinterland or Assam as envisaged by the Pakistan National Movement since 1940 for the
Millat of Islam. Then came the Cabinet Mission to India,with a view to settle the Indian Problem. The mission
introduced the grouping system in May,1946,as a result of which the Assam Provincial Congress rose enblock to
resist against Assam's inclusion in the Grouping system which would have made Assam in future a majority
state. Assam Jatiya Mahasabha also did the same and organised mass agitation throughout the state. One secret
document was acquired from Khidirpur Dock(Bengal)by Assam Jatiya Mahasabha which,showed underground
conspiracy of Maulana Bhasani group from eastern Bengal to invade Assam through population migration. So
Syed Saadullah and Gopinath Bordoloi participated in the constituted Assembly on behalf of Assam and became
instrumental in incorporating the sixth schedule I the constitution thereby,to set disintegration of population and
geographical Assam afoot for future. This India was divided into India and Pakistan. Pakistan won freedom on
the midnight of 14
th
August,1947,and India on the midnight of 15
th
August,1947.
HISTORY 163
Marked events of national importance have taken place in the province of Assam after independence.
Lying in the north eastern frontier of India,Assam has witnessed in course of ages great migrations and
assimilations of people of different races into her hills and valleys. The Ahoms came from beyond the Patkai.
The Daflas, Miris and Nagas, among others, also settled in the plains. Later immigrants from Bengal and other
parts of India also came and settled in Assam, till the advent of the British.
The present set-up of Assam is not a matter of mere accident. Undivided Assam at the time of
independence, covered a large region comprising the entire Brahmaputra Valley, Khasi and J aintia Hills,united
North Cachar and Mikir Hills, Mizo and Naga Hill districts along with North East Frontier Border and Manipur,
making the State a great assembly of hill tribes and plain tribes. But in the twentieth century, ethnic
consciousness grew among the different ethnic groups, who started agitation and they raised the demand for their
independent status and their own states and gradually,the Central Government conceded to their demands one
after another. Nagaland with the area covered by the Naga Hills district and the division of the North-East
Frontier Area was created in 1960, and by virtue of the North-Eastern Assam Reorganisation Act, 1971 (Act
no.81 of 1971) enacted by Parliament, a new state known as Meghalaya was formed comprising autonomous
districts of the Khasi and J aintia Hills, the Garo Hills ans the Shillong Municipal and Cantonment area, and a
new union territory if Mizoram comprising the territories of the Mizo district in the state of Assam was
constituted. The new state of Meghalaya and the union territory of Mizoram came into being on 21
st
J anuary
1972 and ceased to form part of the existing state of Assam. The hill tracts following the North-Eastern Frontier
Agency (NEFA) of Assam was constituted into a new union territory known as Arunachal Pradesh with the
territories as specified in Section 6 of the North-Eastern Areas (Reorganisation) Act, 1971.
96
Finally, the Act created five states and two union territories in the north-eastern region of the country.
The five states are Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur, Tripura and Nagaland, and the two union territories are
Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram. The new units were to have their own government except the union territories
and a common High Court for all.
Furthermore,as a result of the 1971 war, East Pakistan seceded from Pakistan and emerged as
Bangladesh,an independent country.

96. Source : Census of India,1971,Series 3,Assam, Part II-A.
Inscription and epigraphs
Innumerable archaeological ruins belonging to the pre-Ahom period are to be found lying scattered
throughout the State. Climate conditions,natural ravages as well as time,however,have taken their tolls,as a result
of which not a single standing monument of this period is to be found. But the very fact that such ruins existed in
great abundance all over this region and that many of the later-day temples were built over the foundations of
earlier temples,speak volumes of the vigorous architectural activities which,however,would not have been
possible without the liberal patron-age of the ruling dynasties of this period. This gives one a fairly good idea
about the religious and cultural activities and attainments during the period in question.
It is,however,the local epigraphic records supplemented by literary sources,which help us in a large
measure in reconstructing the political history and to a lesser extent the religio-cultural history,of the period.
These epigraphs are to be found on rock-faces,copper-plates and their seals,clay sealings,or on the body of stone
and metallic images. The copper-plates were issued in connexion with the donation of land of Brahmanas. A
brief description of these is given below.
1)The Umachal Rock Inscription of Surendravarman:
The rock cut inscription of Surendravarman alias Mahendravarman, the sixth ruler of the Bhauma-
Varman dynasty,is the earliest inscription hitherto found in Assam. In contains four short lines and supplies the
only instance of the prevalence of the cult of Balabhadrasvamin and the construction of a cave temple in this
region.
The inscription is in the eastern variety of the Gupta script and belongs to the 5
th
century A.D.
2)The Nagajari-Khanikar Gaon Stone Inscription:
It is a fragmentary inscription containing five lines,and belongs to the fifth century A.D. It records the
donation of land. However,no mention of the name of the donor is to be found in view of its fragmentary nature.
Some scholars are of the opinion that this inscription is earlier than that of Surendravarman, mentioned above. At
any rate this early inscription is a sure index to the spread of Brahmanic culture as far east as the Sarupather
region.
The inscription is in the eastern variety of the Gupta script.
3)The Badganga Rock Inscription of Bhutivarman:
It is in the eastern variety of the Gupta scripture and belongs to the reign of Bhitivarman of the Bhauma-
Varman dynasty;and thus it can be placed somewhere in the first part of the 6thcentury. It refers to Bhutivarman
as the performer of the Asvamedha sacrifice(horse sacrifice).
HISTORY 165
The inscription shows that by the time of Bhutivarman, if not earlier, the Daboka and the peripheral
region,which flourished as a separate kingdom in the 4
th
century A.D.,as evidenced by the Allahabad Pillar
inscription of Samudragupta, became a part of the kingdom of the Bhauma-Varman dynasty.
4)The Dubi Copper-plate Inscriptions of Bhaskaravarman and its seal:-
These are the earliest of the copper-plate inscriptions so far discovered in Assam. These plates were
issued as a substitute for an earlier set of damaged inscriptions,in all probability of Bhutiavarman, and belong to
the earlier part of the reign of Bhaskaravarman. The grants as well as the seal attached ti it give the genealogical
list of the Bhauma-Varman dynasty, starting from the legendary Naraka down to Bhaskaravarman, the last
scion,although some of the names differ from those found in the subsequent inscriptions due probably to
metrical necessity,want of space in the seal the tendency to use synonyms for the actual names. While the plates
mention Bhutiavarman as the performer of a horse sacrifice but remain silent about such performances by
Mahendravarman and Sthitavarman, the seal of the plates mention both of them as performers of two horse
sacrifices each but remains silent about Bhutivarman.
The plates also record the first instance of the Vedic coronation ceremony of Kamarupa ruler, i.e. of
Sthitavarman.
5)The Three Nalanda Clay Seals of Bhaskaravarman :
These seals,found between 1917 and 1928,are important in that,while the one found in 1917-18 provides
the genealogy of the Bhauma-Barman dynasty from Ganapativarman downloads,the other two seals give the
complete list, besides describing Mahendravarman and Sthira (Sthita) Varman as performers of two horse
sacrifices each.
6)The Nidhanpur Copper-plate Inscriptions of Bhaskaravarman :
These plates are of a later date than the Dubi copper plates of the same monarch,and were issued from
the royal residence in Karnasuvarna, capital of Gauda which he wrested from king Sasanka. The donated land in
question belonged to the Chandrapuri Visaya, the location of which has been variously suggested as either in
Srihatta or in Pundravardhana in the context of determining the extent of Bhaskarvarman's kingdom. It is now
generally accepted that Chandrapuri Visaya was located in Pundravardhana, probably in the modern Purnea
district.
The plaits are reissues of former grant made by Bhutivarman which was destroyed by fire. They also
give the complete genealogical list of the Bhauma-Varman dynasty,as also such administrative terms as Nayaka
(governor),Nyayakaranika (clerk of the judiciary), Vyavaharin (law officer),Mahasamanta (feudatory
ruler),Bhandagarika (treasurer),Utkhetayitri (revenue collectors),etc.
7.Tezpur Rock Inscription of Harjaravarman :
This inscription of Harjaravarman consists of nine lines and is inscribed on a sheer rock-face, facing the
Brahmaputra river at Dhenukhana parvat on the west of Tezpur town. The inscription is a public notice
pertaining to a toll, and the river boundaries which certain fishermen were allowed to ply their boats. It also
mentions the name of Sri Sucitta, a Mahasamanta Senadhyaksa (a great feudatory lord and chief of the army of
Sri Harjaravarman ).The importance of the inscription,however, lies in the fact that this is the first dated
inscription of Assam, giving the Gupta Era 510 (A.D. 829/830).
8.The Hayungthal Copper Plate Inscription of Harjaravarman :
Belonging to the middle of the 9
th
century, it gives, inter alia, the genealogical list of the Salastambha
dynasty down to Vanamala, son of Harjaravarman, who issued the grant probably as prince-regent from
Hadappesvara. The inscription is incomplete, as only the middle plate out of the total of three plates could be
recovered and as such the purpose of the charter remains, undetermined. However,it makes reference for the first
time to a ''Mleccha'' dynasty, with Salastambha as its first known king.
The inspiration gives such administrative terms as Maha-Sainyapani (commander-in-chief),Maha-
dvaradhipath (chief gatekeeper),Maha-Pratihara (chief usheer), Maha Amatya (chief counsellor)and
Brahmanadhikara (officer-in-charge of the welfare of the Brahmanas).
9). Tezpur Copper Plate inscription of Vanamalavaramadeva:
Issued in the 9
th
regnal year from the capital city of Hadappesvara, the inscription,besides giving the
genealogical list of the Salastambha dynasty down to Vanamala, also records the gift of a village named Indoka,
and incidentally gives such place-names as Dasalangha, Chandrapuri, Avari, Naukuva and, interestingly, the
name of the river Trisrota. There were atleast three Trisrotas in ancient Kamrupa, and the Trisrota, mentioned in
the inscription, is sought to be identified with the river Karatoya.
10.The Parbatiya Copper Plate Inscription of Vanamalavaramadeva:
Neither any date nor any regnal year has been mentioned. From the genealogical point of view,it
mentions the names of Naraka,Bhagadatta, Vajradatta, Salambha, Arathi and that of the donor only.
It records the grant of a village Haposagrama in the Svalpamangoka Mandala in the Uttarakula (North
Bank) to a Brahmin. The identity of the village as well as the Mandala remains undetermined.
11.The Dighaligaon Copper Plate Inscription of Vanamalavaramadeva:
It contains no date nor any regnal year, and mentions the names of Naraka
HISTORY 167

Bhagadutta, Vajradatta, Salambha, Harsa and Harjara among the predecessors. The first twenty four lines of the
epigraph are by and large similar to those of the Parbatiya Grant. According to D. Chutiya,'' A comparison of the
three records of the same king indicates that the present one is complete in all respects. While the similarities....
bring the present text nearer to the Tezpur plates, the discrepancies between them indicate that the present record
is earlier in date than both the Tezpur and the Parbatiya plates''.
It records the donation of land in the Purjjika Pradesa in the Dakshinakula (South Bank), the location of
which is yet to be determined. The name Purjjika, however, reminds one of the Puruji Visaya of the Khonamukh
Copper Plate Grant of Dharmapala.
12.The Uttarbarbil Copper Plates of Balavarman III:
The Uttarbarbil plates were issued in the 5
th
regnal year of the king. The names of only some of his
predecessors find mention there,such as, Salastambha,Palaka, Vijaya,Vanamala and J ayamala. It records the
donation of land in the Varesapattana Visaya.
13.The Nowgong(Nagaon)Copper Plates of Balavarman III:
The first twenty-five verses of this grant are similar to those of the Uttarbarbil plates. So are the
immediately following prose portions ending in the world''Kusali''. The land in question was granted in the
Dijjina Visaya. The plates were issued in the 8
th
regnal year.
14.The Ulubari copper Plates of Balavarman III:
These plates were issued in the 13
th
regnal year of the king in connexion with performance of a
Lakshahoma ceremoy . Here,too,the first few lines ending with the word''Kusali'' are the same as those of the
above two inscriptions. The lans in question was denoted at Dikkura in the Manjai Visaya in the Uttarakula.
15.The Coratbari Copper Plate Inscription of Ratnapala :
Ratnapala, the second ruler in the line of the Pala dynasty of Pragjyotisha,issued this grant in the 12
th
regnal year from Hadappaka (Hadappesvara). Although the first inscribed page is badly damaged,the beginning
of the extant portion shows that the first fifteen verses were the same as those of the Bargaon plates mentioned
below. The land was donated in Havrnga Visaya.
16. The Bargaon Copper Plate Inscriptions of Ratnapala :
These were issued by the king in the twenty-fifth year of his reign in connexion with the grant of land at
placed called Lavukuti in the Trayodasagrama Visaya in Uttarakula,J udging by the high literary standard of the
inscription,it has been assumed that Ratnapala's court witnessed literacy and scholarly activities of high stan-
dard.
17.The Sualkuchi Copper Plate Inscriptions of Ratnapala :
These three plates were issued in the twenty-sixth regnal year of Ratnapala. The contents of the first
plate and the first page of the second plate ending with the word ''Kusali'' are common to those of the Bargaon
grant. The land grant was made at Vamadevapataka Trayodasagrama in the Kalanga Visaya. None of these
places has been identified.
18. The Guwahati Copper Plate inscriptions of Indrapala :
Issued in the eighth regnal year of his reign,the grant mentions that the land in question was granted in
the Kasipataka of Hapyoma Visaya of Uttarakula,the location of which could not yet be determined. The
inscription also mentions a number of administrative terms,such as, Visayakarana, Vyavaharka,etc.,etc..
19. The Guakuchi Copper Plate Inscriptions of Indrapala :
The grant was issued in the twenty-first regnal year of Indrapala's reign at Pandaribhumi of Mandi
Visaya in Uttarakula. The first part of the inscription up to the word ''Kusali'' is exactly similar to that of the
Guwahati Copper Plates mentioned above. Scholars have sought to identify Pandaribhumi with the present day
Panduri Mauza in the Rangiya subdivision. Incidentally,the inscription also contains four figures of Garuda
(Visnu's Vahana) sitting on a snake as well as a lotus, a conch and a cakra, all of them ayudhas (implements) of
Visnu, although the grant in the beginning pays obeisance to Siva. However, this is the only instance of a copper-
plate bearing art-works.
20.The Gachtal Copper Plate Inscriptions of Gopalavarmadeva :
Found at Gachtal near Dabaka, Nagaon district, the inscriptions, containing two plates, give the
genealogy of the Pala dynasty of Assam, of which Gopala was the fourth in succession, the earlier three being
Brahmapala, Ratnapala and Indrapala. According to this grant, Indrapala is stated to have defeated and
annihilated Kalyanachandra, vanquisher of the king of Gauda and son of Sricandra, king of Vanga.
More important, the inscription also mentions that his great grandfather Ratnapala defeated king
Rajyapala (c. A.D.908-940) of Gauda. Thus,his contemporaneity with Rajyapala suggests, according to D.C.
Sichar, that the must have flourished about the first half of the 10
th
century. If that is so,the chronology of the
preceding ruling monarchs will need slight revision, and the beginning of the rule of Brahmapala, founder of the
Pala dynasty of Assam, will have to be assigned to the beginning of the 10
th
century, and not to the fag-end of
that century, as has hitherto been done.
The inscription also makes mention of the capital city of Hadapyaka of Pragjyotisa which may plausibly
be identified with Hadappesvara, which was formerly the capital of Harjara and Vanamala of the Salastambha
dynasty. This suggests that Gopala retransferred the capital from Durjaya to Hadappesvara.
HISTORY 169
21.The Khobamukh Copper Plate Inscriptions of Dharmala:
The grant was most probably issued in the first regnal year of Dharmapala, and its gives us the
genealogical list of the Brahmapala dynasty down to the donor.
It is for the first time that a ''mangala'' verse in the name of the deity Ardhayuvatisvara (Ardhanarisvara)
finds mention in an inscription of ancient Pragjyotisa.
The land in question was donated at Digalandi in the Puruji Visaya, the locations of which cannot be as
yet determined. The term Puruji is redolent of Purujika of the Dighaligaon inscription of Vanamalavarmadeva, as
mentioned above.
22.The Subhankarapatak a Copper Plate Inscriptions of Dharmapala :
The first part of the inscription ending with the work ''Kusalina'' is exactly similar to that of the
Khonamukh grant. It was issued in the third regnal year of the king;and it gives us such place-names as
Sudhankarapataka and Dijjina Visaya,the later also finding mention in the Nagaon Grant of Balavarman III of
the Salastambha dynasty.
23. The Pushpabhadra Copper Plate Inscriptions of Dharmapala :
This grant was issued much later. It gives the names of three of his predecessors,viz.,Brahmapala,
Gopala and Harsapala,but leaves out those of Ratnapala and Indrapala. Interestingly,the first eight verses of the
inscription were composed by Dharmapala himself, where he calls him ''Kavicakravalacudamani''.
24.The Kamauli Copper Plate Inscription of Vaidyadeva:
This is a grant issued by Vaidyadeva, minister of Kumarapala, the Pala king of Gauda, who was
appointed ruler over the region to the east of the Pala kingdom, in place of Tingyadeve who became rebellious.
By the time the grant was issued, however, Vaidyadeva assumed the imperial title of Maharajadhiraja-
Paramesvara-Paramathattaraka, indicating thereby that he became an independent ruler and that Pragjyotisa
Kamarupa constituted a part of his kingdom, since Pragjyotisa is referred to as a Bhukti and Kamarupa as a
Mandala,and the grant was issued from the victorious camp at Hamsakonchi, which was in all probability
situated in modern Kamrup, as the suffix ''Konchi'' suggests.
25.Tezpur or the Assam Copper Plate Inscriptions of Vallabhadeva:
These plates, dated Saka Era 1107 (A.D.1185), give the names of four rulers,viz, Bhaskara, Rayarideva,
Udayakarna and Vallabhdeva himself of the Candra Vasma. It is,however,possible that Rayarideva started as a
feudatory of Vaidyadeva and ended up as an independent ruler. It is not known whether it started as an
independent dynasty. At any rate, it is generally agreed that Vallabhadeva was an independent ruler. The
inscription also mentions that Rayarideva defeated a king of Vanga who is
supposed to be Vijayasena of the Sena dynasty of Bengal.
The inscription also mentions such place-names as Hapyaca Mandala and villages like Devanikonchi
and Samsrahikonchika among others. Hapyaca is supposed to be comparable to Haposagrama of the Parbatiya
plates of Vanamala,as also of Hapyoma Visya of the Guwahati grant of Indrapala. More important, however, are
the suffixes''Konchi''and ''Konchika'',which point to their existence in the old Kamrup district. Scholars have also
sought to identify Samsrahikonchika with Sangsari about ten Kms. north of Pandu, Kamrup district.
26.The Sankara-Narayana Stone Sculpture Inscription:
Inscribed on a Visnu image,this inscription mentions the name of Maharajadhiraja Sri J ivara,whose
name is not be found in any of the copper-plate inscriptions of the ruling dynasty of Kamrupa. The inscription
belongs to the 8
th
century A.D. on palaeographical ground. Since the names of two rulers immediately
succeeding Balavarman II could not be found in any of the inscriptions of the Salastambha dynasty, historians
have accommodated him after Balavarman II ti fill up a part of the gaps.
27. The Stone Inscription From Bishnupur,Golaghat:
Inscribed on an image of Yama (Harihara?). It also mention the name of J ivara in connexion with the
consecration of an imageof Hara.
28. A Fragmentary Copper Plate Inscription from Nagaon:
This badly damaged inscription of the 8
th
century A.D. distinctly mentions the name of Maharajadhiraja
Sri Jivaraja, engraved on the seal,who appears to be no other than Sri J ivara of the Sankara-Narayana inscription
and the Bishrampur Inscription mentioned above. Thus the name of J ivara appears to be an orthographical error.
We thus have altogether two short inscriptions bearing the name of J ivara and one bearing the name of J ivaraja.
29.The Harihara Stone Image Inscription :
This inscription,belonging to the eight century,mentions the name of Maharajadhiaraja Sri
Dighekhavarman, whose name is not to be found elsewhere. Historians have placed him immediately after J ivara
or Jivaraja to fill up the gaps occuring after Balavarman II in the Genealogical list of the Salastambha dynasty.
30. The Narakasur Pahar Bronze Plaque and Copper Bell Inscription :
The inscription of the plaque mentions the name of Kumaradeva and his father Sri Palaka, in connexion
with the donation of the same containing the image either of Nirriti or of Agni,depending upon the correct
identification of the vahana (vehicle)of the deity. Both Kumaradeva and Palaka are scions of the Salastambha
dynasty.
HISTORY 171
31.The Kanaibarashi-bowa Rock Inscription,North Guwahati:
It records the annihilation of the Turuska (Muslim) army in Saka Era 1127. This is considered to refer to
Muhammed -bin-Bakhtiyar who was on his way back from his abortive Tibetan expedition, and who was
confronted and worsted by the army of king Bartu or Prithu, who was probably the successor of Vallabhadeva,
although his name has not been mentioned. According to D.C. Sircar, Bakhtiyar was probably defeated by ''the
combined forces of several rulers of the kingdom into which the country was then divided''.
32.The Narakasur Pahar Bronze Plaque Inscription:
This plaque, containing an image of a deity standing on a tiger whose iconographic details do not lead to
its correct identity, mentions the name of Sri Harjara of the Salastambha dynasty, as the one in whose realm this
family deity (Kula-Devata) was donated. Earlier, D.C. Sircar read it as ''Sri Hastisya (correctly,Hastinath)
Rajyapala (h)'',leaving the second line undeciphered, and suggested that it referred to the Rajyapala of the
illustrious Hastin, whose identity could not be determined. Later, B.N. Mukharjee read it as ''Nabhasya'' (Krata)
devata Vani-har (r)i Pratima''. Subsequently, D. Chutia, with plausible ground, deciphered it as ''Sri har
(j)arasya-rajya-prarthiya kule-daivata-dharma-dasta-pratima''.
33.The Narakasur Pahar Bronze Plaque Inscription:
The Plaque contains a four armed female deity standing on the back of a buffalo, holding discus,
trident, mace and rein and, in altogether five lines, mentions the name of the Vanamala who donated the image
and referred to it as a ''J (y)aksina''or a Yaksini/Yaksi. Vanamala here is referred to as the lord of Hadapyaka
(Hadappesvara), lord of Pragjyotisa and a ''Maharajadhiraja''.
34.The Inscribed Sun Image in the Assam State Museum:
This mentions the name of Harjaradeva of the Salastambha dynasty, during whose reign the image in
question was made.
35.The Stone Inscription of Samudrapala,Ambari,Guwahati:
The inscription was issued in the Saka Era 1154 (A.D.1232)by one king Samudrapala, and it makes
mention of the existence of a Satra (monastic establish-ment) at Yogihati. The identity of Samudrapala has yet to
be identified.
36.Nilacala Plates of king Madhava:
The inscription was issued by one Maharajadhiraja Paramesvara-Paramabhattaraka Sri Madhava in
his twentyfifth regnal year in connexion with the donation of land at Daluagrama in the Pandari Mandala. The
first plate contains an incised image of Ganesha on the upper left-hand side,on the basis of which Neog has
sought to identify him with a ruler belonging to the dynasty of the Ranee principality.
To the south-west of Guwahati, since the tutelary deity of this dynasty was Ganesha. Interestingly Pandari also
finds mention as a locality (Pandari-bhumi) in the Guakuchi plate of Indrapala. As such, some scholars have
identified it with the Panduri Mauza of the Rangia subdivision. Neog, on the other hand seeks to locate it around
the present Baihata Chariali region, about 35 Km north of Guwahati, in the Uttarakula, on the plausible ground
of the existence of the Dimow rivulet and Kamesvara temple there, both of which find mention in the
inscription.
Regarding the date of inscription, Neog believes that on palaeographical ground it belongs to 16th-17
th
century, while D.C. Sircar assign it to the 15
th
century. S.C. Bhatacharya, on the other hand, is inclined to assign
it to the first half of the 13
th
century.
Madhava's identity has remained an engima. Neog attempts to identify him with a ruler of the Rance
Pricipality. However, the assumption of the high-sounding title of Maharajadhiraja Paramesvara-
Paramabhattaraka by a local chieftain makes it unlikely, if we accept the date assigned by him.
37. The Rautkuchi Copper-Plate Grant of Parushottama Das Saka 1251(A.D.1329)
It records the grant of land to a Brahmana at Raukuchi, Nalbari,Parushottama Das was a local Bhuyan
chief,ruling in this region as vassal of the Kamata king,who was in all probability-either Dharmanarayana or
Durlabhanarayana.
Inscription of the Late-Medieval Period.
During the late-medieval period or,to be more precise,from the time of king Naranarayana of Kamatapur,
quite a large number of inscriptions were issued down to the beginning of the 19
th
century, the majority of which
were issued under the patronage of the Ahom rulers, About thirty-seven of these were inscribed on stone,and the
rest on copper plates,bells,cannons,images,etc. Most of these inscriptions were related to the donation of
land,either Devottra (i.e., for the maintenance of the day-to-day activities of the temples or monastic
establishment ), or Brahmottara (i.e.,for the maintenance of the persons,especially the priestly class), as well as
different articles to temples or sattras. About eleven of these inscriptions are related to war, and about fourteen
to the construction of temples. As regards the inscriptions on the cannons, they either relate to their capture or to
manufacture.
Of these inscriptions, the credit of issuing the highest number goes to Sivasimbha (40). Next in order
come Rajeswarsimha, Pramattasimha and Laksmisimha.
There are a number of inscriptions,all engraved on stone,which record battles with the Mughals. These
are as follows:
1)The two Stone Inscription of Chamdhara Garh,Sonitpur
-Pratapsimha,Saka 1538(A.D.1616).
HISTORY 173
Inscribed on two faces of stone pillar situated on the northeast of the Bhomoraguri hill,both the
inscriptions record victory over the enemies,presumably the Mughals;and one of them also record the
construction of a defensive earthen rampart (garh)from Chamdhara to Bhomoraguri.
2)Rock Inscription at Bhomaraguri,Sonitpur.
-Pratapsimha,Saka 1538(A.D.1616).
This inscription is also situated on the southern end of the Bhomoraguri hill and records the vanquishing
of the Yavanas(the Mughals)and the subsequent construction of a defensive rampart by cutting the
'Parvata',thereby meaning the Bhomoraguri hill.
It will thus be seen that all the above three inscriptions relate to a single battle or a series of battles
waged in the same year between the Mughals led by Saiyyad Abu Baqr and the Ahoms during the reign of king
Pratapsimha (A.D.1603-1641). This fact is corroborated by different Buranjis (chronicles).
Incidentally, these are also the earliest extant inscriptions of the Ahom rulers.
3.The North Guwahati inscriptions of Bahgarihia Buragohain,
-Chakradvajsimha,Saka 1589 (A.D.1667).
Situated near the Kanai-Barashi-Bowa inscription at the eastern end North Guwahati, there exit two
inscriptions inscribed on a huge boulder, which record the defeat of the Mughals and the killing of their
commanders. Saiyyad Chana and Saiyyad Firoz,in Saka 1589(A.D.1667)and the subsequent construction of
defensive rampart.
The inscription at the base of the boulder is topped by beautiful image of Ganesha.
4)The Stone Inscription of Namjani Barphukan,Guwahati -
Chakradhajsimha,Saka 1589(A.D.1667)
Inscribed on a pillar 3'7'' height,it records the vanquishing of the Yavanas(Mughals)by Namjani
Barphukan in Saka 1589(A.D.1667).
5.Cannon Inscription of J ayadvajsimha,Saka 1580 (A.D.1658)
Found at False Point near Diamond Harbour, Calcutta, it records the seizure of the cannon from the
Yavanas (Mughals)by king J ayadhvajsimha in Saka.....80. Although the date is incomplete,the last two digits,as
also the mention of the name of J ayadhvajsimha (A.D.1648-1663),would place the event in Saka 1580
(A.D.1658).
6)The two Cannons of Chakradhvajsimha :
Both the cannons were captured from the Mughals in Saka 1589 (A.D.1667)and Saka 1590
(A.D.1668)respectively.
7)The two Cannons of Gadadharsimha:
Both the cannon bear the Saka 1604(A.D.1682)and were captured from the Mughals.
A list of the remaining inscriptions of the period are given below:
1)Stone Inscription of Nilacala Kamakhya Temple,
-Naranarayana,Saka 1487(A.D.1565)
It records the reconstruction of the Kamakhya temple by Sukladhvaja alias Cilarai,brother of king
Naranarayan of Kochbehar.
2.Stone Inscription of Ganesvara Puskarini of Sri Sri Herambesvara Dununtra Rai,
-Saka 1499 (A.D.1577)
According to Neog, there is mention of a kingdom called Heremod in the Garu Charita. However,no
mention of Dununtra Rai or of any other king is to be found in the Guru Carita. Dununtra Rai could be an
alternative name of the Kachari king Yasonarayandev who flourished during this period. Buranji also refer to the
Kachari Kingdom sometimes as Heremial and sometimes as Heremod.
3.Stone Inscription of Hayagriva-Madhava Temple,Hajo
-Raghudev Narayana,Saka 1505 (A.D.1583)
It records the construction of the Hayagriva-Madhava temple by Raghudev Narayana, son of
Sukladhvaja or Cilarai,brother of Naranarayana, wherein he calls himself a Bhupati (king),although he became
an independent ruler by Saka 1510 only.
4)Stone Inscription of the Kamateswari Temple of Kamatapur
-Prananarayana,Saka 1507 (A.D.1585)
It records the construction of the Kamatesvari (Bhavani)temple at Kamatapur (Gosanimari)by king
Prananarayana.
5)Stone Inscription of Pandunath Temple,Pandu
-Raghudeva Narayana,
It records the construction of the Pandunath temple at Pandu near Guwahati by Raghudeva Narayana.
6. Copper Plate Land Grant of Bisvesvar Temple(?)Kamrup
-Godadharsimha,Saka 1605 (A.D.1683)
HISTORY 175
The location of the temple is not known. It is,however,not unlikely that temple referred to is the
Bilvesvara temple at Chamata, Nalbari. The name Bisvesvara may be a scribal error since the reading is based on
a copy from the ''Mazhar Book''in the Deputy Commissioner's office at Guwahati. According to Neog, this
inscription gives us ''for the first time method of having Sanskrit verses at the beginning and at the end,with lines
in Assamese of details (vivarana)of the gift intervening''.
7.Stone Inscription of Umananda Temple,Guwahati,
-Gadadharsima,Saka 1616(A.D.1694).
It records the construction of the Umananda temple by Sri Garhgaya Sandikoi Barphukan at the behest
of king Gadadharsimha. Neog remarks,''it is to be noted that it is the present epigraph among the ones so far
discovered that we find the epithet ''Saumaresvara''applied for the first time to an Ahom king.''
8.Copper Plate Land Grant of Umananda,Guwahati,
-Gadadharshima., Saka 1617(A.D.1695).
9.Copper Plate Land Grant of Umananda Guwahati,
-Rudrasimha,Saka 1619 (A.D.1697).
Here too,the king has been called''Saumaresvara''.
10. Copper Plate Land Grant of Siva Temple, J oysagar, Sivasagar.
-Rudrasimha,Saka 1622(A.D.1700).
11. Copper Plate Land Grant of Keshabrai Vishnu Temple, J oysagar, Sivasagar.
12.Copper Plate Land Grant from Lepetkata T.E.Dibrugarh,
Found in a stone case,it records the donation of land and a tank to six Brahmins. Neog thinks that the
land in question was in the present-day Barbarua region near Dibrugarh and the tank is the Barbarua Pukhuri.
13. Copper Plate Land Grant of Kamakhya, Pandunath and Ugratara temple,Guwahati.
-Sivasimha,Saka 1637(A.D.1715).
14. Copper Plate Land Grant of the Barpetaand the Bausi Parganahs,
-Sivasimha,Saka1639(A.D.1717).
15. Copper Plate Land Grant of the Damodar Sattra,Patbausi,Barpeta,
16.Copper Plate Land Grant of Bangsar Parganah,Kamrup.
17.Stone Inscription of Nilachal Kamesvara Siva Temple,Kamakhya,Guwahati,
It records the construction of the temple in question of the behest of king Sivasimha.
18. Stone Inscription of Nilachala Sidhesvara Temple,Kamakhya,Guwahati,kamrup.
19.The Umananda Image Inscription,Umananda,Guwahati,Kamrup,
The image in question is now lost.
20.Stone Inscription of Asvakranta Temple,North-Guwahati,Kamrup.
21.Stone inscription of Candika Temple at Chaygaon.
Badly damaged,it probably records the building of the temple in question by Tarun Duvara Barphukan.
22.Stone Inscription of Asvakranta Kurma-J anardona Phalgutsava Temple,North Guwahati.
It records the construction of the Phalgutsava temple in question.
23.Copper Plate Land Grant of Garaimari Sattra,Chamaria Parganah,Kamrup.
24.Copper Plate Land Grant of Madan Mohan Parganah,Kamrup,
25. Copper Plate Land Grant of Siddhesvara Devalaya,Saulkuchi,Kamrup,
Neog remarks,''This epigraph re-endorses a grant of land made by Gadadharsimha, as referred to in the
Sanskrit,but the date given in the Assamese,1601 Saka/1679 A.D. and the name Budhajana(the old king)is
confusing,unless we take it to mean Gadadhara, who become king in 1603 Saka after Sulikpha Lara-Raja (the
boy king) (1679-81A.D.)''.
HISTORY 177
26.Stone Inscription of Mandakata Garh,North Guwahati,KAmrup,
27.Stone Inscription of Nilacala Kamalesvara Temple,Kamakhya,Guwahati,Kamrup,
It records the construction of the temple in question under the aegis of Sivasimha.
28. Stone Inscription of Rangmahal Moat,North Guwahati,Kamrup,
29.Stone Inscription of Paschim-dvara(western gate)of Guwahati,Kamrup.
30.Stone Inscription of Vijaya-dvara(victory gate)of Guwahati,Kamrup.
31.Copper Plate Inscription of Dergaon Siva Temple,Dergaon,Golaghat.
32.Copper Plate Inscription of Barpeta Sattra,Barpeta.
33.Stone Inscription of Digheswari Temple,North Guwahati,Kamrup.
It records the construction of the temple in question on the order of king Sivasimha.
34.Stone Inscription of the southern Vijaya-dvara of the Durbar Mandir of the Barphukan,Guwahati,Kamrup.
35.Copper Plate Land Grant of Madan Mohan Parganah,Kamrup.
36.Stone Inscription of the Northern Jaya-dvara of the Mantra Bhavana of Barphukan,Guwahati,Kamrup.
37.Inscription of the Bell-Metal Gong of the Bali Sattra,
38.Copper Plate Land Grant of Sundaridiya Sattra,Barpeta,Kamrup.
39.Copper Plate Land Grant of Dharesvar Devalaya,Hatimura Parvat,Kamrup.
40.Copper Plate Land Grant of Chengagram,Khetri Parganah,Kamrup.
41.Copper Plate Land Grant of Makhibaha Gaon,Nambarbhag Parganah,Kamrup.
42.Copper Plate Land Grant of Asvakranta Devalay,North Guwahati,Kamrup.
43.Copper Plate Land Grant of Umananda,Guwahati,Kamrup.
It re-affirms the grant made by Rudrasimha to this temple in Saka 1619.
44.Copper Plate Land Grant to Satsangi Bhaktas in the Bangsar Paraganah,Kamrup.
45.Copper Plate Land Grant of Konwarbhag and Pubpar Parganahs,Kamrup.
46.Copper Plate Land Grant to a Geeta-Pathaka in Namborbhag Parganah,Kamrup.
47.Copper Plate Land Grant of Maregaon,Komarbhag Pub-parganah,Kamrup.
48.Copper Plate Land Grant of Kathabari Govindapur Grama of Khata Parganah,Nalbari.
49.Copper Plate Land Grant of Bisikuchi Village,Bajali Parganah,Barpeta.
50.Copper Plate Land Grant of Bichankuchi village,Bajali Parganah,Barpeta,
51.Copper Inscription of the main J anardana Temple,Guwahati,Kamrup.
-Pramattasimha,Saka 1666(A.D.1744).
It records the construction of one of the two J anardana temples.
52.Stone Inscription of the Nilachala Amratakesvara Temple,Kamrup,Guwahati.
HISTORY 179
It records the construction of the temple in question.
53.Stone Inscription of Sukresvara Devalaya.Guwahati,Kamrup.
54.Stone Inscription of Nilachala Durga Sarovara Kamakhya,Guwahati Kamrup.
55.Stone Inscription of Silaghat Kamakhya temple,Nagaon,
It records the construction of the temple in question by Gadadhar Barphukan. The inscription calls
Pramattasimha Purandara of Saumarapeetha.
56.Stone Inscription of Hatimura Durga Temple,Nagaon,
It records the construction of the temple in question at Silghat.
57. Copper Plate Land Grant of Dakhinpat Sattra,Majuli,J orhat,
58.Copper Plate Land Grant to Vaidya Visharada Ramacharya Upadhyaya,
59.Stone Inscription of Rudresvar Devalaya,North Guwahati,Kamrup,
It records the construction of the Sri Sri Rudresvara Siva temple at the behest of the king.
60.Stone Inscription of the Phalgutsava Temple of J anardana,Guwahati,Kamrup,
61.Stone Inscription of the Nilachala Phalgutsava Temple,Kamakhya,Guwahati,Kamrup,
62.Stone Inscription of the Phalgutsava Temple of Hayagriva Madhaba Temple,Hajo,Kamrup,
63.Stone Inscription of Nilachala,Kedara Mandir,Kamakhya,Guwahati,Kamrup.
-Rajeswarasimha,Saka 1673(A.D.1751).
64.Stone Inscription of the Enclosure Wall of the Rudresvara Devalaya,North Guwahati,Kamrup.
--Pramattasimha,Saka 1674(A.D.1752).
In this connexion Neog observes,''The date in the inscription,1674 Saka, is particularly to be noted,as
Rajeswarsimha succeeded Pramattasimha, who had the wall made in the previous year. It was under order of
Pramatasimha that the temple of Rudresvara was built in 1671 Saka.....and it is possibly at his behest that the
raising of the wall was started, even though it may have been completed after his death''.
65.Stone Inscription of the Navaratna Temple at Chitrachala,Guwahati,Kamrup.
It records the construction of the Navaratna or popularity known as Navagraha temple on the
Navagraha(Chitrachala)hill.
66.Stone Inscription of the Navagraha Puskarini,Kamrup.
It records the excavation of what is at present popularly known as the Silpukhuri.
67.Copper Plate Land Grant of Sundarikhel Sattra, Pubpar Parganah,Kamrup.
68.Copper Plate Land Grant of Diptesvara Temple,Paschimpar Parganah,Kamrup.
The location of the temple in question is not known. According to Neog,there is mention in the
''Kamarupar Buranji''of a 'Than'named Diptevari to the north of the Dharesvara Siva Temple on the Hatimura
hill,Kamrup.
69.Copper Plate Land Grant of Saktipara Grama of Khata Parganah,Nalbari.
70.Copper Plate Land Grant at Konwarbhag Pubpar Parganah for the provision of lamp,etc.,of the Hayagriva-
Madhava Temple,Hajo,Kamrup.
Regarding the anomaly in the date, Neog observes ''The Assamese portion gives the year of the
endorsement as 1677 Saka, so that the chronogram muni-vidhu-
HISTORY 181
rasendu-saka should also stand for it. But Pramattasimha, whose order are recorded in the inscription,was
succeeded to the throne by Rajeswarasimha in 1673 Saka........ It may also be noted that the gift was made by an
earlier Barphukan, that is,the present officer's father,through a patra (an epistle on paper or bark)which being not
a permanent thing,had now to be replaced with a tamrapatra by the present Tarun Duvara Barphukan''.
71.Copper Plate Land Grant to Chandikuchi Barua,Kamrup,
72.Stone Inscription of the Manikarneswara Devalaya,North Guwahati,Kamrup.
73.Silver ''J api''(Umbrella)to Dirgheswari Temple,North Guwahati,Kamrup.
74.Stone Inscription on the Brick Enclosure of the Kedara Temple,Hajo,Kamrup.
75.Copper Land Grant of the Matha of Kalakuchi Grama.Orara Talik,Khata Parganah,Nalbari,
76.Copper Plate Grant of Pubpar,etc.,Parganahs,Kamrup.
77.Stone Inscription of the Natamandapa of the Kamakhya Temple,Guwahati,Kamrup.
78.Copper Plate Grant for the daily worship at Sukresvara Temple,Guwahati,Kamrup.
79.Copper Plate Grant of Nambarbhag,Parganah,Kamrup.
80.Stone Inscription of Siddhesvara Temple,Sualkuchi,Kamrup.
81.Stone Inscription of the Vasisthasrama Temple,Guwahati,Kamrup.
82.Copper Plate Land Grant of the J ayar Sattra,Barpeta.
It is revalidation of the land previously granted by king Rudrasimha and also by king Sivasimha.
83.Copper Plate Inscription of the Vasudeva Matha,Dakhinpat Sattra,Majuli,J orhat,
84.Copper Plate Land Grant to Pranapati Brahmana,Bajali Parganah,Kamrup.
It renews an earlier land granted by emperor Shahjehan,and appoints Pranapati Brahmana as Chaudhari
of Bajali Parganah,together with Khata Taluk,and gives additional Brahmottara land,together with servitors,to
the recipient in question.
85.Copper Plate Land Grant to Kaviratna Bhagavate Mahajan,Bajali Parganah,Kamrup.
86.Copper Plate Land Grant to Kaviratna Chakravarti of Patidarang,Barnagar and Bajali Parganah,Kamrup.
87.Stone Inscription of Bilvesvara Temple,Chamata,Nalbari.
-Lakshmisimha,Saka 1694(1772)
It records the renovation of the temple in question.
88.Copper Plate Land Grant of the Matha at Ksudra-Makhibaha,Nambarbhag Parganah,Kamrup.
-Lakshmisimha,Saka 1692(1770).
89.Copper Plate Land Grant of Patbausi Sattra,Barpeta,
90.Copper Plate Land Grant of Sandheli Village Namghar,Panigaon Taluka,Nambarbhag Parganah,Nalbari.
91.Copper Plate Land Grant etc. to Biswanath Gosain Temple,Biswanath,Sonitpur,
HISTORY 183
92.Copper Plate Land Grant to Gaurivallabha temple,Rangpur,Sivasagar.
93.Copper Plate Land Grant to Gangavallabha Pahumaria Goswami,Umananda,Kamrup.
94.Copper Plate Land Grant to Bengena-ati-Sattra.
95.Copper Plate Land Grant to Anwar Faqir at Banbhag,Konwarbhag,etc.,Parganahs,Kamrup.
It records the grant of land to Anwar Faqir, as also his disciples and shares in the income of the four
Maqams(holy places)of Shah Madar in the Bausi parganah,Shah Faqir in the Barnagar Parganah,Panch Pirs
'Maqam in the Kshetri parganah and Bar Maqam of Hajo(Known popularly as powa or quarter-Mecca)'(Neog).
96.Copper Plate Land Grant to Madanachala Temple,Kamrup.
97.Copper Plate Land Grant to Pingalesvara Devalaya,Kamrup.
-Gaurinathsimha,Saka 1703(A.D.1781).
It renews the grant previously made by Sivasimha in Saka 1661.
98.Copper Plate Inscription Recording one Lakh Sacrifices to Goddess Kamakhya,Guwahati,Kamrup.
99.Copper Plate Grant to Hayagriva-Madhava Temple, Hajo,Kamrup.
100.Copper Plate Inscription Granting Boats, Boatsman,and Money to Hayagriva-Madhava
Temple,Hajo,Kamrup.
101.Copper Plate Land grant to Devi-ghar,Marangi,Golaghat.
102.Copper Plate Land Grant to Dakhinpat Gosai of Majuli in the Darrangi kingdom.
103.Copper Plate Land Grant of Paschimpar Parganah,Kamrup.
104.Copper Plate Land Grant to the Medhi of Haridevi Pantha at Bajali,Nambarbhag Baruagar Parganah,etc.
105.Copper Plate Land Grant of Hayagriva-Madhava Temple,Hajo,Kamrup.
106.Copper Plate Land Grant of the Kalikamatha,J ayantiyapur,(now in Bangladesh).
-Queen Kasasati Devi,consort of Badagosain or king Vijaynarayana.
Altogether three plates were issued by queen Kassasati Devi Sakas 1710,1721 and 1725 respectively.
107.Copper Plate Land Grant of the Beltola Principality,Kamrup,
108.Copper Plate Land Grant to Auni-ati Sattra at Kacharimahal,Pubpar and Sarukhetri Parganah,Kamrup.
109.Copper Plate Land Grant pertaining to the worship of Govinda at Guwahati,KAmrup.
110.Copper Plate Land Grant of Pubtharia,
111.Copper Plate Inscription Regarding Appointment of Kataki at Guwahati,Kamrup.
112.Copper Plate Land Grant to Bhuvanesvari Temple,Kamakhya,Guwahati,Kamrup.
-Gaurinathsimha,Saka 17...?
The year of issue is partly missing.
113.The Balisatra Bell-metal Gong Inscription,Nagaon.
It was donated by Mahidhar Buragohain who, according to Neog, was probably no other than
Purnananda Burahohain.
HISTORY 185
114.Rock Inscription of Chatrachal Temple,Guwahati,Kamrup,
-Kamaleswarasimha,Saka 1721(A.D.1799).
It records the construction of the Chatrachala Devi Temple.
115.Rock Inscription of Chatrachala Visnu and Siva temples,Guwahati,Kamrup.
It records the construction of the two temples in question.
116.Copper Plate Inscription on the Settlement of Dipute over Bardowa Sattra,Nagaon.
117.Copper Plate Land Grant of Hayagriva-Madhava Temple,Hajo,Kamrup.
118.Copper Plate Inscription of Kalangpur Brahmachari Sattra,Nagaon.
It is renewal of the grant of land and Paiks (servitors)originally given by Lakshmisimha.
119.Copper Plate Inscription reissued as Brahmottara Charter Lost During the Mayanmara Rebellion.
120.Copper Plate Inscription on Land Settlement in Bausi Parganah,Kamrup.
-Chandrakantasimha,Saka 1738(A.D.1816).
121.Copper Plate Inscription on Provision of servitors to Pahumaria Sarujana Gosain.
122.Copper Plate Land Grant to Auniati Sattra,Majuli,Jorhat.
123.Copper Plate Inscription Pertaining to the Appointment of Outpost-keepers at Batakuchi,Kamrup.
124.Copper Plate Land Grant in the Barbangsar Paraganah,Kamrup.
125.Copper Plate Land Grant in the Pachimpar Parganah,Kamrup.
-Chandrakantasimha,Saka 1743(A.D.1821)
ASSAM STATE GAZETTTEER 186
It revalidates the land grant previously made by Gaurinathsimha in Saka 1711.
126.Copper Plate Land Grant to Hayagriva-Madhava Temple,Hajo.
-Chandrakantasimha,Saka 1743(A.D.1821)
127.Inscription on the Brass-door of Sundaridiya Sattra,Barpeta,Kamrup.
-Bhaktacharan Atoi,Saka 1769(A.D.1847).
128.Document pertaining to the Grant of Dharmottara land to Aibheti Na-Sattra,Khana Taluk,Khana
Parganah,Kamrup.
Chandrakantasimha,Saka 1744(A.D. 1822).
Written in handmade paper or ''pera Kakat''.
Regarding this inscription, Neog remarks,''The utterly corrupt Sanskrit of the epigraph is most evidently
a hopeless imitation of some such epigraphs. The phrase Sri-Duvara-kulabjatarunadityena is quite meaningless.
It is evident,therefore,that the date of the epigraph cannot be 1583 Saka........... It may be 1683 Saka,in which
case 1583 can be bonafide mistake. But Nityananda Gosai of the Chaityanya school of Vaisnavism who, along
with Chintamani Gosai was given the dharmatra land gift by the Ranee chief, Dharmasimha,seems to have been
a man of the late 16thcentury,in which case the whole document will fall under the shadow of doubt. Then
again,the mention of different types of taxes and other liabilities,to which an ordinary subject of the Ahom state
is liable,would show either that the Ranee principality had the same taxation and penal system as the Ahom state
or that the whole document is to be considered doubtful.''
Reference:-
1)Kamarupa Sasanavali -Vidyavinode,P.N.
2) Kamarupa Sasanavali 1981 -Sarma,D.
3)Inscription of Ancient Assam 1978 -Sarma,M.M.
HISTORY 187
4)Prachya Sasanavali 1974 -Neog,M.
5)Kochbiharer Itihasa -Ahmed,Amanullah.
6)Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal,Vol XIX.
7)Asom Sahitya Sabha Patrika,1923,No.8,Vol.3,38
th
year.
8)Journal of Assam Research Society,Vols XXVI,1981-82; XXIX,1986-89;XXX,No.1;XXXI,No.1-
2,1989-90.
9)Journal of Ancient Indian History,Vols I,pt.1-2,1967-68;II,pt.1-2,1968-69;X,1976-77;XIII,pt.1-2,1980-
82.
10)J ournal of the Assam Sanskrit College,Vol.I,1986-87;Vol,II;1987-88.
11)Journal of the University of Guwahati,Arts,Vol.XVI,XVII.
12)Bulletin of the Assam State Museum-No.XI,1989.
13)East Indian Art Styles-Mukherjee,B.N.,1980.
14)Early History of Kamarupa,1988-Barua,K.L.
15)The History of the Civilization of the people of Assam to the 12
th
century A.D.,1987,-Choudhury,P.C.
16)The Comprehensive History of Assam,Vol,I,1990-Barpujari,H.K.(ed);
Coins;-Numismatic evidence is one of the most reliable source for determining the courses of history of
particular country. It generally helps us in determining the Chronology and reigning period of the dynasty. But it
is difficult to prove that single rulers of the ancient Assam (Pragjyotisa-Kamarupa) had ever minted coins,as yet
no coins of the ancient period have ever come to light. But we cannot say that those kings had not minted a
single coin. But there are good reasons to believe that these kings actually struck coins but for non-availability of
a single coin uptil now makes us doubtful.
It appears from the Articles of Dr. H.H. Wilson that atleast the western part of Assam, at an early period
was predominately Hindu and the same may be inferred from the names of the main stream,the Lohit and the
Brahmaputra,which are Sanskrit terms. At the beginning of the 13
th
century a new heard of people which accord-
ing to Manuscripts-the chief of which came down from heaven by golden ladder, in memory of which event the
Rajas of Assam uniformly takes the title-'Swargadeva', Lord of Paradise or Heaven appeared in the main land
from the East and existed till the Burmese invasion of the nineteenth century which ended by signing the treaty
in 1826 at Yandaboo between Britishers and Burmese. It may,therefore,be concluded that Assam was subjected
to new from of Government, a new race of princes and new religion imported from Loas towards the close of
12
th
century and the beginning of 13
th
century,which can be identified by some coins as a base materials.
The coins of Assam, so far collected goes back to the 16th century A.D. only but the Silimpur
Inscription, it is stated that the king J aypala, the last king of the Brahmapala dynasty of Assam who ruled Assam
(Kamarupa) in the later part of the 12
th
century minted coins,but due to the non-availability of these coins we
cannot prove it so far.
The coins so far discovered and found are as follows:-
Ahom Coins :The ancient coins found as yet,is that of Shu-Klen-Mung (A.D.1539-1552) who issued in
A.D.1543. Shu-Klen-Mung was counterpart of Koch king Nara Narayana (A.D.1515-1540) and he is known as
Gargayaraja. But D. Wilson gives us some of the image of the coins of 13
th
century as below.
1 of Subinpha who ruled in the eighties
of the thirteenth century. A.D.1281-93
1 of Sutupha one of the sons of Sutepha. A.D.1364-76
1 of Supatpha who also preferably a son
of Sutepha. -Ditto-
1 of Suhumpha. In the beginning of 16
th
century
HISTORY 189
Probably Suhumpha of Dr. Wilson is infant Suhungmung (A.D.1497-1539) one of the son of Supimpha
(A.D.1493-97) who were also designated as Raja,i.e.,Pha.
Sutumla A.D.(1648-63) the successors of Sutyinpha (Nariya Raja) (A.D.1644-48) was the first king to
convert into Hinduism,who after assuming a Hindu name J ayadhvaja Singha introduced Sanskrit Script in his
coins. But Ahom scripts were again reintroduced by king Supatpha (Gadadhar Singha) (A.D.1681-96) and his
son Sukhrunpha (Rudra Singha) (A.D.1696-1714) followed his father's examples in the annual issue of his
coins. This procedure continued till A.D.1821 the fall of the Ahom rule. The first coin struck in the name of the
Ahom queen is that of Rani Phuleswari. She used Persian script and its shape was square.
The coins issued by king Suklenmung (A.D.1539-52) was in Ahom script and language. The coins of
earlier kings started the year of succession of the king who issued these coins,but the coins of Suklenmung did
not contain any such statement.
All the Ahom coins were octagonal in size till the introduction of square shaped coins by queen
Phuleswari. But the later king Rajeswar Singha (A.D.1751-69) made experiment with different shapes besides
issue of octagonal coins which was the general form of Ahom coins. Rajeswar Singha (A.D.1751-69)issued
coins generally in Assamese script but he also made experiment with Ahom,Nagari and Persian script.
The rupees and the gold coins of the Ahom kings were struck to the Indian standard of about 170 grains.
It was probably king Rudra Singha (A.D.1696-1714)introduced half of quarter rupees. Rajeswar Singha
(A.D.1751-69 )introduced eight and sixteenth of both the rupee and the Mohar (gold coins)while Gaurinath
Singha (A.D.1780-95)added one more variety; i.e.,thirty-secondth. There was no copper currency-instead Cowri
was issued in its place.
During the reign of Gaurinath Singha (A.D.1780-95),the Moamaria rebellion took place. The rebel
Moamarias after driving away the Ahomm from Rangpur declared independence and ran almost a parallel
Governments with the Ahoms. During that time,in their domain,coins in the name of Bharat Singha and
Sarbananda, two of the insurgent leaders were issued in the A.D.1791 to 1795.
The Burmese also during their last invasion in 1826 are said to have struck very rough varieties of coins.
The Koch Coins:The Koch rupees (coins) are round in form and follows the model of the coins Hussain Shah of
Bengal. The first Koch king to strike coins in his name was king Nara Narayana (A.D.1515-40). His coins are of
silver. King Nara Narayana (A.D.1515-40) was a famous Koch king who extended his reign over the entire
Assam including present Meghalaya and beyond upto Manipur, Tripura and
Sylhet. The only known coins of the Eastern Koch kingdom are very few full rupee coins of king Raghudeva
(A.D.1581-1603),king Prananarayana(A.D.1633-66)and single rupee of king Parikshit Narayana(A.D.1603-13).
The half-rupee Koch coins minted during Mughal domination are known as Narayani rupees in Assam. Some of
the Koch coins will be found in Guwahati and British Museum.
The Kachari Coins: The Kacharis are the earliest known inhabitants of the Brahmaputra Valley. The
Assam coins cabinet possessed coins of Yasonarayana Dev and of Satrudaman alias Pratap Narayana Dev. One
rupee of the former king bears a date of 1505 Saka (A.D.1583) showing that Yaso Narayana ascended the throne
some twenty years before Satrudaman. The existence of a coin of Tamradhvaj whose date was (A.D.1706-
1708)shows that this series of coins continued for at least 120 years. A coin of modern type was issued by the
last Kachari king Gobinda Chandra(A.D.1813-30).
The Jayantia Coins:Very little is known of the history of the earlier rulers of Jayantia, except the
occasional references in the Koch, Kachari and Ahom annals and their conflicts with the Koches, Kacharis and
Ahoms. Coins are known bearing the saka dates 1591,1592,1630,1653,1696,1704,1707 and 1712
(A.D.1669,1670,1707,1731,1774,1782,1785 and 1790) and it can easily be assumed that as in the case of the
earlier Ahom coins those dates represent the dates of accession or perhaps of the installation of the kings who
issued the coins, None of the J aintiya coins bear the name of the king who issued it probably due to prohibition
of Koch king in this respect. But the quarter rupees dated 1653 and 1712 Saka era bear the name of Borgosain
and Ramasingha respectively. The rupees are locally known as 'Katrataka' (Sword rupees) from the fact that they
bear the device of two handed sword and a musket on them.
Monipuri Coins: A few Manipuri coins so far has been discovered which is locally known as 'Sel' or 'Shell'
coins. There is no evidence of having been at any time a gold coinage in existence,but it is said that square silver
coin existed from at least A.D.1712. A square coin of Churajit Singha dated 1734 Saka found to have weighed
173 grain-the Indian standard weight for a rupee. Square copper coins of large size and a greater weight are also
known to have been use in Manipur. After British occupation indigenous coins ceased to exist from A.D.1891.
The Naga Coins:Whether the Naga kings had ever struck cons in their own names is not known,but we have
evidence that there existed some peculiar arrow shaped 8''long copper coins known as Jabily Particularly used by
the Ao Nagas to purchase valuables till the advent of the British. Some Jabilys have been preserved in Guwahati
Museum.
HISTORY 191
Habitation Sites:
Any spot on the earth that contains something that is the handiwork of human agency suggest human
habitation either at the spot itself or in its vicinity. Innumerable such isolated spots are to be seen strewn across
the length and breadth of the State,especially the Brahmaputra Valley,where in some spots,only a few chiselled
stones lying together,or a small section of a rampart or a depression which once may have been a pond for all we
know,are encountered. The mere enumeration of such spots is not likely to yield a clear and definite pattern of
human settlement. Therefore,for the sake of convenience,by habitation sites are meant only those areas where
there are sufficiently large concentrations of architectural ruins,sculptural remains,ancient tanks, ramparts,
tumuli, networks of ancient roads, etc.,within defined areas which can ipso facto be termed as human
settlements. A number of such areas can be seen throughout the State which can plausibly be said to have once
contained fairly dense and well-organised human populations. A brief description of some of these are given
below:
Pratimanagar: Situated near Burha-Burhi-Nepaligaon, about 15 km from Chapakhowa in the Sadiya
subdivision,Tinsukia, there exists an extensive fortified enclosure with three concentric earthen ramparts,the
innermost one measuring 240 m x 185m. Inside the enclosure,on the western end,there are two mounds contain-
ing bricks, probably of temples. The area is now under cultivation.
Barhapjan ruins,Tinsukia :-Locally known as Rajgarh or Ahomgarh,within the Sukanguri T.E.and contiguous
to the Barhapjan town,the earthen fortification is surrounded by a deep moat. Local tradition ascribes it to one
Naga Raja. Inside the fortified area is a pond.
Rajakhana or Rajgarh area,Dhemaji:-Situated about 7 km. northwest of Dhemaji. Rajakhana or Rajgarh is a
rather lofty fortification measuring 150m x100m in area,and is now reduced into a swampy land by the Dihing
river which changed its course in 1984 and started flowing through it,thereby washing way parts of the northern
and the southern ramparts. Inside,in the centre, is a brick mound which was destroyed by the subsidence caused
by the subsidence caused by the earthquake of 1950. Locally,it is associated with the name of Arimatta.
About half a kilometre north of Rajakhana, there exist the ruins of a brick wall with five layers of bricks
still extant,together with a piece of chiselled stone. Similarly, brick ruins,together with the foundation of a stone
temple,are to be found about half a kilometre south of Rajakhana. The site contains stone structural components
and,judging by their style, they seem to belong to 11th/12
th
century. West of Rajakhana also are to be found
architectural ruins as well as mounds containing ruins.
Arimatta Garh, Dhemaji :-Situated at a distance of about 19 km from Dhemaji and one kilometre from
Choukhamgaon, this fortified area,although associated with the name of Arimatta,is a late-medieval
site,measuring 315 metre square and surrounded by a moat,with one entrance. Inside is to be found an earthen
mound,in all probability a tumulus (Moidam),which has been badly pilfered. There also exit a number of patches
of elevated land which were probably foundations of thatched houses. IN all probability,it was a permanent army
camp,meant to check the periodic incursion of the Daflas from the northern hilly tracts. Hence its alternative
name is Dafalagarh.
Biswanath :-Situated at the confluence of the Brahmaputra and the Burhidihing rivers,Biswanath,Sonitpur
district,was reputed to be of great strategic importance during the late medieval period,where the Ahom rulers
had a regular camp.
The area contains a river islet known as Umatumoni, which once constituted a part of the mainland. Here
once existed a brick temple of goddess Uma (now renovated). Hence is its name. The islet also contains a huge
rock bearing as many as three inscriptions,twelve geometric designs of various types like grids and labyrinths,in-
cised temple forms and animal motifs,all engraved on the rock face.
On the mainland,evidences of low ramparts show that this part was once thickly populated. There once
existed altogether five temples of late-medieval period,of which only two have survived more or less intact.
Besides,existing architectural as well as sculptural evidences show that during the medieval period also there
existed more than one temple,some of which may go back to 8
th
century A.D.
The low-lying area in between Umatumani at the main land contain the remains of medieval stone
temple which remain submerged during the monsoon.
Patapgarh:Patapgarh is situated about twelve kilometres west of Biswanath Chariali. Also known as Pratappur,
it is a fortified rectangular area surrounded by an earthen rampart measuring 4km east-west X 2 km north-
east,and a moat all around. The fort was reputedly built by Pratapsimha alias Ramachandra, a section of
Dharmapala alias J itari, and father of Arimatta, sometime in the 14
th
century. It has its entrance at the centre of
eastern rampart, which is reinforced by two parallel ramparts on its north and three similar ramparts on the
south. It was further surrounded by a number of additional ramparts and moats,their lengths ranging between
0.30 km and 8km. Of which remains of three ramparts still exist. West of it runs the late-medieval
Salagarh,starting from Biswanath and ending at the foot of Dafla hills. Inside this vast fortified area is to be seen
another fortress comprising about four acres of land with its ramparts measuring about 6 metres in height. The
inner four sides of the ramparts bear traces of three offsets or terraces facilitating ascent to the top of the rampart.
Inside this fortress there exists a circular pond. South of this inner fortress, there exists another large rectangular
tank. The area is littered with bricks of the late-medieval period.
HISTORY 193
In this area are to be seen remains of three ancient roads,one of them emanating through the entrance of
the fort, another,starting from the north-east end, which is locally known as Raj-ali,and the third one running
south to Biswanath.
In addition, there are to be seen in this region more than a dozen tanks in between Pratapgarh and
Biswanath, the largest of which is known as theKunwari pukhuri.
Bihali Forest Reserve : In an area of about 9 (nine) sq. km. inside the deep jungle of Bihali Forest
Reserve, Sonitpur district, remains of altogether 4 (four) stone temples and altogether 7 tanks, one of them lined
with stones, can be seen, which probably belong to the early part of the late-medieval period. These are enclosed
by an earthen rampart. The area also contains ruins of two brick temples. These apart, south of the Forest reserve
down to the Brahmaputra river, more than a dozen tanks, both large and small,exist, which are probably
contemporaneous with the above ruins. At any rate, all these ruins existing together are indicative of a
flourishing settlement there once upon a time. In this area are also to be seen three ancient roads probably
contemporaneous with the above ruins.
Sotea Jamuguri region : Inside the Ghiladhari T.E., adjacent to Sotea there are three large tanks, one of
these lined with stones, which are reputed to have been excavated by some local Bhuyan Chiefs. South of the
Sotea there are two late-medieval medium-sized tanks. Similarly, in the Khanaguri Gaon near Sotea area are two
such tanks. Sotea itself has a tank together with the ruins of a medieval temple. This region also contains two
roads of the late-medieval period measuring in length approximately 6.50 km. And 5 km. Respectively. At places
in this region there exists a few other such roads some of which are still in use.
Similarly, J amuguri region also contains altogether 16 tanks of the late-medieval period.
Singri region, Sonitpur :- Situated at a distance of 11 km south of Dhekiajuli, there exist inside the Singri T.E.
Extensive ruins of two temples, locally known as Visvakarma Mandira and belonging to c. 10
th
century. A
kilometre east of this place are to be seen a number of small brick and stone mounds in a row at a place called
Dhirai-Majuli,from which a number of stone architectural components belonging to c.10
th
century have been
recovered. A.kilometre west of Visvakarma Mandir are to be seen the ruins of a c.12
th
century temple at a village
called Bangaligaon. Three km south of Bangali-gaon, there exits the Singri temple with different phases of
repair. Close by,on top of a hill are the ruins of a medieval stone temple. Lastly,about 3 km east of the Singri
T.E.scattered ruins of a stone temple of c. 11/12 century along the Brahmaputra exist. This region thus bears firm
evidence of human habitation from the 10
th
century onwards. It is very probable that this region had a flourishing
population even earlier,constitute as it did a part of the kingdom of the Salastambha dynasty with their capital
at Hadappesvara in the Tezpur region which is situated about 50 km west from Singri as the crow-files.
Tezpur region :-The modern town of Tezpur and its peripheral region,where the ancient capital of Hadappesvara
of the Salastambha dyansty (c.A.D.655 to c.A.D.900) was located, contain a large number of ancient brick and
stone ruins,both of the medieval and the late-medieval periods.
On the south-eastern outskirts of the town,on top of a hillock known as Bamuni Pahar, there once
existed a temple complex of c.11
th
century,consisting of altogether seven structures including those of a torana
(gateway). On west of this hillock,along the Brahmaputra river,diggings for purposes other than archaeological
have yielded from time to time large numbers of various types of temple components,variously ascribable to the
period ranging from 7
th
to 11
th
century. In fact,the entire township is littered with stone architectural components.
It also contains the remnant of a huge dried-up tank known as Harjara-Pukhuri, a name suggestive of
Harjaravarman of the Salastambha dynasty. In the heart of the town are the ruins of the c.9
th
century
Mahabhairava temple,lying scattered around the modern temple which has been built on the foundation of the
old one.
On the southern outskirts of the town,not very far from Bamuni hill ruins are to be seen the remains of a
medieval Sakti temple,where the modern Bhairavi temple stands.
In the village of Da-Parbatiya, existing on the western outskirts of the town,there is a large concentration
of architecture and sculptural remains. Noteworthy among these are the door-frame of a temple of the Gupta
period of late 16thcentury. Other remains of this area are,the brick foundation of an old temple over which the
modern Henguleswar temple stands;the stone pillars and lintels used in the Silar Namghar (amodern Vaisnavite
prayer-hall);the brick ruins and the stone pillar of c.7
th
century at Baralimara Satra (now shifted to the Cole Park
at Tezpur);the Garh-dol,containing the ruins of two brick structures enclosed by a low rampart with brick
reinforcement;a cluster of seven tanks existing not far from the Garh-dol and traditionally assigned to
Harjaravarman;the structural ruins at Brahmachari Satra,Da-Chuburi;the inscription of Harjavarman engraved
on a sheer rock-face at the Dhenukhana-Parvat on the bank of the Brahmaputra;the brick remains on the
Dhenukhana parvat along the Brahmaputra near Da-parbatiya;the more than 4 m tall mukhalingam known as
Tingyesvara at Ketekibari on the outskirts of Tezpur; the 8
th
century temple ruins at Majgaon near Ketekibari,etc.
All these ruins are indicative of human habitation in this region from 6thcentury onwards.
Kalaigaon region :-The Kalaigaon region,west of Tangla,contains a number of ancient ruins and tanks,scattered
all over the region,suggesting human habitation. At Baruah Hawligaon is an old large tank on the bank of which
there once stood a brick
HISTORY 195
temple with stone components belonging to the medieval period, locally known as Bhoga Baruaar Mandir. The
nearby village of Barnagari has an ancient tank,together with the ruins of a stone temple belonging to c.11
th
century. The Muradeor temple,built in the 16thcentury during the reign of Naranarayana,exists at Kabirali,a
village near Barua Hawli. Kabirali also contains stone architectural remains of 11th/12
th
century.
Darangipara region :Similarly, at the Darangipara region,about 9km south of Odalguri, extensive signs of
human habitation can be seen, such as, at Nalkhamara with stone temple components, and a brick temple which
has been washed away by the turbulent Chandana river.
About 5km south of Odalguri are to be seen a large tank and the sanctum of a ruined brick temple,as also
some stone ruins on another bank of the same tank. The J arpukhuri ruins of 12
th
century situated about 15 km
north of Tangla,exists in the reserved area of Majgaon T.E. There also exist at a little distance two medium sized
tanks, as also broken bricks spread over a wide area around these ruins,pointing to human settlements from the
medieval period down.
Rajgarh :-Rajgarh is situated a few kilometres north of Harisingha. It is a fortified area extending over about 50
acres of land. It has four entrance with stone pillars about 4 m.high.
Other sites:Not very far from Sipajhar,there exists the J aypala tank,supposedly excavated by a Bhuyan chief
named J aypal,and as such belonging to c.14th/15
th
century. Around this region are numerous other tanks,such as
the Deoraj pukhuri at Byaspara village, west of which,as per tradition,was the city of local chief named Lokarai.
On its bank there once stood a stone temple which no longer exists. The other tanks of this region are Baldeo
pukhuri,Baghmara pukhuri with the remains of brick steps leading down to the bottom,Barhampur
pukhuri,Pachakia pukhuri, Lakshmi pukhuri, Dighi pukhuri, Gorukamora pukhuri,etc.
Bhurar Garh exists near Charandhara in Kalaigaon Mouza and it is a fortified area of about 130 acres.
Inside the fortified area are to be seen a number of raised grounds suggesting their use for residential purposes,as
also two small tanks. The entrance to the fortification was protected on either side by ramparts. The term Bhura
may originally have stood for Bhuyan,which was in due course distorted into Bhura. This probability can not be
discounted since this region was once ruled by a number of Bhuyan chiefs during the 14th/15
th
century. As
such,it might have been constructed sometime in the 15
th
century, if not earlier.
Guwahati region :Guwahati has been traditionally known as Pragjyotishpur, capital of ancient kingdom of
Pragjyotisha. The greater Guwahati region,including North Guwahati, contains archaeological ruins ranging in
date from the 5
th
century A.D. Down to the 18
th
century. The southern part of this area, i.e.,the present day city of
ASSAM STATE GAZETTER 196
Guwahati,was bounded on the north by the Brahmaputra,on the south by the hilly ranges of the Khasi Hills
district,on the east and the west by two ramparts respectively. Within this area are to be found a number of brick
built temples of the late-medieval period,almost all of which were constructed on the foundation of the earlier
stone teples of the medieval period. Notable among these are the temple complex are Kamakhya containing
about a dozen temples of the late medieval period where building activities started from the 6th century,the
Sukra-J anardana temples,the Chatrakara temple,the Basistha temple,the Umananda temple,the Navagraha
temple,the Ugratara temple ,etc. The area also contains a number of tanks excavated in different periods. Quite a
few stray sculptors engraved on rock-faces at different parts of this area,as also architectural ruins of stone as
well as brick,are also encountered. Apart from the two ramparts,constituting the eastern and the western
boundaries,a few other ramparts,built during the medieval period,are to be seen,notable among these being the
one running east-west along the spine of the Narakasur pahar and,south of it,another brick-reinforced rampart
running north-south and ending up at the foot of the Khasi Hill range. The earliest inscription found in this
region,viz,the Umachal Rock inscription,which is located at the foot of the Kamakhya hill,belongs to the 5
th
century A.D. At the foot of the Kamakhya hill, there is also a single-line Persian inscription,as also an 18
th
century inscription in Assamese,known as the Duar-Garila inscription,marking the western gateway to the
headquarters at Guwahati during the Ahom occupation. Occasional diggings done for purpose of construction of
buildings,etc.,as also regular excavations,especially at the central sector of the northern part of the present
city,have yielded stone architectural components, remains of brick structures, potteries,etc.
Similarly,the North Guwahati region has number of 18
th
century brick temples,all of which were
constructed on the foundation of medieval stone temples,namely,the Asvakranta temple,the Kurma-J anardana
temple,the Maniikarneswar temple and the Dirgheswari temple. Besides these,the area also contains a number of
earthen ramparts,a stone bridge of the late-medieval period,tanks,three stone inscriptions,the earliest of them
belonging to A.D.1206,and a host of stray stone sculptural pieces belonging to the medieval period.
Hajo region : Hajo in the Kamrup district was once a strategic region and the strong-hold of the Mughals who
were in occupation of the region west of Barnadi after the defeat of Nilambar by Hussain Shah in A.D.1498.
Hajo proper has altogether six temples built a different times,most of them on the stone foundation of medieval
temples. The earliest structural activities,especially of the Hayagriva-Madhava Temple,which is the principal
temple of the locality,goes back to 8
th
century. Centering on this temple an extensive habitation area grew up in
course of time. This shrine is equally venerated by the Lamaist Budhists as the alleged place of
Mahaparinirvana of Sakyamuni or the Budha. The area also contains two large tanks. Close by,on a
HISTORY 197
hill-top exists the 16thcentury dargah of Ghiyasuddin Auliya,and the place is venerated by the Muslim
community of Assam as Poa Mecca. In A.D.1657,a mosque was built here,which does not exist now.
Baidyar-garh is situated at Betna at a distance of 25 km. north of Rangiya town, and is a fortified area of
several acres of land. As the area has been badly vandalized by modern habitation,no details of ancient remains
are available. Baidyargarh is traditionally associated with Arimatta. However, going by its name, it is more
probable that it was constructed during the reign of Vaidyadeva sometime in the 12
th
century,which was
subsequently used as capital by Arimatta.
Baihata Chariali area :-This area is replete with archaeological ruins,such as,architectural remains,old
ramparts,tanks,etc.
The architectural ruins at Madan Kamdev, situated at a distance of 5km south-east of Baihata Chariali
and 40km north of Guwahati,exist on the top of the hillock of the same name. Remains of altogether with
evidences of brick works existing side by side,all of which belong to a period ranging from the late 11
th
to 12
th
centuries,are seen here. On the south of it,right in the midst of swampy area is the J alpeswar hillock which also
contains contemporary stone structural evidences. About half a km.north of Madan-Kamdev,are to be seen stone
structural remains on the Narasimha pahar . About 6 km north of Madan-Kamdev as the crow flies are to be seen
the 12
th
century stone temple ruins at Pingalesvar together with a tank and scanty remains of a brick-built in
mosque of late-medieval period nearby. Thus,this region bears evidences of altogether 25 stone structures,all of
them temples. About 3km.north of Madan-Kamdev,in village of J anuru,is a large ancient tank,and another about
one km.west of it. Besides,on the south of Madan-Kamdev,across the seasonal Madan-Kuri river flowing nearby
and along the spine of the Bhitarsala hill range,is a road-cum-rampart with brick reinforcement running
northeast-southwest and curving down south along the Changsari-Kahara pahar and ending up at Lakhipahar.
Along this north south stretch,this road-cum-rampart is interspersed with number of earthen bastions. It was
from Lakhipahar that this road again probably swerved nothwest, this time simply as road,and passed through
the old stone bridge which was destroyed by the earthquake of 1897,and ended up at Sessa in the neighbourhood
of Hajo or,more probably,continued further to Hajo. That this region had flourishing human population at least
from the medieval period,if not earlier,with the Madan-Kamdev complesx as it nerve-centre,can easily be de-
duced from the extant of the ruins and other remains in this region.
Sualkuchi area:-Sualkuchi is about 25km west of Guwahati where a medieval stone temple belonging to c.12
th
century exists on top of a hillock,which was party renovated during the late-medieval period. A long earthen late-
medieval rampart,starting from one hill and running one kilometre and ending at the foot of another hill exists on
the west Sualkuchi. Subsequently,a good number of late-medieval Vaisnavite
monasteries grew up here. Sualkuchi thus bears evidence of human habitation from at least 12
th
century. About
three kilometre north of this place,there exists a natural cave which enshrines a number of Hindu metallic icons.
The antiquity of this cave as a place of veneration is not known.
Suryapahar region:-The Mornoi-Suryapahar region,Goalpara district,is situated about 20 km.east of Goalpara
town comprising an area of roughly 30km. At Suryapahar proper,on the foothills,are to be seen quite a few
sculptures ranging in date from 8
th
to 9
th
century,all depicted on the body of three large rock
formations,Sivalingas cut out on boulders,small rock-cut cubicks with Sivalingas inside,a number of solid
Buddhist stupas,some freestanding and the others,curved out on the body of large boulders,images of jaina
Tirthankaras of 8th/9
th
century,a tank with brick linings,the ruins of brick temple containing terracottas of 7th/8
th
century,etc. In between Suryapahar and the nearby Mornoi village,there exists a huge tank,now dried up. At the
Mornoi village itself,architectural and sculptural as well as terracotta plaques of the medieval period have been
recovered from time to time. At a little distance on the south of Suryapahar,three exists the ruins of a brick
temple of the medieval period atop a hillock known as Bamun pahar. The existing chiselled and decorated stones
now used as stairways to the top of the hillock suggest the existence of a temple there of an earlier period. About
5 km west of Suryapahar is the Dekdhowa-pahar right on the bank of the Brahmaputra where quite a large
number of Sivalingas cut in the fashion of those existing at Suryapahar,together with a two-line short inscription
of c.9
th
century,can be seen,as also panels bearing the images of Ganesha,Brahma,Sadasiva,and another
unidentified image. There also exist a brick-built dargah of the late-medieval period as well as two small
mounds littered with old brick-bats,prob-ably of temples,plus another single line stone inscription in old
Assamese script on a boulder on the east of these mounds. Similar Sivalingas in a large number are also to be
seen at Mahadebpahar near Suryapahar and opposite the Sainik School. About 5 km south of Suryapahar,at
Matia,there exist on top of a hillock the ruins of a brick-built temple with decorative terracotta pieces,and a few
chiselled stone blocks,which indicate the existence of stone temples there from the medieval period onwards.
Suryapahar also finds mention in late-medieval chronicles. This area thus bears evidences of human habitation
from atleast the 7
th
century onwards. This is one place in Assam where three religious
beliefs,viz,Buddhism,Hinduisim and J ainism,coexisted and flourished without apparently any conflict. Now
where else in Assam have remains of the J aina religion been found so far.
Pancharatna region : The Pancharatna region,situated about 8 km of the Goalpara town,comprises among
others,a number of small bare caves,some with traces of steps in front,belonging to the medieval period,a solid
stupa measuring 1.13 m.,huge yoni-peetha plus a number of temple components. About 5 km east of this
place,on the scrap of a hill,is the bare existence of the foundation of a brick
HISTORY 199
temple with a few blocks of chiselled stones. Right across the river Brahmaputra,at Jogighopa also,there are to
be seen a number of small caves. One of them with steps cut in front,the inside back-wall bearing Buddhist stupa
motif in very low relief in some of them.
These are indicative of the fact that this region was once agog with tantrik-Buddhist religious
activities,perhaps from 8
th
century onwards.
Panbari region :About 17 km. West of Dhubri,there exists at Panbari an area of approximately nine acres
containing brick structural ruins with stone solings, adjacent to the Ship & Goat Farm of the Vetenary
department. It was in all probability set up in the beginning of the 16th century,as administrative
headquarters,after this region was wrested by Saiyyad Hussain Shah of Bengal from the contemporary ruler of
Kamata in A.D.1498. Across the road and facing the site is a triple-domed mosque which in all probability was
built at the same time as the structures of the headquarter. About three km. West of this,behind the B.S.F.camp is
an Idgah with a brick enclosure and a brick well nearby.
Parikshit Rajar Garh is situated at Rupsi, 20 km east of Dhubri, and is covered by deep jungle. As the
name suggests,it was set up by Parikshit Narayan of the Eastern Koch dynasty in the 17
th
century. The area is
enclosed by an earthen rampart with an entrance to it. Inside are to be found scattered ruins of brick structures
and stray decorated terracotta pieces.
Innumerable ruins of brick temple,brick-reinforced earthen ramparts,tanks,megaliths,sculptures bearing
inscription,other stone inscriptions,etc.,have been noticed in the region between the Dhansiri and the Dayyang
river,located mostly in the Golaghat district,bearing eloquent testimony of human habitation right from the early
centuries of the christian era to the late-medieval period.
Sarupathar region:The Nagajari-Khanikar Gaon existing near Sarupathar,has yielded fragmentary
stone inscription of 5
th
century. From the same place has been recovered a number of pebbles,each bearing a
letter of the Eastern Brahmi script ascribable to the 2nd/3
rd
century A.D. Besides these,there also exist a brick
mound at Ahomgaon and a number of ancient tanks at Rajapukhuri, both adjacent to Sarupathat. Deopani a small
village 4km from Sarupathar, originally had a brick temple which no longer exists. The site,however,contains
about 20 stone sculptures belonging to 7th/8
th
century. Similarly, Sisupani near Deopani contains two ancient
tanks,on the banks of which the ruins of two ancient brick temples exit.
Barpathar region :Duboroni village,existing at the outskirts of Barpathar,has yielded number of sculptures of
c.8
th
century,together with some Sivalinagas,which are probably contemporaneous with the sculptures. This
village also contains a six-metre high brick reinforced rampart running north east,as also the ruins of a brick
temple and a tank measuring 72 m X 69 m. Alichiga Gaon, about 3 km north of Duboroni.
contains scattered old bricks of a brick temple and a stone Surya-image of 8
th
century.
Kasomari region: In the Kasomari pathar region,Telisal, about 20 km from Barpathar,contains a large tank
measuring 480 m X 240 m,the ruins of an old temple,as also fragments of old sculptures. Nearby exists another
large tank locally known as Lashminagar. About 4 km away from here,another large tank named Yajnapukhuri
and a stone image of the medieval period are to be seen. Several similar other mounds littered with brick-bats
exist at a number of spots in that area. At Rajabari, about 8 km east of Telisal in the Kasomari Reserve Forest
there are a number of beautifully chiselled flat megalithic orthostats bearing floral and other designs belonging
probably to the early part of the late-medieval period and raised under the patronage of the Kachari kings whose
kingdom embraced this part. There apart,a number of stone sculptures of the medieval period,all badly
weathered,are to be seen lying scattered in this region. J udging by the existing ruins,it can be said that during
that period the area was fairly inhabited.
Numaligarh region :About 13 km east of Bokakhat,the Numaligarh region,which finds frequent
mention in the history of 15th/16thcentury,and which constituted a part of the Kachari kingdom prior to its
occupation by the Ahoms,contains a long brick-reinforced rampart of the medieval period,running along the
National High-way No.37,and partly damaged by it as also by encroachers, besides a number of earthen ramparts
running upto the foothills of Karbi-Anglong Hills. At a distance of 3 km from Numaligarh,there exists on a
hillock the ruins of 12
th
century temple, known as Deoparvat ruins,as also evidences of brick and stone ruins in
the vicinity. Near it,inside the Numaligarh T.E.,there exists the foundation of a huge temple,as also the quarry-
sites for the stones used for the purpose of building this stone temple,
Charaideo,Sibsagar district,is a place where Sukapha,the first ruling monarch of the Ahom dynasty set
up his capital which continued as such down to the reign of Jyaokhamti. Charaideo was divided into three
areas,viz.,the burial area,the place of worship respectively. The burial area contains innumerable tumuli
(Moidams)where the king and the members of the royal household were buried. The place of worship contains
the Deosal with eight columns and the Langkuri Dol,theirantiquity going back to the pre-Ahom period,as these
were already in existence when Sukapha appropriated them from the Barahis then ruling in the region.
Besides,Charaideo contains a number of tanks,such as Sa-dhowa pukhuri,Tenga pukhuri,Petudhowa
pukhuri,Lengibar pukhuri,Bargohain pukhuri,etc.
Chargua the second capital of the Ahoms was set up by Sudanpha which at present contains two large
Moidams as well as traces of household compounds. Be-sides,there are three more Moidams,all of which have
been levelled to flat terraces. It remained as the capital of the Ahom kingdom down to the reign of Supimpha.
HISTORY 201
10 km east of Sivasagar town exists Bakata where the capital of Suhungmung once existed. Six
Moidams in north-south axis in a paddy field are to be seen here,measuring on an average 30 to 40 m dia x 4 to 7
m high. An embankment along the Dihing river flowing nearby exists here.
Maduri,about 4 km south of Bogidol area on the J aisagar-Nazira Road,has altogether 10 Moidams. The
biggest one of them,app. 60 m dia x 12 m high,is known as Laithepena's Moidam. The two other Moidams
measure 47 m.dia x 12 m high and 42 m dia x 7 m high respectively.
Garhgaon exists at a distance of 10 km east of Sivasagar town. First established by Suklenmung alias
Garhgayan Raja in A.D. 1540,the capital area is en-closed by three concentric ramparts,viz.,Bajgarh,Bhitargarh
and Pakhigarh. The first two were constructed by Pratapsimha and Suklenmung respectively ,and the Pakhigarh
together with the three principal masonry gateways at Bajgarh by Pratapsimha,the latter three known as
Barduar,Paniduar and Chunparaduar,none of which exist at present. The masonry-built seven storeyed royal
palace was built there during the reign of Rajesvarsimha in A.D.1752,of which the lower three storeys are said to
be underground. The area contained,besides the palace,two more structures,viz,the Golaghar (magazine
house)and a store-house (now in total ruins).and two tanks,besides several residential compounds (Dhaps).
Nearby are the fortified township of Bakata capital of king Suhungmung,as mentioned above,and
Darikanagar,founded by Sudaipha in the latter half of the 17
th
century.
Around this extensive area are to be seen a number of defensive ramparts built at different times,and a
number of roads which are still in use today.
Rangpur,situated 5km south of Sivasagar town,was originally founded by king Rudrasimha in A.D.1699.
The greater Rangpur area,for our purposes,comprises Sivasagar town,J aysagar ,Gaurisagar and other peripheral
regions. Within this extensive area a number of old temples,tanks,ramparts,stone bridges,etc.,are to be seen,all
belonging to the later part of the late-medieval period. Especially noteworthy is the royal palace,known as the
Talatal-ghar,which was started by Rudrasimha and completed by Rajeswarsimha. Although the palace is reputed
to be seven storeyed, only three storeys are at present to be seen overground,consisting of altogether thirty-six
chambers,inclusive of a small chapel. The palace is enclosed by three ramparts,viz.,Bajgarh (outer rampart),3.20
km in circumference and encompassed by a moat,Bhitargarh (inner rampart)1.;30 km in circumference,and the
innermost rampart known as the Tolagarh. Inside the fortified areas are two tanks,a magazine house and the
foundation ruins of other structures.
West of the palace,just across the road,is the two-storeyed pavilion known as Rang-ghar,built by
Prattasimha (A.D.1704)and meant for enjoying sports by
the royalty. In front of it was a smaller pavilion built by Rajeswarsimha which no longer exists.
A little south of the palace are the Ranganath temple,Haragauri temple,Gaurivallabh temple and the
Fakua Dol,the last one reputedly the burial place of J aymati Kunwari,mother of Rudrasimha. These were built
by Rudrasimha and the subsequent rulers.
About a km from the palace complex is the J aysagar tank,excavated by Rudrasimha in memory of his
mother. On its banks stand the Visnudol, the Sivadol,and a little to the north-west,the Ghanshyamarghar,all built
during Rudrasimha's reign.
About 3km south of J aysagar,there exists a tank,known as the Kalugayan pukhuri, with two brick-built
temples,viz,Jayaddatridol,Vishnudol, of thetime of Sivasimha.
On the west of J aysagar,there exist a tank and a temple,known respectively as Rudrasgar or Na-
pukhuridol,all belonging to the reign of Lakshmisimha. North of this,across the road,is the Puranipukhuri or
Athaisagar excavated during the reign of J ayadhvajsimha. About 10 km west of Rudrasagar there exists the tank
known as Gauridagar,together with three temples,belonging to the reign of Sivasimha.
North of Rangpur,at the heart of the Sivasagar town,is the Sivasagar tank,together with its three
temples,viz.,Sivadol, Visnudol and Devidol, belonging to the reign of Sivasimha.
Besides these,there are a number of old tanks around Rangpur,notamle among them being the Bogi-
Rajmao pukhuri,the Mechagharar pukhuri and the Rajmao pukhuri,belonging respectively to the reigns of
Lakshmisimha,Pratapsimha and Sivasimha. Each of these tanks once had a temple on its banks,which no longer
exists. These apart,the entire region has a network of old roads criss-crossing and radiating from which are still
in use.
Dabaka region :Situated about 34km. Southeast of the Nagaon town,Dabaka or ancient Dabaka,once constituted
an independent kingdom which finds mention in the Allahabad pillar inscription of Samudragupta,thus bearing
indubitable testimony to a kingdom flourishing in the 4
th
century A.D.,and probably from an earlier
period,although the present surface archaeological take one only as far back as the 6thcentury. J udging by the
existing ruins in an around Dabaka, it can perhaps be safely said that the Dabaka kingdom once comprised the
south-west region of the present Nagaon district including the greater Jogijan,Amtala and Lanka regions,and also
a part of the eastern section of the Karbi-Anglong district,i.e.,Hamren subdivision,to find mention in
Samudragupta's inscription. Be that as it may,the archaeo-
HISTORY 203
logical ruins existing here belonging to period ranging from 6thto the 12
th
century A.D.and later. Most of these
ruins are to be found along the Kapili and the J amuna valleys.
At Dabaka itself,at a distance of one km south of the Dabaka bazar,in a village known as Mikirati,there
exist two rows of small stone temples,all symmetrically placed. which were constructed sometime around 10
th
century A.D. In the same area,further south,is the garbha-griha (sanctum-sanctorum)of a brick temple over-
grown with a pipal tree. Besides,archaeological components and figure sculptures datable to c. 7
th
century have
also been found,and further exploration/excavation of the area is likely to yield archaeological evidences of
earlier period.
About 19 km southeast of Dabaka,there exist,at Devasthan, stone temple ruins,symmetrically placed in
the manner of the Dabaka ruins,containing structural ruins of altogether eight stone temples,datable to 8
th
century. About two km. North-west of Dabaka are the Gachtal ruins,containing evidences of three structures,a
stone well built in two phases,and two huge tanks which have now completely dried up. The ruins belong to the
medieval period.
Kampur region:Kampur is located 23 km south of Nagaon town. Close to the township,at a village named
Kawoimari,ruins of more than two stone temples belonging to c. 12
th
century are to be seen. A good number of
scattered architectural ruins are also to be found within a radius of about 6 km. all belonging to the period
ranging from 10
th
to 12
th
century.
Jogijan region:The greater J ogijan region is situated about 6 km northwest of Hojai.Jogijan proper contains the
ruins of a temple complex,locally known as Rajbari .Evidences show altogether six stone structures,built during
the late 11th/12
th
century. The entire area was enclosed by a brick rampart,traces of which are still to be seen.
About 1/2 km west of this spot are to be found ruins of three fairly large temples,locally known as
Sankhadevi,which are contemporaneous with the Rajbari ruins. About a kilometre southwest from J ogijan across
the J ogi river ,at a place called Na-Nath,there are altogether 8 brick temples arranged in a manner similar to
those of Mikirati and Vasudev Than,and belonging to the mid 7th/early 8
th
century.
Amtala: About 9km. South of Hojai,a large tank and some smaller ones,all silted up,together with elevated areas
bearing potsherds,broken bricks,ruins of stone temples and scattered architectural pieces,spread over an area of
about 6 acres,are to be seen in a village called Amtala. The ruins belong to the medieval period ranging in date
from 10
th
to 12
th
century.
On either side of the road leading from Hojai to Lanka,there exist a good number of large
tanks,excavated sometime in the beginning of the late-medieval period. Although no other archaeological
remains have hitherto been found in this region,the very existence of these tanks,as also the recovery of a large
quantity of
cowries from this region,are indicative of flourishing human habitation during that period.
Jangal Balahu garh :The J ongal Balahu Garh is located about 5 km west of Raha,Nagaon. It is fortified area of
about 800 m X 200 m,with three concentric earthen ramparts interspersed with ditches,of which only the
southern side exists at present. This is traditionally assigned to one Jongal Balahu,the alleged son of Arimatta
who ruled in the later part of 14
th
century.
Hamren Sub-division,Karbi Anglong: The Parakhowa -Urdhavaganga area in the Hamren subdivision of Karbi
Anglong district contains a network of earthen ramparts. In this region,there are to be seen several tanks as also
brick and stone ruins,some of which exist on the shallow bed of the Urdhavaganga rivulet.
Several km. Around Dokmoka,Hamren,a number of temple ruins of brick and stone are to be found at
places,such as Burhagosain Than,Charlock-pathar, Mahamaya-pahar, Badganga,etc.,ranging in the date from 6
th
to the late medieval period. A rock cave at Mahamaya Pahar is assignable to the 6
th
century and other ruins of
this hill are assignable to the 12
th
century and later. The rock inscription existing at Badganga belongs to
Bhutivarman of the Varman dynasty,and is assignable to the mid 6
th
century.
The Tilapara-Bagadol area at Langhin, Hamren, contains a medieval rock-out Durga image,a similar
Ganesha image and brick ruins. Similarly,the Phulani region,approximately 8 sq. km. In area,contains a number
of tanks,both large and small ruins of stone temples, brick ruins and earthen fortifications covering a fairly large
area. The evidence of an old road connecting Dokmoka and Bakalia is also to be seen here. The Langlokso
region,a fertile valley of about 12 sq. km. In the upper reaches of Karbi-Anglong has the ruins of stone temple at
Sikrai-Rongpi Gaon. The region must have been well-populated in the olden days,judging by the fertility of the
valley,although no other archaeological ruins have hitherto been found to reinforce this view. Donkamokham and
its surrounding areas contain a fairly good number of megalithic uprights in clusters,most of which are of early
date,judging by their state of existence.
It is to be borne in mind that although the southern parts of the Nagaon district and the Hamren
subdivision have been divided into a number of habitational areas for the convenience of description,no such
watertight compartmentalization is possible in practice,since these areas are contiguous and so are the
archaeological remains existing there,with only minor gaps here and there due to ravages caused by the
frequently changing course of the rivers,especially the Kapili, as also due to the existence of hills and cultivated
lands. Large-scale modern habitations are also responsible for the loss of many archaeological sites and ruins.
Even then,many stray ruins and silted up tanks are to be seen here and there gaps,some of them on lofty hill-tops
suggesting habitation below in ancient days.
HISTORY 205
Maibang in the North Cachar district was the second capital of the Kachari kingdom which was set up
in the east bank of the Mahur river sometime around A.D.1676 after the sacking of their first capital at Dimapur
by The Ahoms. It is a fortified area measuring approximately 900 m X 400 m,with a part of it washed away by
the Mahur river. The area was divided into a number of sectors by brickwalls of approximately one-metre
thickness criss-crossing it which probably contained different establishments,such as the palace complex,the
royal court,the area for the courtiers,etc. At the northeast end there is an area containing a number of low
receding terraces like that of a stadium. The township contains two small tanks,one of them brick-lined,as also a
brick well. There was also a temple built of brick and stone,as evidenced by chiselled by stone blocks engraved
with geometrical patterns and bearing dowel marks,as also a number of decorated terracotta plaques. There are
also the remains of a number of sentry towers built of bricks and boulders along the riverside. The capital was
entered from the east where there was a gateway through which a path ran east-west. At the western end was the
main entrance known as the Simhadvara,constructed by king Meghanarayana in A.D.1576,as evidenced by two
inscriptions bearing more or less the same legend,and a tall brick mound. Standing across the river is the
monolithic Chandi Mandir carved in A.D.1761.
Contemporary chronicles (Buranjis) also mention the existence of a number of fortified areas, some of
them brick-built, which the conquering Ahoms captured during their conflicts with the Kacharis. No
archaeological evidence of such fortresses, however, have hitherto been found.
Khaspur is situated at a distance of about 12 km. North of Silchar town, Cachar. Formerly also known as
Brahmaputra, it was the last capital of the Kacharis and was set up during the eighties of the 18
th
century when
their former capital at Maibang was sacked by the Ahoms, as a result of which they had to abandon it. The
capital area contains altogether six brick structures,which are 1) Snana Mandir, with a lotuspetalled dome
overhead and four opening on four sides,2) Bengal hut-type structure with a gabled roof, known as Ranachandi
Mandir, 3) a double storeyed structure known as Baraduari,4)another Bengal hut-type structure known as Siva
Mandir,5)the Simhadvara with a Bengal hut-type roof and 6)yet another structure with roof similar to no.2
above, known as Lakshmi Mandir. Siva Mandir and Baraduari are enclosed within a brick wall.
CHAPTER-III
PEOPLE
(a) Population
(1)Total Population (male and female) : The State of Assam accounts for 2,24,14,322 persons as per
the census of 1991,out of which 1,16,5,9!9 are ma"es an# 1,$,56,333 fema"es% Out of 2,24,14,322 persons
1,99,26,52 persons "i&e in the rura" areas whi"e 24,!,95 persons in the ur'an areas% The tota" popu"ation of
Assam constitute 2%53 per cent of that of (n#ia in 1991% The fo""owin) statement )i&es #istrict wise ma#e an#
fema"e popu"ation of the State as per the census of 1991%
State*+istrict Tota" Popu"ation ,a"e fema"e -an.
Assam 2,24,14,322 1,16,5,9!9 1,$,56,333
1%+hu'ri 13,32,45 6,!3,29! 6,49, 5
2%/o.ra0har !,$$659 4,12,6$$ 3,!!,$59 16
3%1on)ai)aon !,$,523 4,16,216 3,91,3$ 15
4%2oa"para 6,6!,13! 3,43,154 3,24,9!4 1!
5%1arpeta 13,!5,659 ,14,6 6,$,9!2 4
6%3a"'ari 1$,16,39$ 5,24,953 4,91,43 9
%/amrup 2$,$$,$1 1$,64,649 9,35,422 1
!%+arran) 12,9!,!6$ 6,$,244 6,2!,616 6
9%Sonitpur 14,24,2! ,44,! 6,9,5$9 3
1$%La.himpur ,51,51 3,!9,125 3,62,392 1
11%+hema0i 4,!,3!$ 2,!,!3$ 2,4!,45 21
12%,ori)aon 6,39,9!2 3,29,613 3,1$,$69 2$
13%3a)aon 1!,93,11 9,!1,39 9,11,92 2
14%2o"a)hat !,2!,$94 4,31,346 3,96,5$ 12
15%4othat !,1,2$6 4,55,525 4,15,6!1 11
16%Si'sa)ar !,$,9!3 4,6,$$9 4,31,94 14
1%+i'ru)arh 1$,42,45 5,4,266 4,95,191 !
1!%Tinsu.ia 9,62,29! 5,$!,94! 4,53,35$ 1$
19%/ar'i An)"on) 6,62,23 3,4,6$ 3,15,116 19
2$%3orth 5achar 6i""s 1,5$,!$1 !1,196 69,6$5 2$
21%/arim)an0 !,2,$63 4,25,$1! 4,$2,$45 13
22%6ai"a.an#i 4,49,$4! 2,32,35 2,16,313 22
23%5achar 12,15,3!5 6,29,196 5,!6,1!9
PEOPLE 2$
The fo""owin) ta'"e is appen#e# to )i&e a comparati&e i#ea of the popu"ation of the State in re"ation to
other states of the countr7%
Statement showin) the state wise popu"ation of (n#ia in 1991%
(n#ia*State Popu"ation -an.
(n#ia !4,63,$2,6!!
1%An#hra Pra#esh 6,65,$!,$$! 5
2%Arunacha" Pra#esh !,64,55! 25
3%Assam 2,24,14,322 14
4%1ihar !,63,4,465 2
5%2oa 1,1,69,93 24
6%2u0rat 4,13,$9,5!2 1$
%6ar7ana 1,64,63,64! 16
!%6imacha" Pra#esh 5,1,$,! 19
9%4ammu 8 /ashmir ,1!,$$ 1!
1$%/arnata.a 4,49,,2$1 !
11%/ere"a 2,96,9!,51! 13
12%,a#h7a Pra#esh 6,61,!1,1$ 6
13%,aharashtra ,!9,3,1! 3
14%,anipur 1!,3,149 21
15%,e)ha"a7a 1,4,! 22
16%,i9oram 6,!9,56 26
1%3a)a"an# 1,2,$9,545 23
1!%Orissa 3,16,59,36 12
19%Pun0a' 2,$2,!1,969 15
2$%Si..im 4,$6,15 11
21%-a0asthan 4,4$,$5,99$ 9
22%Tami" 3a#u 5,5!,5!,946
23%Tripura 2,5,2$5 2$
24%:ttar Pra#esh 13,91,12,2! 1
25%;est 1en)a" 6,!$,,965 4
+e"hi 94,2$,644 1
Source<+irector,5ensus Operations,Assam
2rowth of Popu"ation< +urin) the #eca#e of 1961=1,the popu"ation of Assam increase# '7 3,!,!23 persons
with percenta)e &ariation of 34%95 as a)ainst 2,!$!,43
ASSA, STATE 2A>ETTEE- 2$!
persons with percenta)e &ariation of 34%9$ in 1961 an# 1,334,$$6 persons with percenta)e &ariation of 19%93 in
1951%
As no census was con#ucte# in Assam in 19!1,the )rowth of popu"ation #urin) the #eca#e of 191=!1
has not 'een shown% +urin) two #eca#es from 191 to 1991 Assam witnesse# an increase of ,!9,1$ person
with percenta)e &ariation of 52%26 o&er the tota" popu"ation in 191%
The statement )i&en 'e"ow shows the )ra#ua" increase of popu"ation in Assam from 19$1 to 1991 in
terms of a'so"ute popu"ation,se?=wise &ariation,#eca#e &ariation an# percenta)e &ariation%
PEOPLE 2$9
State*+i&ision
*+istrict @ear Persons +eca#e Percenta)e ,a"es Aema"es
&ariation &ariation
B1C B2C B3C B4C B5C B6C BC
19$1 32,!9,6!$ D D 1,14,316 15,5,364
1911 3!,4!,61 E55!,93 16%99 2,$1$,211 1,!3!,4$6
Assam 1921 46,36,9!$ E!!,363 2$%4! 2,445,3$$ 2,191,6!$
1931 5,56$,31 E923,391 19%91 2,966,56! 2,593,!$3
1941 6,694,9$ E1,134,419 2$%4$ 3,569,62 3,125,$2!
1951 !,$2!,!56 E1,334,$66 19%93 4,29!,3 3,3$,$!3
1961 1$,!3,329 E2,!$!,43 34%9! 5,9!,36 5,$3!,953
191 14,625,152 E3,!,!23 34%95 ,14,24$ 6,91$,912
1991 22,414,322 E,!9,1$ 53%26 11,65,9!9 1$,56,333
Source<=5ensus of (n#ia,191 Part=1=A,2enera" -eport,p%61,Part=((=A,)enera" Popu"ations
Ta'"es,p%6= an# Statistica" 6an# 1oo. of Assam,+irectorate of Economics an#
Statistics,2o&t of Assam,p%15=6%
ASSA, STATE 2A>ETTEE- 21$
State*+i&ision
*+istrict @ear Persons +eca#e Percenta)e ,a"es Aema"es
&ariation &ariation
19$1 2,61!,566 < < 1,36$,4!4 1,25!,$!2
1911 3,1$,55 E4!9,1!9 E1!%6! 1,624,494 1,4!3,261
Assam P"ains 1921 3,!56,5$ 4!,52 E24%$9 2,$3!,269 1,!1!,23!
+i&ision
1931 4,23,!33 E6,326 E22%49 2,526,9$4 2,196,929
1941 5,666,24! 942,415 E19%95 3,$29,$2! 2,63,22$
1951 6,4,551 1,$!1,3$3 E19%$! 3,624,$3 3,123,514
1961 9,19,12 2,431,56 E36%$4 4,925,62 4,253,365
191 12,456,4 3,2,35$ E35%$ 6,59,453 5,!,$24
1991 19,1$9,3$2 6,652,!25 53%4$ 9,942,23 9,16,$65
Assam 6i""s
+i&ision 19$1 4$,!12 %% %% 2,355 13,45
1911 2,296 =13,516 33%12 14,239 13,$5
1921 2!,913 E1,61 E5%92 15,365 13,54!
1931 32,!44 E3,931 E13%6$ 1,3$2 15,542
1941 133,4$2 E1$$,55! E3$6%1 6!,965 64,43
1951 165,44$ E32,$3! E24%$2 !6,43$ 9,$1$
1961 29,26 E114,2!6 E69%$! 15$,12 129,599
191 455,35 E15,631 E62%9 243,661 211,696
1991 !13,524 E35!,16 E!%66 42!,!$3 3!4,21
PEOPLE 211
1ara. Fa""e7 19$1 63$,3$2 %% %% 326,4 3$3,!25
+istricts 1911 13,566 E!3,264 E13%21 31,4! 342,$!!
1921 51,56$ E3,994 E5%32 391,666 359,!94
1931 !$3,694 E52,134 E6%94 422,362 3!1,332
1941 !95,14$ E91,446 E11%3! 41,69 423,31
1951 1,115,!65 E22$,25 E24%66 5!!,3$6 52,559
1961 1,3!,46 E262,611 E23%53 22,4! 655,9!9
191 1,13,31! E334,!42 E24%29 !91,126 !22,192
1991 2,491,496 E!,1! E45%42 1,2!6,949 1,2$4,54
ASSA, STATE 2A>ETTEE- 212
(t is o'ser&e# that #urin) the fift7 7ears from 19$1 to 1951,)rowth of popu"ation in Assam p"ains &arie#
'etween 1!%6! per cent an# 24%$9 per cent which su##en"7 0umpe# up to 36%$4 per cent in 1961 with a "itt"e fa""
to 35%$ per cent in 191 an# stoo# at 53%4$ in 1991 after a "apse of two #eca#es% (n the Assam 6i""s +i&ision
which inc"u#es 'oth /ar'i An)"on) an# 3orth 5achar 6i""s,there was a #ecrease of popu"ation '7 33%12 per cent
which )ra#ua""7 shot up to 3$6%1 per cent in 1941 'e)innin) with 5%92 per cent increase in 1921% (n
191,)rowth of popu"ation in these two hi""s #istricts was the hi)hest in (n#ia 'ein) 62%9 per cent a)ainst the a""
(n#ia a&era)e 24%!$ per cent% The cause of this increase in popu"ation is un#ou'te#"7 immi)ration main"7 from
East 1en)a" Bnow 1an)"a#eshC% The 6i""s #i&ision shows !%66 per cent )rowth of popu"ation #urin) the perio#
from 191 to 1991,the tren# is #iscusse# #istrict wise an# 'rief"7 re&iewe# #eca#e '7 #eca#e 'e"ow%
(t is note# here that the fo""owin) #escription on popu"ation tren# from 19$1 to 191 an# from 191 to
1991 pertains to ei)ht an# twent7 three #istricts respecti&e"7,'ecause fifteen new #istricts ha&e 'een car&e# out
of the erstwhi"e ei)ht #istricts of the State #urin) the perio# from 191 to 1991%
Popu"ation tren#< (n Assam proper,19$1=1911 perio# saw on o&era"" increase of 16%99 per cent a)ainst
a"" (n#ia a&era)e of 5%6 per cent% This increase was the "owest #urin) the "ast fi&e #eca#es main"7 #ue to the fact
that Assam #urin) this #eca#e was sti"" reco&erin) from wi#e=sprea# Kala-azar ha&oc occurin) in the centra"
#istricts of Assam #urin) the prece#in) #eca#e% A'out one fourth of the tota" popu"ation in the 3a)aon #istrict
was estimate# to 'e wipe# out '7 that Kala-azar epi#emic%
1esi#es,the 1!9 earthGua.e cause# man7 #eaths in the State% 1oth these factors inf"icte# hea&7
morta"it7 at the e?tremities of "ife whi"e peop"e in the prime of "ife increase#% As a resu"t,this perio# B19$1=
11Cha# more than norma" increase in the popu"ation% The proportion of the o"# an# the 7oun) peop"e "ia'"e to
hi)h morta"it7 #iminishe# consi#era'"7 '7 19$1 an# the #eca#e 'e)an with more than norma" proportion of
persons in the repro#ucti&e perio# of "ife% Accor#in)"7,the morta"it7 was "ower than the a&era)e an# the 'irth rate
was hi)her%
1esi#es,reco&er7 of tea in#ustr7 from its #eteriorate# sta)e to one of &er7 su'stantia" prosperit7 #urin)
the "ater ha"f of the #eca#e resu"te# in immi)ration of )reater num'er of tea="a'ourers% On the other
han#,&o"untar7 streams of sett"ers from 1en)a" who first sett"e# in the outs.irts of the 1rahmaputra &a""e7 'ut
)ra#ua""7 sprea# as far as Te9pur an# 3a)aon commence# #urin) this #eca#e%
1
The )rowth of popu"ation #urin) the #eca#e 19$1=11 in the 1rahmaputra &a""e7,i%e%,Assam P"ains
+i&ision an# in the 1ara. &a""e7 comprisin) 5achar Bun#i&i#e#C#istrict were 1!%6! an# 13%21 per cent
respecti&e"7% The "ar)est increase

1% Census of India,Fo"=H((,Assam,,anipur, an# Tripura,Part (=A=-eport,p%31%
PEOPLE 213
was seen in 2oa"para Bun#i&i#e#C #istrict where the )rowth rate attaine# 29,9 per cent a)ainst 'e"ow 16 per cent
in other #istrict e?ceptin) La.himpur Bun#i&i#e#C#istrict where it was 26%29 per cent% E%6% Pa.7ntein%
Superinten#ent of 5ensus Operations for Assam, 1961,note# that IIfrom 19$1 onwar#s,the men of ,7mensin)
'e)an to a#&ance# to Assam,#ri&en apparent"7 '7 pressure on the soi" at home% The7 were 0oine# '7 a peop"e of
other east 1en)a" Bnow 1an)"a#eshC#istricts in "ess num'ers%%%%%%%%%%% The popu"ation of 2oa"para which increase#
on"7 '7 1%4J in 1!!1=91 an# 2J in 1!91=19$1 shot up '7 3$J in 19$1=11II% (n the case of La.himpur, the hi)h
percenta)e increase in main"7 #ue to "ar)e=sca"e importation of tea )ar#en "a'ourers% The 3orth 5achar 6i""s
#istrict showe# a ne)ati&e of popu"ation,i%e%,=33%12 per cent #urin) 19$1=11%
2
3atura" increase of popu"ation
co&erin) the ear"ier immi)rants in the State #urin) the #eca#e 19$1=11 was 15%2 per cent%
+urin) the #eca#e 1911=21,natura" )rowth of popu"ation was chec.e# '7 uni&ersa" inf"uen9a epi#emic of
191!=19,which ha# carrie# off o&er 2 "a.h of persons from the State% There was har#"7 an7 impro&ement in the
stan#ar# of "i&in) an# the economic con#ition of peop"e was a"so not )oo#%
The increase of popu"ation in the State in this #eca#e was cause# '7 three main factors name"7,B1Cnatura"
)rowth of the e?istin) popu"ation,B2C "ar)e e?pansion of tea in#ustr7 which importe# %69 "a.h of tea )ar#en
"a'ourers in to the State an# B3C the immi)ration from East 1en)a" Bnow 1an)"a#eshC an# 3epa"% +urin) this
#eca#e,the state inc"u#in) 3a)a"an#, ,anipur, ,e)ha"a7a, ,i9oram an# S7"het ha# )ot popu"ation increase of
a'out !%3 "a.h,of which near"7 fift7 per cent increase# was #ue to immi)ration% The increase was hi)her in the
#istricts of the 1rahmaputra &a""e7 whi"e the 191!=19 inf"uen9a cause# more #ama)es in the hi""s areas%
3
The un#i&i#e# 2oa"para #istrict has a "ar)est popu"ation increase of 1,61,!3! persons amon) a"" the
#istricts of States an# its mean #ensit7 ha# )one up from 152 to 193 per sG%mi"e B1 sG%mi"e K2%59 sG%.m%C#urin)
the #eca#e 1911=21% Two fifths of the increase in this #istrict was #ue to natura" )rowth an# three fifths #ue to
immi)ration% The immi)rants were most"7 the East 1en)a" mus"im cu"ti&ators who occupie# the chars an# waste
"an# a"on) the 'an.s of the ri&ers,an# the ,eches an# Santa"s from 4a"pai)uri which raise# the #ensit7 of
popu"ation to 56,39$ an# 392 per sG,mi"e in ,an.achar, +hu'ri an# 2o"a.)an0 thanas respecti&e"7%
+urin) the #eca#e 1911=21,the sma""=po?,cho"era in 191,kala-azar simu"ate# '7 inf"uen9a,as we"" as a
comparati&e"7 hi)h #eath rate from the inf"uen9a epi#emic in 191!=19 in /amrup #istrict cause# "ess increase in
the natura" popu"ation than that in 2oa"para #istrict% The percenta)e increase of natura"

2% Census of India,191,Assam,Part (=A,2enera" -eport part =(( an# part ((=A,2enera" Popu"ation ta'"es,p 6=%
3% Census of India,1951,Fo"=H((,Assam,,anipur an# Tripura,Part (=A=-eport,p%31%
popu"ation in /amrup #istrict was on"7 5% an# in 2oa"para #istrict it was 13%
The tota" increase in /amrup #istrict was 94,!!5 or 14%2 per cent% The #ensit7 was sti"" the )reatest in the
centre an# towar#s the south=east of the #istrict% +ensit7 of popu"ation in :par 1ar'ha) mau9a of 3a"'ari thana
which was 962 per sGuare mi"e was the hi)hest in the State in 1921% Of the tota" increase of popu"ation in the
#istrict,two=fifths was #ue to natura" )rowth an# three=fifths #ue to immi)ration%
+arran) #istrict suffere# from cho"era in 1912,1916 an# 1919 an# a"so from inf"uen9a epi#emic in 191!=
19% The recor# 'irth rate in +arran) in 191! an# 1919 were the hi)hest amon)st the pro&incia" a&era)es 'ut the
#eath rates were a"so the hi)hest in the State for 'oth the 7ears% The hi)hest #eath rates mi)ht 'e attri'ute# to
e?tra hea&7 morta"it7 amon) new immi)rants% The natura" increase in the #istrict was 1$%1 per cent% The #istrict
ha# shown popu"ation increase of 1,$1,4!4 in 1911=21 o&er the prece#in) #eca#e% ,ore than fi&e=se&enths of the
increase was #ue to immi)ration% The #ensit7 of popu"ation in Te9pur an# ,an)a"#ai increase# to 15 an# 14$
per sGuare mi"e a)ainst 1$1 an# 124 respecti&e"7 of prece#in) census%
3a)aon #istrict which o&er=came the 1!9 earthGua.e ca"amities an# was )ra#ua""7 reco&erin) from
1!91=19$1 kala-azar epi#emic,showe# a natura" )rowth of 9%6 per cent #urin) the #eca#e 191121 a)ainst 14%3
per cent of the pre&ious #eca#e% The fa"" was #ue to the epi#emics of cho"era an# inf"uen9a,a recurrence of kala-
azar an# #isastrous /api"i f"oo# of 191=1!% (mmi)ration ha# 'een on a "ar)e sca"e an# it cause# the
proportionate increase on actua" popu"ation to 'e 31%9 per cent,the hi)hest in the State% As in +arran),in 3a)aon
a"so the fi&e=se&enths of the tota" increase of 69,266 was #ue to immi)ration% +urin) this #eca#e,the f"ow of East
1en)a" Bnow=1an)"a#eshCimmi)rants ha# 'een much )reater in 3a)aon than in an7 other #istrict 'arrin)
2oa"para in the State% The #ensit7 of popu"ation continue# to 'e the )reatest in the /o"on) Fa""e7% As for
e?amp"e,#ensit7 in 3a)aon thana was 316 an# -aha thana ha# 21! per sGuare mi"e in 1921%
The natura" )rowth of the Si'sa)ar #istrict was 1%3 per cent an# the who"e popu"ation showe# an
increase of 19%1 per cent in 1992 o&er the 1911 tota"% The #istrict 'rou)ht "ar)e num'er of "a'ourers in the
mi##"e 7ears of the #eca#e for the tea )ar#ens% The increase of popu"ation was,howe&er,chec.e# s"i)ht"7 '7 the
out='rea. of cho"era in 1914,the f"oo#s of 1912 an# 1916,an# the inf"uen9a epi#emic of 191!=19% The tota"
increase of popu"ation #urin) 1911=21 was 1,31,95 an# s"i)ht"7 "ess than one thir# of this increase was #ue to
immi)ration of tea )ar#en "a'ourers to the #istrict% The mean #ensit7 of popu"ation was #ue to immi)ration of
tea )ar#en "a'ourers to the #istrict% The mean #ensit7 of popu"ation
PEOPLE 215
was 62 persons per sGuare mi"e in 1921% Amon) the three ci&i" su'=#i&isions,4orhat ha# the )reatest
#ensit7,1!5,fo""owe# '7 Si'sa)ar with 1!1,whi"e 2o"a)hat with a "ar)e area of present /ar'i An)"on) #istrict
ha# on"7 5 persons to the sGuare mi"e%
The popu"ation of La.himpur #istrict increase# fi&e times of the popu"ation that stoo# in 1!2 an# the
)rowth of popu"ation was 39%5 per cent #urin) the #eca#e 1911=21% The natura" )rowth which a"so inc"u#e# the
#escen#ants of immi)rants as we"" as the chi"#ren 'orn in tea )ar#ens an# who too. Assamese "an)ua)e as their
mother ton)ue accounte# for 2$%3 per cent% The #ensit7 of +i'ru)arh su'=#i&ision was 1!$ whi"e that of
La.himpur was 1$5 per sGuare mi"e% The #istrict was not o&er popu"ate#,7et some mau9as e?cee#e# 6$$ persons
per sGuare mi"e% The actua" increase in the #istrict ha# 'een 1,36,!91 of which 1,$$ was #ue to new areas an# a
"itt"e "ess than ha"f #ue to natura" )rowth% On the east of +i'ru)arh "ie# the La.himpur Arontier Tract% This was
e?ten#e# in 1914 '7 !3 sGuare mi"es containin) 13 3a)a &i""a)es an# another e?tension of 2$6 sG%mi"es with
some A'or &i""a)es in the 3orth% The #istrict on the other han# "ost some popu"ation #ue to separation of Sa#7a
frontier Tract in the same 7ear% The #istrict suffere# freGuent"7 from cho"era epi#emic 'etween 1914 an# 1919%
(ts #eath rates were much hi)her,an# 'irth rates "ower,than the pro&incia" a&era)es in the 7ears 191! an# 1919% (t
was thus surprisin) that the rate of natura" increase of popu"ation was the hi)hest in the StateLthe Para#o? was
pro'a'"7 #ue to serious inaccurac7 of the &ita" statistics an# a &er7 "ar)e num'er of #eaths amon) the new
immi)rants%
5achar #istrict suffere# from f"oo#s in 1913,1915 an# 1916,epi#emics of sma""=po? an# cho"era in
se&era" 7ears of the #eca#e 1911=21,as we"" as from inf"uen9a in 191!=19,'ut the effects on the &ita"it7 of the
peop"e #i# not appear to ha&e 'een so serious% The natura" )rowth of popu"ation was 13%4 per cent #urin) the
#eca#e which was as hi)h as in most of the Assam &a""e7 #istricts% A"" thanas ha# )rown in popu"ation,/at"ichera
an# Sonai ha# the )reatest increases% The #ensit7 of the #istrict increase# '7 16 to 269 persons per sGuare mi"e%
The west of the #istrict was most thic."7 popu"ate#% 6ai"a.an#i su'=#i&ision ha# 491 persons per sGuare mi"e
a)ainst the 216 of Si"char%
;hi"e a"" the #istricts of the State showe# a fair increase in popu"ation #urin) the #eca#e 1911=21,the
3orth 5achar 6i""s #istrict ha# a sma"" 2 per cent #ecrease in the popu"ation,#ue part"7 to epi#emics an# part"7 to
mi)ration of /u.is,/ar'is to other #istricts after e?haustion of the 'est 0hum "an#s a&ai"a'"e% The #ensit7 of the
#istrict was 16 persons per sGuare mi"e at the 1921 census%
4
+urin) the #eca#e 1921=31,Assam witnesse# a s"i)ht"7 "ower percenta)e of )rowth of
popu"ation,i%e%,19%91 than that of 2$%4! in the prece#in) #eca#e,
5

4% Census of India,1921,Fo"=(((,Assam,Part=(=-eport,p%1$=1!%
5% Census of India, 191,Assam,Part (=A,2enera" -eport,P%61%
an# the natura" popu"ation )rew at twice the rate it #i# in 1911=21 #ue to the non=occurrence of &io"ent epi#emic
an# pre&a"ence of )oo# pu'"ic hea"th con#ition% The popu"ation )rowth was main"7 #ue to natura" increase,not
immi)ration which forme# on"7 1$ per cent of the tota"% The immi)ration from East 1en)a" Bnow
1an)"a#eshCan# 3epa" continue#% The tea in#ustr7 "ost a &er7 "ar)e num'er of tea "a'ourers as a resu"t of the
economic an# po"itica" trou'"es at the 'e)innin) of the #eca#e an# 4%22 "a.h of "a'ourers were importe# into the
State #urin) 1921=31 a)ainst %69 "a.h #urin) 1911=21,man7 of whom were short term "a'ourers who returne# to
their homes on the e?pir7 of there a)reements were not enou)h to fi"" the )ap cause# '7 that #esertion an#
#ischar)e%
6
+urin) the #eca#e 1921=31,the popu"ation of Assam &a""e7 which consiste# of
2oa"para,/amrup,3a)aon,+arran),Si'sa)ar an# La.himpur #istricts ha# increase# '7 22%4 per cent which was
one per cent "ess than that of the pre&ious #eca#e% There was no &io"ent epi#emic an# the pu'"ic hea"th was
#eci#e#"7 )oo#,hence e&er7 #istrict showe# a su'stantia" increase% The "owest increase was 13%4 per cent in
Si'sa)ar #istrict whi"e 3a)aon #istrict toppe# the "ist with the hi)hest 41%3 per cent increase% Such increase in
2oa"para was 15%! per cent,in /amrup 2%9 per cent increase,+arran) 22%6 per cent an# La.himpur 23%5 per
cent% The "ar)e sca"e increase in /amprup an# 3a)aon #istricts were #ue main"7 to the "ar)e num'er of East
1en)a"Bnow 1an)"a#eshCimmi)rants who sett"e# there an# e?pan#e# their co"onies to some parts of +arran)
#istrict% +urin) the #eca#e,/amrup an# 3a)aon #istricts she"tere# 61,$$$ an# 56,$$$ new persons 'orn in
,7mensin) #istrict of present 1an)"a#esh respecti&e"7% On the other han#,hi)h sca"e increase in La.himpur was
#ue to import of tea )ar#en "a'ourers in "ar)e=sca"e% +urin) the #eca#e,a'out 3,64,$$$ men,women an# chi"#ren
were enumerate# as importe# tea=)ar#en "a'ourers in the Assam &a""e7 #istrict% 6a"f of the a'o&e num'er was
importe# in the pre&ious #eca#e% The fi)ure,howe&er,inc"u#e# the one "a.h tea=)ar#en "a'ourers importe# 'efore
1921 an# a"so the short term "a'ourers recruite# #urin) 1921=31 'ut "eft Assam #urin) the #eca#e%
The popu"ation increase of 2oa"para #istrict #urin) 1921=31 was 15%! per cent at a)ainst the increase of
26%9 per cent #urin) the pre&ious #eca#e% This mo#erate increase was #ue to the fact that most of the suita'"e
waste "an# in the #istrict ha# a"rea#7 'een occupie# '7 the East 1en)a"Bnow 1an)"a#eshCimmi)rants who poure#
into the #istrict 'etween 19$1=1921 an# that the main stream of immi)rants ha# foun# a "ar)er scope for their
acti&ities in /amrup an# 3a)aon #istrict ha# an increase of 213,15 in its popu"ation #urin) his perio#%
2uwahati su'=#i&ision showe# a mo#erate increase of 14%6 per cent whi"e 1arpeta su'=#i&ision secure# 69 per
cent,as the East 1en)a"Bnow 1an)"a#eshCimmi)rants most"7 sett"e# there #urin) 1921=31%

6% Census of India, 1951,Fo"=H((,Assam,,anipur an# Tripura,Part (=A,-eport%p 31%
PEOPLE 21
(n +arran) #istrict,Te9pur su'=#i&ision showe# an increase of 2$% per cent in its popu"ation in 1931
a)ainst 3!%5 per cent in 1921 an# in ,an)a"#ai su'=#i&ision,the increase was 25%3 per cent in 1931 a)ainst 11%6
per cent in 1921% 3epa"is were fair"7 numerous in this #istrict an# the num'er of persons 'orn in 3epa" increase#
'7 5$$$ since 1921 an# stoo# at 25,$$$ in 1931%
3a)aon #istrict re)istere# the "ar)est increase of 41%3 per cent in the State #urin) 1921=31% This
enormous increase was #ue a"most entire"7 to the inf"u? of new sett"ers from ,7mensin)h% There ha# a"so 'een
a certain amount of immi)ration from S7"het an# 5achar% The num'er of persons censuse# in the tea )ar#ens of
the #istrict was 23,436 in 1931 a)ainst 21,919 in 1921%
The on"7 #istrict ha&in) no immi)ration peop"e as per 1931 census was Si'sa)ar% The #istrict,which was
one of the most important tea #istricts in Assam,ha# actua""7 "ost a consi#era'"e num'er of forei)n='orn persons
in spite of the fact that the tea=)ar#en persons increase# from 22!,5$ in 1921 to 234,24 in 1931% Amon) the
three su'=#i&isions the hi)hest rate of )enera" popu"ation increase was recor#e# '7 2o"a)hat su' #i&ision with
1!%4 per cent% Si'sa)ar su'=#i&ision showe# an increase of 14%4 per cent an# 4orhat su'=#i&ision !%5 per cent%
The #ensit7 of popu"ation of 4orhat su'=#i&ision was 299 per sGuare mi"e,Si'sa)ar su'=#i&ision,32 per sGuare
mi"e,whi"e 2o"a)hat su'=#i&ision ha# a &er7 "ow #ensit7 of 91 persons per sGuare mi"e% This "ow rate was #ue to
the fact that a'out ha"f of the tota" area of the su'=#i&ision consiste# of the thin"7 popu"ate# ,i.ir=6i""s Bnow
/ar'i An)"on)Cwhich was then a part of Si'sa)ar #istrict% (n La.himpur,the "ar)est tea #istrict of
Assam,popu"ation of +i'ru)arh su'=#i&ision increase# '7 23%1J an# 3orth La.himpur su'=#i&ision '7 25J
#urin) 1921=31% These two su'=#i&ision were &er7 #issimi"ar in character% +i'ru)arh su'#i=&ision e?cept
+hema0i Po"ice station on the north 'an. of the 1rahmaputra was main"7 a &ast tea=)ar#en% This su'=#i&ision
was rich with oi" we""s an# coa"s% So the ma0orit7 of its popu"ation were importe# "a'ourers an# non (n#ian
p"anters% The increase in popu"ation ha# occurre# main"7 in the southern an# eastern portions% +i'ru)arh an#
+oom +ooma thanas ha&in) a "ar)e num'er of tea )ar#ens )a&e a &er7 mo#erate increase of 4% an# 9%9 per cent
respecti&e"7% +i)'oi an# ,ar)herita thanas showe# an increase of 6$%! per cent as these areas ha# 'een )reat"7
#e&e"opin) #urin) the #eca#e in the oi" an# coa" in#ustries% ,oran an# 4aipur thanas ha# increase of 41%1 an#
3$%! per cent respecti&e"7% Tinsu.ia was )reat"7 #e&e"ope# commercia""7 an# the Tinsu.ia thanaIs popu"ation
increase# '7 39%1 per cent% The #ensit7 of the who"e +i'ri)arh su'=#i&ision was 199 persons per sGuare mi"e%
3orth La.himpur su'=#i&ision ha# few tea=)ar#ens an# was the most in#ustria""7 'ac.war# p"ains su'=#i&ision
in the who"e of Assam% The popu"ation in the su'=#i&ision ha# )reat"7 increase# at this census #ue to "ar)e
ASSA, STATE 2A>ETTEE- 21!
sca"e entrance of Assamese immi)rants from other #istricts of the State% The rate of increase was 19 per cent in
+ha.uwa.hana an# 3orth La.himpur po"ice stations, an# 44 per cent in 1ihpuria po"ice station% 3orth
La.himpur su'=#i&ision was the natura" out"et for the )rowin) Assamese popu"ation of Si'sa)ar%
The popu"ation of the Si"char su'=#i&ision ha# increase# '7 %6 per cent in 1921=31 a)ainst an increase
of 6 per cent in 1911=21 an# that of the 6ai"a.an#i su'=#i&ision '7 %1 per cent, in 1921=31 a)ainst an increase
of 6%2 per cent in the pre&ious #eca#e% The popu"ation in 'oth su'=#i&isions thus increase# at a'out the same
rate% The #istrict of 3orth 5achar 6i""s, then a su'=#i&ision of 5achar, ha# a popu"ation of 32,!44 in 1931=an
increase of 13%6 per cent since 1921
%
The #eca#e 1931=41 saw another tremen#ous )rowth in AssamIs popu"ation, constitutin) a mean
#ecennia" )rowth rate of 2$%4 per cent%
!
This increase was main"7 #ue to natura" )rowth of the o"# popu"ation,
immi)ration of East 1en)a" Bnow 1an)"a#eshC co"onists, tea )ar#en "a'ourers an# the 3epa"ese, an# the a'sence
of an7 epi#emic #ue to the )rowin) master7 of Kala-azar, an# other epi#emic, as we"" as non=epi#emic #iseases
%9
The popu"ation of 2oa"para ha# increase# from !!3,2!! in 1931 to 1,$14,2!5 in 1941, an increase of
13$,99 as a)ainst 12$,236 #urin) 1921=31% +urin) the #eca#e the #istrict ha# re)istere# a )rowth rate of 14%!3
per cent which was s"i)ht"7 "ess than that of 15%6 per cent #urin) 1921=31%
1$
(ts #ensit7 ha# stea#i"7 increase#
from 222 per sGuare mi"e in 1931 to 254 persons per sGuare mi"e in 1941% (t was on"7 #urin) 1931=41 that for the
first time in 4$ 7ears the rate of increase of 2oa"para su'=#i&ision,i%e%,13%!6 per cent,was s"i)ht"7 "ower than that
of +hu'ri su'=#i&ision,%i%e%, 15%24 per cent% 2oa"para which was a"most eGua" with +hu'ri in #ensit7 in 1921 ha#
for)e# ahea# of the hea#Guarters su'=#i&ision with it #ensit7 of 21 persons per sGuare mi"e as a)ainst 24! of
+hun'ri in 1941%
11
The popu"ation of /amrup at the 1941 census ha# come up to 1,264,2$$ which was an increase of
2!,454 o&er its 1931 popu"ation of 96,46% E&er since 1931 /amrup ha# #is"o#)e# Si'sa)ar as the most
popu"ous #istrict of Assam an# ha# retaine# this position in 1941 census% (ncrease in popu"ation in /amrup
#urin) 1931=41 was the "ar)est amon) a"" the #istricts of the State% /amrup showe# a )rowth rate of 29%43 per
cent in 1931=41%
12
The #istrict of +arran) ha# a popu"ation of 43,3$3 in 1941 a)ainst 5!9,59 in 1931,an increase of
153,24 in the #eca#e 1931=41 a)ainst 1$9,$$$ in the

% Census of India,1931,Fo"=(((, Assam, Part (=-eport,p 14=24%
!% Census of India, 191, Assam Part (= A,2enera" -eport,p%61%
9% Census of India, 1951, Fo"=H((,Assam,,anipur an# Tripura Part (, A, -eport,p%32
1$% Census of India,191, Assam,Part ((=A,2enera" Popu"ation Ta'"es, p,6%
11% Census of India, 1951,Fo"=H((,Assam,,anipur an# Tripura,Part (=a,-eport,p 42%
12% Census of India, 191, Assam Part ((=A,2enera" Popu"ation Ta'"es, p 6=%
PEOPLE 219
pre&ious #eca#e% +arran) ha# the sma""er popu"ation than an7 other p"ains #istrict of the State e?cept 3a)aon% At
the 1941 census the percenta)e rate of increase of the #istrict,26,$,was hi)her than that of an7 other #istrict of
Assam e?cept /amrup%
13
The #ensit7 of the #istrict was 263 persons per sGuare mi"e%
14
3a)aon #istrict ha# a sma""est popu"ation of 649,$2 in 1941 amon) a"" the p"ains #istricts of Assam
a)ainst 562,5!1 in 1931,showe# an increase of !6,491 #urin) 1931=41 a)ainst 164,54 #urin) 1921=31% +urin)
1931=41,the #istrict showe# a percenta)e increase of on"7 15%3 a)ainst a hi)hest rate of increase of 41%35 per
cent amon) a"" the #istricts of Assam in 1921=31%
15
This was entire"7 #ue to the commission of 61,2! persons
inha'itin) ,i.ir 6i""sB/ar'i An)"on)Careas which were then e?c"u#e# from the #istrict%
16
The 1941 census enumerate# a popu"ation of 1,$4$,42! in Si'sa)ar #istrict a)ainst 933,326 in 1931
census an# showe# an o&era"" increase of 1$,1$2 #urin) the #eca#e 1931=41 a)ainst 11$,129 in the pre&ious
#eca#e% The 1941 popu"ation of the #istrict was the secon# "ar)est in Assam%
1
The percenta)e increase of 11%4!
in the #istrict for the #eca#e 1931=41 was artificia""7 "ow,on account of the e?c"usion of ,i.ir 6i""sB/ar'i
An)"on)Cpopu"ation of 34,313 which if inc"u#e#,wou"# force up the percenta)e increase for this #eca#e to 15%1
per cent% The #ensit7 of Si'sa)ar was 3$1 in 1941%
1!
The popu"ation of La.himpur #istrict stoo# at 954,96$ in 1941 which was "ower than that of
/amrup,2oa"para,an# Si'sa)ar% There ha# 'een an increase of 16,64 in 1931=41 a)ainst 15$,212 in the
pre&ious #eca#e% The rate of increase was 22%$ per cent in 1931=41 a)ainst 23%92 in the pre&ious #eca#e%
5achar ha# a popu"ation of !95,14$ in 1941,showin) an increase of 91,446 o&er its 1931 popu"ation of
!$3,694% (t re)istere# the "owest )rowth rate of 11%3! per cent amon) a"" the #istricts of Assam #urin) the #eca#e
1931=41%
The popu"ation of 3orth 5achar was 3,361 in 1941 a)ainst 32,!44 in 1931,showin) a tota" &ariation of
4,51 an# )rowth rate of 13%4J for the #eca#e 1931=41% The popu"ation of erstwhi"e ,i.ir 6i""s Bnow /ar'i
An)"on)Cwas for the first time shows separate"7 as 96,$41 in 1941%
19
the tota" )rowth of popu"ation of Assam #urin) the #eca#e 1941=51 was 1,334,$66 a)ainst 1,134,419
#urin) the pre&ious #eca#e% The rate of )rowth in this #eca#e was 19%93 per cent,which was s"i)ht"7 "ower than
that of 2$%4 per cent in the pre&ious #eca#e% A"" throu)h Assam an# its two natura" #i&isions,hi""s

13% Census of India, 191,Assam,Part=((=A,2enera" popu"ation Ta'"es,p%6=%
14% Census of India, 1951, Fo"=H((,Assam,,anipur an# Tripura,Part (= A,-eport,p=45%
15% Census of India, 191, Assam Part ((=A,2enera" Popu"ation Ta'"es,p% 6=%
16% Census of India, 1951, Fo"=H((,Assam ,,anipur an# Tripura,Part (= A,-eport p% 46%
1% Census of India, 191, Part ((=A, 2enera" Popu"ation Ta'"es,p%6%
1!% Census of India, 1951, Fo"=H((,Assam,,anipur an# Tripura,Part (=A,-eport, p%4!%
19% Census of India, 191,Part ((= A,2enera" Popu"ation Ta'"es, p%6=%
an# p"ains an# their #istricts,the )rowth in the "ast two #eca#es e?cee#s the com'ine# )rowth of the first three
#eca#es of the centur7%
2$
(n 2oa"para,popu"ation re)istere# an increase of 93,!39 in 1941=51 as a)ainst 13$,99 #urin) 1931=41%
(t was '7 far the sma""est #eca#a" increase amon) the #istrict of Assam p"ains% The #ensit7 of popu"ation in the
#istrict was 254 per sGuare mi"e in 1941 an# 2! per sGuare mi"e in 1951% This "ow increase of popu"ation #urin)
these two #eca#es was #ue to the fact that no "an# was a&ai"a'"e in the #istrict for new sett"ement as the a&ai"a'"e
"an#s in the ri&erine areas were a"rea#7 occupie# in the pre&ious #eca#es% ,i)ration of immi)rants to the #istrict
#urin) 1931=41 cause# a popu"ation increase of 4!%3J an# 2%3J in 1i0ni an# 3orth Sa"mara respecti&e"7%
+urin) 1941=51,there was practica""7 no immi)ration% The secon# cause of the #ecrease was mi)ration of some
inha'itants particu"ar"7 tri'a"s to /amrup an# 3a)aon #ue to the erosion of a num'er of &i""a)es in the south
'an. of the 1rahmaputra an# #ecrease of ferti"it7 of soi" in the #istrict after continuous cu"ti&ation% The most
important factor responsi'"e for this unusua" phenomenon was the communa" #istur'ances that too. p"ace #urin)
the ear"7 part of 195$,when appro?imate"7 15$,$$$ ,us"ims "eft this #istrict% Thou)h a num'er of them ha#
returne# within a 7ear,a "ar)e num'er remaine# outsi#e the #istrict%
The popu"ation of /amrup #istrict in 1951 increase# '7 226,192 o&er its 1941 popu"ation% The increase
in the #istrict #urin) 1941=51 was "ar)er than that in an7 o&er #istrict e?cept 3a)aon% /amrup showe# a mean
#ecennia" )rowth rate of 16%4 per cent in 1941=51 an# 25%6 per cent in 1931=41% The #ensit7 of popu"ation in
/amrup ha# e?act"7 #ou'"e# in the 3$ 7ears from 19! per sG%mi"e in 1921 to 3! per sG%mi"e in 1951% /amrup
en0o7e# the presti)e of ownin) the #ensest mau9a of :par 1ar'ha) with 1,31! peop"e per sGuare mi"e fo""owe#
'7 1ah0ani an# /hata%
21
The popu"ation fi)ure# 923,562 in 1951 as a)ainst 43,3$3 in 1941 in +arran) #istrict% +arran) ha#
sma""er popu"ation than an7 other p"ains #istrict e?cept 3a)aon% The o&era"" increase of 1!$,259 was the "ar)est
e&er recor#e# '7 this #istrict #urin) the "ast 5$ 7ears% The percenta)e of increase which was 24%25 in this #istrict
was hi)her than that of an7 other #istrict of Assam e?cept 3a)aonB36%65JCan# 5acharB24%66JC%
22
The #ensit7 of
the #istrict which was 263 persons per sGuare mi"e in 1941 ha# shot up to 326 in 1951%
23
3a)ain #istrict ha# showe# a popu"ation of !,!6,955 in 1951 as a)ainst 6,49,$2 in 1941% The popu"ation
of the #istrict increase# '7 23,!33 in 1951 a)ainst a "ow increase of !6,491 in 1941% This was the "ar)est
increase recor#e# '7 an7 other #istrict #urin) the 1951 census an# was a"so hi)her than that recor#e#

2$% Census of India,1951%Fo"=H((,Assam,,anipur an# Tripura,part=(=A,report,p%4$%
21% Ibid,p%42=44%
22% Census of India,191,Assam,Part ((=A,2enera" Popu"ation Ta'"es,p%6=%
23% Census of India, 1951, Assam,,anipur an# Tripura,Part (=A,-eport,p%46=4%
PEOPLE 221
'7 an7 other #istrict #urin) the prece#in) with the so"itar7 e?ception of /amrup where increase was 2!,454
#urin) 1931=41% This hu)e increase showe# the percenta)e increase of 36%65 which was hi)her than that of an7
other #istrict in Assam P"ains +i&ision e?cept 1a"ipara Arontier Tract% (ts mean #ecennia" )rowth rate for the
1941=51 #eca#e was 3$%9 per cent a)ainst 34%3 per cent in 1921=3$ an# 14%2! per cent in 1931=4$% The
#ensit7 of the 3a)aon #istrict in 1951 was 4$9 persons per sGuare mi"e an# stoo# secon# to 5achar, an# the most
thic."7 popu"ate# po"ice stations in the #istrict in 1951 were foun# to 'e 3a)aon B!5$C,+hin)B95C an#
-upahihatBC%
Si'sa)ar #istrict showe# an o&era"" increase of 11,96 #urin) 1941=51 a)ainst 1$,1$2 in 1931=41% The
#istrict suffere# from cho"era an# Khaja-azar #urin) the first part of the #eca#e 1941=51% The percenta)e
increase in this #istrict for the #eca#e 1941=51 was 351 persons per sGuare mi"e in 1951,which was an a#&ance
'7 5$ o&er the prece#in) #eca#e% The #istrict which in #ensit7,was secon# in Assam in 1931 was surpasse# in
1941=51 '7 5achar,/amrup an# 3a)aon #istricts% The most thic."7 popu"ate# re)ions of the #istrict was 4orhat
po"ice station,which showe# a #ensit7 of 65$ whi"e 3a9ira showe# 5$4 an# Am)uri 51! per sGuare mi"e%
24
The popu"ation of La.himpur #istrict was 1,126,294 in 1951 a)ainst 954,96$ persons in 1941% The rate
of increase was 1,94 in 1941=51 a)ainst 22% in the pre&ious #eca#e%
25
The o&era"" #ensit7 of the #istrict was
"ow as 265 persons per sGuare mi"e,the "owest in Assam p"ains,'ecause the 3orth La.himpur thana an# +hema0i
thana situate# in the north 'an. of the 1rahmaputra ha# a #ensit7 of 1!3 an# 5 respecti&e"7% The hi)hest #ensit7
was seen in Tinsu.iaB459C#istrict%
(n 1951,the popu"ation of 5achar #istrict showe# an increase of 22$,25 o&er its popu"ation fi)ure of
1941% This containe# a "ar)e inf"u? of refu)ees% +urin) 1941=51,the percenta)e of increase in the #istrict was
24%66J% The hu)e increase in the popu"ation ha# force# up its #ensit7 from 333 persons per sGuare mi"e in 1941
to 415 persons per sGuare mi"e in 1951 an# the #ensit7 popu"ate# part of the #istrict was the centra" 'e"t
consistin) of /arim)an0 po"ice stationB1$1$C,1a#arpurB1,195C,6ai"a.an#iBCan# Si"char B44C% The "owest
#ensit7 of popu"ation was seen in /at"icherraB15!C% 1a#arpur was the most #ensit7 popu"ate# thana in the who"e
state of Assam as it inc"u#e# the popu"ation of the "ar)e 1a#arpur rai"wa7 co"on7% Amon) the three su'=#i&isions
name"7 Si"char,/arim)an0 an# 6ai"a.an#i, /arim)an0 su'=#i&ision showe# the hi)hest increase of 29%9 per cent
a)ainst 23%9 per cent of Si"char an# 1%5 per cent of 6ai"a.an#i #urin) this #eca#e%
26

24% Census of India,1951,Fo"%H((,Assam,Assam,,anipur an# Tripura, Part (=A,-eport,p 46=4!%
25% Census of India, 191,Assam Part =(( A,2enera" Popu"ation ta'"es, p%6=%
26% Census of India, 1951, Assam, ,anipur an# Tripura, Part (=A, -eport,p 49=51%
/ar'i An)"on) #istrictBerstwhi"e ,i.ir 6i""s su'=#i&ision of :nite# ,i.ir an# north 5achar 6i""sC ha# a
popu"ation of 125, in 1951 a)ainst 96,$41 in 1941% The o&era"" increase of the #istrict was 29,36 #urin) the
#eca#e 1941=51,thus )a&e a percenta)e increase of 3$%96% The popu"ation of 3orth 5achar 6i""s was 39,663 in
1951 showin) an increase of 2,3$2 o&er its 1941 popu"ation of 3,361% The #istrict thus showe# a nomina"
o&era"" increase of 6%16 per cent #urin) 1941=51,the "owest amon) a"" the #istrict of Assam%
2
+urin) 1951=61,the increase in popu"ation in Assam was spectacu"ar inasmuch as the percenta)e
&ariation su##en"7 rose from 19%93 to 34%9!% The hi)hest increase 'efore this #eca#e was on"7 2$%4!J in 1911=
21% The popu"ation of Assam stoo# at 1$,!3,329 in 1961 a)ainst !,$2!,!56 in 1951,thus showe# an o&era""
increase of 2,!$!,43 #urin) 1951=61%
2oa"para #istrict re)istere# a hi)h percenta)e increase of popu"ation from 9%25 to 39%32 an# o&era""
increase of 435,6! persons #urin) 1951=61% There ha# 'een a &er7 si)nificant increase in /amrup an#
La.himpur #istrict in 1961 as compare# to 1951,whi"e 3a)aon showe# a stea#7 increase% The percenta)e
increase of popu"ation of /amrup,La.himpur an# 3a)aon #istrict were 3!%39J,3!%!5J an# 36%51J respecti&e"7
#urin) the #eca#e 1951=61% The hi)hest percenta)e increase in popu"ation in 1961 amon) the p"ains #istricts of
Assam was seen in +arran) #istrict,where it was 39%64 per cent% Si'sa)ar #istrict ha# an increase of 24%43 per
cent #urin) this #eca#e,which was "ower than an7 other #istrict of the State e?cept 5achar% The percenta)e of
popu"ation in 5achar #istrict ha# s"i)ht"7 #ecrease# from 24%66 per cent in 1951 to 23%53 per cent in 1961%The
)rowth of popu"ation in the #istrict of /ar'i An)"on) was 9%21 per cent in 1951=61,which was the hi)hest
amon) the #istrict of Assam% The percenta)e in this #istrict appeare# to 'e a'norma""7 hi)h,'ut in terms of
a'so"ute num'ers,the increase was on"7 99,63$,which was simp"7 the #ifference 'etween 225,4$ in 1961 an#
125, in 1951% The rate of )rowth of popu"ation in 3orth 5achar hi""s #istrict was 36%95 per cent #urin) 1951=
61 a)ainst 6%16 per cent #urin) 1941=51,'ut the o&era"" increase was on"7 14,656 in 1961 o&er the popu"ation of
1951%
2!
This fact shows that there ha# 'een hea&7 inf"u? of popu"ation to these #istricts 'ecause the rise in
a'so"ute num'er was &er7 hi)h 'earin) in min# the a"rea#7 "ar)e popu"ation e?istin) in these #istricts%
29
The popu"ation of Assam in 191 census was 14,625,152,showin) an increase of 3,!,!23 o&er its 1961
popu"ation of 1$,!3,329% Assam recor#e# a )rowth rate of 34%95 per cent in 1961=1 a)ainst 34%9! per cent in
1951=61%
3$
The )rowth histor7 of the #istricts in fi)ures shows that the hi"" #istrict of /ar'i An)"on) ha# re)istere#
the hi)hest increase in popu"ation of 6!%2! per cent

2% Census of India, 191,Assam, Part ((=A,2enera" Popu"ation Ta'"es, p% 6=%
2!% Census of India, 191, Assam, Part (( A, 2enera" Popu"ation Ta'"es, p% 6=%
PEOPLE 223
in the #eca#e 1961=1 amon) a"" the #istricts of Assam as in the pre&ious #eca#e of 1951=61% (ts popu"ation
stoo# at 39,31$ in 191 a)ainst 225,4$ in 1961,thus showin) an o&era"" increase of 153,9$3#urin) 1961=
1%The other hi""s #istrict of 3orth 5achar ha# a"so recor#e# a )rowth rate of 4$ per cent,much hi)her than the
StateIs a&era)e percenta)e of 34%95 in 1961=1% The popu"ation of this hi""s #istrict was on"7 6,$4 in 191,an#
o&era"" increase,21,2! #urin) the #eca#e 1961=1% The "ow an# f"uctuatin) )rowth rate in 3orth 5achar 6i""s in
ear"ier #eca#es ma7 'e #ue to hi)h an# f"uctuatin) #eath rates% The hi)her percenta)e of increase in 'oth the hi""s
#istricts in "ater #eca#es ma7 'e attri'ute# to increase# me#ica"=faci"ities an# conseGuent re#uction of #eath rate
an# 'etter co&era)e% ,an7 hitherto inaccessi'"e areas 'ecame accessi'"e an# "atest censuses cou"# co&er more
areas% ,oreo&er,the popu"ation of these #istricts 'ein) comparati&e"7 sma"",percenta)e fi)ures ten# to ma)nif7
the position%
The 191 census enumerate# a popu"ation of 2,225,1$3 in 2oa"para #istrict% The #istrict ha# an o&era""
increase of 6!1,211 in 191 o&er its 1961 popu"ation of 1,543,!92% The percenta)e increase of popu"ation in
2oa"para #urin) 1961=1 was 44%12 which was the hi)hest amon) the p"ains #istricts of Assam% The #isp"ace#
,us"ims of 2oa"para,who ha# )one not on"7 to East Pa.istan Bnow 1an)"a#eshC'ut a"so to 3a)aon an# 5achar
#urin) 1941=51,entere# 2oa"para in "ar)e num'ers in the su'seGuent #eca#es creatin) a"" time recor#s in the
#eca#e 1961=1% The #istrict of /amrup ha# shown a"most the same popu"ation increase of 3!%36 per cent in the
#eca#e 1961=1 as that of 3!%39 per cent in the pre&ious #eca#e% The #istrict attaine# the hi)hest popu"ation of
2,!54,1!3 in 191 amon) a"" the #istricts of Assam an# recor#e# o&era"" increase of 91,611 persons #urin)
1961=1% Thou)h the o&era"" increase of 446,51! persons ha# risen the tota" popu"ation of +arran) #istrict from
1,2!9,6$ in 1961 to 1,36,1!! in 191,the percenta)e increase of popu"ation in the #istrict ha# #ecrease# from
39%64 in 1961 to 34%62 in 191% The increase of popu"ation in 3a)aon #istrict from 1,21$,61 in 1961 to
1,6!$,!95 in 191,showe# an o&era"" increase of 4$,134 persons an# a percenta)e increase of 3!%!3 #urin)
1961=1% Si'sa)ar,the on"7 #istrict which ha# escape# the "ar)e=sca"e immi)ration of peop"e from erstwhi"e East
Pa.istanBnow 1an)"a#eshCti"" 191 census,recor#e# a mo#erate percenta)e increase of 21%!1 in the #eca#e 1961=
1 a)ainst 24%43 in the pre&ious #eca#e of 1951=61% The popu"ation of the #istrict in 191 stoo# at
1,!3,3!9,showin) an increase of 32!,999 o&er its 1961 popu"ation of 1,5$!,39$% 5achar #istrict showe# a
stea#7 increase in popu"ation #urin) 1961=1% The percenta)e increase of the #istrict was 24%29 #urin) 1961=1
a)ainst 23%53 #urin) 1951=61% (t ha# a popu"ation of 1,13,31! in 191 a)ainst 1,3!,46 in 1961 an# showe# an
o&era"" increase of 334,!42 #urin) the #eca#e 1961=1%
A popu"ation of 2,122,19 was enumerate# in 191 a)ainst 1,563,!42 in 1961 in un#i&i#e# La.himpur
#istrict,which was an increase of 55!,! #urin) 1961=1% +urin) this #eca#e,its percenta)e increase was 35%4
a)ainst 3!%!5 of the pre&ious #eca#e%
31
As the present twent7 three #istricts of Assam ha&e 'een cur&e# out of its erstwhi"e ei)ht un#i&i#e#
#istrict #urin) the perio# 191=91,the facts an# fi)ures upto 191 census of the ei)ht o"# #istricts ha&e 'een
hi)h"i)hte# a'o&e%
Thou)h the #eca#a" &ariation in tota" popu"ation of the present 23 #istricts are not
a&ai"a'"e,howe&er,statement showin) the percenta)e &ariation in popu"ation in these 23 #istricts from 19$1 to
1991 is )i&en 'e"ow

31% Census of India, 191,Assam, Part (= A,2enera" -eport, p% 1$=11 an# 5ensus of (n#ia,191, assam, part ((= A,
2enera" Popu"ation Ta'"es, p% 6=%
PEOPLE 225
+istrict 19$1=11 1911=21 1921=31 1931=41 1941=51 1951=
61
1$61=1 191=91 +ensit7 per
sG%.m%in 191
+ensit7 per
sG%.m%in 1991
1%+hu'ri E32%6 E1142 E6%$5 E1$%5 E15%21 E2%62 E4$%51 E56%5 3$$ 4$
2%/o.ra0har E16%$ E9$%5 E39%6! E26%59 E$%5$ E46%36 E54%3$ E6%! 3%A 3%A
3%1on)ai)aon E29%94 E26%94 E15%94 E2$%!5 E4%$$ E6$%51 E4$%29 E64%64 3%A 3%A
4%2oa"para E2%41 E3%$ E2$%5$ E%3 E11%33 E3%22 E45%!! E54%12 3%A 3%A
5%1arpeta E2$%$2 E34%$4 E69%$2 E44%$6 E1!% E32%62 E35%62 E43%$2 299 42
6%3a"'ari E13%33 E14%2$ E2%92 E39%92 E9%4! E49%62 E42%$2 E49%2 3$2 45$
%/amrup E11%16 E%$6 E9%32 E14%6$ E21%! E3%3 E3!%!$ E65%2 2! 46$
!%+arran) =$%25 E11%! E26%$$ E35%3$ E24%13 E44%5 E43%24 E55%63 24$ 33
9%Sonitpur E24%33 E4$%69 E2$%5$ E19%3 E24%26 E35%!2 E2%62 E5%14 1$ 26!
1$%La.himpur E1%3$ E22%!2 E25%99 E36%9! E21%62 E5$%46 E43%39 E56%29 211 33$
11%+hema0i E45%3$ E63%3$ E16%9$ E!%41 =3%35 E6!%56 E1$2%42 E1$%5$ 1 14!
12%,ori)aon E15%5$ E31%99 E41%66 E3$%! E24%32 E3%!9 E3%51 E5$%9$ 3%A% 3%A%
13%3a)aon E15%!4 E31%94 E41%35 E1$%34 E41%41 E35%91 E1!%99 E51%26 3%A% 3%A%
14%2o"a)hat E16%25 E2$%14 E1!%29 E1%4! E19%52 E26%$4 E3$%!5 E5!%12 15$ 236
15%4othat E16%62 E1%54 E!%!! E15%12 E15%$3 E24%1 E1%4 E33%1$ 23$ 3$6
16%Si'sa)ar E13%41 E2$%46 E14%44 E15%64 E15%9! E23%36 E19%4 E3!%6 245 34$
1%+i'ru)arh E2%1$ E3!%4$ E22%34 E1$%! E26%23 E31%35 E22%93 E3%! 224 3$!
1!%Tinsu.ia E2%1$ E2!%32 E2%$$ E34% E11%$9 E35%92 E31%$2 E4%$3 13 254
19%/ar'i An)"on) 3%A 3%A 3%A 3%A E3$%96 E9%21 E6!%2! E4%2 36 64
2$%3%5%6i""s =33%12 M5%92 E13%6$ E13%5 E6%16 E36%95 E4$%$$ E9!%3$ 16 31
21%/arim)an0 E12%94 E3%19 E5%91 E9%52 E29%! E22%96 E25%13 E42%$! 322 453
22%6ai"a.an#i E16$9 E%59 E%$! E1$%29 E1%4! E2%23 E23%61 E45%94 232 33!
23%5achar E12%33 E5%9! E%6$ E13%$! E23%92 E22%6$ E23%96 E4%59 21! 321
Source<=+irectorate of Economics an# Statistics,2o&t% of Assam,Statistica" 6an# 1oo.,Assam,1993,p% 15 to 1
(t is seen in the a'o&e ta'"e that #urin) the #eca#e 1951=61,1961=1 an# the perio# 191=91,the )rowth
of popu"ation has 'een on stea#7 rise in on"7 one #istrict &i9,3orth 5achar 6i""s an# on #ec"ine in 11
#istricts,name"7,1on)ai)aon, 3a"'ari, +arran), La.himpur, ,ori)aon, 4orhat, Si'sa)ar,+i'ru)arh, Tinsu.ia,
/ar'i An)"on) an# 6ai"a.an#i% There shows a mar)ina" f"uctuation in the increase an# #ecrease of popu"ation in
5achar #istrict% (n /amrup #istrict,popu"ation increase# from 3%3 per cent in 1951=61 to 3!%!$ in 1961=
1,whi"e #ec"ine# to 32%!6 per cent in the ensuin) perio#% (n the remainin) 9 #istricts of
+u'uri,2oa"para,/o.ra0har,1arpeta,Sonitpur,+hema0i,3a)aon,2oa"para an# /arim)an0,)rowth of popu"ation
showe# an increase in 1961=1 o&er the pre&ious #eca#e 'ut re)istere# a #ec"ine in successi&e #eca#es%
(n 1951=61,the "owest an# hi)hest )rowth of popu"ation were recor#e# at 22%6$ per cent in 5achar
#istrict an# 9%21 per cent in /ar'i An)"on) #istrict respecti&e"7% This )ap 'etween "owest an# hi)hest wi#ene#
'etween 1%4 per cent in 4orhat an# 1$3%42 per cent in +hema0i in 1961=1,an# these two #istricts maintaine#
their respecti&e position in the perio# 191=91 as we""%
The a'o&e fi)ures a"so re&ea" that out of 23 #istricts,four #istricts=1on)ai)aon
B6$%51JC,La.himpurB5$%46JC,+hema0iB6!%56JCan# /ar'i An)"on) B9%21JCrecor#e# more than 5$ per cent
)rowth of popu"ation in 1951=61%whereas num'er of such #istricts re#uce# ti three in 1961=1% (n the perio#
spannin) 2$ 7ears,i%e%,191=91,the num'er of #istricts which re)istere# more than 5$ per cent popu"ation )rowth
stoo# at 14,whi"e popu"ation increase# '7 "ess than 5$ per cent in 9 #istricts e&en in two #eca#es%
PEOPLE 22
The fo""owin) statement in Ta'"e A wi"" furnish an account of #eca#a" percenta)e of popu"ation
increase in Assam as a)ainst the other states of (n#ia for the perio# from 19$1 to 191%
Percenta)e increase of popu"ation in #ifferent states 19$1=191%
32
2rowth rateBper cent per #eca#eC
:nit 19$1=11 1911=21 1921=31 1931=41 1941=51 1951=61 1961=1 191=!1
(n#ia E55 =$%31 E11%$$ E14%22 E13%31 E21%51 E24%!$ E129%6
An#hra Pr%% E12%49 =$%13 E12%99 12%5 E14%$2 E15%65 E2$%9$ E12!%1
Assam M16%99 E2$%4! E19%91 E2$%4$ E19%93 E34%9! E34%95 E344%5!
1ihar E3%6 =$%66 E11%45 =12%2$ E1$%2 E19%6 E21%33 E1$6%33
2u0rat E%9 E3%9 E12%92 E19%25 E1!%69 E26%!! E29%99 E193%55
6ar7ana =9%$ E1%95 E%14 E15%63 E%6$ E33%9 E32%23 E193%55
6imacha" Pr% =1%22 E1%65 E5%23 E11%54 E5%42 E1%! E23%$4 E!$%2$
4ammu 8
/shmir E%16 E5%5 E1$%14 E1$%36 E1$%42 E9%44 E29%65 E115%9
/ere"a E11%5 E9%16 E21%!5 E16%$4 E22%!2 E24%6 E26%29 E233%5
/arnata.a E3%6$ =1,$9 E9%3! E11%$9 E19%36 E21%5 E24%22 E124%43
,a#h7a Pr% E15%3$ =1%3! E11%39 E12%34 E!%6 E24%1 E2!%6 E14%$5
,aharashtra E1$%4 =2%91 E14%91 E11%99 E19%2 E23%6$ E2%45 E159%9
,anipur E21%1 E1$%92 E16%$4 E14%92 E12%!$ E35%$4 E3%53 E2%11
,e)ha"a7a E15%1 E%!1 E13%!3 E15%59 E!%9 E2%$3 E31%5$ E19%1$
3a)a"an# E46%6 E6%55 E12%62 E6%$4 E!%6$ E14%$ E39%!! E23!%2$
Orissa E1$%44 =1%94 E11%94 E1$%22 E6%3! E19%!2 E25%$5 E112%99
Pun0a' =1$%! E6%26 E12%$2 =119%!2 =4%5! E21%56 E21%$ E9%61
-a0asthan E6%$ E6%29 E14%14 E1!%$1 E15%2$ E26%2$ E2%!3 E15$%!$
Si..im E4!%9! =%$5 E34%3 E1$%6 E13%34 E1%6 E29%3! E255%5!
Tami"na#u E!%5 E3%4 E!%52 E11%91 E14%66 E11%!5 E22%3$ E113%99
Tripura E32%4! E32%59 E25%63 E34%14 E24%56 E!%1 E36%2! E9%93
:ttar Pr% =$%9 =3%$! E6%66 E13%5 E11%!2 E16%66 E19%! E!1%6
;est 1en)a" E6%25 =2%91 E!%14 E22%93 E13%22 E32%!$ E26%! E161%5!
32% 5ensus of (n#ia 191, Series= 3, Assam Part (= A, 2enera" -eport p% 59 an# 5ensus of (n#ia , 191, Series=1,
(n#ia , Part ((= A, 2enera" Popu"ation ta'"es% pp% 124=125%
(t is seen that from 19$1,AssamIs popu"ation ne&er showe# an7 #ec"onin) tren# an# 'arrin) Tripura an#
'arrin) Tripura which re)istere# a popu"ation increase percenta)e of 9%93 #urin) 19$1=191,Assam ha# the
hi)hest percenta)e of increase in popu"ation amon)st the states of (n#ia #urin) the perio#% The tren# 'ecame
more pronounce# since 1951 when )enera" a&era)e popu"ation increase percenta)e shot up to 34%9! #urin) 1951=
61 a)ainst 19%93 of 1941=51% E&en ;est 1en)a"Is fi)ure for the #eca#e was much "ower 'ein) 32%!$J #urin)
1951=61%
The 'irth rate in Assam was a"wa7s "ow in (n#ia wi"" 'e apparent from the fo""owin) ta'"e<
1irth rate of Assam compare# with that of other States of (n#ia%
33
Bper thousan#C
+ecennia" 'irth rates for
Assam p"ains #urin) 19$1=5$%
Bper thousan#C
1942=45 194!
+ecennia" A&era)e 'irth rate A&era)e
19$1=1$ inc"u#in) 35% (n#ia 2%$ 25%5
S7"het
1911=2$ 32%3 Assam 19%1 15%2
1921=3$ inc"u#in) 2%4 1ihar 22%2 1!%6
1931=4$ /arim)an0 2$%9 Orissa 29%1 2%5
1941=5$ 1%2 :%P 26%4 21%$
Tami" 3a#u 3$%9 31%1
,um'ai 33%! 33%9
,%P 3!%3 33%6
Pan0a' 36%6 29%3
Immigration and Emigration:
(n 19$1,the increase in popu"ation in Assam which at that time a"so inc"u#e# /hasi an# 4aintia
6i""s,2aro 6i""s,,anipur,3a)a hi""s an# ,i9o hi""s was on"7 5%9 per cent an# out of this 1%36Jwas #ue to natura"
)rowth% 1ut in 1911 census,the increase of popu"ation o&er the 19$1 fi)ure ha# 'een 933,514 persons or 15%2 per
cent% The popu"ation of the 1rahmaputra Fa""e7 increase# '7 1!% per cent, 'ut part of this was #ue to
immi)ration an# the increase in natura" popu"ation, i%e%, e?c"usi&e of

33% 5ensus of (n#ia, 1951, Assam, Part (= A, p !4=!5%
PEOPLE 229
immi)rants an# inc"usi&e of emi)rants, amounte# to 16% per cent% The Assam 1en)a" rai"wa7 ha# 'een the
cause of consi#era'"e #e&e"opment '7 immi)rants in the /opi"i Fa""e7 of the 3a)aon #istrictL these immi)rants
inc"u#e# peop"e from +acca an# ,7mensin)h, as we"" as from the Surma Fa""e7% (mmi)ration, which has
a"wa7s 'een the most important factor in the &ariations of popu"ation in Assam, ha# apparent"7 'e)un to 'e
somethin) more than the mere supp"7 of the actua" nee#s of the tea in#ustr7 an# the casua" increase of co"#
weather majdoors in search of wor.% +urin) the #eca#e, the increase in the &o"ume of immi)ration ha# fa""en
'ehin# the natura" )rowth of the peop"e% The ta'"e 'e"ow shows us the fi)ures of immi)ration,emi)ration an#
actua" popu"ation in the p"ains of Assam proper in 19$1, 1911,an# 1921,
34
State*
+istrict
1991 19$1
Tota" (mmi)rants Emi)rants
Popu"ation
Actua" (mmi)rants Emi)rants
Popu"ation
AssamM ,$59,!5 !!2,$6! 9,1 6,126,343 5,!44 51,323
1rahmaputra
Fa""e7 3,1$!,669 631,552 25,91! 2,619,$ 491,$43 1,622
2oa"para 6$$,643 11!,233 1,!15 462,$52 49,$59 19,55
/amrup 66,!2! 31,53 22,94! 5!9,1! 19,355 2,$1
+arran) 3,314 121,3$5 4,424 33,313 1$$,463 2,59$
3a)aon 3$3,596 3!,966 15,241 261,16$ 34,6 1!,415
Si'sa)ar 69$,299 1!3,21$ 14,9!3 59,969 1!3,643 !,!!
La.himpur 46!,9!9 19,41! !,36 31,396 166,4$! 3,2
5acharBinc"u
#in) 3orth
5acharC 49,463 11$,5$ 1$,2$ 455,5$ 146,593 !,$$9

34% 5ensus of (n#ia, 1911, Fo"% (((, Assam Part N (, -eport, pa)e, 1$,15,1,19,23,24 an# 5ensus of (n#ia ,1921,
Assam, Part (= -eport, p%=26%
State*+istrict 1921
Actua" Popu"ation (mmi)ration Emi)ration
AssamM 9,9$,246 12,9$,15 5,!96
1rahmaputra Fa""e7 3!,55,!92 1$,4$,356 1,44!
2oa"para ,62,523 2,12,$39 14,63$
/amrup ,62,61 !$,952 15,113
+arran) 4,,9!5 1,93,559 4,26
3a)aon 3,9,921 1,$2,322 9,$$1
Si'sa)ar !,23,19 2,2!,329 19,!49
La.himpur 5,!!,295 2,59,166 ,!16
5achar Binc"u#in)
3orth 5acharC 5,2,22! 9$,54 13,6!1
Arom the a'o&e ta'"e it is seen that in 1911,there were !!2,$6! immi)rants in Assam an# that 9,1
persons 'orn in the pro&ince were enumerate# e"sewhere% The tota" popu"ation of the pro&ince was ,$59,!5,so
that the percenta)e of the forei)n 'orn was near"7 12%5 as compare# with near"7 13 per cent in 19$1,on the other
han#,the num'er of emi)rants was on"7 1%1 per cent of the actua" popu"ation,thou)h it ha# )rown up o&er 55 per
cent since 19$1% (t is c"ear that the pro&ince attracte# a "ar)e stream of stran)ers an# sent out on"7 a sma""
num'er of its own peop"e%
(n 1911,the 1rahmaputra &a""e7 containe# "ar)e num'er of 3epa"is,who were most"7 en)a)e# in
'ree#in) 'uffa"oes an# ma.in) )hee% The ma0orit7 of the tea="a'our immi)rants came from 5hotana)pur an#
some from 5entra" Pro&ince an# ,a#ras% The )reat ma0orit7 went to the 1rahmaputra &a""e7 where the7 were
we"come# on account of their capa'i"it7 of withstan#in) har# wor. in the 0un)"e an# the effects of the c"imate%
Thou)h the tea in#ustr7 is the main cause of the inf"ow of immi)rantsLit must not 'e for)otten that not
a"one #i# it import "a'ourers 'ut it a"so attracte# "ar)e num'er of other immi)rants whose sources of "i&e"ihoo#
"in.e# #irect"7 or in#irect"7 to it,&i9,shop=.eepers,huc.sters,carpenters,c"er.s,carters,etc%
35
(n 1921,there were in Assam 1,29$,15 immi)rants from outsi#e the State whi"e 5,!96 persons 'orn in
the pro&ince were enumerate# e"sewhere% On the tota"

M AssamIs fi)ures inc"u#e the fi)ures of the #istrict of S7"het, 2aro 6i""s, /hasi 8 4aintia 6i""s, 3a)a 6i""s,
Lushai 6i""s, an# ,anipur%
35% 5ensus of (n#ia, 1911, Fo"% (((, Assam, Part N (= -eport, P% =2=29%
PEOPLE 231
popu"ation ,99$,246 the percenta)e of forei)n='orn in Assam was 16%1% On the other han#, in the 7ear, the
proportion of immi)rants to the tota" Assam 'orn was on"7 1%1, a)ainst 1%3 in 1911% The statistics c"ear"7 ref"ects
the attractions of the pro&ince '7 the tea in#ustr7 an# waste "an# a&ai"a'"e for co"oni9ation, as we"" as the home=
sta7in) propensit7 of the nati&es of Assam% The &ast ma0orit7 of immi)rants came as perio#ic &isitors, most"7
)enera" "a'ourers an# earth=wor.ers from 1ihar an# the :nite# Pro&inces an# tra#ers from &arious parts% ,ost of
the permanent, an# semi=permanent immi)rants fe"" into three )reat c"asses of B1C those connecte# with Tea, B2C
Eastern 1en)a" B now 1an)"a#eshC cu"ti&ators an# B3C those from 3epa"% Si9ea'"e section of the 1en)a"
immi)rants, howe&er, a"so came in connectin) with ser&ices, 'usiness, professions an# pett7 tra#es%
(n 1921, a'out two=thir#s of the Assam tea=)ar#ens were in the 1rahmaputra &a""e7 an# the rest in the
Surma &a""e7% The tota" popu"ation censuse# in tea )ar#ens as 922,245% This inc"u#e# ,ana)ers,assistants, an#
other wor.ers, #epen#ents an# a"so the temporar7 &isitors an# new comers% This num'er was a'out 9$,$$$ "ess
than the tota" )i&en in the )o&ernment returns of immi)rant "a'ours%
La.himpur B2,33,$$$C an# Si'sa)ar B2,29,$$$C ha# the )reatest tea =)ar#en popu"ation in 1921% Then
came S7"het B1,69,$$$C, 5achar B1,3!,$$$C,+arran) B1,23,$$$C an# 3a)aon B22,$$$C,/amrup,2oa"para an# two
Arontier Tracts ha# "ess than 6,$$$, each%
A"" other pro&ince contri'ute# )reat increase to the )ar#ens,ref"ectin) the 'oom in the in#ustr7 in the
7ear pre&ious to 192$% The &er7 "ar)e increase from the pro&ince of 1ihar an# Orissa was #ue main"7 to the
preference of p"anters for the men of 5hota 3a)pur an# the appreciation '7 the tea="a'ourers themse"&es of the
more stea#7 means of su'sistence in Assam%
The inf"u? of immi)rants from Eastern 1en)a" ha# forme# the su'0ect of Guestion an# an unp"easant%
1efore 1911,the men of ,7mensin) 'e)an to a#&ance to Assam,#ri&en apparent"7 '7 pressure on the soi" at
home% The7 were 0oine# '7 peop"e of other Eastern 1en)a" #istricts% The immi)rants )ot 'e7on# 2oa"para% (n the
#eca#e 1911=21 the mo&ement ha# e?ten#e# far up the &a""e7 an# the co"onists forme# an apprecia'"e e"ement of
the popu"ation in a"" the four "ower an# centra" #istricts% (n 1911,no specia" ta'"e was prepare# 'ut from the
)enera" 'irth rate ta'"e we fin# that ,umensin),-an)pur an# 4a"pai)uri pro&i#e# 51,$$$ immi)rants to 2oa"para
an# 3,$$$ to the other fi&e 1rahmaputra Fa""e7 #istricts% After a##in) the chi"#ren 'orn after arri&a" in Assam
a"on) with their women,the tota" num'er of East 1en)a" sett"ers in the Fa""e7 came to at "east 3$$$,$$$ in 1921%
Of the thir# consi#era'"e stream of immi)rants from 'e7on# (n#ia,a'out 95 per cent were from 3epa"%
The num'er censuse# in Assam an# 'orn in 3epa" was $,344 in 1921 a)ainst 4,654 in 1911%
The others from 'e7on# (n#ia were from Europe,America an# 1ritish co"o=
nies,an# Asiatic countries other than 3epa"% The ma0orit7 of the former )roup was en)a)e# in the tea in#ustr7
an# others were officia"s,missionaries an# persons en)a)e# in coa" minin),oi" fie"#s an# other in#ustries%
36
(n 1931,out of a tota" pro&incia" popu"ation of 9,24,!5there were 1,4$!,63 persons who were 'orn
outsi#e the State whi"e on"7 2,!35 persons 'orn within the State were enumerate# e"sewhere 'ecause of
emi)ration% The percenta)es of peop"e 'orn outsi#e Assam was 15%2 a)ainst 16%1 in 1921 an# 12%5 in 1911%
The ta'"e cite# 'e"ow shows the summari9e# fi)ures in the thousan#s the num'er of immi)rants into
Assam an# their countr7 of ori)in% These fi)ures are of consi#era'"e interest as the7 show that the currents of
mi)ration into Assam ha# not 'een f"owin) in the usua" wa7% :p to the 1931 census,the main f"ow of immi)rants
into Assam ha# a"wa7s 'een from the )reat tea=)ar#en recruitin) pro&inces=particu"ar"7 from 1ihar an# Orissa%
(n 1931,howe&er,there ha# 'een a consi#era'"e chan)e% Arom 1en)a",immi)rants ha# continue# to pour into
Assam as in the pre&ious #eca#e 'ut in the case of the "a'our recruitin) pro&inces,the stream f"owe# at the o"#
rate an# the tota" num'er of persons 'orn in the main recruitin) pro&inces an# censuse# in Assam,thou)h &er7
"ar)e,was o&er 1$$,$$$ "ess than the fi)ure of 1921%
3
3um'er of immi)rants into Assam &arious parts of (n#ia an# from outsi#e (n#ia in 1931 an# 1921%B$$$Is
ommitte#C%
1 2 3 4
1irth P"ace 1931 1$21 +ifference
1en)a" 55 36 E199
1ihar EOrissa 42 31 =99
5entra" Pro&inces !2 91 =9
:nite# Pro&ince 6! =9
,a#ras 5! 55 E3
5entra" (n#ia A)enc7 15 1! E3
-a0putana 22 16 E6
1urma ! E1
,um'ai 6 1 E5
Pun0a' 6 3 E3
-est of (n#ia 2 2 E$

36% 5ensus of (n#ia, 1921, Assam, Part N (= -eport, p%=35=43%
3% 5ensus of (n#ia , 1931, Fo"% (((, Assam, Part=(=-eport, p% 43=44%
PEOPLE 233
1 2 3 4
Tota" from (n#ia 1,314 1,21 E9
Arom outsi#e (n#ia
e?ceptin) 3epa" E3 E4
3epa" !! $ E1!
2ran# tota" 1,4$9 1,29$ E119
The 1en)a" immi)rants censuse# for the first time on the Char "an#s of 2oa"para in 1991 were,as
remar.e# '7 ,r%5%S% ,u""an,mere"7 the a#&ance# )uar# or rather the scouts=of a hu)e arm7 fo""owin) c"ose"7
at their hee"s% 17 1921 the first wa&e passe# into Assam an# ha# practica""7 conGuere# the #istrict of 2oa"para%
The ta'"e 'e"ow shows the tota" num'er of peop"e 'orn in 1en)a" an# sett"e# in &arious parts of Assam #urin)
1911=1931%
3!
B$$$Is omitte#C
@ear 2oa"para /amrup +arran) 3a)aonSi'sa)ar La.himpur
1911 4 4 14 14
1921 151 44 2$ 5! 14 14
1931 1$ 134 41 12$ 12 19
The num'er of peop"e 'orn in 3epa" an# censuse# in Assam was !!,3$6 in 1931 a)ainst $,344 in 1921
an# 4,654in 1911% the rate of immi)ration ha#,there=fore,not 'een as rapi# as it was in 1911=21% 3epa"i
immi)ration increase# '7 35%6 per cent in 1921=31 a)ainst !9 per cent in 1911=21% A"to)ether there were a'out
4$,$$$ 3epa"is in +arran)% The )ra9in) reser&es of +arran) #istrict were the main attraction of 3epa"i
Khutiwallas.
39
Accor#in) to the 5ensus,1951,the "ar)est num'er of (n#ian immi)rants to Assam from 1ihar was
2$6,346 fo""owe# '7 Orissa !,216L:ttar Pra#esh 33%463L;est 1en)a" 23,454L,a#h7a 1harat 23,323L-a0asthan
1%2!$LTripura 15,$9!L,a#ras 12,19L,a#h7a Pra#esh 1$,63LPun0a' 5,5$! an# ,um'ai 4,!6% The num'er of
immi)rants from ,anipur is 3,923,that from Fin#h7a Pra#esh an# 67#era'a# 'ein)1,594 an# 1,$2
respecti&e"7% (t ma7 'e interestin) to "earn the num'er of persons comin) from #ifferent parts were from PEPS:
B255C,+e"hiB119C,6imacha" Pra#esh B!!C,4ammu an# /ashmir B1C,An#aman an# 3ico'ar (s"an#sB3Can#
A0merB(C%
The &ast ma0orit7 of the (n#ian immi)rants into Assam came from the states

3!% 5ensus of (n#ia, 1931, Fo"% (((, Assam, part= (= A=-eport, p%5$
39% ('i#, p%53
which are not a#0acent to it% There was an in#eterminate num'er of perio#ic &isitors,most"7 )enera" "a'ourers
an# earth wor.ers from 1ihar an# :ttar Pra#esh an# the tra#ers,'usinessmen an# ser&ice ho"#ers from &arious
parts% As the 3epa"is are inc"u#e# un#er II1e7on# (n#iaIIan# the 6in#u refu)ees a"on) with the ,us"im cu"ti&a=
tors are un#er IIother territories=Pa.istanII,the on"7 important current of immi)ration #urin) 1941 was the tea
)ar#en "a'ourers,earth=wor. "a'ourers an# construction "a'ourers to Assam%
The popu"ation fi)ures of 1951 shows that out of tota" popu"ation of !,$2!,!56 the num'er of
immi)rants to the State was 1,2!6,624% Simi"ar"7,in 1961,out of the tota" popu"ation of 1$,!3,329 the num'er of
immi)rants upto 1,2!1,4$! thou)h a &ariation of 5216 immi)rants cou"# 'e note# in comparison with the
pre&ious 7ear% (n 191,of the tota" popu"ation of 14,625,152 the num'er of immi)rants were 1,5$3,543 an# the
fi)ures accounte# a )rowth rate of E222,135 in comparison with 1961 fi)ures%
4$
The immi)rants from the rest of (n#ia or 'e7on# were not numerous% The immi)ration of the ,arwaries
from -a0asthan who #ea"t with a "ar)e part of the tra#e in the State,was of semi=permanent nature% (t can 'e
rea#i"7 seen from the se? ratio which showe# 5,52! fema"es on"7,a)ainst 11,52 ma"es% There were 3,945 ma"e
an# 1,563 fema"e Pun0a'i in Assam% The num'er of immi)rant from ,um'ai has remaine# constant since 1931=
2,264 men an# 2,522 women%
The num'er of the States of 1ihar,Orissa,:ttar Pra#esh,,a#h7a=Pra#esh,Tami" 3a#u,etc%,showe# "ar)e
#ecreases at the 1951 census o&er their fi)ures in 1931,thou)h the StateIs sen#in) out tea )ar#en recruits to
Assam were on increase consistent"7%
41
Peop"e 'orn in forei)n countries an# censuse# in Assam in 1951 was !,94,6$ in num'er which was a
fair"7 hi)h num'er when compare# with the same in other States of (n#ia% The ta'"e 'e"ow )i&es its 'rea. up of
some important countries%
42
5ountries in Asia 'e7on# (n#ia% !,94,6$
Pa.istanBthen inc"u#e# East 1en)a"C%%%% !,33,2!!
3epa"%%% 56,52
1urma%%% 3,296
5hina 3!
Af)hanistan 131
Sri Lan.a 34

4$% 5ensus of (n#ia, 191, Part= (=A 2enera" -eport, p%6$%
41% 5ensus of (n#ia,1951, Fo" Hii, Assam, ,anipur an# Tripura, Part= (=A
-eport L p% 66=6%
42% ('i#,p% 1
PEOPLE 235
1hutan 3!
5ountries in Europe 1,54$
5ountries in Afria 15
America 153
Austra"ia 41
A )"ance at the ta'"e shows that in 1951,from the point of immi)ration from forei)n "an#s,on"7 2
countries were si)nificant,&i9%,Pa.istan an# 3epa"% 1ut in this re)ar# too,some concession must 'e a""owe# for
Pa.istan 'orn peop"e fi)ure,as,in the wor#s of ,r% 1ha)aiwa""a Iman7 persons who sett"e# #own in 5achar either
in ser&ice,'usiness,or tra#e trie# to )et themse"&es enumerate# as refu)ees,the usua" p"ea was either that thou)h
the7 ha# sett"e# in 5achar for "on),the7 cease# to ha&e an7 contro" o&er their propert7 in Pa.istan after the
Partition or that is on"7 after the Partition that the7 ma#e up their min#s to sett"e for )oo# in (n#ia%
43
,us"im immi)ration 'e)an mere"7 as a resu"t of interp"a7 of economic forces in East 1en)a"Bnow
1an)"a#eshC&is=a=&is Assam,thou)h "ater it too. on some po"itica" co"our% The pressure on the soi" of the East
1en)a"B1an)"a#eshC,some times are actua" "oss of their "an#s an# e&en the homestea#s '7 #i"u&ium in their home
#istricts,cheap an# p"entifu" supp"7 of &ir)in "an# in Assam,with the free#om of riotwari sett"ement in p"ace of
e?pensi&e,sma"" an# uncomforta'"e ho"#in)s as ten=ants in East 1en)a" B1an)"a#eshC,were the main factors% The
a#&ent of such immense num'ers of immi)rants ha&e far=reachin) conseGuences of the economic,po"itica" an#
socia" structures of Assam% The s7stem of Touzi Bahira re&enue from encroachers on )o&ernment "an# a"so
ser&e# as a stron) impetus to the "an# hun)r7 cu"ti&ators of East 1en)a" for their emi)ration into Assam% E&en
the7 #i# not #esist from encroachment into )o&ernment reser&es an# on "an#s 'e"on)in) to the "oca" peop"e from
which the7 cou"# 'e e&icte# on"7 with )reat #ifficu"t7% This "e# into man7 conf"icts an# stru))"es in the economic
sphere with the tri'a"s an# other in#i)enous peop"e of Assam%
An attempt to so"&e the pro'"ems of the hu)e ,us"im immi)ration was ma#e '7 passin) the immi)rants
BE?p"u"sion from AssamC,Act,195$BAct H of 195$Cin the (n#ia par"iament on 13
th
Ae'ruar7,195$,fo""owin) an
ear"ier 4anuar7 Or#inance on simi"ar "ines% The Act pro&i#e# for the remo&a" of an7 immi)rant persons in
Assam,e?ceptin) the #isp"ace# persons,whose sta7 was #eterimenta" to the interest of the )enera" pu'"ic of
(n#ia,or of an7 sche#u"e# tri'e in Assam%
44

43% 1ha)aiwa""a < 5ensus of (n#ia, Assam, ,anipur an# Tripura, 1951, Fo"=H((, Part= (, p
44% ('i#, p% =!%
1esi#es the immi)ration of 6in#u refu)ee from Pa.istan Binc"u#in) present 1an)"a#eshCwas '7 far the 'i))est
mi)ration stream into Assam #urin) 1941=51%
The ta'"e 'e"ow shows Pa.istan 'orn peop"e #i&i#e# into refu)ee an# non=rufu)ee section foun# in
Assam as per 19515ensus%
45
B$$$,s omitte#C
Pa.istan 3on -efu)ees -efu)ees
Tota" ,a"e Aema"e Tota" ,a"e Aema"e Tota" ,a"e Aema"e
Assam !33 465 36! 599 315 244 24 15$ 124
Assam
P"ains 96 445 351 536 3$4 232 26$ 142 11!
5achar 13$ $ 6$ 3 2$ 1 93 5$ 43
2oa"para 136 ! 5! 91 53 3! 45 25 2$
/amrup 1!6 1$6 !$ 143 !2 61 43 24 19
+arran) !4 44 4$ 65 34 31 19 1$ 9
3a)aon 13 9! 5 135 5! 3! 21 1
Si'sa)ar 26 15 11 19 11 ! 4 3
La.himpur 61 34 2 4 26 21 14 ! 6
Assam 6i""s
:nite# ,i.ir
an# 3orth
5achar 6i""s 4 2 2 2 1 1 2 1 1
Arom the a'o&e ta'"e it is seen that on"7 26$ were refu)ees an# 536 were non=refu)ees for e&er7 96
Pa.istan='orn persons foun# in Assam p"ains whi"e in 5achar 93 were refu)ees for e&er7 such 13$ Pa.istan 'orn
peop"e in 1951% 1esi#es Pa.istan Binc"u#in) present 1an)"a#eshC,3epa" was the other countr7 from which a
consi#er=a'"e num'er of immi)rants f"owe# to Assam% Out of a tota" of 63,$6! from IIother territoriesII,those 'orn
in 3epa" an# censuses in Assam in 1951 were 56,52 a)ainst !!,3$6 in 1931L$,344 in 1921 an# 4,654 in 1911
in the pre=Partitione# Assam% The ta'"e 'e"ow )i&es the num'er of persons 'orn in 3epa" an# enumerate# in
Assam an# its 3atura" #i&ision as we"" as some important #istricts in 1951%
46

45% 5ensus of (n#ia, 1951, Fo"% H((, Assam, ,anipur an# Tripura, part= (=A% -eport,
p%=3 8 4%
46% ('i#, p%9=!$%
PEOPLE 23
Person ,a"es Aema"es
Assam 56 36 2$
Assam P"ains 39 24 15
2oa"para 4 3 1
/amrup 6 4 2
+arran) 1$ 5 5
La.himpur 13 ! 5
Assam 6i""s 1 12 5
:nite# / 8 4%6i""s 9 6 3
The fo""owin) ta'"e shows the immi)ration into Assam #urin) 1951=61
State*+istrict (mmi)rants (mmi)rants +ifference
in 1961 in 1951
Assam 1,353,5!1 1,242,41 E1$,!4$
2oa"para 2,$$,!36 1,4,9!6 E25,!5$
/amrup 1,95,4!4 2,21,452 =26,96!
+arran) 1,99,316 1,95,46 E3,!4$
La.himpur 2,31,26 2,3$,$11 E1,15
3a)aon 1,!3,$42 2,$3,54! =2$,5$6
Si'sa)ar !9,49! 1,$3,5$3 =14,$$5
5achar 1,56,3$ 1,52,$!3 E4,224
:nite# ,i.ir 8
3%5% 6i""s 25,199 5,565 E19,634
:nite# /%4% 6i""s 44,665 36,9! E,!6
2aro 6i""s 11,64 !,949 E2,25
,i9o 6i""s 15,!34 1$,3$ E5,464
The a'o&e ta'"e shows that on"7 1$,!4$ persons came to Assam #urin) the #eca#e 1951=61 which in
pro'a'"7 impossi'"e% So far as Assam is concerne#% The 'irth=p"ace statistics cannot at a"" 'e re"ie# upon% (n the
#istricts such as 2oa"para, /amrup, etc%, where the rate of increase was a'norma""7 hi)h, 'irth=p"ace statistics
fai"e# to show the e?pecte# num'er of immi)rants% (n areas where the increase was a'norma", a"most a"" the
persons returne# their p"ace of 'irth either as P%L% Bp"ace of "i&in)C or + Bwithin the #istrict of enumerationC or in
some cases, other #istricts of the State of enumeration% As the 'irth=p"ace information of Assam in the 1961
census was com=
p"ete"7 unre"ia'"e, the #istrict wise as we"" as the State immi)ration rate or the num'er of immi)rants cou"# not
'e ca"cu"ate# e&en with the "east #e)ree of accurac7%
4
The fo""owin) ta'"e wi"" furnish #etai"s of forei)n nationa"s in Assam in 1961 an# 1951 as per 1961
census report% (n these #etai"s howe&er, forei)ners from a few important forei)n countries on"7 ha&e 'een shows%
Statement showin) forei)n nationa" '7 countr7 of ori)in in Assam in 1951 an# 1961%
4!
Persons 'orn in 3ationa"s of
1961 1951 1961 1951
3ame of the
forei)n ma"e fema"e ma"e fema"e ma"e fema"e ma"e fema"e
countr7%
Pa.istan 4,3!,199 3,36,6$ 4,64,44$ 3,6,432 2!,19$ 1!,9!9 1,36,54 96,$2
3epa" 53,1!9 29,435 35,62$ 2$,$$5 15,51$ 6,434 11,46! 6,$!3
1urma 1,!19 1,244 1,29$ 1,96 !5 22 14! 151
1hutan 514 449 !9 2!6 26 21 9 13
:%/% 54! 22 94 5$! 425 362 954 53
5hina 332 11 31$ 6! 2$9 65 3$ 1$3
Af)hanistan 245 3 112 5 124 4 6 2
:%S%A% 1$5 63 6! $ 4$ 46 65 55
Accor#in) to 'oth ,r% Fa)haiwa""a, Superinten#ent of 5ensus Operation,Assam,1951 census an# ,r%
Pa.7ntein, Superinten#ent of 5ensus Operations,Assam,1961,as far as mi)ration fi)ure re"atin) to erstwhi"e East
Pa.istan Bnow 1an)"a#eshCis concerne#,#ata are not re"ia'"e% The a'o&e ta'"e shows !31,!2 as Pa.istan 'orn
peop"e in 1951,whi"e the fi)ure of such persons #roppe# to ,4,!69 in 1961% Ac=cor#in) to ,r%Pa.7ntein,
,us"im immi)rants who returne# their 'irth p"ace cor=

4% 5ensus of (n#ia, 1961, Assam, Part (=A, p%1
4!% 5ensus of (n#ia, 1961, Assam, Part (=A, p%132%
PEOPLE 239
rect"7 in the 1951census,ha&e recor#e# as Assam #urin) this B1961Ccensus%
49
,oreo&er,in 1961, reha'i"itation
'enefits ha# a"most cease# to e?ist an# the passport an# &isa s7stem a"so 'ecome &er7 ti)ht% Peop"e comin) from
East Pa.istan Bnow=1an)"a#eshCinto Assam from 1961,therefore,ha# nothin) to )ain '7 )i&in) their true 'irth
p"ace%
5$
Thou)h the a'o&e ta'"e )i&es 232,!26 persons as Pa.istani nationa"s in Assam in 1951Lin 1961Lthe
Pa.istani nationa"s enumerate# in Assam was foun# to 'e on"7 4,19% Out of these a"so,on"7 6952 were ,us"im
passport ho"#ers on 1%3%61% The remainin) fi)ures for 1961 of Pa.istani nationa"s were,therefore,6in#u from
East Pa.istan Bnow 1an)"a#eshCwho ha# passports an# &isas%
51
This re#uction in num'er was perhaps #ue to enforcement of the immi)rants BE?pu"sion from
AssamCAct,195$% Accor#in) to ,r%Fa)haiwa""a,Superinten#ent of 5ensus Operations,Assam,1951,the same &er7
ten#enc7 to return as in#i)enous was prominent amon)st the refu)ees of 5achar pro'a'"7 #ue to the )o&ernment
po"ic7 of priorit7 to in#i)enous persons in the )o&ernment po"ic7 of priorit7 to in#i)enous persons in the matters
of recruitment for )o&ernment emp"o7ment,a""otment of 2o&ernment "an# an# #istri'ution of contract,permits
an# "icences%
52
Accor#in) to ,r% Pa.7ntein, the Superinten#ent of 5ensus operations,Assam,1961,at "east 5,2$,$$$
peop"e mi)rate# into Assam #urin) 1951=61% The num'er of mus"im immi)rants into Assam from east Pa.istan
Bnow 1an)"aeshC #urin) this perio# ha# 'een wor.e# out to 'e a'out 22$,$$% So the remainin) 3$$,$$$ must 'e
6in#u #isp"ace# persons an# other non=mus"im persons who came to Assam from other parts of (n#ia%
53
The 191 census )i&es the num'er of immi)rants into Assam as 1,5$3,543% This fi)ure is a"so not
re"ia'"e an# cannot 'e use# to ma.e an7 &a"i# estimate of )rowth of either immi)rants themse"&es or the tota"
popu"ation of the State e?c"u#in) the immi)rants% Ta.in) the who"e popu"ation of 3%29 mi""ion of Assam in 19$1
as Iin#i)enousI an# app"7in) the a""=(n#ia rate of increase of 129,6J from 19$1 to 191 its popu"ation in 191
shou"# ha&e 'een %56 mi""ion instea# of 14%63 mi""ion%
54
Se? ratio of Assam as per 191 census a"so ref"ects the ma)nitu#e of immi)ration f"ow to Assam% The
se? ratio of immi)rants increase# consi#era'"7 in ten 7ears from 1961 to 191% ,i)rants from 3epa" ha# 3$
fema"es per 1$$$ ma"es in 191 a)ainst 5!4 fema"es per 1$$$ ma"es in 1961 whi"e these from 1an)"a#esh rose
from 2 fema"es per 1$$$ ma"es in 1961 to !64 fema"es per 1$$$ ma"es in 191%

49% 5ensus of (n#ia, 1961, Assam, 2enera" report, p%2
5$% ('i#,p% 134
51% ('i#, p%132=33
52% 5ensus of (n#ia, 1951, Fo"=(((, Assam, Part=(=A, -eport, p%35!
53% 5ensus of (n#ia, 1961, Fo"=(((, Assam, Part (=A, 2enera" -eport, p%2%
54% 5ensus of (n#ia, 191, Part= (=A= 2enera" -eport, p%1$%
for a"" t7pes of immi)rants ta.en to)ether,se? ratio was 699 fema"es for e&er7 1$$$ ma"es in 191 a)ainst 62
fema"es per 1$$$ ma"es in 1961%
55
The num'er of 3epa"i spea.in) peop"e in Assam was 1,22,!23 in 1951 in 1961,the num'er increase# to
2,15,213%
56
(t a"most #ou'"e# in 191 'ein) 3,49,116%
5
That means,#urin) the #eca#e 1961=191 the num'er of
3epa"is increase# '7 a"most !$ per cent%

55% 5ensus of (n#ia, 191, Assam, Part= (= A 2enera" -eport, p%2$%
56% 5ensus of (n#ia, 1961, Fo"=(((, Assam, Part=(=A, 2enera" -eport, p% 21$%
5% 5ensus of (n#ia, 191, Assam, Part= (= A, 2enera" -eport, p%91%
PEOPLE 241
The amount of emi)ration from Assam was &er7 sma""% E?cept in the case of 1en)a", the fi)ures were
ne)"i)i'"e% The ta'"e 'e"ow )i&es us the summarise# fi)ures of emi)ration from Assam%
5!
1931 1921 1911
Tota" Emi)rants 2,!54 5,!96 9,1
To 1en)a" 63,416 6!,!$2 6,1
To 1urma 4,46 3,$1! 3,242
To 1ihar8 Orissa 2,$3$ 949 6,362
To :nite# Pro&inces 1,163 9$4 1,222
To 5entra" Pro&inces 5! 12 191
To 1om'a7 333 691 143
To Pun0a' 322 4$4 15
To Other Pro&inces
an# States 52! 1,116 54!
To out si#e (n#ia 4BSri"an.aC 1$ 524
D%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
The 'a"ance of mi)ration,i%e%,the e?cess of immi)ration in fa&our of Assam in 1931 stoo# at E1,241,$$$
for (n#ia a"one% (n 1921,the correspon#in) 'a"ance was E141,$$$ an# in 1911,E52,$$$%
59
(n 1951,the fi)ure of immi)ration fe"" further #own 'ein) 45,9!6 a)ainst 3,223 in 1931% There ha# 'een
no chan)e in the &o"ume an# #irection of emi)ration since 1921% A'out 2 per cent of them were foun# in
a#0acent states of ,anipur,Tripura an# ;est 1en)a"% ;est 1en)a" was actua""7 responsi'"e for the "ar)est
num'er of emi)rants B19,5$Cfrom Assam% ;est 1en)a" owe# its "ar)e proportion to the casua" an# temporar7
'or#er mo&ement from 2oa"para an# to a num'er of stu#ents an# 'usinessmen in 5a"cutta% The few hun#re#
Assam 'orn peop"e foun# in 1ihar,Orissa,:ttar Pra#esh,,a#h7a Pra#esh an# Tami"na#u were pro'a'"7 chi"#ren
of repatriate# tea )ar#en "a'ourers an# a few men of the e#ucate# c"asses an# tra#ers% E?cept ;est 1en)a",ne?t
#oor nei)h'our of Assam,the fi)ures of other States are ne)"i)i'"e,e)%1ihar B2,466C,:ttar Pra#esh B3,33C an#
,a#h7a Pra#esh B1,669C%
:nfortunate"7,the num'er of emi)rants outsi#e (n#ia was not a&ai"a'"e 'ut it was sure"7 not "ar)e% Of
emi)ration to Pa.istan,the 5ensus )i&es no fi)ure% The too much o&ercrow#e# state of 1an)"a#esh,the erstwhi"e
East Pa.istan,which sent out an immense num'er of emi)rants to Assam itse"f,cou"# not ha&e much attraction
for Assamese to )o an# sett"e there% Aorme"7, there was some mo&ement

5!% Census of India,1911,Fo",(((, Assam, Part=1=-eport, p%3$ an# 1931, Fo",(((, Assam, Part= 1=-eport, p=454%
59% Ibid, p%54%
to 1urma in connection with tra#e an# ser&ice% 3epa" ha# no census fi)ures an# num'er of emi)rants to 3epa"
cou"# not e&en 'e )uesse#%
(n the past,Assam especia""7 the 1rahmaputra Fa""e7 use# to 'e sin)u"ar"7 free from communa"
tension,not to ta". of communa" riots% The 1931 5ensus -eport was first one to refer to the remar.a'"e an#
#eci#e# chan)e for the worse that came o&er #urin) 1921=31 a'out the re"ations 'etween the 6in#u an# ,us"im
communities% As the resu"t of intro#uction of minorit7 concept '7 ,or"e&=,into -eforms 5ommission which
in0ecte# 'a# '"oo# of #i&ision un#er the I#i&i#e an# ru"eI po"ic7 of 1ritish #ip"omats,a section of the ,us"ims
came to #e&e"op a separatist ten#enc7% The increasin) communa" 'itterness an# riots in other parts of (n#ia an#
the acti&ities of some irresponsi'"e e"ements in the Press ha# their ine&ita'"e repercussions in Assam% Farious
e?pe#ients #e&ise# '7 the Assam a#ministration "i.e the IILine S7stemII,'a"ance# co"oni9ation
schemes,amen#ments of the Assam Lan# an# -e&enue -e)u"ation,Assam BE?pu"sion of immi)rantsCAct%
195$,as we"" as some po"itica" factors #i# not he"p to impro&e the situation% The continue# rush of the 6in#u
refu)ees from erstwhi"e East Pa.istan,e&er since the Partition ti"" after the communa" #istur'ances in East
Pa.istan in ear"7 195$intensifie# the fee"in) of communa" hatre# an# "e# to riots in Lower Assam a"so%
As a resu"t,near"7 one "a.h of ,us"ims from 2oa"para,5achar,/amrup,+arran) an) 3a)on "eft their
homes an# 'ecame #isp"ace#% A "ar)e num'er of ,us"ims #isp"ace# from pre#ominant"7 6in#u areas shifte#
temporari"7 to comparati&e"7 so far ,us"im ma0orit7 areas of the same of the nei)h'ourin) #istrict from where
the7 returne# to their homes in a few #a7s time as soon as communa" passions a'ate# a "itt"e% The num'er of
#isp"ace# ,us"ims who were reporte# to ha&e mi)rate# to Pa.istan was aroun# a "a.h% The areas from where
,us"ims were #isp"ace# an# the appro?imate num'er of ,us"im fami"ies each area are )i&en 'e"ow as reporte#
'7 the State authorities%
6$
3ame of +isp"ace# Actua" num'ers who
+istrict fami"ies "eft for East Pa.istan
Bnow 1an)"a#eshC
2oa"para 2,$$$ 6$,$$$
/amrup 1$,!$$ 2$,$$$
5achar 5,$$$ 14,$$$
+arran) !,5$$$ 6,$$$
3a)aon 1,3$$$ ==

Tota" 52,6$$ 1$$,$$$

6$% Census of India, 1951, Fo"=H((, Assam, ,anipur an# Tripura, Part 1= A, -eport, p% !$=!1%
PEOPLE 243
2enera" sense of communa" harmon7 pre&a"ent amon) the Assamese peop"e,howe&er,soon reasserte#
itse"f an# #ue to the 3ehru=LiaGuat A)reement in Apri",195$,an# a#eGuate measures ta.en '7 the authorities in
Assam for the maintenance of "aw an# or#er,e&en those who ha# emi)rate# soon returne# to their ori)ina"
homes%
61
As the 'irth p"ace information of Assam in the 1961% 5ensus was comp"ete"7 unre"ia'"e,the #istrict wise
as we"" as the State emi)ration rates cou"# not 'e ca"cu"ate# e&en with the "ist #e)ree of accurac7% As per the
fi)ures co""ecte# from the Superinten#ents of 5ensus operation of the other States an# from the 1961 census
report,tota" num'er of persons emi)rate# to other states of (n#ia was 116,112 in 1961 a)ainst 45,9!6 in
1951,showin) a #ifference of on"7 $,126% The fi)ure of emi)ration from Assam to forei)n countries #urin)
1951=61 was not a&ai"a'"e%
62
As the fi)ures of emi)ration from Assam #urin) 1961=1 were not )i&en in the 191 an# 1991 5ensus
-eports,so the same cannot 'e #iscusse#%
(t showe# 'e mentione# that the Assam,s fi)ures of emi)ration an# immi)ration so far #iscusse# a'o&e
upto 1931 inc"u#e the fi)ures of ,anipur,3a)a"an#,,e)ha"a7a an# ,i9oram% The state fi)ures e?c"u#e ,anipur
an# S7"het from 1951,3a)a"an# from 1961,an# ,e)ha"a7a an# ,i9oram from 191% ,oreo&er,fi)ures of
immi)ration to an emi)ration from Assam for the perio# from 191 to 1991 cou"# not 'e #iscusse# owin) to
non=a&ai"a'i"it7 of 1991 census fi)ures of the same%
B((C+istri'ution 'etween ur'an an# rura" areas <
Assam 'ein) pure"7 an a)ricu"tura" pro&ince,ten#s to retar# the pace of the formation of ur'an areas% (ts
"ar)est an# most important in#ustr7 is tea cu"ti&ation,an# the tea )ar#ens ha&e their own "oca" mar.ets an#
resi#ent tra#ers%
The 5ensus,1931,informs us that the tota" num'ers of person "i&in) in towns in Assam increase# from
25!,14! in 1921 to 315,91 in 1931 an# the rura" popu"ation was 66 per mi"e of the tota" popu"ation of the State%
The fi)ures 'e"ow c"ear"7 sma"" was the proportion of the ur'an popu"ation in Assam in 1931 compare# with
other pro&inces in (n#ia an# a"so how sma"" was the proportion in other pro&inces in (n#ia compare# with
in#ustria" countries "i.e En)"an# an# ;a"es% The Assam fi)ure of 34 per mi"e wou"# ha&e come #own to 2! per
mi"e,if the two=thir# of the (mpha" popu"ation of !6,$$$ which was not strict"7 ur'an were not inc"u#e# in ur'an
popu"ation enumeration in 1931%

61% Census of India, 1951,Fo"%= H((, Assam, ,anipur an# Tripura Part 1= A= -eport, p%!1%
62% Census of India, 1961, Fo"=(((, Part 1=A= 2enera" -eport, p% 1=125%
Numer per mile !"o li#e in to!n$
En)"an# an# ;a"es !$$
(n#ia 11$
1om'a7 211
,a#ras 136
1en)a" 6
:nite# Pro&inces 112
1ihar an# Orissa 4$
Assam 34
The percenta)e increase in the ur'an popu"ation of Assam #urin) the #eca#e 1921=31 was 22%4 which
was hi)her than the )enera" popu"ation increase of 15%per centLthe increase was sprea# o&er a"" c"asses of towns
"i.e Shi""on),2uwahati,S7"het,Si"char,3a)aon,Te9pur,+hu'ri an# 4orhat which were a"" #istrict hea#Guarters an#
fa&oura'"7 situate# for the purpose of tra#e% The on"7 towns which ha# increase# '7 "ess than 2$ per cent was
+i'ru)arh an# Tinsu.ia%
:pto 1951,a cantonment area,with a con)re)ate# popu"ation of 5$$$ an# a'o&e,a ,unicipa" area an# a""
ci&i" "ines not 7et co&ere# '7 a ,unicipa"it7 were consi#ere# as towns%
The criteria of #eterminin) a 5ensus Town a#opte# in 1961,191 an# 1991 census areLBiCa"" notifie#
,unicipa" 5orporation or ,unicipa" 1oar#s% Town committees,cantonments,etc%,are treate# as ur'an areas
irrespecti&e of their popu"ation si9e%,BiiCthe p"aces not notifie# as ,unicipa" 5orporation or ,unicipa"
1oar#s,Town 5ommittees 'ut contain a minimum popu"ation of 5$$$, a #ensit7 of popu"ation of at "east 4$$
persons per sGuare an# at "east three=fourth of the ma"e popu"ation en)a)e# in non=a)ricu"tura" pursuits are a"so
treate# as towns%
(n 1911,there were 21 ur'an territories in Assam an# on"7 si? towns ha# a popu"ation of 1$,$$$ an# o&er%
(n 1931,num'er of such towns increase# to nine 'esi#es three other town with popu"ation 'etween 2$,$$$ to
5$,$$$% :pto 1951,there was &er7 s"ow ur'an e?pansion in the State an# there were on"7 24 ur'an territories in
Assam in 1951%
There was no concentration in an7 sin)"e c"ass of towns in 191,a"thou)h c"ass=(F towns ha&in)
popu"ation 'e"ow 2$,$$$ 'ut a'o&e 999$ stren)th accounte# for the 'i))est percenta)e of ur'an popu"ation
B24%$5 p%cC% (n 1991 5ensus,as four towns name"7 +i'ru)arh,Si"char,4orhat an# 2uwahati were c"assifie# as
c"assO1 towns a)ainst on"7 one town,i%e%,2uwahati in 191 5ensus,the c"ass=1 towns showe# a hi)hest
percenta)e of popu"ation B3%56 per%centC%
PEOPLE 245
The ta'"e 'e"ow shows the num'er of towns an# town )roups in each c"ass of towns in Assam from 19$1
to 1991%
63
3um'er of towns un#er each si9e c"ass
@ear Tota" ( (( ((( (F F F(
19$1 12 = = = 2 6 4
1911 14 = = = 3 ! 3
1921 22 = = = 4 6 12
1931 22 = = 1 5 9
1941 24 = = 2 6 6 1$
1951 24 = = 6 4
1961 53 1 1 1$ 9 21 11
191 69 1 5 9 24 22 !
1991 ! 4 4 2$ 32 15 12
Arom the a'o&e statement,it is o'ser&e# that the num'er of c"ass=( town in Assam in
1961 as we"" as in 191 was one i%e%,2uwahati% (n 1991,with the a##ition of +i'ru)arh :r'an
A))"omeration,Si"char B,unicipa" 1oar#Can# 4orhat :r'an A))"omeration area,the num'er of c"ass=( town in
the State has )one up to four% (n 191,the 2uwahati :r'an A))"omeration was ta.en into account wherein the
then 2uwahati ,unicipa"it7,Pan#u -ai"wa7 town,/ama.h7a Town 5ommittee an# some a#0acent &i""a)e were
inc"u#e#% 1ut after 191 5ensus 2uwahati ,unicipa" 5orporation was forme# '7 co&erin) the entire
A))"omeration area an# few other a#0acent areas%
(n 1961,the on"7 c"ass=(( town in Assam was +i'ru)arh% 1ut in 191,the num'er has increase# to fi&e
with the a##ition of Si"char,Tinsu.ia,3a)aon an# 4orhat :r'an A))"omeration% Owin) to up)ra#ation of three
towns &i9%,+i'ru)arh,Si"char an# 4orhat :r'an A))"omeration from c"ass=(( in 191 to c"ass=( in 1991 an# as
we"" as two towns name"7,+hu'ri an# Te9pur from 5"ass=((( in 191 to 5"ass=(( in 1991,the num'er of c"ass=((
towns has )one #own to four in 1991%
The )rowth of sma""er towns 'oth in terms of the num'er as we"" as popu"ation has 'een faster in
comparison to those of hi)her si9e c"ass% The num'er of towns of 5"ass=((( has )one up from 9 to 2$ #urin)
191=91% The num'er of towns in si9e c"ass=(F which )rew &er7 mar)ina""7 'etween 19$1 an# 1961

63% Census of India, 1991, Series= 4,Assam, Pro&isiona" Popu"ation tota", rura"= ur'an +istri'ution, p%21%
has )rown &er7 fast 'etween 1961=1 an# 191=91% The up)ra#ation of sma""er towns at a faster rate has cause#
#ecrease in num'er of towns in the si9e c"ass F from 22 in 191 to 15 in 1991% 6owe&er,there was &er7 "itt"e
)rowth of towns in this si9e c"ass from 19$1 to 1951% The num'er of c"ass=Fi towns has increase# from ! in
191 to 12 in 1991 #ue to notification of sma"" towns,&i9%,+o.mo.a, 6amren an# 6owra)hat in /ar'i An)"on)
+istrict an# ,ahur in 3orth 5achar 6i""s +istrict%
Since the turn of the centur7 the town an# ur'an popu"ation of Assam )rows in s"ow pace compare# to
the nationa" "e&e" as shown 'e"ow%
+istri'ution of towns an# ur'an popu"ation 19$1=91%
@ear 3o%of Tota" :r'an :r'an popu"ation s per=
:r'an a))= popu"ation popu"ation centa)e of tota" popu"ation
"omerations
8 Towns Assam A"" (n#ia
1 2 3 4 5 6
19$1 12 3,2!9,6!$ ,$4 2,34 1$,!4
1911 14 3,!4!61 92,916 2,41 1$,29
1921 22 4,636,9!$ 12,1$ 2,4 11,1!
1931 22 5,56$,31 162,166 2,92 11,99
1941 24 6,694,9$ 2$!,$6 3,11 13,!6
1951 24 !,$2!,!5! 344,!31 4,29 1,29
1961 53 1$,!3,329 !1,2!! ,21 1,9
191 69 14,625,152 1,2!9,222 !,!2 19,19
1991 ! 22,414,322 2,4!,95 11,$! 25,2
Source <=+irector of 5ensus Operations,Assam
Arom the a'o&e ta'"e it is seen that the ur'an popu"ation 'oth in terms of a'so"ute an# percenta)e as we""
as the num'er of towns an Assam increase# sharp"7 since 1951% +urin) the #eca#e 1951=61,the num'er of towns
an# tota" ur'an popu"ation 'ecame #ou'"e,the tota" num'er of towns stoo# at 53 in 1961 as a)ainst 24 in 1951
an# the tota" ur'an popu"ation increase# from 344,!31 in 1951 to !1,1!! in 1961% +urin) the perio# from 1961
to 191,the ur'an popu"ation increase# '7 5$,934 with an a##ition of 16 new towns% 24 new ur'an areas were
a##e# with an increase of popu"ation '7 1,9!,53 in a'so"ute term #urin) the two #eca#es from 191 to 1991
an# the percenta)e of ur'an
PEOPLE 24
popu"ation to tota" popu"ation in Assam increase# to 11%$! per cent in 1991 from !%!2 per cent in 191%
As per 191 5ensus, +i'ru)arh #istrict with 16%12J ur'an popu"ation is the most ur'anise# #istrict in
the State% /amrup with 11%J ur'an popu"ation fo""ows a c"ose# secon#% The "east ur'anise# #istrict is /ar'i
An)"on) where on"7 2%69 per cent of the popu"ation "i&e# in the so"itar7 town of +iphu% Amon) the p"ains
#istricts,+arran) ha# the "owest percenta)e of ur'an popu"ation in 191% One interestin) feature is that e?cept
La.himpur an# /amrup,a"" the other #istricts ha&e sma""er percenta)e of ur'an popu"ation as compare# to the
State fi)ure%
(n 1991 census,/amrup #istrict with 32%61 per cent ur'an popu"ation came first fo""owe# '7 3orth
5achar #istrict with 22%9$ per cent in secon# an# +i'ru)arh with 1%4! per cent in thir# in the "e&e" of
ur'anisation in the State% The +hema0i #istrict with 1%! per cent ur'an popu"ation contains the "owest
proportion% The increase of popu"ation at a &er7 hi)h rate in the hea#Guarters town of 6af"on) as we"" as the
a##ition of new towns of ,ai'on) an# ,ahur resu"te# in increase of ur'an popu"ation in 3orth 5achar 6i""s
#istrict from 6%!3 per cent in 191 to 22%9$ per cent in 1991%
E?tension of 'oun#aries of +iphu town coup"e# with the notification of
1o.a0an,+on.amo.am,+o.mo.a,6amren an# 6owra)hat as new towns recor#e# hi)h popu"ation in /ar'i
An)"on) #istrict at 1$%2 per cent in 1991 as a)ainst 2%69 per cent in 191% The proportion of ur'an popu"ation in
/arim)an0 #istrict #ec"ine# from 9%96 per cent in 191 to %2! per cent in 1991 #ue to #ec"assification of
-am.rishna)ar town in 1991 an# re#uction of the area of 1a#arpur Town committee '7 2o&ernment notification
in 199%
64
A"uctuation in the si9e of rura" popu"ation in Assam has a"so some interestin) features% The statement
'e"ow show the #istrict wise rura" popu"ation in Assam 'oth in a'so"ute terms an# in percenta)e%
65

64% Census of India, 1991, Assam Pro&isiona" Popu"ation=Tota"s, -ura"= :r'an +istri'ution, p% 4%
65% Ibid, p% 19, an# Statistica" han# 1oo., Assam, 1994, p%5%
+istrict wise rura" popu"ation an# percenta)e of rura" popu"ation%
S"% -ura" Popu"ation Percenta)e of
3o% 191 1991 -ura" popu"ation
to tota" popu"ation
191 1991
State*+istrict
1 2 3 4 5 6
Assam 13,335,93$ 19,926,52 91%1! !!%9
1%+hu'ri 5,!25 1,1$,494 !9%$5 !%!4
2%/o.ra0har 435,!59 49,935 96%23 93%66
3%1on)ai)aon 45$,494 33,669 91%!5 9$%!5
4%2oa"para 411,4!1 616,$42 94%92 92%2
5%1arpeta 9$$,159 1,2!!,341 92%91 92%9
6%3a"'ari 665,112 992,915 9%6! 9%69
%/amrup 956,265 1,344,!56 9%23 6%24
!%+arran) !34,!36 1,234,!6 92%11 95%$
9%Sonitpur !$2,4$4 1,32$,39 96%15 92%$
1$%La.himpur 455,4!! $2,3! 94%3 93%46
11%+hema0i 23$,62 469,62 1$$%$$ 9!%14
12%,ori)aon 423,9$1 6$6,693 1$$%$$ 94%!4
13%3a)aon 1,132,299 1,6!,449 9$,4 !9,13
14%2o"a)hat 495,145 9,25! 94,55 94,1
15%4othat 56!,!23 3!,14 !6%91 !4,3
16%Si'sa)ar 613,9$2 !42,294 93%!2 92%6
1%+i'ru)arh 642,13$ !5!,!4 !4%! !2%3!
1!%Tinsu.ia 541,459 !$3,624 !2%3 !3%51
19%/ar'i An)"on) 369,11$ 592,25 9%32 !9%36
2$%3orth 5achar
6i""s $,!5$ 116,315 93%1 %13
21%/arim)an0 524,133 66,6!2 9$%$4 92%69
22%6ai"a.an#i 2!5,515 414,91$ 92%9 92%39
23%5achar 6,9! 1,$96,161 93%26 9$%1$
PEOPLE 249
(t is o'ser&e# here that rura" popu"ation of Assam has #roppe# '7 2%2! per cent #urin) the perio# from
191 to 1991% The percenta)e of rura" popu"ation in 1991 was !!%9 compare# to 91%! in 191% 1oth +hema0i an#
,ari)aon #istricts ha# on"7 rura" popu"ation in 191% 1ut the percenta)e of rura" popu"ation of +hema0i an#
,ori)aon #istricts in 1991 stan# at 9!%14 an# 94%!4% ,ost of the #istricts of the State ha&e shown a fa"" in rura"
popu"ation #urin) the perio# 191=91% The rura" popu"ation of Tinsu.ia #istrict has increase# from !2%3 per cent
of the tota" #istrict popu"ation in 191 to !3%51 per cent in 1991%
The percenta)e of rura" popu"ation in 3a"'ari #istrict a"most remains same in 1991 as that of 191%
2o"a)hat #istrict shows a s"i)ht fa"" of percenta)e of rura" popu"ation to 94%1 in 1991 from 94%55 in 191% The
percenta)e of rura" popu"ation of /amrup #istrict which stan#s at 6%39 per cent in 1991 compare# to 9%23 per
cent in 191 is the "owest in Assam%
The #ensit7 of ur'an areas in Assam is &er7 "ow% (t is on"7 3$$3 per sGuare .i"ometre in 1911% The ur'an #ensit7
in the p"ains was hi)her than the State a&era)e% Amon)st the p"ains #istricts 5achar has the hi)hest ur'an #ensit7
!46 persons per sGuare .i"ometre fo""owe# '7 +hu'ri with 5946 an# then 3a)aon with 5!$! per sGuare
.i"ometre in 1911%
(n rura" Assam,a)ainst the o&er a"" #ensit7 of 2!6 person per sGuare .i"ometre in the State the #ensit7
was s"i)ht"7 "ower,256 in 1911% (t was &er7 "ow compare# to some of the States "i.e 1ihar or ;est 1en)a" #ue to
the &ast uninha'ita'"e 0un)"e an# roc.7 areas of Assam 6i""s%
The ta'"e 'e"ow )i&es the #ensit7 of tota" rura" an# ur'an popu"ation of Assam in 1991%
+ensit7 of popu"ation in Assam in 1991%
State*+istrict +ensit7 of popu"ation per sG%.m
in the in -ura" areas in :r'an areas
+istrict
B1C B2C B3C B4C
Assam 2!6 256 3$$3
+hu'ri 4$ 416 5946
/o.ra0har 256 22$ 2949
1on)ai)aon 322 294 443!
2oa"para 366 34$ 29$$
B1C B2C B3C B4C
1arpeta 42 399 4262
3a"'ari 45$ 442 16!!
/amrup 46$ 329 2529
+arran) 33 356 43$5
Sonitpur 26! 249 396
La.himpur 33$ 31$ 3121
+hema0i 146 145 254$
,ari)aon 35 359 1!4$
3a)aon 494 444 5!$!
2o"a)hat 236 223 26
4orhat 3$6 265 269
Si'sa)ar 34$ 319 21!
+i'ru)arh 3$! 25 441!
Tinsu.ia 254 21 1!1
/ar'i An)"on) 64 5 19$5
3%5%6i""s 31 24 19!3
/arim)an0 45 426 4953
6ai"a.an#i 33! 31 39$1
5achar 321 29$ !46
Source <=5a"cu"ate# on the 'asis of the #ata co""ecte# from the +irectorate
of 5ensus Operations,Assam,2uwahati%
(n 1951,amon) the p"ains #istricts rura" 5achar ha# the hi)hest #ensit7 of 392 person per sGuare mi"e
fo""owe# &er7 c"ose"7 '7 rura" 3a)oan which ha# 39$ persons per sG%mi"e% -ura" .amrup ha# 369 persons per
sG%mi"e whi"e La.himpur ha# the "owest #ensit7 of 252 persons per sG% mi"e% The #ensit7 of rura" Assam 6i""s
was 41% 1ut in 1961,3a)aon toppe# the "ist with a #ensit7 of 55$ per sG% mi"e fo""owe# '7 /amrup with 541 per
sG% mi"e% The #istrict with the "owest #ensit7 in the Assam p"ains was La.himpur with 312 per sG% mi"e% The per
sG%.i"ometre #ensit7 fi)ure for 191 esta'"ishe# rura" 3a)aon as the most #ense"7 popu"ate# #istrict fo""owe# '7
rura" /amrup an# 'rou)ht rura" 5achar to the thir# position% (f the areas co&ere# '7 forests an# waste "an#s not
un#er cu"ti&ation are su'stracte# from the tota" #istrict area,the effecti&e #ensit7 of Assam p"ains #istrict wi""
show that 5achar occupie# the first p"ace with 54!
PEOPLE 251
effecti&e popu"ation per sG% .i"ometre,fo""owe# '7 2oa"para with 533 an# then /amrup with 5$9 per sG%
.i"ometre in 191%
66
Li.e the other States of (n#ia,Assam a"so ha# #rift towar#s town% This #rift a"so contri'ute# towar#s the
increase of ur'an popu"ation in the State in Assam p"ains% The #ifference 'etween census )rowth an# natura"
increase was the sma""est in 1931=4$,&i9,21,6$5 a)ainst 24,964 in 1921=3$,an# 1941=5$,the num'er was
1$$,4!5% This "ar)e #ifference was,of course,main"7 #ue to the 'a"ance of mi)ration into the ur'an areas% 3atura"
increase in ur'an Assam in 1941=5$ was on"7 2$,1!$ whereas the #ifference the census )rowth minus the natura"
increase was &er7 near"7 fi&e times &i9%,1$$,4!5% This #ifference s"i)ht"7 e?cee#e# natura" increase for the
#eca#e 1931=4$ whereas for the ear"ier #eca#e 1921=3$,it was we"" o&er three times% This )i&es us an i#ea as to
how important the net mi)ration of rura" popu"ation into ur'an areas was% +urin) that time,the mi)ration
consiste# main"7 of e#ucate# peop"e in rura" areas comin) into ur'an for a 'etter an# more secure# means of
"i&e"ihoo# as we"" as to en0o7 'etter e#ucationa" an# me#ica" faci"ities as we"" other amenities in the towns% At
the 5ensus,1951,howe&er,there was a particu"ar an# easi"7 reco)nisa'"e mi)ration stream% (n 1951,54,454
refu)ees were recor#e# in the ur'an areas of Assam%
6
The7 were attracte# to towns or their outs.irts 'ecause of
the )reater='ase an# faci"ities a&ai"a'"e therein to ma.e out a "i&e"ihoo#% (f their num'ers are su'stracte#,the
#ifference 'etween census )rowth an# natura" increase for the #eca#e 1941=5$ narrows #own to 46,$31 which is
on"7 s"i)ht"7 more than #ou'"e the natura" increase%
The statement in the ne?t pa)e pa)e shows rura" to rura" mi)ration as we"" as rura" to ur'an mi)ration
within same #istrict in a"" the #istricts of Assam as we"" as for the State for such .in# of mo&ements as foun# in
1961 census% These are mo&ements or mi)ration within the #istricts an# so the7 ma7 'e casua",temporar7,semi=
permanent an# permanent% The7 ma7 'e occasione# '7 socia" customs,tra#e an# wor.%
66% census of India, 191, Series=3, Part 1=A, 2enera" -eport, p% 6
6% Census of India, 1951, Fo"= H((, Assam, ,anipur an# Tripura, Part=(=A, -eport ,p % 15%
Arom the ta'"e a'o&e,it ma7'e seen that in the p"ains of Assam,the num'er of fema"es far e?cee#s that of ma"es
in the mi)ration from rura" to rura" areas within each #istrict% (n the case of 5achar #istrict, the num'er of
fema"es is a'out three times the num'er of ma"es% This su))est that the mo&ement of the fema"e popu"ation is
"ar)e"7 occasione# '7 marria)e 'ecause accor#in) to )enera" custom,fema"es ha&e to mo&e to the homes of their
hus'an#s after marria)e e?cept in some few cases% (t ma7 'e seen that in the case of mi)ration for #uration of
"ess than one 7ear,there is a "ot of f"uctuation in the &arious #istricts% This is #ue to the fact that mi)ration ma7
co&er such casua" mi)ration in&o"&in) minor mo&ements 'etween nei)h'ourin) &i""a)es "ar)e"7 '7 wa7 of
mi)ration or on account of other socia" an# fami"7 functions an# other e&ents "i.e funera" ceremonies% Another
custom pre&a"ent in the p"ains #istricts is that 7oun) marrie# women often )o to their parents houses for
confinement or other reasons an# so chi"#ren are 'orn in their parents home,such chi"#ren wou"# appear to 'e
mi)ration when su'seGuent"7 the7 are ta.en to the homes of their fathers% Some peop"e ma7 a)ain mo&e from
one area to another area in search of seasona" "a'our #urin) s"ac. season in their homes% +urin) har&estin)
season a"so some peop"e )o homes of their parents of re"ati&es to he"p an# so a"" such peop"e appear to 'e
temporar7 mi)rants% 1ut e&en permanent mi)rants are a"so co&ere# '7 this #uration if the7 ha&e mi)rate# to that
part of the #istrict for the first time%
(n Assam,ur'an areas are &er7 sma"" compare# to the rura" areas% The o&era"" ma"e an# fema"e ratio in
the ur'an areas a"so shows the mi)ration nature of the ur'an popu"ation% (t ma7,howe&er,'e note# that in case of
mi)ration from rura" areas to ur'an areas,the ma"e popu"ation )enera""7 far e?cee#s that of the fema"e
popu"ation% This is #ue to the fact that when )oin) to "i&e in towns an# cities,on"7 men )enera""7 mo&e in at first
#ue to "ac. of accommo#ation an# other factors% The other reason is that inha'itants of one p"ace resi#e an# earn
their "i&in) in the ur'an areas of another #istrict,'ut retain connection with their own homes where the7 "ea&e
their fami"ies #urin) the perio# of mi)ration,an# to which to return at inter&a"s #urin) their wor.in) "i&es an#
u"timate"7 on retirement at their o"# a)e% As the womenfo". are "eft at home,the 'u". of the mi)rants wou"#
usua""7 'e men%
The ta'"e p"ace# 'e"ow )i&es the num'er of fema"es per thousan# ma"es in Assam an# its 3atura"
+i&isions,as contraste# with those in Assam as a who"e as we"" as rura" Assam in 195%
PEOPLE 255
Aema"es per 1,$$$ ma"es
Assam 2enera" !9
-ura" !9$
:r'an 663
Assam P"ains 2enera" !6!
-ura" !!
:r'an 664
Assam 6i""s 2enera" 956
-ura" 96!
:r'an 3
The fo""owin) is another ta'"e showin) -ura" to :r'an mi)ration within the state of Assam,'ut outsi#e
the #istrict of 'irth as per 19615ensus% The fi)ures for the who"e of Assam as we"" as for each )i&en to)ether
with the #uration of resi#ence in the p"ace of enumeration%
BiiiC %i$pla&ed per$on$ :;hate&er their po"itica",economic an# socia" si)nificance,from the point of a
#emo)rapher,the #isp"ace# persons are main"7 another mi)ration stream which )oes to swe"" the e&er=
increase ti#e of popu"ation in Assam%
The inf"u? of 6in#u refu)ees from 1an)"a#esh Berstwhi"e East Pa.istanCconstitutes the 'i))est mi)ration
stream into Assam #urin) the #eca#e of 1941=51% Ao""owin) the 3oa.ha"i riots in Octo'er,1946 an# partition of
(n#ia,there has 'een an a"most stea#7 an# continuous e?o#us of 6in#us of 1an)"a#esh Berstwhi"e East
Pa.istanCinto Assam% Accor#in) to a census ta.en in 4u"7 1949,there were 24,6$$ fami"ies of #isp"ace# persons
in Assam or appro?imate"7 114,5$$ persons% Soon after the 1949 refu)ee 5ensus,the )ruesome inci#ents
occurre# o&er "ar)e areas of 1an)"a#esh Berstwhi"e East Pa.istanCin Ae'ruar7*,arch of 195$,especia""7 in
+acca% This "e# to the #esertion '7 hun#re#s an# thousan#s of 6in#us in 1an)"a#esh Berstwhi"e east Pa.istanCof
their hearths an# homes to see. she"ter in the nei)h'ourin) #istricts of west 1en)a" an# Assam whiche&er were
nearer% Their num'er at one time must ha&e e?cee#e# 5 "a.hs% The Apri" A)reement 'etween (n#ia an# Pa.istan
'rou)ht 'ac. a sense of securit7 amon) these terror stri.en masses,as a resu"t of which a "ar)e num'er went 'ac.
to Pa.istan,their num'er as re&ea"e# '7 the 5ensus is 24,455B15$,14! ma"es an# 124,3$ fema"esC% 17 1961,the
"ar)e ma0orit7 of refu)ees sett"e# #own in the Assam p"ains% The num'er of refu)ees so sett"e# in Assam was
2,59,946 a)ainst 14,5$9 on"7 in Assam 6i""s% The #istrict which she"tere# the "ar)est num'er of these unfortunate
peop"e is 5acharB93,1C which is #ue to its pro?imit7 to S7"het from where the o&erwhe"min) ma0orit7 of
refu)ees to this #istrict ha&e come% The
ne?t "ar)est Guota to refu)ees is she"tere# '7 2oa"para B44,96C,fo""owe# '7 /amrup B42,!1C,3ow)ao
B3!,599C,+arran) B1!,!53C,La.himpur B13,965C,Si'sa)ar B,514C an# :nite# ,i.ir an# 3orth 5achar 6i""s
B1943C% The arri&a" of the refu)ees into un#i&i#e# Assam 7ear '7 7ear ti"" 1951 was as fo""ows%
6!
Arom 1an)"a#esh Berstwhi"e East Pa.istanC 1946= 6,!6$
194 =42,346
194! =41,4$
1949 =33,13!
195$ =144,512
1951= 3,49
B4anuar7 8 Ae'C
Tota" = 22,$5
Arom ;est Pa.istan = 64
+istrict of ori)in not .nown 1,33

2ran# Tota" =24,455
After 1951,fresh inf"u?es continue# to come% 17 1961,6,4$,$$$ "a.hs of refu)ees were reha'i"itate# in
Assam%
69
This a"armin)"7 hi)h rate of refu)ee inf"u? from 1an)"a#esh Berstwhie East Pa.istanCcause# resentment
in the #ifferent states in the 3orth Eastern re)ion inc"u#in) ;est 1en)a" an# a resu"t,the )o&ernment of (n#ia
#eci#e# that a"" refu)ees crossin) (n#o=Pa. 'or#er after 1,11,64 shou"# #o so on"7 with the permission of the
(n#ian 6i)h 5ommissioner,+eput7 6i)h 5ommissioner or Assistant 6i)h 5ommissioner statione# at +acca an#
that (n#ia wi"" not shou"#er an7 responsi'i"it7 for reha'i"itatin) the refu)ees who enter (n#ia without such
permission% This #ecision,howe&er,#i# not effect the tren# thou)h reha'i"itation of fresh refu)ees '7 the
)o&ernment stoppe#%
S7stem of -e)istration<There was no s7stem of re)istration of #isp"ace# persons ti"" the fresh arri&a" of
refu)ees in 195$% there were 'or#er camps in a"" #istricts throu)h which a"" incomin) refu)ees were e?pecte# to
pass an# there were arran)ements for their re)istration as we"" as for the issue of refu)ee certificates% ;ith the
)ra#ua" c"osure of these camps,there was no effecti&e or)anisation to re)ister #isp"ace# persons an# the State
2o&ernment,therefore,#eci#e# in Septem'er,195$ that a"" unre)istere# IInewII #isp"ace# persons shou"# 'e
re)istere# as ear"7 as possi'"e% The "ast #ate of re)istration as ori)ina""7 fi?e# was 15
th
Octo'er,195$% This was
e?ten#e# from time to time ti"" 31
st
4u"7,1951% The fi)ure of #isp"ace# persons upto 13
th
4une,1951,are )i&en
'e"ow%
3um'er of app"ications recei&e# from 41,$$ fami"ies,num'er of app"ication #ispose# of 19,54!II%

6!% Census of India, 1951, Assam, ,anipur an# Tripura, p%359%
69% Census of India, 191, Assam
PEOPLE 25
1C -e)istration car#s issue# to 1,93! fami"ies%
2C3um'er re0ecte# 1,61$ fami"ies%
3um'er of app"ications pen#in) #isposa" on 1
st
4u"7,1951 from 21,464 fami"ies%
The fi)ure a'o&e,howe&er,#o not inc"u#e 5achar where the responsi'i"it7 for re"ief an# reha'i"itation
was ta.en o&er '7 the 5entra" 2o&ernment since 1
st
,a7, 195$% -e)istration of the refu)ees continue# ti"" the
en# of 4u"7,195$,in 5achar% As there a comp"ain that ma7 of the refu)ees ha# 'een "eft unre)istere# the #ate of
re)istration was e?ten#e# '7 the State 2o&t% upto 4u"7,1951% 5ertificates of re)istration were issue# to at "east 5
persons in the fami"7 on an a&era)e% Out of the tota" 3$,1! reha'i"itation "oan app"ications in 5achar on"7
22,64 were foun# e"i)i'"e%
To )i&e she"ter to the new refu)ees who 'e)an pourin) into the state in "ar)e num'er #ai"7,re"ief camps
were set up in a"" 'or#er #istricts an# in some interior #istricts "i.e 3a)aon an# /amrup% (n these
camps,arran)ements were ma#e for the accommo#ation an# fee#in) of #isp"ace# persons% ,e#ica" faci"ities
were a"so pro&i#e# at the State% A #octor or a compoun#er was attache# to each camp for this purpose% 3ecessar7
arran)ements for sanitation were ma#e '7 the "oca" staff of +epartment of Pu'"ic 6ea"th% A Primar7 Schoo" was
opene# in each camp for the e#ucation of refu)ee chi"#ren%
At the hei)ht of the inf"u?,there were in Assam 1 e?c"u#in) 5achar,as man7 as 2! re"ief camps she"terin)
a'out 19,$$$ #isp"ace# persons% 17 the 1
st
4anuar7,1951,the num'er ha# come #own to camps accommo#atin)
a'out 3,5$$ sou"s% The "ast camp was c"ose# '7 the en# of Septem'er,1951% The #etai"s are as )i&en 'e"ow<
Be?c"u#in) 5acharC
+ate 3o%of camps 3o%of inmates on #ate
31th,arch,195$ 2! 1!,566
3$th4une,195$ 16 5,$11
3$thSept%,195$ 15 4,4!!
31st+ec%,195$ 3,52!
31st,arch,1951 6 1,152
3$4une,1951 2 352
3o camps were set up '7 the State 2o&ernment for the Io"#I refu)ees who mi)rate# 'efore 195$% ,ost of
the #isp"ace# persons mi)ratin) to Assam 'efore or after 195$,too. she"ter in the houses of their frien#s an#
re"ati&es an# "ater on arran)e# shiftin) to 2o&ernment an# forest "an#s throu)h refu)ees a)ents% (n 1961,out of
21,944 Pa.istan nationa"s,on"7 6,952 were ,us"im passport ho"#ers% (t must 'e note# that a"" the Pa.istan='orn
an# Pa.istani nationa"s foun# in Assam were from 1an)"a#esh or erstwhi"e East Pa.istan% An ana"7sis of these
fi)ures shows it &er7 c"ear"7 that most of the Pa.istan='orn ,us"ims enumerate# in 1951,re)istere# as (n#ia=
'orn in 1961 there'7 inf"atin) the percenta)e of ,us"im popu"ation in Assam,Pa.istan='orn 6in#us were not
"i.e"7 to fore)o their co&ete# status as refu)ees #ue to the specia" pri&i"e)es an# concessions attache# to their
status as #isp"ace# person or refu)e from 1en)a"% Of the Pa.istani nationa"s,the rest 14,993 were most pro'a'"7
1an)"a#esh Berstwhi"e East Pa.istaniC6in#u infi"trators as ,us"ims were not "i.e"7 to infi"trate i""e)a""7 without
passport an# re)ister as Pa.istani nationa"s as the7 were open to crimina" prosecution un#er Aorei)ners Act in
that case% The se? -atio in Assam was in Stea#7 #ec"ine from 19$1 when there were 933 fema"es a)ainst 1$$$
ma"es% 1ut in 1961,it came to 'e !6 fema"es a)ainst 1$$$ ma"es% (t was the "owest rate in (n#ia an# #ue most"7
to inf"u? mi)rants as the se? ratio of the peop"e within the State was 915 fema"es a)ainst 1$$$ ma"es%
1esi#es,wi#e #isparit7 of ma"e an# fema"e fi)ure as mentione# a'o&e a"so &er7 we"" support the contention%
$
Accor#in) to ,r%1ha)aiwa""a, Ithe main cause of this ma"#istri'ution of se?es in Assam appears to 'e )reat
re)u"ar mi)ration which pours into Assam,particu"ar"7 the 1rahmaputra &a""e7I% (n )enera",se? ratio increase#
from !6 fema"es per 1$$$ ma"es in 1961 to !96 in 191,showin) a su'stantia" rise for the first time since the
'e)innin) of the centur7%
1
(t appears that #urin) 1951=61 a 'i) section of 'oth 6in#u an# ,us"im mi)rants from
1an)"a#esh Berstwhi"e East Pa.istanCor East 1enn)a" "eft their womenfo". an# fami"7 to Assam #urin) 1961=1%
-efu)ees -eha'i"itation < +urin) 194=51,four -efu)ee -eha'i"itation pro)rammes were ta.en in Assam as
fo""owsL
Schemes 3o%of fami"ies Loan issue# in
sett"e# rupees%
1% 1a)h'or Schemes 1,!!9 12,2,$$$
2%/anta Scheme 2$$ 99,!$$
3%2oa"para Scheme 3,$43 1$,$1,$$$
4%3a)aon Scheme 113 52,$$
24,25,6$$

$% Census of India,1961, Fo"%14, Part=A, p%15$%
1% ,r% Pa.7ntien the Superinten#ent of 5ensus Operation in Assam in 1961 thus ma#e a &er7 e?p"oit remar. in this report II Our
e?perience #urin) enumeration as we"" as #urin) ta'u"ation is that the peop"e #i# not correct"7 )i&e the 'irth p"ace%%%%% (t appears that the
peop"e who most"7 concea" their 'irth p"ace are those comin) from East Pa.istan%%%an# ha&e )i&en incorrect statement from &arious
reasons Ieconomic an# po"itica",% Census of India 1961% p% 123, 15$, 151 census of India, 1951, Fo"% ((, Part 1=A, -eport, p% 314%
PEOPLE 259
1esi#es )ettin) trainin) in specia" trainin) centres in 4orhat, 3a)aon, 2uwahati, Shi"on),-upsi an#
Si"char for se"f=emp"o7ment,a consi#era'"e percenta)e of #isp"ace# persons )ot sett"e# throu)h emp"o7ment in
5entra" 2o&ernment esta'"ishments "i.e -ai"wa7s,Post an# Te"e)raphs,Office of the Accountant
2enera",Assam,Shi""on)LState 1an. of (n#ia an# a"so in State 2o&ernment Officers inc"u#in) 5i&i" Secretariat of
Assam%
(n 5achar,On"7 ! camps were maintaine# since 195$ after co""ectin) a"" the refu)ees scattere# in pu'"ic
'ui"#in)s Bmain"7 in e#ucationa" institutionsC an# other p"aces% A"" the re"ief camps were a'o"ishe# from 1
st
Apri",1951,an# the inmates mo&e# to the reha'i"itation co"onies starte# '7 the 2o&ernment or to "an# secure# '7
pri&ate efforts% 1esi#es,one camp for #estitute unattache# women an# chi"#ren was starte# in ,a7,195$,an#
when more an# more came in,a secon# camp was starte# in Apri",1951% There are two more refu)ee &i""a)es at
,atia of 2oa"para an# 1amuni)aon of /amrup% 1oth are on the south 'an. of the 1rahmaputra%
Li&e"ihoo# Pattern of +isp"ace# Persons <
The ta'"e 'e"ow in#icates the "i&e"ihoo# pattern of #isp"ace# persons in Assam an# its natura" #i&isions
as per 1951 5ensus%
+istri'ution of #isp"ace# persons per 1$,$$$
Li&e"ihoo# Assam Assam P"ains Assam 6i""s
c"ass State +i&ision +i&ision
Tota" persons ,a"es 1$,$$$ 9,41 529
Aema"es 5,41 5,1!4 2!
5u"ti&ator ha&= ,a"es 612 5,!3 29
in) own "an#=( Aema"es 54! 523 25
5u"ti&ator (( ,a"es 43 $9 34
tenats Aema"es 612 5!5 2
A)ricu"ture= ((( ,a"es 1!3 161 22
La'our Aema"es 13 116 21
3on=cu"ti&ator=(F ,a"es 21 2$ 1
Lan#=Lor#s Aema"es 2$ 19 1
:n#er other than F ,a"es !5 !4$ 1
5u"ti&ator Aema"es 693 69 14
5ommerce F( ,a"es 1,$!! 1,$26 62
Transport F(( ,a"es 529 5$9 2$
Aema"es 4$ 45$ 2$
Other ser&ices an#
misce""aneous ,a"es 1,194 1,113 !1
Sources%
As much as 26 per cent of the tota" popu"ation foun# un#er "i&e"ihoo# c"ass F((( shows that
misce""aneous sources of "i&e"ihoo# which a"so inc"u#es office emp"o7ment (n 2o&ernment or non=2o&t,ser&ices
an# not an7 specific occupation was what chief"7 support the #isp"ace# persons% Li&e"ihoo# c"ass F( I5ommerceI
accounte# for another "ar)e s"ice of their num'er,&i9%,19%4 per cent% 5"ass F was ne?t in importance containin)
1%! per cent of them% ,an7 refu)ee fami"ies ha# 'een a'sor'e# '7 the tea in#ustr7 as we"" as man7 sma""
occupation an# cotta)e in#ustries which feature un#er c"ass F an# their percenta)e in c"ass F was 15%5% (t is
11%16 per cent in c"ass 1 an# 13%6 un#er c"ass ((% 1are"7 3 per cent of #isp"ace# persons maintaine# themse"&es as
a)ricu"tura" "a'ourers% (n 1961 or 191,no separate wor.er,non=wor.er enumeration was con#ucte# for the
#isp"ace# persons%
BACLan)ua)e <
(n 1931,,r% ,ua"n,the then 5ensus Superinten#ent remar.e# that,Assam,a sma"" pro&ince with a
popu"ation of nine an# a Guarter mi""ion peop"e shou"# 'e a phi"o"o)istIs para#ise% This characteristic 'ecame
more comp"icate# an# co"ourfu" throu)h num'er of inf"u?es from outsi#e the State #urin) the post=in#epen#ent
perio#%
(n 1951,12$ "an)ua)es were recor#e# as mother ton)ue in Assam an# the num'er rose to 1921 in 1961
an# then to 2$$ in 191% Some of them are new "an)ua)es names,as some a"most #ea# an# e?tinct #ia"ects e&en
came up as "an)ua)es #urin) the perio#% This is the resu"t of the ethnic consciousness )ra#ua""7 #e&e"ope#
amon)st #ifferent )roups which were in process of assimi"ation into the )reater an# "ar)er in#i)enous societ7 of
Assam ca""e# the Assamese%
The Assamese peop"e,whether 6in#us or ,us"ims,a"wa7s returne# Assamese as their mother
ton)ue,whi"e 1en)a"i 6in#us a"wa7s returne# 1en)a"i an# nothin) e"se as their mother ton)ue% 1en)a"i ,us"im
immi)rants ha# a ten#enc7 to return Assamese as their mother ton)ue e&en in pre=(n#epen#ence #a7s 'ecause
what the7 want is "an# in the &a""e7% A"" ,us"im immi)rants from East 1en)a" #o spea. the soft spo.en 1en)a"i
which the7 ca"" I1hatia""iI% These immi)rants after comin) to Assam,honest7 trie# to .now the Assamese
"an)ua)e an# sent heir chi"#ren to Assamese schoo"s%
The statement 'e"ow shows the principa" "an)ua)es of un#i&i#e# Assam spo.en '7 more than 5$,$$$
persons in 1961 )i&en the num'er of spea.ers an# the percenta)e of spea.ers to the tota" popu"ation%
2

2% Census of India, 1961, Fo"% (((% Assam Part (=A, 2enera" -eport, p%21$%
PEOPLE 261
3o% of persons spea.in) Percenta)e of the
Lan)ua)e the "an)ua)e as mother ton)ue popu"ation%
1951 1961 191 1951 1961 191
1%Assamese 4,91,229 6,!4,21 !,9$4,91 56%29 5%14 6$%!9
2%1en)a"i 1,1,3!1 2,$61,533 2,!!2,$39 19%45 1%36 19%1
3%6in#u 334,!9 551,!1! 92,4!1 3%9 4%31 5%42
4%/hasi 292,!6 362,9$ 2$,$!2 3%32 3%$6 $%14
5%2aro 234,52 3$1,$94 6,$$4 2%6 2%54 $%52
6%1o#o*1oro 166,42 2!$,343 533,13 1%!! 2%36 3%65
%Lushai*,u9o 162,3$1 215,66 4,$$1 1%!4 1%!2 $%$3
!%3epa"i 122%!23 215,213 349,116 1%39 1%!1 2%39
9%/ar'i 129%3$5 154,232 191,354 1%46 1%3$ 1%31
1$%Ori7a 114,$33 145,4!! 15$,196 1%29 1%23 1%$3
11%,anipuri* !9,144 !!,962 9,16 1%$1 $%5 $%6$
,aitei
12%Santa"i 92,63! 6,262 !6,$!6 1%$5 $%5 $%59
13%,iri 5,615 1$2,92$ 1,226 $%65 $%! 1%21
14%,un#a 2,415 !9,99 6,!94 3 $%6 $%53
:nspecifie#%
The a'o&e ta'"e shows that the num'er of Assamese spea.in) peop"e has risen from 4,91,229 in 1951
to 6,!4,21 in 1961 an# !,9$4,91 in 191 'ut the percenta)e of Assamese spea.ers to the tota" popu"ation has
ma#e on"7 a ne)"i)i'"e increase from 56%23 per cent in 1951 to 5,14 per cent in 1961 an# 6$%!9 per cent in
191% The )ain in Assamese ma7 "ar)e"7 'e #ue to the ,us"ims of the Assam Fa""e7 who most"7 )i&e their
mother ton)ue as Assamese% (t ma7 a"so 'e pert"7 #ue to the tea=)ar#en "a'ourers who ha&e sett"e# in Assam for
man7 #eca#es an# who ha&e sent their chi"#ren to schoo"s where Assamese is the me#ium of instruction% The
1en)a"i spea.ers ha&e increase#,'ut their sma"" #ecrease in percenta)e is a"so "ar)e"7 #ue to the 'i) increase of
the tota" popu"ation in Assam% (t ma7 'e note# that as far as ur'an popu"ation is concerne#,the tota" num'er of
1en)a"i spea.ers was 349,933 in 1961 an# rose to 515,546 in 191 whereas the tota" num'er of Assamese
spea.ers was 3$4,649 an# 49!,9$6 in 1961 an# 191 respecti&e"7% (t ma7 a"so 'e note# that the 6in#i spea.ers
ha# increase# from 52%!4 per cent in 1961 an# 54%!3 per cent in 191,'ut thou)h the Ori7a spea.ers ha#
increase# '7 2%5! per cent in 1961,in 191 its increase was on"7 3%23 per cent%
The 1961 5ensus a"so shows the re=emer)ence of some tri'a" "an)ua)es in the p"ains of Assam% The 1o#o
spea.ers ha&e risen from 1!6,42 in 1951 to 2!$,343 in 1961 showin) a net increase of 113,916% The num'er
further increase# to 533,13 in 191% The num'er of 1o#o spea.ers wou"# ha&e 'een more in 1961 ha# it not
'een for 64,421 persons who returne# their mother ton)ue a /achari which is a.in to 1o#o% The spea.ers of
2aro, /hasi ,i9o an# /ar'i ha&e a"so increase# in terms of a'so"ute num'er a"thou)h in terms of percenta)e to
the tota" )enera" popu"ation the7 ha&e shown some #ecrease 'ut this is #ue to the fact that the tota" popu"ation of
Assam has increase# consi#era'"7%
The ta'"es 'e"ow shows the principa" "an)ua)es of Assam )i&in) the num'er of persons spea.in) a
certain mother ton)ue for 1951 an# 1961 as we"" as the percenta)e increase# respecti&e"7% 17 principa" "an)ua)e
in these ta'"es is meant the "an)ua)e spo.en '7 at "east 5,$$$ peop"e in the p"ains #istricts of Assam an# '7
at"east 2,$$$ persons in the hi""s #istricts of Assam%
3

Lan)ua)e 3o% of persons spea.in) Percenta)e to
the "an)ua)e as mother tota" popu"ation
ton)ue 191 191

1%Assamese !9,$4,91 6$%!9
2%1en)a"i 2!,!2,$39 19%1
3%6in#u ,92,4!1 5$%42
4%/hasi 2$,$!2 %13
5%2aro 6,$$4 $%52
6%1o#o*1oro 533,13 3%65
%Lushai*,u9o = =
!%3epa"i 3,49,116 2%39
9%/ar'i 1,91,354 1%31
1$%Ori7a 15$,196 1%$3
11%,anipuri*
,aitei !,16 $%6$
12%Santa"i !6,$!6 $%59
13%,iri 1,,226 1%21
14%,un#a 6,!94 $%53

3% Census of India, 1961, Fo"% (((, Assam Part 1=A, 2enera" -eport, p%21$
PEOPLE 263

Lan)ua)e 3um'er of persons Percenta)e to
spea.in) the "an)ua)e as mother tota" of the State
ton)ue

1951 1961 1951 1961
Assamese 49,1,229 6,!4,21 56%29 5%14
1en)a"i 1,1,3!1 2$,61,533 19%45 1%36
1o#o*1oro 166,42 2!$,343 1%!! 2%36
6in#i 334,!9 511,!1! 3%9 4%31
Saota" 92,63! 6,262 1%$5 2%54
2aro 235,52 3$1,$94 2%6 2%54
3epa"i 122,!23 215,213 1%39 1%!1
(n 191,popu"ation '7 mother ton)ue as per the "an)ua)e specifie# in the ei)ht Sche#u"e of the
5onstitution was as fo""ows%
4
Lan)ua)e spea.ers Percenta)e to tota"
Assamese !9,$4,91 6$%!9
1en)a"i 2!,!2,$39 19%1
6in#i ,92,!!1 54%42
Ori7a 1,5$,226 1%$$
Te"e)u 2$,2!$ $%14
Pun0a'i 13,611 $%$9
:r#u 6,325 $%$4
,a"a7a"am 5,521 $%$3
Tami" 2, $%$2
,arathi 1,455 $%$1
2u0rati 653
Sin#hi 29
/ana#a 239 14%$
/ashmiri 32
Sans.rit 31
Others 21,99,46$

4% Statistical Handbook of ssam, 196,p%i o an# Census of India, Assam, Part% 1=A,p% 91=93%
3ote<= The popu"ation '7 mother ton)ue in Assam in 1991 has not 'een pu'"ishe# '7 the +irectorate of 5ensus
Operation, Assam%
1i"in)ua"ism <
1i"in)ua"ism as pre&ai"s in Assam is part"7 #ue to the necessit7 of usin) a re)iona" "an)ua)e '7
immi)rants as a means of communication an# part"7 #ue to the co=e?istence of more than one re)iona" "an)ua)e%
The "an)ua)e of Assam are so numerous that it is necessar7 to #i&i#e them into four )roups for the
purpose of ascertainin) 'i"in)ua"ism% These are <B1CAssamese,B2C1en)a"i B3CA"" Ti'eto N 5hinese "an)ua)e an#
B4C/hasi=S7nten)% The )reat #ifficu"t7 a'out a census of 'i"in)ua"ism in a pro&ince "i.e Assam,where there are
so man7 "an)ua)e of which it is possi'"e to ha&e a smatterin),is to .now what stan#ar# of proficienc7 in another
"an)ua)e wou"# entit"e a person to 'e c"asse# as 'i"in)ua"% Accor#in) to census instruction,on"7 those whose
spea. a su'si#iar7 or "an)ua)e f"uent"7 an# ha'itua""7 are 'i"in)ua"%
Accor#in) to the 1931 5ensus,in the Assam Fa""e7,+arran) ha# the hi)hest proportion B42 per
centCfo""owe# '7 /amrup B34 per centC,La.himpur B32 per centC,Si'sa)ar B25 per centCan# 3a)aon B11 per
centCin 'i"in)ua"ism% The 3a)aon an# Si'sa)ar percenta)es were "ower than those of the other #istricts owin) to
the fact that the ,i.ir 6i""s B/ar'i An)"on)Cis #i&i#e# 'etween these two #istricts% Amon) the /ar'is,&er7 few
cou"# spea. Assamese% The presence of "ar)e num'er of /ar'is in Si'sa)ar #istrict e?p"ain wh7 that #istrict ha#
a much hi)her percenta)e than 3a)aon of peop"e who are '"in)ua" in Ti'eto=1urma an# Assamese%
Turnin) to persons whose mother ton)ue is Assamese,it foun# that e?cept 2oa"para,&er7 few them are
'i"in)ua"% 1ut the 2oa"para fi)ures can 'e ne)"ecte# 'ecause it is e?treme"7 #ifficu"t to #raw a "ine 'etween
Assamese an# 1en)a"i in the #istrict which has a #ia"ect of its own% The few thousan# persons in
/amrup,Si'sa)ar an# La.himpur whose mother ton)ue is Assamese 'ut who can spea. 1en)a"i f"uent"7 are
pro'a'"7 the e#ucate# peop"e who ha&e stu#ie# 1en)a"i for their ,atricu"ation an# other e?aminations an# who
rea""7 #o .now the "an)ua)e% Out of 1$,$$$ 1en)a"i spea.ers in /amrup an# 193,$$ 1en)a"i spea.ers in
3a)aon,on"7 4,$$$ in each #istrict cou"# spea. f"uent Assamese in 1931%
The hi"" tri'es of Assam cannot spea. other "an)ua)es an# &er7 few of them .now an7 "an)ua)e e?cept
their own% (n the 3a)aon 6i""s,out of 13,$$$ spea.ers of Ti'eto=1urmese "an)ua)es on"7 1,5$$ ha&e as
'i"in)ua" in Assamese a fi)ure too sma"" to put on the map% A short of 'ro.en Assamese i%e%,the "in)uafranca is
pre&ai"e# in man7 parts of the 3a)a 6i""s B.nown as 3a)aese in 3a)a"an#C as we"" as in Arunacha"%
PEOPLE 265
The fo""owin) ta'"e shows the num'er of persons Binc"u#in) +isp"ace# personsCwho were recor#e# as
'i"in)ua" in the 1951 5ensus%
5
Lan)ua)e 3o of persons spea.in) 3o of persons returne# as
the "an)ua)e as mother= 'i"in)ua" in the "an)ua)e
ton)ue at the 5ensus%
1951 1961 1951 1961
Assamese 4,92,493 6,!4,21 4!,$2! 536,46
1en)a"i 1,19,155 2$,61,533 3!1,!!$ 9$,$13
6in#i 335,6!! 511,!1! 149,13$ 293,156
Austric fami"7 491,991 362,9$ 126,5$ 26,95
Ti'eto=5hinese
fami"7 1,159,21$ 95$,336 2!3,42! 349,625
+ra&i#ian fami"7 !1,32! = 21,26 =
(n#o=European
fami"7 2!1,$42 36$,$1 156,653 239,6
Bother than Assame=
se, 1en)a"i an# 6in#uC
:nc"assfie# "an)ua)e 2,$$ N 1,3 N
The fo""owin) ta'"es show the #istri'ution per 1$,$$$ spea.ers for the ma0or mother=ton)ue in Assam
who a"so spea. one or more su'si#iar7 "an)ua)e an# the num'er of peop"e spea.in) Assamese as su'si#iar7
"an)ua)e whose mother=ton)ue is other than Assamese per 5ensus 1961%
6
State 8 +istrict ,other=ton)ue Su'si#iar7 "an)ua)e
B1C B2C B3C B4C
Assam BaC1en)a"i 2,$61,533 554,26
B'C6in#i 511,!1! 225,!62
BcC1o#o /achari 2!$,343 1!!,6$
B#C3epa"i 215,213 116,64$
2oa"paraBun#i&i#e#C BaC1en)a"i 1!4,9$2 69,2!5
B'C6in#i 44,646 24,14

5% Census of India, 1951, Fo"=H((, Assam, ,anipur an# Tripura, Part=1=-eport, p% 414%
6% Census of India, 1961, Fo"=(((, Assam, Part (=A, 2enera" -eport, p% 224%
B1C B2C B3C B4C
BcC1o#o /achari 54,359 !4,159
B#C3epa"i 12,4! 4,625
/amrup Bun#i&i#e#C BaC1en)a"i 2$3,642 11$,!95
B'C6in#i 4,246 26,6$
BcC1o#o /achari ,24 65,39
B#C3epa"i 15,6!$ 11,46!
+arran) B#oC BaC1en)a"i 126,9! 94,5!2
B'C6in#i 65,355 42,9!9
BcC1o#o /achari 3,61! 32,!9$
B#C3epa"i 6!,!!5 54,654
La.himpur B#oC BaC1en)a"i 12,!4 5,!4
B'C6in#i 1$9,594 2,$92
BcC1o#o /achari 4,43 2,!34
B#C3epa"i 49,9$2 2$,924
3a)aonB#oC BaC1en)a"i 2$9,19$ 14,9!2
B'C6in#i 33,39$ 2$,!$
BcC1o#o /achari 941 3
B#C3epa"i !,159 3,59
Si'sa)ar B#oC BaC1en)a"i 46,$36 35,!4
B'C6in#i 5$,436 34,42
BcC1o#o /achari 3! 3$9
B#C3epa"i 14,53 9,15
5achar B#oC BaC1en)a"i 1,$!5,2! 2,$!!
B'C6in#i 142,4$2 1,54
BcC1o#o /achari 9
B#C3epa"i 1,963 N
:nite# ,i.ir 8
3orth 5achar 6i""s BaC1en)a"i 23,43 6,!26
B'C6in#i 9,$4 2,352
BcC1o#o /achari 4,333 2,64
B#C3epa"i 9,234 1,!4
PEOPLE 26
3o ta'"e for 'i"in)ua"ism was prepare# in 191 5ensus,so the position in the 7ear cou"# not 'e cite#%
(n the who"e of Assam,out of the tota" 6,!4,21 spea.ers,233,93! spo.e 1en)a"i in 1961 whi"e another
155,!14 an# 146,!15 a"so spo.e En)"ish an# 6in#i respecti&e"7% (t must,howe&er,'e strict"7 'orn in min# that the
Assamese spea.ers who .now 1en)a"i ma7 a"so 'e a'"e to spea. En)"ish an# 6in#i% (n the who"e of Assam in
1961, 1,631,396 persons spo.e Assamese as a su'si#iar7 "an)ua)e%
(n 1961,out of 2,$61,533 1en)a"i spea.ers in Assam,3,6!,953 persons a"so spo.e 1en)a"i as a su'si#iar7
in the 7ear 1961%
As per 191 5ensus 92,4!1 persons or 5%42 per cent of the tota" popu"ation are 6in#i spea.ers an# most
of these spea.ers are mi)rants into Assam from other parts of 3orth (n#ia,most"7 from 1ihar% (n 1961,amon) the
spea.ers of in#i)enous "an)ua)es in Assam,on"7 2%31 per cent of the tota" popu"ation of the State,.new 6in#i as
a su'si#iar7 "an)ua)e%
As far as the Sche#u"e# Tri'es of the 6i""s are concerne#,the7 ha&e strict"7 preser&e# their own i#entit7
e&en in the p"ains of Assam% Aormer"7,there was a ten#enc7 amon) the p"ains tri'a"s to i#entif7 their "an)ua)e
with that of pre#ominant "oca" "an)ua)e,'ut since (n#epen#ence,a assert their separate i#entit7 )rew o&er
amon)st the p"ains tri'a"s%
'ilinguali$m among (&"edule Trie$ :-
,ore than a "a.h of the 1o#o /acharis ha&e returne# their mother ton)ue as Assamese in 1961%
Simi"ar"7,161,62 /acharis inc"u#in) Sonowa"s,56,26 La"un)s,5,19 -a'has,2!,35! ,ishin) an# 14,552
6a0on)s ha&e returne# their mother=ton)ue as Assamese% The tota" num'er of p"ains tri'a"s who ha&e returne#
their mother=ton)ue as Assamese is 45!,6$!% ,an7 1armans B/acharisCin 5achar an# +imasas ha&e a"so
returne# 1en)a"i as their mother=ton)ue% The tota" num'er of tri'a"s who a#opte# 1en)a"i as their mother=ton)ue
is 14,4!1% 3one of the /hasis,2aros an# ,i9os ha&e a#opte# either Assamese or 1en)a"i as their mother=ton)ue%
(nci#enta""7 it ma7 'e pointe# out here that in Assam Guite a )oo# num'er of tri'a" peop"e spea. a
mother=ton)ue in their #ai"7 "ife other than their own% (n the 5ensus -eport of (n#ia,1961,Assam,it is mentione#
that more than a "a.h of the 1o#o=/acharis ha&e returne# their mother=ton)ue a Assamese% (n Other wor#s,these
peop"e in spite of ha&in) own "an)ua)e preferre# to #ec"are Assamese as their mother=ton)ue% 1esi#es,other
tri'es "i.e the +eoris,1armans B/achariCin 5achar,5ha.ma,AhomBTai=spea.in)C,,ech an# ,i.ir B/ar'isCha&e
returne#
their mother=ton)ue as Assamese in apprecia'"e num'ers% (t is encoura)in) that man7 of the p"ains tri'a"s ha&e
a#opte# Assamese as their mother=ton)ue% On the contrar7 man7 1armans B/achariCof 5achar an# +imasas ha&e
#ec"are# 1en)a"i as their mother=ton)ue% 3one of the ,i.irs B/ar'isCof the /ar'i An)"on) #istrict ha&e accepte#
either Assamese or 1en)a"i as their mother=ton)ue% 1ut some +imasas of 3orth 5achar 6i""s ha&e a#opte# 'oth
1en)a" an# Assamese as their mother=ton)ues%
+ifferences in #ia"ects within the same "in)uistic )roups <
Assamese 'e"on) to the Eastern )roup of the (n#o Ar7an "an)ua)es% Of these forms of speech,it is the
most eastern outpost% E?cept in the west,where it meets 1en)a"i,it is surroun#e# on a"" si#es '7 speeches
'e"on)in) to a"to)ether #ifferent fami"ies,of which the principa" are the Ti'eto=1urman an# the /hasi%
The stan#ar# #ia"ect of Assamese is pre&a"ent in an# aroun# Si'sa)ar o&er the upper part of Assam% The
+istrict #ia"ect is foun# spo.en '7 the peop"e of /amrup an# Eastern 2oa"para% (n ,anipur an# in iso"ate#
&i""a)es in 5ac0har where there are sett"ements of ,anipuris,the ,a7an)s spea. a form of Assamese ca""e#
mon)re '7 the name of the tri'e% -oun# the 'ase of the 2aro 6i""s,a .in# of Ipi)aonI Assamese,"oca""7 .nown as
I4harwaIis use# '7 the ru"er tri'es as a "an)ua)e of commerce%
The "an)ua)e from Sa#i7a, the eastern=most frontier of Assam #own to 2uwahati e?hi'its certain
homo)eneit7 an# har#"7 present an7 nota'"e point of #ifference from the spo.en #ia"ect of Si'asa)ar% An# for the
purpose of "iterature,this #ia"ect is )enera""7 re)ar#e# as the stan#ar# "an)ua)e% The two western #istricts of
2oa"paa an# /amrup posses se&era" "oca" #ia"ects which 'etra7 sharp points of #ifference from one another an#
from the stan#ar# co""oGuia" of eastern Assam%
The spo.en #ia"ects of the 2oa"para #istrict was seen to ha&e 'een )reat"7 contaminate# with a#mi?tures
of the -a0'ansi #ia"ect% (n 'etween the stan#ar# co""oGuia" of Si'sa)ar in the east an# the mi?e# #ia"ects of
2oa"para in the west,stan# the #ia"ects of the /amrup #istrict%
There are four main "in)uistic fami"ies in Assam% There are =B1CAustro=Asiatic,B2CTi'eto 5hinese,
B3C+ra&i#ian an# B4C(n#o=European% The secon# is #i&i#e# into two su'=fami"ies < Ti'eto=1urman an# Siamese=
5hinese% On"7 the Tai )roup of the Siamese 5hinese="in)uistic Su'=fami"7 is foun# in Assam% The Tai )roup
inc"u#es the "an)ua)e of the Ahoms,the /hamtis,the Turun)s,the Pha.ia"s,the 3oras an# some other .in#ere#
)roups% Peop"e 'e"on)in) to this "an)ua)e )roup thou)h scattere# in se&era" parts of Assam,are most"7 foun# in
La.himpur,+i'ru)arh an# Si'sa)ar #istricts%
PEOPLE 269
The To'eto=1urman su'=fami"7 of "an)ua)es which comes un#er the Ti'eto=5hinese fami"7 ha# 'een
su'=#i&i#e# into three 'ranches "i.e Ti'eto=6ima"7an,3orth=Assam,an# Assam=1urmese% The A'or=,iri )roup
of "an)ua)e which has stemme# from the 3orth Assam 'ranches was spo.en '7 56,94 persons in Assam in
1911%
The peop"e of +i'on)i7a Khel )enera""7 spea. +eori "an)ua)e an# in the fie"# of phono"o)7,the
"an)ua)e possesses se&en &owe"s an# ei)hteen consonants with two semi&owe"s%
There are "ar)e num'er of peop"e 'e"on)in) to 1o#o=1ara.achari communit7 in Assam% The 1o#o=
/acharis of Assam is a 'ranch of the 2reat 1o#o 2roup of the (n#o=,on)o"oi# fami"7 fa""in) within the Assam=
1urmese "in)uistic section% The "in)uistic Sur&e7 of (n#ia #escri'es the 1o#o=/achari as a mem'er of the
1oroB1o#oCsu'=section un#er the Assam=1urma )roup of the Ti'eto=1urman 'ranch of Sino=Ti'etan or Ti'eto=
5hinese speech fami"7%
The 1o#o spea.in) areas are main"7 from +hu'ri in the west to Sa#i7a in the east an# in Arunacha",in
Tripura an# 3a)a"an#% The 1o#o "an)ua)e of Assam has at "east four c"earcut #ia"ect areas with #ia"ectica"
&ariations < B1C3orth=western,B2CSouth=western,B3C3orth=5entra",an# B4CSouthern #ia"ect areas with
phono"o)ica",marpho"o)ica" an# )"ossaria" #ifferences%
Scripts < The present Assamese script is main"7 the pro#uct of certain historica" factors% The ear"iest
specimen of Assamese script is pro&i#e# '7 the 5opper P"ates an# Assamese script was the corrupt form of the
East (n#ian script of the 2upta perio#%
!
This,howe&er,#iffers from the script use# #urin) the Ahom perio#% Arom
the thirteen centur7 ti"" the nineteenth centur7,the 'ar. of the the a"oe woo# !Sachi"at# was use#% The 'oo.s
written in ear"7 Assamese script has 'een #i&i#e# '7 S%3% Sarma into three cate)ories
$ar%a&an,Bamuni&a,Ka&heli or 'ahkari.
Assamese script which is current"7 in use #iffers wi#e"7 from its ear"ier specimen% The missionaries,who
pu'"ishe# se&era" 'oo.s in the nineteenth centur7 from 1en)a",use# the same script for the 'oth 1en)a"i an#
Assamese 'oo.s% The present Assamese script has se&era" "etters such as IraI an# IwaI which are a'sent in 1en)a"i
script%
The 1o#o "an)ua)e is sai# to ha&e no inherite# script% Ear"ier,there were a .in# of (eodhai script amon)
the /acharis B1o#oCan# +imasa% 1ishnu Prasa# -a'ha,the note# artist of Assam )athere# a few specimen of
(eodhai a"pha'et from +imapur area% At present,the 1o#o ma.e use of the Assamese a"pha'et an# the -oman
a"pha'et as mo#ifie# to suit their nee#s% Since 1963,the 1o#o "an)ua)e has 'een intro#uce# as the me#ium of
instruction in the 1o#o pre#ominant Primar7 schoo"s of /o.ra0har #istrict%

%Census of India, 1911,Fo"%=(((, Assam, Part N 1= A -eport,pp%96=1$4%
!% S%3% Sarma < sami&a Sahit&ar Itibri&a.
Su'seGuent"7,1o#o me#ium of instruction was intro#uce# first in the Secon#ar7 Schoo"s of /o.ra0har
with effect from Sept%,196!% (t was now )one upto #e)ree "e&e"% +a&ana)ri script is now 'ein) use# for the 1o#o
"an)ua)e with effect from Apri",195% The 1o#o "an)ua)e has since 'een #ec"are# as an associate officia"
"an)ua)e '7 an or#inance issue# on 2!
th
+ec%,19!4%
BcC-e"i)ion an# 5aste < The pro&ince of Assam fin#s no mention in an7 of the ear"7 )edic te?ts% The
pro&ince was first referre# ti in the Epic,an# in this connection,the stor7 of Amurtaran0as in the -ama&ana is
&er7 si)nificant as it refers to the ar7anisation of the countr7 '7 a prince of *adh&adesa.
3o "ess important is the account of the Fi#eha prince 3ara.a who esta'"ishe# himse"f as the .in) an#
conGueror of /amarupa% 3ara.a is sai# to ha&e esta'"ishe# in his .in)#om a "ar)e num'er of "earne# 1rahmans
we"" &erse# in )edas. The inscription a"so contain reference of immi)ration of 1rahmanas to Assam from
,a#h7a#esa,as we"" as emi)ration of Assamese 1rahman to other pro&inces% The s7stem of sett"in) 1rahmans in
Assam was continue# ri)ht upto the Ahom perio#% The incomp"ete set of 3i#hanpur copper=p"ate a"one 'ears the
names of no "ess than two hun#re# an# fi&e 1rahmans of &arious %otras an# )edas. These sett"ers #ou't"ess"7
sprea# the cu"ture in the Pro&ince with the support of the .in)s,an# the mo&ement recei&e# a )reat impetus from
the 14
th
centur7 A%+% The process '7 which &e#ic cu"ture was intro#uce# into the centur7 an# '7 which the non=
Ar7an tri'es were con&erte# to 6in#uism was pro'a'"7 the same as that which the 1rahmanas of su'seGuent
perio# ha# a#opte#%
+ue to the contact with the non=Ar7an peop"e,the &e#ic re"i)ion un#erwent ra#ica" chan)es,main"7 in
two wa7s < first,in the creation,chief"7 i""ustrate# '7 the Epics an# Puranic "iterature in a )a""er7 of #efie#
persona)esL secon#"7,in the a#option of #eities,re"i)ious m7ths,an# cu"ts #eri&e# from the races 'e7on# the
1rahmanic pa"e% Some of these 2o#s an# 2o##esses #e&e"ope# into specia" cu"ts amon) sectarian "ines% ,ention
ma7 'e ma#e of the fo""owin) <=
B1CSai&ism < Sai&ism,or at "east,the worship of Si&a pre&ai"e# in Assam from a remote past an# it was the
popu"ar form of re"i)ion 'oth amon)st the a'ori)ina"s an# the Ar7anise# peop"e% An ana"7sis of the names of the
sacre# p"aces of Assam as )i&en in the Kalika +urana,c"ear"7 shows that the num'er of sacre# p"aces connecte#
with Si&a worship is "ar)er than that of p"aces associate# with Fishnu or +e& worship% 1efore 3ara.a came to
power,who pro'a'"7 intro#uce# the cu"t of the ,other 2o##ess into /amarupa,Si&a was re)ar#e# as the
)uar#ian #eit7 of the pro&ince% Sai&ism,howe&er,#i# not entire"7 #isappear from the countr7 #urin) the rei)n of
3ara.a% (t en0o7e# so much popu"arit7 that no sooner 3ara.a was #epose#,Sai&ism a)ain came into prominence%
The inscriptions an# )rants a"so contain #efinite references to the worship of Si&a%

PEOPLE 21
That the Sai&ism of the perio# was a fu""7 #e&e"ope# cu"t with &arious su'=cu"ts can 'e seen from the
&arious names '7 which Sai&ism is in&o.e# in the +rasastis. 6e is in&o.e# as
+arames)ara,*ahes)ara,Is)ara,*ahabaraha,de)a etc% A"" these names #enote Si&aIs position of supremac7
o&er a"" other 2o#s% 6is 'eneficient nature is in#icate# '7 the names of Sambhu,sankara an# +rajadhinatha. 6is
another name ,udra si)nifies his #estructi&e or fierce character% There are some more names attracti&e to Si&a%
Si&a is not concei&e# in the a'stract a"one% A"thou)h icono)raphic representations of Si&a in his &arious
forms ha&e 'een #isco&ere# in Assam,it appears that he was chief"7 worshippe# in the form of 'in%am,an
upri)ht pi""ar or ro# or stone erecte# on a pe#esta" ca""e# -oni. The -o%ini Tantra states that the num'er of lin%as
in /amarupa e?cee#s a mi""ion% The 1o#o /acharis,the main Ti'eto=5hinese )roup of Assam,worship Si&a as
Bathan in the a'stract or of Si0u p"ant%
There were an# e&en now are,&arious tri'a" mo#es of worship of Si&a which was carrie# out the sacrifice
of swine,'uffa"oes,he=)oats,pi)eons,#uc.s an# coc.s an# '7 the offerin) of rice an# "iGuor an# the #ancin) of
women !deo-dhai#. This tri'a" mo#e of worship was reco)nise# an# "e)a"i9e# '7 the .in) 3aranara7ana '7 the
issue of an e#ict which set asi#e the north 'an. of the 1rahmaputra ri&er for the practice of a'ori)ina" forms of
worship% A curious practice of anima" sacrifice is in &o)ue e&en now in the Si&a temp"es of Assam%
BiiCSa.tism < The (e)i"urana,compose# a'out the en# of the se&enth or the 'e)innin) of the !
th
centur7
A%+% States that the (e)i was worshippe# in her #ifferent forms in #ifferent p"aces% Accor#in) to ;i"son,Assam
or at "east the 3orth=east of 1en)a" B/amarupaC,seems to ha&e 'een the source from which the Tantric an# Sa.ta
corruption of the re"i)ion of the .edus an# the +uranas procee#e#% ISa.tismI sa7s E"iot,IIin the sense of a #efinite
sect with scriptures of its own if not confine# to the north=east corner,at "east has its hea#Guarters thereII%
Tra#itiona""7,the Sakta cu"t is consi#ere# to ha&e its centre in /amarupa with its chief temp"e at /ama.h7a,1ut
in the inscription,there is no trace of Sakti worship% Persona" in ori)in,its tenets an# histor7 were preser&e# in a
specia" c"ass of ma)ica" an# sacramenta" "iterature,common"7 .nown as Tantras.
Throu)hout the me#ie&a" perio#,e&en #own to the 1!
th
centur7,the "ea#in) re"i)ion of
Assam,howe&er,was Saktism./ama.h7a is the most ho"7 an# famous shrine of the sect,an# with its worship was
its worship was associate# the &arious rites,mantras,mudras an# sacrifices% Accor#in) to the Kalika +urna,the
)enita" or)an of Sati fe"" here when her #ea# 'o#7 was carrie# '7 her hus'an# Si&a% +r%1ani /anta /a.ati
'e"ie&es that this -oni-%oddess of /ama.h7a mi)rate# into Assam with the mi)ration of the Austric peop"e when
3ara.a foun#e# a .in)#om in ear"7
Assam% 6e esta'"ishe# himse"f as the custo#ian of this -oni-%oddess an# ma#e her the presi#in) #eit7 of the
State% Later re"i)ious histor7 of Assam a"so centere# roun# her an# other )o##ess reco)nise# her &arie#
manifestations% After 3ara.aIs #eath,/ama.h7a was no "on)er the primor#ia" ,other 2o##ess 'ut 'ecome the
amorous wife Para&ati "i&in) in insepara'"e companionship with her hus'an# Si&a for sacre# "o&e% Thus,a new
motif came into 'ein) an# fresh conceptions ha&e 'een ascri'e# to the )o##ess% The wife )o##ess Para&ati in
time was a)ain assimi"ate# to a &ir)in )o##ess of 'eaut7 an# se?%
BiiiCFaisna&ism= The worship of Fishnu an# his incarnations was pre&a"ent in Assam from ear"7 times%
The 2reat Saint San.ar#e&a referre# the ear"ier Faishna&ism in the 15
th
centur7 an# professe# a cu"t of Bhakti
B#e&otionCan# this 3eo=Faisna&ism of San.ar#e&a #iffere# from ear"ier Faishna&ism which was 'ase# on
Tantri.a rites% Sri San.ar#e&a an# his c"ose #iscip"e Sri ,a#ha'#e&a resiste# the sacrifice of anima"s or
'"oo#she# in the worship% The7 preache# to worship on"7 Fishnu or /rishna !/k Sarana (harma#. The7 #o not
'e"ie&e that the worship of inumera'"e 2o#s an# 2o##ess is essentia" for earnin) re"i)ious &irtues%
Bi&COther Sects < ;e a"so some references to other +uranic )o#s an# )o##esses whose scu"ptura"
representations are a"so foun# in the Pro&ince% These are $anesa,Kartike&a,Indra,%ni,Ku)era,Sur&a,etc%, from
the 6th5entur7 onwar#s,'ut we ha&e,howe&er,no #efinite of their cu"ts%
B&C1u##hism < The e?pressions dharma an# tatha%ata which occur respecti&e"7 in 1has.ara&armanIs
an# (n#rapa"Is 2rants ma.e it c"ear that 1u##hism #i# e?ist in Assam at an ear"7 perio#% 1ut there is no
important e&i#ence a'out this in the epi)raphs an# archeo"o)7% 6iuen Tsan),in his account remar.e# that the
peop"e ha# no faith in 1u##ha%
As time went on,the re"i)ious "ife of the peop"e of Assam ha# 'e)un to 'e mou"#e# main"7 '7 three
principa" re"i)ions,6in#uisim,(s"am an# 5hristianit7% 6in#uism is professe# '7 more than three=fourths of the
tota" popu"ation,(s"am,'7 "ess than one=fifth an# 5hristianit7 '7 one twenteeth% The Statement 'e"ow )i&es the
num'er of a#herents of each re"i)ion in 1911,1921%
PEOPLE 23
3ame of re"i)ion 3o of a#herents
1911 1921
6in#u 3,63!,69 4,362,51
,us"ims 1,9$1,$32 2,219,94
Animist 1,239,2!$ 1,256,641
5hristian 66,562 132,1$6
1u##hist 1$,513 13,52$
4ain 2,5$! 3,5$3
Si.h 5 1,$$9
1rahmo 42! 559
,isce""eneous = 39$
,inor ! =
,659,!5 ,99$,246
Accor#in) to the 5ensus 1931,6in#us from more than ha"f of the tota" popu"ation of the
Pro&ince,,us"ims near"7 one=thir# an# Animists a'out one=ninth% The statement 'e"ow shows the actua" num'er
of fo""owers of each of the main re"i)ions as ascertaine# at the 5ensus 1931%
9
6in#u Binc"u#in) 1rahmo an# Ar7aC 5,2$4,65$
,us"im D%%%% 2,!$,514
Tri'a" D%%% !92,39$
5hristian D%%% 249,246
1u##hist D%%% 15,$45
4ain D%%% 2,!$3
Si.h D%%% 2,29
,isce""aneous D%%% 4!$
(t is sen that the proportion of the 6in#u popu"ation per 1$,$$$ of the tota" popu"ation is more or "ess
stationar7 from 19$1 to 1921% (n 1931,the proportion of 6in#us rose apprecia'"7 to ,u""an,this 'i) increase of
6in#us is #ue to the 6in#u propa)an#a amon) the tri'a" communities% +urin) 1951 an# 1962,the proportion of
6in#us further increase# in Assam,'ut pro'a'"7 this time,it was main"7 #ue to the inf"u? of 6in#u refu)ees from
East Pa.istan B1an)"a#eshC into Assam%

9% 5ensus of (n#ia,1993 Fo"%=(((,Assam Part=( -eport,p%191%
The proportion ,us"ims per 1$,$$$ of the )enera" popu"ation of Assam in 19$1 was on"7 1,33,'ut from
1911 onwar#s,this proportion stea#i"7 rose from 1,463 to 2,329 in 1961% The proportion of 5hristians per 1$,$$$
of the )enera" popu"ation in Assam rose &er7 rapi#"7 from 93 in 19$1 to 644 in 1961%
!$

the Si.hs,1u##hists an# 4ains are re"ati&e"7 &er7 sma"" in num'er in Assam% The ta'"e )i&en 'e"ow )i&es
the popu"ation,#eca#e &ariation an# percenta)e #eca#e &ariation of the 6in#u popu"ation in Assam from 19$1=
1991%
@ear popu"ation +eca#e Percenta)e
&ariation #eca#e &ariation
1 2 3 4
19$1 2,2!2,646 = =
1911 2,663,55! E3!$,912 E16%69
1921 3,16,4$6 E5$3,!4! E1!%92
1931 3,966,!6$ E99,454 E25,24
1941 4,222,3 E44,4!3 =1!%
1951 5,!!6,$63 E2,663,6!6 E!2%66
1961 ,!!4,921 E1,99!,!5! E33%96
191 1,$6,25,!4 E2,4$,926M E34%6
1991 1,5$,4,293 E4,421,446 E41%61M
MFariation in two #eca#es B191=91C

The 6in#us constitute '7 far the ma0or re"i)ious communit7 in Assam,their percenta)e in 1961 an# 191
'ein) 1%33 an# 2%51 of tota" popu"ation of The State respecti&e"7% (n 1991,howe&er,the percenta)e of 6in#u
popu"ation of Assam #ecrease# to 6%13 of tota" popu"ation%
!1
After the 6in#us,the ,us"ims come ne?t with a popu"ation of 2,65,5$9 constitutin) 23%29 per cent of
the tota" popu"ation of Assam in 1961% The percenta)e,increase# to 24%$3 in 191 an# to 2!%43 in 1991% The ta'"e
'e"ow shows the tota" ,us"im popu"ation of Assam,the #eca#e=&ariation an# the percenta)e #eca#e=&ariation
from 19$1=1991%
!2

!$% Census of India, 1961, Fo"=(((, Assam, Part=1=A, 2enera" -eport, p%244=246%
!1% Census of India, 191, Part=1=A, 2enera" -eport,p%94, an# ssam Census 0ews 'etter, Fo"=
(((,+ecem'er,1995,p%3%
!2% Census of India, 191 Fo"=(((, Assam, Part=1=A, 2enera" -eport, p% 14! an# ssam Census 0ews 'etter, Fo"=
(((, +ecem'er, 1995, p%3%
PEOPLE 25
@ear Popu"ation +eca#e Percenta)e
Fariation #eca#e=&ariation
19$1 5$3,6$ = =
1911 634,1$1 E13$,431 E25%9$
1921 !!$,426 E246,325 E3!%25
1931 1,29,3!! E39!,962 E45%31
1941 1,696,9! E41,59$ E32%64
1951 1,995,936 E29!,95! E1%62
1961 2,65,5$9 E69,53 E3!%56
191 3,594,$$6 E!2!,49 E29%96
1991 6,33,2$4 E3,9,19!M E%33M
MFariation in two #eca#es B191=91C%
Arom the a'o&e ta'"e it ma7 'e seen that the ,us"im popu"ation of Assam within the present 'oun#aries
ha# risen from 5$3,6$ in 19$1 to 6,33,2$4 in 1991% The ,us"im popu"ation constitute# on"7 16%23J of the
popu"ation in the State in 1911% 17 1931,it recor#e# a sharp rise to 22%! per cent an# continue# to rise stea#i"7
thereafter to 2!%43 per cent in 1991% The ,us"im popu"ation of Assam ha# increase# '7 more than 25 per cent in
e&er7 #eca#e e?ceptin) in 1951 when the increase was 1%62 per cent% +urin) the "ast two #eca#es% Fi9%,191=
91,the percenta)e &ariation of ,us"im popu"ation of the State was E%33 per cent%
The tota" num'er of 5hristians in Assam was ,4,36 in 1991 a)ainst 6,6,151 in 191,the percenta)e
increase #urin) the "ast two #eca#es 191=91 'ein) 16%$%
Ao""owin) is statement showin) the pro)ress of 5hristianit7 in Assam from 19$1=61%
!3
@ear Popu"ation +eca#e Percenta)e
Fariation #eca#e &ariation
19$1 34,65$ = =
1911 61,9 E2%32 E!%!
1921 11!,134 E56%15 E9$%61
1931 213,6! E95%544 E!$%!!
1941 3!%$2 =14%96 =!1%!9

!3% Census of India, Fo"=(((, Part=1=A, 2enera" -eport, p%261 an# ssam Census 0ews 'etter, Fo"=(((, +ecem'er,
1995%
1951 4!,331 E44!%629 E1,159%19
1961 64,553 E2%222 E56%!9
191 66,151 =9%4$2 =12%4
1991 4,36 E1$%216 E16%$
(n 1941,a"" tri'a" 5hristian ha&e not 'een shown as 5hritians 'ut simp"7 as Sche#u"e# tri'es an# that is
wh7 the fi)ure appears to 'e &er7 "ow% (n fact,e&en #urin) 1941,5hristianit7 has 'een maintainin) its pro)ress in
Assam,particu"ar"7 amon) the tri'a" communities 'oth of the hi""s an# the p"ains% The percenta)e &ariation in the
#eca#es 19$1=11,1911=21 an# 1921=31 was much hi)her than that #urin) the #eca#e 1951=61% 1etween 1931 an#
1951,the percenta)e &ariation is 12!%$ for #eca#es which ma7 'e ta.en as 64%$4 per #eca#e% 1ut thou)h the
percenta)e &ariation #urin) 1951=61 is simi"ar,in term of a'so"ute num'ers it is hi)her than the pre&ious #eca#es%
5hristians constitute# 2%61 per cent of tota" popu"ation of Assam in 191 a)ainst 2%43 per cent in 1961 an# 2%$$
per cent 1951% Percenta)e of 5hristian popu"ation in Assam re#uce# to 4%46 in 191 an# 2%32 in 1991%
(n Assam,the num'er of 1u##hist,4ains an# Si.hs is practica""7 ne)"i)i'"e% 1u##hists constitute on"7
$%29 per cent% 4ains constitute on"7 $%$9 per cent an# Si.hs a"so constitute on"7 $%$ per cent of the tota"
popu"ation of Assam in 1991% Amon) the 1u##hists in 1961,as man7 as !,212 are foun# in the La.himpur
#istrict Bun#i&i#e#Can# 4,$6 are foun# in the un#i&i#e# Si'sa)ar #istrict an# these are the Tai=spea.in)
1u##hists,pre#ecessor of whom ha# come from 1urma after the Ahom in&asion of Assam% The Si.hs an# the
4ains ha&e come into Assam from other parts of (n#ia an# the7 are scattere# e&er7where in the State% Some of the
Si.hs who came to Assam some few hun#re# 7ears 'ac.,ha# sett"e# in Assam permanent"7 an# 'ecome as )oo#
as in#i)enous '7 inter marria)e with the Assamese% There are few Assamese Si.h &i""a)es in 3a)aon #istrict%
Tri'a" -e"i)ion < Accor#in) to the 1961 5ensus,Sche#u"e# tri'es 'e"on) to an7 re"i)ion% (t ma7 'e seen
that the most ha&e returne# their re"i)ion as 6in#uisim fo""owe# '7 5hristianit7% Farious tri'a" re"i)ions ha&e
'een "umpe# to)ether un#er the hea#in) Itri'a" -e"i)iousI% Sche#u"e# Tri'es 'e"on)in) to a"" other re"i)ions are
comparati&e"7 few in num'ers an# so the7 ha&e "umpe# to)ether un#er the hea#in) others%
The Tri'a" communities are no "on)er "eft in iso"ation an7where of mo#ern ci&i"isation an# so chan)es in
their socia",cu"tura",economic an# po"itica" set=up a"so ha&e ta.en p"ace &er7 rapi#"7% After (n#epen#ence,the
pace of socia" chan)es has )reat"7 acce"erate#%
PEOPLE 2
5astes < Tri'es an# sections of the Assamese Societ7 < (n 1931, ,r% 5% S%,u""an, Superinten#ent of
5ensus operation in 1931, con#ucte# a sur&e7 a'out the e?terior castes of 6in#us in Assam% Arom his enGuir7 he
foun# that in the 1rahmaputra Fa""e7 which was the .nown as Assam &a""e7, there were on"7 3 e?terior or
Ioutsi#e the pa"eI castes which cou"# 'e ca""e# untoucha'"e% These castes were B1C /ai'arta or 3a#i7a"s or
+oms %, B2C 1rittia" 1ania or 6ari, B3C 6iras or 5hara"s% The castes which were consi#ere# "ow socia""7 at that
time were B1C Sut an# B2C /atoni, Accor#in) to him Icaste in Assam &a""e7 is not, as e"sewhere,chief"7 a
functiona" #i&ision L it is rea""7 a racia" #i&ision an# functiona" castes are &er7 fewII%
!4
Accor#in) to his "ist B1C +hupi or +ho'i, B2C +u)"a or +ho"i, B3C 4ha"o or ,a"o, B4C @o)i or 3ath, B5C
/ai'arta B4a"i7aC, B6C ,ahara, BC ,a"i or 1huima"i, B!C 3amasu#ra, B9C Patri an# B1$C Sutra#har were the
e?terior castes of Surma &a""e7%
Ao""owin) are the Sche#u"e# 5astes an# Sche#u"e# Tri'es of Assam as per the Sche#u"e# 5astes an#
Sche#u"e# Tri'es "ist mo#ification or#er 1956%
Sche#u"e# 5astes Sche#u"e# Tri'es%
1%1asphar 1%5ha.ma
2%1huima"i or ,a"i 2%+imasa /achari
3%1rittia" 1aria or 1anir 3%2aro
4%+hupi or +ho'i 4%6a0on)
5%+u)"a or +ho"i 5%6mar
6%6ira 6%/hasi an# 0aintia
%4a".eot %An7 /u.i tri'e
!%4ha"o,,a"o or 4ha"o=,a"o !%A'or
9%/ai'arta or 4a"i7a 9%A.a
1$%La"'e)i 1$%Apatani
11%,ahara 11%+afa"a
12%,ehtar or 1han)i 12%2a"on)
13%,uchi or -ishi 13%/hampti
14%3amasu#ra 14%/howa
15%Patni 15%,ishmi
16%Sutra#har 16%,onpa
1%An7 3a)a tri'e

!4% Census of India,1931, 5hapter=H((, Appen#i?,p% 2$9=219%
1!%Sher#a.pen
19% Simphu
2$% 1o#o=1o#o.achari
21% +eori
22% 6o0ai
23% /achari inc"u#in) Sonowa"
24% La"un)
25% ,ech
26% ,ishin)
2% -a'ha
Source <= The peop"e of Assam ,1%,% +as, pa)e% 1$=11
Ca$te of t"e )u$lim$ =A"thou)h there is a )enera" a)reement amon) the ,us"ims of Assam that the7
ha&e no caste,it has 'een the custom in the past c"assif7 them in the usua" )roup of fami"ies such as a
Sa7e#,,u)a",Pathan,Shei.h an# in the functiona" sections ,aria,,ahinia",4a"aha,etc%
6istor7 te""s that Assam came into contact with the ,us"ims for the first time in the ear"7 part of the
13thcentur7 when ,ahamma# 1in 1ha.t7ar /hi"0i,a ,us"im )enera" of /utu'u#in "e# a Tur.ish arm7 to this
re)ion% Ao""owin) him on se&era" occasions other ,us"im in&a#ers came to Assam% (t ma7 perhaps 'e assume#
that a few ,us"im so"#iers preferre# to "i&e in Assam instea# of )oin) 'ac. with their #efeate# "ea#ers% So a"so
in the su'seGuent some of the in&a#in) ,us"im so"#iers of ,u)ha" arm7 consistin) of Pathans an# others
remaine# an# sett"e# in Assam% These peop"e marrie# "oca" Assamese )ir"s some of whose re"ati&es a"so
con&erte# into (s"am% A"" these mi)rants,"oca" con&erts an# their #escen#ants form the section Shei.h%
Su'seGuent"7,in the mi##"e of the 1
th
centur7 a ,us"im Saint 6a9arat Shah ,i"on '7 3ame,'ut
popu"ar"7 .nown as A9an Aa.ir came to Assam% 6e was S7e# an# he promote# an# sta'i"i9e# (s"am in Assam%
1roa#"7 spea.in) the ,us"ims in Assam ha&e their I5aste "i.eI #i&isions,name"7,the S7e#s,who c"aims to
'e the #escen#ants of the Prophet ,uhamma#,the Shei.hs,who form the ma0or 'u". of the ,us"im
popu"ation,an# the ,arias,the #escen#ants of the capture# ,us"im so"#iers% The S7e# c"aim to occup7 the
hi)hest socia" status% 3e?t to them come the Shei.hs to 'e fo""owe# '7 the ,arias%
Another section of the ,us"ims are immi)rants from East 1en)a"BEast Pa.istan,1an)"a#eshCan# the7 are
)enera""7 .nown as ,i&as% ,ost of them came from one #istrict of 1en)a",ca""e# I,7menshin),an#
therefore,the7 are sometimes referre# to as I,7menshin)haI% Some of the ,i7as ha&e comp"ete"7 assimi"ate#
PEOPLE 29
themse"&es with the "oca" cu"ture an# marrie# the ,arias,the Sei.hs an# ,i7as a"i.e% 1ut a section has
sti"" maintaine# their separate i#entit7 in the rura" areas an# marr7 amon) themse"&es%
The common priest amon) the ,us"ims are ca""e# ,au"a&is,whi"e the &i""a)e "ea#ers are ca""e# +ewans%
The +ewans are )enera""7 comparati&e"7 wea"th7 an# e?ercise &er7 stron) inf"uence on the socio=cu"tura" an#
po"itica" 'eha&iour of the ,i7as%
5ommon"7 the ,us"ims are ca""e# 2ari7as in co""oGuia" Assamese as the7 ha&in) ori)ina""7 mi)rate#
from 2ou#% 1ut the ,arias form a separate c"ass an# are the 'ra9iers amon)st the ,us"ims% A section of ,orias
are sai# to 'e the &anGuishe# so"#iers of 1a.htier /hi"0i whi"e the other section is sai# to 'e the #efeate# so"#iers
of Tur'a.% The7 were at first en)a)e# in cu"ti&ation 'ut ha&in) pro&e# a fai"ure were en)a)e# in fue" connection%
6ere too the7 cou"# not #o we"" an# hence "ater on the7 were en)a)e# as 'ra9ier% +ue to their #emonstrate#
fai"ure as +aik,were "oo.e# #own '7 their ear"ier sett"e# an# "oca" con&erts% This compe""e# them to "i&e in
sec"usion an# 'ecome )ra#ua""7 iso"ate# from the common ,us"ims%
!5
Thou)h 1%5% A""en mentione# the preacher c"ass of the ,us"ims as Khali"has,the Kjali"has are
)enera""7 the tai"ors% The ,ou"a&is now perform the function of re"i)ious for the ,us"im commoners whi"e the
Sa&eds are sti"" respecte# as aristocratic c"ass of re"i)ious "ea#ers%
+etai" accounts of the p"ains an# hi"" tri'es of Assam are )i&en in the +istrict 2a9etteers of
3a)oan,+arran),2oa"para,La.himpur,Si'sa)ar an# :nite# ,i.ir an# 3%5%6i""s% Accor#in) to 191
5ensus,1$%99 per cent of Assam popu"ation 'e"on) to this )roup%
A short account of some of the tri'es is )i&en 'e"ow%
The ,ishin)s < The ,ishin),a"so .nown as ,iris,were ori)ina""7 a hi"" tri'e "i&in) in the hi""s 'etween
the +afa"a an# the A'or territor7 in the present Arunacha" Pra#esh an# #own to the p"ains #urin) the rei)n of the
Ahom .in)s in Assam% (n the p"ains,the7 sett"e# near the 'an.s of the 1rahmaputra an# the Su'ansiri ri&ers an#
their tri'utaries an# the7 were ta.in) to a)ricu"ture as their principa" occupation% The7 'e"on) to the Ti'eto=
1urma fami"7 of ,on)o"oi# peop"e that fo""owe# the Austro=Asiatic races in (n#ia an# are a.in to the 1o#o% The
,ishin)s c"aim certain ethono"o)ica" affinities with the Pa#ams an# Pasi=,a7on)s of Arunacha" Pra#esh% The
A'ors an# the ,iris are of a #istinct"7 ,on)o"oi# t7pe% The7 ha&e sGuare set face,prominent chee. 'ones,scant7
'ear# an# moustache with a"mon#=shape# e7es% The7 are stron)"7 'ui"t with fine"7 #e&e"ope# "im's% The7 are
c"eaner in their persons than man7 of the Ti'eto=1urman tri'es an# fu""7 appreciate the a#&anta)e of the 'ath%
La.himpur #istrict is their main ha'itat% 3um'er of ,ishin)s as per 191 census is 2,59,551%

!5% E%6% Pa.7ntein < Census of India, 1961, Fo"=(((, Assam, Part=F=A, Sche#u"e# Tri'es an# Sche#u"e# 5aste, p%
36%
ASSA, STATE 2A>ETTEE- 2!$
The 1o#o=/acharis of Assam is a 'ranch of the )reat 1o#o 2roup of the (n#o=,on)o"oi# fami"7 fa""in)
within the Assam=1urmese "in)uistic section% The7 are the a'ori)ines of Assam,as has 'een pointe# out '7
-e&%S%En#"at in his renowne# wor. the I/acharisI%
+ifferent names are use# to #esi)nate them as their i#entit7 is not uniform as an ethnic )roup% (n 1en)a"
an# in the "ower ran)e of the 6ima"a7as comin) within the territor7 of 3epa", The7 are .nown as ,aches% (n
upper Assam,the7 are i#entifie# as Sonowa" an# Then)a" /achari,whi"e in the western Assam the7 are more
popu"ar"7 .nown as 1oro or 1o#o=/achari% (n the Southern #istrict of 3orth 5achar an# 5achar,the7 are
#esi)nate# as +imasa an# 1arman respecti&e"7%
The tota" popu"ation of the tri'e in Assam is 6,1$,459 as per 191 census which accounts for 45J of the
tota" State tri'a" popu"ation% The7 are now "ar)e"7 concentrate# in the /o.ra0har #istrict fo""owe# '7 the
3orthern 'e"t of un#i&i#e# /amrup an# +arran) #istricts%
!6
Sonowa"=/acharis < (n "a.himpur,most of the /acharis returne# themse"&es as Sonowals. (n
2oa"para,the7 ca"" themse"&es 1oro or 1rahma% (n 3orth 5achar,practica""7 a"" of them returne# themse"&es as
/shatri7as,their "an)ua)e 'ein) +imasa% As per 191 census,there were 39,342 +imasa /acharis,61$459 1oro
/acharis which inc"u#e 19!,619 /acharis in Assam% B+etai" account of /acharis is a&ai"a'"e in the #istrict
2a9etteer of 3a)aon%C
-a'ha <One of the p"ains tri'es of Assam,the7 are most"7 foun# in /amrup,2oa"para an# +arran)
#istricts particu"ar"7 on the south 'an. of the 1rahmaputra in 2oa"para% Their &i""a)es are of the same t7pe with
the non=tri'a" Assamese &i""a)e%
The -a'has are #i&i#e# into se&era" )roups name"7 Pati,,aitori,-an)#oni,Tot"a,1it"ia,#ahuri an#
Shon)a% The ma0orit7 is co&ere# '7 the Patis, ,oitoris an# -on)#onis% Each of these )roups are #i&i#e# into
num'er of e?o)amous c"ans terme# Bar or Barai. Two or more Bars can form a terme# Hur or Huri. These Bars
then cease to 'e e?o)amous an# instea# marria)e are performe# outsi#e the Hur or Huri.
The Bar is matri"inea" 'ut the resi#ence is patri"oca"% 6ea# of the fami"7 is the father an# ownership of
propert7 a"so rests with him%
(n marria)e,cross=cousin marria)e is a""owe# amon) the -a'has% The7 prefer marria)e to a /achari )ir"
than to a 2aro )ir"% E&en in such inter=marria)e,a purification ceremon7 is consi#ere# necessar7 to 'e accepte#
to the c"an,thou)h from the ethnica" point of &iew accor#in) to the scho"ars "i.e P"a7 fair an# +r% 1%,% +as of
2auhati :ni&ersit7,the -a'has with the /acharis an# the 2aros 'e"on) to the same tri'a" )roup .nown as the
1o#os%
!
The "e)en#s pre&a"ent

!6% 1%3% 1or#o"oi, 2%5%Sharma Tha.ur, ,% 5% Sai.ia < Tribes of ssam, Part=(
!% +r% 1% ,% +as <*icroe)olution, 3ew +e"hi, 19!1, pp%33=3!%
PEOPLE 2!1
amon)st these 3 tri'es re"atin) to their mi)ration to the 1rahmaputra &a""e7,a"so supports the contention%
-a0'an)shi < These peop"e,some of whom c"aim to 'e pure an# others as tri'a"s 'e"on)in) to the 1o#o=
)roup con&erte# to 6in#uisim,are seen particu"ar"7 in 2oa"para an# its a#0oinin) parts of /amrup #istrict% Some
of them 'e"on)in) to the new"7 con&erte# )roups are .nown as ,eches% The o"#est con&erts ca"" themse"&es
/oches% The -a0'anshis are one of the reco)nise# 'ac.war# c"asses of (n#ia%IThe -a0'on)shis appear to
represent the en# pro#uct of the process of #etr'a"i9ations The -a0'on)shis are of mi?e# ori)in in sense that
peop"e of #ifferent tri'a" )roups after con&ersion to 6in#uisim are ca""e# -a0'on)shis or /och%
!!
(n 2oa"para an# /amrup,the /oches )enera""7 ca"" themse"&es -a0'anshi #ue to their c"an=connection
with the /och /in) 3ara 3ara7ana,whose cousin was esta'"ishe# as -a0a of 2oa"para% Accor#in) to ,r%
2ait,-a0'anshi is either a /och or a ,ech% Pro'a'"7,"i.e the other /oches of Assam,-a0'anshis are 6in#ui9e#
up)ra#e# peop"e of 1o#o ori)in mi)rate# to these two #istricts from the nei)h'ourin) #istrict of /och 1ihar
a"on) with the arm7 of .in) 3aranara7anaIs mi"itant 'rother 5hi"arai an# his #escen#ants% Accor#in) to
,r%E%6%Pa.7ntine,5ensus Superinten#ent of Assam,1961Lthe /oches ha&e 3 #i&isions &i9,B1C/amta"is who #o
not touch por. an# into?icatin) "iGuor, B2C6ermirs for whom on"7 "iGuor is a ta'oo an# B3C ,a#hahis who ta.e
'oth por. an# "iGuor the "ater two #i&isions most pro'a'"7 in#icatin) pre=con&ersion sta)es of the /acharis%
(n 1!2,in the 1rahmaputra &a""e7 3,12,999 /oches were enumerate# an# in 1!!1 the num'er was foun#
to 'e 349,!!!% (n 1911,num'er of /oches came to 'e 23,53% ;hi"e num'er of -a0'anshis were 133$! of
which 12!114 were enumerate# in 2oa"para a"one% This shows that in other #istricts of the 1rahmaputra &a""e7 a
section of the /oches )ra#ua""7 )ot a'sor'e# in other hi)her caste throu)h matrimonia" a""iances an# the
-a0'anshis of 2oa"para retaine# their o"# status in the >amin#ar7 s7stem of 2oa"para which was comparati&e"7
free of Assam Faishna&ite mo&ement%
The 5hutias < The 5hutias are of ,on)o"oi# ori)in an# 'e"on) to the 1o#o=/achari fami"7% The7 are
main"7 foun# in the #istrict of Si'sa)ar an# La.himpur in upper Assam% +eoris are their priest"7 c"an% The7 were
ru"in) in the +i'on)=Su'ansiri &a""e7 in the upstream area of the 1rahmaputra an# were su'seGuent"7 conGuere#
'7 the Ahoms% The7 a#opte# themse"&es to the 6in#u cu"ture an# Assamese "an)ua)e thou)h the7 ha&e sti""
retaine# their "an)ua)e an# cu"ture in ritua"s% Accor#in) to their e?tent of assimi"ation,the 5hutia a'sor'e# into
6in#u Societ7 are ca""e# 6in#u 5hutia,those of Ahom Societ7 are ca""e# Ahom 5hutia an# those a'sor'e# into
/achari societ7 are ca""e# 1arahi 5hutia% The Priest"7 c"ass is ca""e# the +eoris%

!!% +r% 1% ,% +as < *icroe)olution, 3ew +e"hi% 19!1,pp=3!=4$
ASSA, STATE 2A>ETTEE- 2!2
The +eoris ha&e preser&e# the socio=cu"tura" i#entif7 of the 5hutia=tra#ition,whi"e the Ahom 5hutias
ha&e a#opte# some of the Ahom customs% The 6in#u 5huti7as ha&e no socio=cu"tura" #ifferences with a common
Assamese 6in#u% The +eoris from a c"ose# societ7 an# #o not a""ow marria)e outsi#e their own section% The7
ha&e 12 +hoids or c"ans within which no inter=marria)e is,howe&er,permitte#% The 5huti7as who inter=marrie#
with the /acharis are ca""e# 1arahi 5huti7as% At present the 1arahi 5huti7as ha&e su'mer)e# with the 'roa#er
'ranch of 5huti7as%
,eches <The7 are a 'ranch of the ,on)o"oi# 1o#o=/achari fami"7% Accor#in) to Sri -am 5haran
1rahma BArtic"e II1as.a=(7ar Sans.ritII in the Sou&enir of A""=(n#ia Tri'a" 5onference 19! Assamese
Section,pa)e 4Cthe 1o#o who "i&e# on the 'an. of the ri&er ,issi in the #istrict ,oron) of 3epa" are .nown as
,ech% The7 are c"ose"7 associate# with the /och an# the -a0'anshis% Their mother ton)ue as such is Assamese
with ,on)o"oi# &ariance% Their numerica" stren)th in Assam as per 191 5ensus was 2,5$%
!9
The ,ata.s < The ,ata.s are actua""7 a communit7 terme# as ,oamarias who represente# a section of
the Faisna&ite sect of Assam resi#in) particu"ar"7 in the present +i'ru)arh #istrict% !$J of the ,ata.s are tri'a"
con&erts an# "ow=caste 6in#us whi"e 2$J on"7 constitute the ori)ina" /a"itas an# /eots 6in#us% (t is state# that
the term ,oamaria is #eri&e# from *oa Ba .in# of sma"" fishCan# *aria BcatchersC#enotin) a section of
fishermen resi#in) or#inari"7 in the ri&er of the wor"#Is )reatest ri&er=is"an# ,a0u"i ta.en into .aisna) fo"# '7 Sri
Aniru##ha a )ran#son in="ow of Srimanta San.er#e&a%
Some others connecte# the term with *a&a or i""usion throu)h which Sri Aniru##ha #e&a impresse# the
Ahom ro7a"ities% The7 shifte# to the foot=hi"" area of the Assam -an)e in the eastern part of Assam where the7
esta'"ishe# their own #omain an# a"so e?pan#e# the communit7 '7 'rin)in) new tri'a" con&erts of the area into
their mi#st% (n the mi##"e part of the ei)hteenth centur7,the7 re&o"te# a)ainst the re"i)ious persecution an#
t7rann7 of the Ahom monarch7 an# esta'"ishe# their contro" o&er the Ahom capita" for few 7ears to 'e
&an)uishe# an# pushe# 'ac.% 1ut some time "ater,the7 a)ain re=)roupe# an# esta'"ishe# their own territoria"
su9eraint7 with their seat at Tinsu.ia% The7 retaine# their in#epen#ence e&en after the a#&ent of the 1ritish an#
remaine# a tri'utar7 of the 1ritish ti"" 1!39 when the "ast ,ata. .in) Sri ,ati'ar 1ar Senapati,son of
Sar'anan#a Sin)ha,the ,oto. .in) who minte# coins in his own name,was #epose# of an# the territor7 a'sor'e#
into the 1ritish empire%
9$
,oran < The ,orans are the inha'itants of the upper part of the ,ata. countr7% Last the7 were foun#
on"7 in 3orth=La.himpur area of the State% Pro'a'"7,the7 'e"on) to the same communit7 an# #eri&e# the name
from -a)hu ,oran,

!9% Census of India, 1961, Fo"% (((, Assam, Part F=A, p%16=1,54=59%
9$% A% Sar'anan#a -a0.umar < Chuti&a, Bhu&an and *atak ,aj&a, 1964,p% !4%
PEOPLE 2!3
one of the ,oamarias,who was 'ehea#e# '7 the Ahom .in),,oran town of +i'ru)arh #istrict has immorta"ise#
their names%
The /ar'is < The /ar'is who inha'it in the stren)th in /ar'i=An)"on) hi""s #istrict of Assam,'e"on) to
the (n#o=,on)o"oi# stoc. of the Ti'eto=1urman "in)uistic )roup% Sett"ement of /ar'is are a"so foun# in parts of
3orth 5achar,3a)aon,/amrup an# Si'sa)ar Bun#i&i#e#C#istrict of Assam,an# the 4aintia 6i""s #istrict of
,e)ha"a7a%
The /ar'is ha# 'een .nown to the outsi#e wor"# as the ,i.irs% Thou)h the /ar'is #o not "i.e
themse"&es to 'e ca""e# as ,i.irs e&en to#a7 the term is use# to )reat e?tent% Accor#in) to the 191 5ensus,the
tota" popu"ation of the /ar'is is 1,!1,2!$ of which 92,419 are ma"es an# !!,!61 are fema"es, it shou"# 'e
mentione# here that these fi)ures refer to the /ar'is inha'itin) the two Autonomous 6i""s #istricts,name"7 /ar'i
An)"on) an# 3orth 5achar 6i""s on"7% The tota" popu"ation wi"" 'e much more if we ta.e into account the /ar'is
"i&in) in the p"ains of Assam a"so%
The 2aros < The 2aros are are essentia""7 hi"" peop"e an# are inha'itants of the hi""s .nown '7 that name%
,oreo&er the7 ha&e e?ten#e# their territor7 to the p"ains of 2oa"para an# /amrup #istricts of Assam a#0oinin)
the 2aro 6i""s% 2aros "i.e the other tri'es of Assam 'e"on) to the Ti'eto=1urman fami"ies of 1o#o "in)uistic
)roup% Accor#in) to ,r%S%3%1ar.a.ati,the 2aros ha&e ori)ina""7 three c"asses name"7 ,ata.,,amin an#
San)ma% Later on three c"asses name"7,A'en),Aren),an# Sina were create#%
As per 191 census,the tota" 2aro popu"ation in Assam is !,139 out of which 5,222 persons are ma"es
an# 3,91 are fema"es%
The )ar#en "a'ourers < A section of the tea=)ar#en an# e?=tea )ar#en "a'ourers 'e"on) to the )enera"
6in#u caste of the State from which the7 ori)ina""7 mi)rate# to Assam% 1ut ma0orit7 amon)st them 'e"on)
actua""7 to Sche#u"e 5astes such as Santa"s an# ,un#as% Some of them ha&e em'rance# 5hristianit7 in course of
their contact with the European tea=p"anters% (n 1931,there were 13,16,$$$ 6in#us,53,$$$ Anima"s an# 31,$$$
5hristians amon)st them% As per 191 census,there were 4,42 1humi9es,2,615 2on#as,,$61 /harias,33,$31
Orans,6,!94 ,un#as an# !6,$!6 Santa"s amon)st them% The num'er fo""owin) #ifferent re"i)ions,'e"ief
amon)st them as per 191 census is not a&ai"a'"e% The7 are consi#ere# to 'e a part of the Assamese in#i)enous
societ7 thou)h "i.e other in#i)enous sche#u"e# tri'es,the7 ha&e a"so maintaine# their own cu"ture an# #ia"ect in
their #a7=to=#a7 "ife%

91% +r% 1%3% 1or#o"oi < Tribes of ssam, Part=(((%p%4%
5astes < E?c"u#in) minor chan)es or errors in nomenc"ature,fo""owin) is the "ist of in#i)enous )roups of
castes "i&in) in Assam% The7 are 1rahmin,2raha'ipra or 2ana.,/a7astha,/a"ita,,ech,1aish7a or 1ani.7a,@o)i
or 3ath,Sonari or 1onia,5hara" or 6ira,1rittia" 1ania,6ari,/ai'arta or 3a#i7a",4a"oi,/eot,3apit,/atni,Sut an#
/achari or Sonowa" or Sarania%
The fo""owin) caste are new imports from East 1en)a" < 1arui,1a#7a +as or
3amasu#ra,Saha,Sutra#har,,ahis7a,Patni,4ha"o or ,a"o or 4ha"o=,a"o,Su#ra,Tanti,+ho"i or +u)"a,,ahara an#
,a"i or 1huima"i%
The other castes mi)rate# from other states of (n#ia are < ,uchi or -ishi,1asphar,,ehtar an# La"'e)i%
+etai"e# account of 1rahmins,/a7asthas,/a"itas an# Ahoms are )i&en in the re&ise# +istrict 2a9etteers%
Accounts of a few castes are )i&en 'e"ow <
2raha'ipras < 2enera""7 the7 .nown throu)hout Assam as $anak #ue to their profession% 1ut the7 prefer
to ca"" themse"&es a 2raha'ipras in consi#eration of their stu#7 on astro"o)7% The7 o'ser&e a"" the customar7
ritua"s of a 1rahmin% The7 intermarr7 within their caste% Li.e the 1rahmins an# the /a7asthas,the7 a"so #o not
)enera""7 pursue an7 tra#e reGuirin) pure"7 manua" "a'our an# commercia" transaction% The 2raha'ipras of
2an#hia &i""a)e in 3a"'ari su'#i&ision are renowne# for their proficienc7 in astro"o)ica" stu#7%
/eots< (n socia" "a##er,the7 are p"ace# 0ust 'e"ow the /a"itas an# are,therefore,inc"u#e# amon) caste
6in#us% ;hi"e in certain #istrict,for e?amp"e,in the 1arpeta #istricts,the7 are )enera""7 .nown as /amars or
'"ac.smiths% (n Si'sa)ar,this profession of '"ac.smiths has 'een un#erta.en '7 the /a"itas e&en% 1esi#es this
occupation,the7 ha&e ta.en to a)ricu"ture an# other tra#es% Amon) this c"ass of peop"e there
are,howe&er,inte""i)ent persons who ha&e contri'ute# their share to the a#&ancement of socia" an# cu"tura" "ife of
the State%
@o)iB3athC < The7 are .nown as 3ath=@o)is or 4u)is or /atanis in &arious p"aces of Assam% (n upper
Assam,howe&er,there are man7 /atanis who at one time were wea&ers '7 professions% (n the Ballala Charitam,a
Sans.rit 'oo.,suppose# to 'e written in the 12
th
centur7 A%+% ;e fin# mention of sect of peop"e as 4un)is% The7
were #rum='eaters,whose #escen#ants are sti"" foun# in some parts of Assam ans are .nown as /en#ra=4u)is
B@o)isC% Their ori)ina" profession was #rum='eatin),pa"anGuin='earin),Guac.er7,sna.e charmin),etc% The7 ha&e
now ta.en to a)ricu"ture% The @o)i were the ho"7=threa# which the7 ca"" @o)apatra,'ut un"i.e the 1rahmins the7
p"ou)h the "an# '7 themse"&es% Pre&ious"7 the pre=pu'ert7 marria)e an# wi#ow marria)e were pre&a"ent amon)
the mem'ers of this communit7% 6owe&er,the former practice is now tota""7 o'so"ete% Peop"e of this sect "i&in)
in 5achar fo""ow the practice of 'uria" of the
PEOPLE 2!5
#ea# 'o#7,'ut those of the 1rahmaputra Fa""e7 fo""ow the practice of cremation% The7 o'ser&e on"7 ten #a7s as
the unc"ean perio# after the #eath of an a#u"t,an# three #a7s in case of minor% After the perio# of
unc"ean"iness,Sardha ceremon7 is performe# accor#in) to rites co#ifie# in Smritis. /atani is the name of the
section of the @o)is "i&in) in the 1rahmaputra Fa""e7 who were former"7 suppose# to 'e the on"7 peop"e who
cou"# or wou"# rear the "at si". worm% The7 ha&e 'een c"asse# un#er @o)i%
3at< The7 'e"on) to a section of peop"e ta.en to sin)in),#ancin) an# musica" instrument p"a7in) in a
temp"e or a Satra 0am%har% 3ow the7 ha&e foresa.en the intro#uction an# )i&e on"7 their own caste=name%
4a"#ha< A c"ass of fisherman )enera""7 foun# on"7 in 2oa"para an# +arran) #istricts%
Sha"oi < This caste is foun# on"7 in the 1rahmaputra Fa""e7% The7 are )enera""7 a)ricu"turists an# ran.
'e"ow the /ewats in the hierarch7 of the State% The7 are most"7 foun# in /amrup,+arran) an# 2oa"para
#istricts%
6ari< 2enera""7 the )o"#smiths of Assam are .nown '7 this name% 1ut in upper Assam,the sca&en)ers of
the Ahom .in)s a"so were .nown as the 6aris or the pot=c"eaners%
6ira< A c"ass of "ow=caste potters who are )enera""7 foun# inha'itin) the "owest Assam #istricts of
2oa"para,/amrup,+arran) an# 3a)aon% Some 6iras are a"so foun# mi)rate# to La.himpur #istrict #urin) the
"ate part of nineteenth centur7%
1ais7a< There is not a #istrict caste as 1ais7as in Assam thou)h some of the peop"e retain their tit"e as
1ais7a or Sou# or 1ani.7a% The7 now intermarr7 with the /a"itas of Assam
4a"oi /eot< Thou)h their ori)ina" profession was fisherman the7 ne&er use# to se"" fishes in the mar.et%
The7 consi#er themse"&es as hi)her in caste status than the /ai&arttas or 3a#i7a"s who se"" fishes% 4a"oi=/eots
)enera""7 #i# the nettin)s an# cau)ht fishes with it%
Sonari or 1aina or 1rittia" 1anias < The7 are )enera""7 the 0ewe" ma.ers% 3ow=a=#a7s,howe&er,the7 ha&e
chan)e their profession an# too. to an7 other han#7 profession or 0o'%
5hara"< Ori)ina""7 connecte# with funera" reGuirements of the 6in#u societ7,the7 ha&e a"so now a#opte#
to the mo#ern societ7 an# pursuin) a"" other 0o's,a#opte# '7 other section e?ceptin) the priesthoo# of the
societ7% 5hara"s are,howe&er,&er7 few in Assam% Since 1!!1 5hara"s are censuse# to)ether with the 6iras%
3ear"7 a"" 1huima"is ha&e a#opte# the #esi)nation of ,a"a.ar or ,a"i% Their num'er in 191 was
22,15 in the State% 1orias were on"7 1,4$$ in 1921a)ainst 22,$$$ in 191 since the7 ha# preferre# to )i&e name
Sut% Patni #o not 'e"on) to Assam proper% The7 actua""7 mi)rate# from East 1en)a" Bnow 1an)"a#eshC% The
3a#i7a"s of Assam who were former"7 .nown as +oom,ha&e )i&en up in fa&our of 3a#ia" or /ai'arta as a caste
name% Their num'er as per 191 census was 2,94,!19% 2raha'ipras or 2ana.s returne# themse"&es as 1rahmans%
1orias < 1orias are )enera""7 inter=caste peop"e who come out of marria)e or union of a hi)h caste 6in#u
woman with "ow=caste 6in#u or a ,us"im% 3ow=a=#a7s,howe&er,no 1aria can 'e foun# an# the7 )et a'sor'e# in
the societ7 of the hus'an# or the ma"e partner%
/ai&artta or 3a#ia" < 17 profession fisherman are ca""e# 3a#ia"s #ue to their ha'itation in the pro?imit7
of a ri&er% The7 now preferre# to 'e /ai&arttas%
3apit < 2enera""7 en)a)e# in hair sa&in) an# 'ear# an# nai" cuttin) as profession,the7 were attache# to
some temp"es an# aristocrate fami"ies% 3ow=a=#a7s the7 ha&e a#opte# other professions "i.e cu"ti&ation as we""
as the caste profession,i%e%, hair cuttin)% ,ost of the present 3apitsB1ar'ersC of Assam are from outsi#e the State%
,uchi or -ichi < 5o''"ers '7 profession ma0orit7 of them are from 1ihar%
1asphor or ,ehtar or 1han)i < This section of the peop"e is entire"7 from outsi#e Assam,most"7 from
1ihar an# Pun0a'% This is on"7 c"ass #oin) the sweepin) an# c"eanin) 0o's%
Of the other professiona" castes,we ha&e references to /um'ha.ara or /amar BpotterC,Tantu&a7a or Tanti
Bwea&erCor 3au.i 3a#ia" B1oatmenCan# +an#i Btowers of 'oatsC% 3one of these are in#i)enous caste of Assam%
(n Assam at present,there are two c"asses of pottersL /umar an# 6ira% The 6iras are a freGuent"7 spo.en of as a
su'=caste of the 5han#a"a,'ut the7 wi"" not eat with the "atter,an# their occupation is,of course,Guite #istinct% As
for /umars,e&en the /am"itas too ta.e to this profession for "i&in)% The profession #oes not "ower his socia"
status% As for Tantis,there is no such in#i)enous professiona" caste in Assam% A"" the womenfo". of Assam
inc"u#in) the 1rahmins ta.e to wea&in)%
The 6aris as ant&ajas are connecte# with the 5han#a"as an# the /ai&artas% (n Assam,their position has
of "ate much impro&e#L the7 ha&e ta.en "ar)e"7 to tra#e an# to wor.in) in )o"#%
PEOPLE 2!
(nter=5aste re"ations < The caste s7stem of (n#ia has #e&e"ope# into an uniGue socia" s7stem foun#
nowhere e"se in the wor"#% -e)ar#in) marria)e,hi)h=caste 6in#us must marr7 their )ir"s within their caste or
su'=caste% The )enera" fee"in) amon)st the 6in#us a'out the caste s7stem is that it has 'een esta'"ishe# '7
#i&ine or#inance or at "east with #i&ine appro&a"% O'ser&ance of caste,therefore,is eGui&a"ent to dharma1that
is,the re"i)ious o'ser&ance,ri)hteousness an# mora" o'"i)ation%
5aste in the Assam Fa""e7 is rea""7 a racia" #i&ision an# functiona" castes an# &er7 few% Pro'a'"7 for this
reason,6in#uisim particu"ar"7 in Assam is to"erant towar#s the tri'a" communities which ha&e not 7et 'een
comp"ete"7 a'sor'e# in its or)anism% (t is #ifficu"t for an Assamese 6in#u to #espise at heart a man whose
6in#uism is open to consi#era'"e #ou't% As a resu"t,the on"7 caste in Assam which can 'e ca""e# e?terior are
castes which are either tra#itiona""7 associate# with some #e)ra#in) occupation Bsuch as Chandalas,those sellin%
fishesCor whose tra#itiona" ori)in is associate# with a 'ar sinister%
3ow,chan)es ha&e 'een notice# in the societ7 of the e#ucate# peop"e 'oth in the ur'an an# rura" areas%
(n towns,amon) the e#ucate# c"asses,the #ifferent castes ha&e 'e)an to mi? aroun# free"7 an# caste ru"es are not
so ri)i#"7 o'ser&e# in pu'"ic an# pri&ate 'anGuets%
-i)i#it7 of untoucha'i"it7 are a"so &anishin) #ue to the "i'era"isin) inf"uences of the time% A 1rahmin
wou"# not former"7 touch an untoucha'"e an# if he #i# so acci#enta""7 he wou"# purif7 himse"f '7 'athin)% 1ut
now,a marria)e e&en with such caste is to"arate# an# socia""7 accepte#% :ntoucha'i"it7 is "osin) its )roun# now=
a=#a7s, in#ication of inter=communa" fusion is not so stron)% (nter=marria)e 'etween #ifferent castes an#
communities is sti"" i#ea",thou)h such marria)e ha&e 'een ta.in) p"ace% There are instances of inter marria)e
'etween the 1rahmins an# the ,us"ims not to spea. of the other castes% This t7pe of marria)e is sti"" confine#
amon) the hi)h an# sophisticate# fami"ies% On the other han#,there is a"so a ten#enc7 towar#s caste 0eo"ous7 an#
e?c"usi&eness% As a resu"t of specia" pri&i"e)es e?ten#e# to sche#u"e# section,there is a )rowin) caste
consciousness amon) a"" c"asses of peop"e,accompanie# '7 fee"in) of caste patriotism%
The inf"uence of economic factors in 'rin)in) a'out a chan)e in socia" status cannot 'e ne)"ecte#% The
1rahmins who former"7 refuse# to #o an7 .in# of "a'our,are now mo&in) to towns from &i""a)e in search of
emp"o7ment% ,an7 hi)h caste men ta.e emp"o7ment as c"er.s an# %omasthas in the shop of "ow caste men% So
far as Assam is concerne#,thou)h there are #istinct 'arries 'etween the 1rahmin an# non=1rahmin on the one
han# an# 'etween caste 6in#us an# the out castes on the other,7et the ri)i#it7 is s"ow"7 s"ac.enin)% Amon)st
non=
ASSA, STATE 2A>ETTEE- 2!!
1rahmin e#ucate# peop"e the #istinction 'etween such caste as /eots an# /oches are har#"7 noticea'"e% There
are innumera'"e instances of marria)e 'etween these castes% Low castes "i.e Kaibarttas an# Brittial Banias,are
to#a7 to"erate# in forma" an# socia" ceremonies in the towns an# in such functions no #i&ision of castes is
maintaine# in Assam%
The p"ains tri'a" peop"e ha&e most"7 accepte# 6in#uism an# some of them ha&e 'ecome #iscip"es of
Assamese $ossains. /acharis can )ra#ua""7 enter a 6in#u caste '7 first 'ecomin) ISarania,then Saru Koch then
Barkoch an# )ra#ua""7 mi? with 6in#u Koches 'ecome e"i)i'"e for marria)e with keot an# Kalita. Other tri'a"s
thou)h accepte# 6in#uisim,#i# not a#opt an7 new caste name%
(n Assam,the re"ation 'etween the 6in#u an# ,us"im is &er7 cor#ia" an# "i'era"% There are instances of
intermarria)e 'etween these two communities where 'oth the parties maintain their own re"i)ious practice% This
has "e# to a cu"tura" an# socia" #e&e"opment which is uniGue in Assam%
-e"i)ious Lea#ers an# ,o&ements <
Towar#s the c"osin) #eca#es of the 15
th
5entur7 of the 5hristian era,the course of the re"i)ious histor7 of
Assam too. a new turn% (t was crosse# '7 the neo=Faisna&ite ,o&ement initiate# '7 Sri San.ar#e&a B1449=
156!Cwho was a'"7 assiste# '7 se&era" #isip"es,chief amon) whom was ,a#ha&a#e&a B14!9=1596C% ;ithin two
hun#re# 7ears of its inception,the mo&ement firm"7 esta'"ishe# the Faisna&a faith as the supreme re"i)ious or#er
of the 1rahmaputra Fa""e7% The mo&ement a"so e&o"&e# a new institution .nown as Satra which 'e)an to ser&e
not on"7 as the instrument of sprea#in) the faith 'ut a"so he"pe# to sustain an# sta'i"ise Faisna&ism '7 ma.in) it
a part an# parce" of Assamese socia" "ife% San.ar#e&a,,a#ha&#e&a an# +amo#ar#e&a,ma7 'e st7"e# as Trimurti
of Assam .aisna)ism. The7 a"so en0o7e# the patrona)e of the rei)nin) /och /in)s% The mo&ement 'rou)ht in its
wa.e a "iterar7 an# artistic renaissance in Assam%
The mo&ement #i# not #iffer in essentia" points from that of me#ie&a" (n#ia% The mo&ement
ma7,therefore,'e ca""e# a part of the A"" (n#ia Faisna&ite mo&ement of the mi##"e a)es% (n practica" app"ication
of the princip"es an# tenets an# in wor.in) out the #etai"s of the faith,it e&o"&e# a cu"t of its own 'est suite# to
the )enius of the peop"e which mou"#e# accor#in) to the "oca" circumstances% Popu"ar"7 .nown as the
*aha"uusi&a dharma. The rea" name of the cu"t was /kasarana dharma or the re"i)ion of supreme surren#er to
one )o#,&i9%, Fisnu=/risna% The term *aha"urusi&a is popu"ar"7 'e"ie&e# to ha&e seen #eri&e# from the epithet
*aha"urusa, )enera""7 app"ie# to mean San.ar#e&a who was .nown to his fo""owers as *aha"urush Bthe )reat
'ein)Can# therefore,the re"i)ion propa)ate# '7 him came to 'e .nown as the *aha"urusi&a dharma. 1ut there is
another e?p"anation that the term *aha"urusa a"so in an epithet of )o# 3ara7ana%
PEOPLE 2!9
As the .aisna)a cu"t of Assam en0oins the worship of 3ara7an on"7,the cu"t pro'a'"7 came to 'e .nown as the
*aha"urusa dharma i%e%, the cu"t of *aha"urusa.
San.ar#e&a was 'orn in the mi##"e of fifteenth centur7 at A"ipu.huri near 1ar#owa in the #istrict of
3a)aon% 6is father was /usum'eara 1hu7an% San.ar#e&a was thorou)h"7 e#ucate# in Sans.rit un#er Ananta
/an#a"i,a )reat Sans.rit Scho"ar of Assam at the time%
After the #eath of his first wife,he went out on a "on) pi")rima)e of twe"&e 7ears,#uration an# &isite#
most of the sacre# p"aces of 3orth (n#ia% +urin) this so0ourn he came into contact with man7 saints an# scho"ars%
6e must ha&e seen an# ha&e 'een #eep"7 impresse# '7 the nature an# wor.in) of the 3eo=&aisna&ite mo&ements
carrie# on '7 the sects of -amanu0a,,a#ha&achar7a,3im'ar.a an# -amanan#h in #ifferent parts of the countr7%
E?perience an# impressions of his "on) pi")rima)e he"pe# a )reat #ea" in wi#enin) his re"i)ious out"oo. an#
inspire# him to un#erta.e the tas. of re=orientin) the re"i)ious set=up of his nati&e "an#% After a "apse of twe"&e
7ears,San.ar#e&a returne# home with immi)ration an# 9ea" for a reform%
6e 'e)an the tas. of propa)atin) the new faith of )aisna)ism. The first step ta.en in this case was
throu)h the pantomimic #ance .nown as Cihna&atra wherein shown the scene of se&en .aikunthas with a
presi#in) Fishnu o&er each% San.ar#e&a performe# the #ance himse"f an# the show was )reat success% Peop"e
were ama9e# at the miracu"ous power of the initiator an# #irector of the show% The7 'e)an to "oo. upon
San.ar#e&a with a sense of won#er an# re&erence%
1ut the faith an# the mo&ement too. a #efinite shape after the receipt of the Bha%a)ata +urana throu)h
4a)a#ish ,ishra%
The new cu"t thou)h main"7 'ase# on the teachin) of the Bha%a)ata +urana is further reinforce# '7 the
teachin) of the 2ita which en0oins comp"ete surren#er to 2o# an# '7 the thousan# names of Fishnu narrate# in
the +adma +urana.
(nspite of the popu"arit7 )aine#,soon San.ar#e&a recei&e# a temporar7 set='ac.% A conser&ati&e section
of 1rahmins,who maintaine# themse"&es '7 ritua"istic practices,oppose# the new cu"t of &aisna&ism "est their
profession shou"# suffer% 1ut San.ar#e&a &er7 tactfu""7 met their cha""en)e an# con&ince# them of the )enuiness
an# superiorit7 of the faith professe# '7 him an# e&en recei&e# 1rahmin #iscip"es "i.e (amodarde)a an#
Haride)a.+urin) his sta7 at +huahata=1e")uri,San.ar#e&a acGuire# ,a#ha&a#e&a to his fo"#,who after his
con&ersion,pro&e# himse"f the a'"est an# the most faithfu" #iscip"e an# u"timate"7 succee#e# him%
,a#ha&#e&a was 'orn near a'out the 7ear 149$ A%+%in a /a7astha fami"7 at 3ara7anapura in the #istrict
of La.himpur% Thou)h he 'e"on)e# to the poor fami"7,he mana)e# to acGuire proficienc7 in Sans.rit "an)ua)e
an# "earnin)% 6e was a staunch 'e"ie&er in +ra)ittimara%a. ;hen he hear# of San.ar#e&aIs new faith of
Faisna&ism,he set out with his 'rother=in$"aw for a re"i)ious #ispute with San.ar#e&a% After a pro"on)e#
#ispute,San.ar#e&a esta'"ishe# the superiorit7 of 0i)rtti-mar%e an# ,a#ha&a#e&a,not on"7 accepte# the
Faisna&a faith 'ut a"so ac.now"e#)e# San.ar#e&a as his $uru. This uniGue union )a&e a renewe# momentum to
the pro)ress of &aisna&ism in Assam%
6e fina""7 sett"e# permanent"7 at Pat'ausi which was within the /och #ominion near a'out 155$
A%+%an# en)a)e# himse"f in the tas. of propa)ation% 6ere too,some 1rahmin comp"aine# to the /och .in)
3aranara7an that San.ar#e&a,a Sudra,was preachin) an# practisin) a re"i)ion which he was not entit"e# to #o%
The .in) sent for San.ar#e&a,who '7 his a #i)nifie# mean,scho"ar"7 #isposition,su't"e ar)uments an# poetic
)enius esta'"ishe# the truth of his cree# an# create# a stron) impression upon the .in),who u"timate"7 sou)ht
initiation from him% San.ar#e&a .ept c"ose contacts with the ro7a" court after that% 6e #ie# in the 7ear 156! A%+%
After his #eath,,a#ha&a#e&a too. the tas. of propa)atin) the court% 17 the time of ,a#ha&a#e&aIs secure# a
firm footho"# in the entire 1rahmaputra Fa""e7,throu)h or)anisation of Satra institutions 'e)an '7 San.ar#e&a
himse"f% The Satra institution with its pro0ectin) 'ranch of 0am%har in e&er7 &i""a)e carrie# the torch of
.aisna)ism to e&er7 househo"# in Assam%
(o&ial life :
propert* and in"eritan&e : Propert7 of the respecti&e owners is he"# '7 himse"f with a'so"ute ri)ht% (nheritance
of such propert7 in the state of Assam is re)u"ate# '7 unwritten 6in#u "aws 'ase# main"7 on customar7 "aws an#
prece#ents set '7 the #ifferent courts of "aw% The fami"7 of this re)ion is most"7 patriarcha" an# as such after the
#eath of the father who was the hea# of the fami"7,his sons share the propert7 "eft '7 their father at the time of
his #eath eGua""7 amon) themse"&es% (n case of the sons "eft minor,the propert7 )oes to the wi#ow who 'ecomes
a trustee ti"" the sons attain ma0orit7% (n the a'sence of an7 ma"e person,the wi#ow inherits her hus'an#Is
propert7 an# en0o7s it on"7 ti"" her #eath or ti"" she remarries 'ut she has no "e)a" ri)ht to se"" it% (n case,the wife
was a"rea#7 #ea# "ea&in) no ma"e issue then the 'rothers of the #ecease# inherit the propert7% (n the a'sence of
the re"ati&e as mentione# a'o&e the nearest ma"e re"ati&e of the #ecease# inherits the propert7% +au)hters
marrie# or unmarrie# has no ri)ht
PEOPLE 291
to inherit the #ecease# fatherIs propert7 'ut in case of unmarrie# #au)hter,the person who inherits the propert7 is
in o'"i)ation to pro&i#e for her marria)e% Amon) the sche#u"e# tri'es of Assam too woman has no write to
propert7 'ut the wi#ow who remains with the hus'an#Is fami"7,is maintain with respect%
Strdhana 2
Thus the in#i)enous Assamese women of Assam a"so was #e'arre# from )ettin) an7 propert7 in her own
ri)ht% The woman ha# ri)ht on"7 to Shredhana or #owr7 )i&en to her at the time of her marria)e% This economic
#isa'i"it7 of women continue# upto 193 when the 1ritish 2o&ernment enacte# the 6in#u ;omenIs -i)ht to
Propert7 Act an# enforce# it on a"" the 6in#us of the countr7% 17 this Act a 6in#u wife ha# the ri)ht of
en0o7ment of her hus'an#Is share in the 0oint"7 inherite# propert7 #urin) her "ife time,'ut she ha# no ri)ht to
a"ienate the propert7%
The 6in#u Succession Act was enacte# in 1956,which pro&i#es for a uniform pattern a"" 6in#us with
respect to intestate succession an# thus remo&e the ineGua"it7 'etween men an# women,for inheritin) the
propert7% 3ow sons,#au)hters,wi#ows an# mother can inherit eGua""7% (n the matter of a#option a"so,women ha#
no choice of a#option 'efore 1955,nor cou"# a fema"e chi"# 'e "e)a""7 a#opte#% After enactment of this Act% E&en
an unmarrie# women can a#opt a chi"# in#epen#ent"7 su'0ect to the con#itions that she is of soun# min#,not a
minor,nor marrie#,if marrie#,whose marria)e has 'een #isso"&e# or whose hus'an# is #ea# or comp"ete"7 an#
fina""7 renounces the wor"#s or has cease# to 'e a 6in#u or has 'een #ec"are# '7 a court of competent
0uris#iction to 'e of unsoun# min#%
Thou)h these "aws ha&e )i&en the ri)hts to propert7 as we"" as a#option to the 6in#u women,in practice,the
num'er of women e?ercisin) these ri)hts is &er7 ne)"i)i'"e e&en in ur'an areas of Assam% The &i""a)ers are not
aware of these ri)hts e&en to#a7% -i)ht"7 spea.in),6in#u Succession Act has a &er7 "itt"e fie"# practice in Assam%
Se"f=earne# propert7 can 'e wi""e# in an7 wa7 in accor#ance with the #esire of the person concerne#%
,a.in) of wi"" upon the se"f=acGuire# propert7 is &er7 rare an# not popu"ar amon) the Assamese peop"e as
concept of 0oint fami"7 is sti"" in wor. in Assamese min# an# #ue to a'sence of 'i)=estate ownership in
Assam,the owner an# re"ati&es 'oth want to retain it amon)st themse"&es%
There are,howe&er,two s7stems of inheritance amon) the 6in#us,name"7 the *itakshara an# the
(a&abha%a.
Assam is co&ere# '7 the (a&abha%a s7stem of inheritance an# the outsi#ers ha&e either to a#opt the
*itakshara or the (a&abha%a s7stem if the7 ha&e propert7 in this pro&ince%
4oint Aami"7 S7stem < As in the other parts of the countr7 the fami"7 s7stem
pre&a"ent in the in#i)enous Assamese fami"7 was 0oint=fami"7 s7stem an# the e"#est man of the fami"7 is
accepte# as the hea# of the fami"7% 3ow with immense economic har#ship an# ur'anisation the o"#er has
s"ac.en% At present the common fami"7 consists of the hus'an#,wife an# chi"#ren thou)h in certain cases
unmarrie# 'rothers,sisters,o"# parents an# )ran#parents a"so "i&e to)ether% Sometimes marrie# 'rothers a"so "i&e
in the same compoun# an# part of the same house an# common .itchen is trie# to 'e a&oi#e# thou)h it is
to"erate# as per con&enience% Occasiona""7,one ma7 come across a "oose t7pe especia""7 amon) the 'usiness
c"asses in the towns% Practica""7 a"" the marrie# sons "i&e to)ether 'ut .eep a separate purse an# sometimes
separate .itchen a"so,ma.in) common cause on socia" an# re"i)ious ceremonia" occasions%
(n the rura" areas of Assam the num'er of the 0oint fami"ies are "ar)er% (n the 0oint fami"7 the e"#est ma"e
mem'er is )enera""7 the hea# of the fami"7La"" the "an# an# propert7 of the fami"7 'ein) recor#e# in his name%
6e pre&ai"s inf"uence on a"" other mem'ers of his fami"7 an# #icisions ta.en '7 him are fina" in a"" matters
connecte# with the househo"#% (n such cases a"" the 'rothers "i&e to)ether an# the7 cu"ti&ate on "an# 0oint"7%
1ut it appears that the 0oint fami"ies ha&e 'een now #isinte)ratin) rather rapi#"7% The num'er of the
househo"#s in the &i""a)es ha&e 'een increasin)% Accor#in) to 1961 census,the tota" num'er of househo"#s in the
ei)ht #istricts of Assam was 1,!$9,1!5 in 25,$2 &i""a)es% The correspon#in) fi)ure of these same #istrict as per
census of 191 was 2,453,6$9 househo"#s in the 21,995 &i""a)es% Thus increase can main"7 'e attri'ute# to the
'rea. up of man7 0oint fami"ies in the &i""a)es% Aormer"7 the 'rothers were )enera""7 separate# an# esta'"ishe#
their respecti&e homes after the #eath of their father or mother% 1ut now a #a7s separation amon) 'rothers or
separation 'etween the father an# sons is Guite common an# is #ue to the cause that the 7oun) coup"es want to
'e free from 0oint fami"7 Guarre"s,tensions,'ic.erin)s,etc%,an# restrain freGuent association with the 0oint fami"7
unit% The )rowin) in#i&i#ua"it7,"ac. of space in ur'an areas,the rise of "i&in) costs,economic har#ships,mi)ration
to ur'an areas for en)a)ements or in search of emp"o7ment an# the western inf"uence are the main reasons
which com'ine# to)ether to 'rin) the chan)e on the socia" &a"ues,thus &enti"atin) to the #isintre)ration of 0oint
fami"ies of the 6in#u Societ7%
)atriar&"al $*$tem : The 6in#us,the ,us"ims,the 4ains,the 1u##hists an# the 5hristians of this State fo""ow
the patriarcha" s7stem of fami"7 an# as such the father is the hea# of the fami"7,at whose #eath is sons inherit his
propert7% Amon) the tri'a"s of Assam,the 2aros,the /hasis,the 4aintias an# the La"un)s fo""ow the matriarcha"
s7stem of fami"7 in which the main ru"e is that the #au)hters instea# of the sons inherit the propert7% :n#er this
s7stem,the ma0or share of the propert7 )oes to the 7oun)est #au)hter who is suppose# to "i&e in her motherIs
PEOPLE 293
house a"on) with her hus'an# an# chi"#ren an# to maintain the fami"7% Other tri'es of Assam "i.e the 1o#o=
/acharis,the /ar'is,the +imasa /acharis,the -en)ma 3a)as,the >emi 3a)as,the /u.is,the 6mars,the ,i9os
an# a"so the Sh7ams or Aitanian fo""ow partriacha" s7stem of fami"7%
)ARRIA+E :
(n Assam e&er7 separate ethnic an# re"i)ious )roup fo""ow their own s7stem of marria)e thou)h the
ma0orit7 of its popu"ation fo""ow the 6in#u s7stem% Of the ei)ht .in#s of prescri'e# marria)es on"7 the
+raja"ati s7stem is now pre&ai"in) amon) the 6in#us% (n o"# rura" societies,7oun) 'o7s use# to a'#uct the
7oun) )ir" of his choice on mutua" consent an# then the coup"e was presente# to the parents an# the societ7 in a
mel where the 'o7 or his )uar#ian ha# pa7 the socia" fine,offer a feast an# then were accepte# as a marrie#
coup"e% This t7pe of marria)e a"so was ine&ita'"7 so"emnise# as per 3+raja"ati3 rites to ma.e their chi"#ren
"e)a""7 accepta'"e in matrimon7 '7 the societ7%
Hindu marriage &u$tom$ : Thou)h there is no 'ar in po"7)am7 in the 6in#u s7stem of marria)e,the
6in#u marria)e Act of 1955 ha&e prohi'ite# it%
Amon) the Assamese 6in#us,marria)e is first contracte# '7 ne)otiation an# prohi'ite# #ecrees on 'oth
si#es are a"wa7s carefu""7 a&oi#e#% The horoscopes of the 'ri#e as we"" as 'ri#e)room are consu"te# whether the
marria)e in Guestion is free from a"" o'"i)ations%
The nuptica" festi&ities 'e)an fi&e,three,two or one #a7 'efore the fi?e# we##in) #a7% On the first #a7
which is ca""e# 4oron #a7,a part7 from 'ri#e=)roomIs house )oes to the 'ri#eIs house with &a"ua'"e
c"othes,ornaments,sweets,fish,other foo#=staff inc"u#in) Tamol-"an Bareca nut 'ete"=&ine "ea&esCan# 0arikal
BcoconutCan# a sacramenta" earthen 0ar of water% The 'ri#e is presente# with 'ri#a" #ress an# ornaments% There
are man7 ritua"s ca""e# joron-dia,tekeli-dia or telarbhar di&a. Some of the aristrocrat fami"ies sometimes a"so
perform olota-bhar ceremon7 in which a comp"ete #ress of the 'ri#e=)room with sweets,fruits,fish an# other
foo#=staff inc"u#in) cur#s are ceremonious"7 sent to the 'ri#e=)roomIs house% 2enera""7,howe&er,one %amocha
with Tamol-"an is sent to the 'ri#e=)room a"on) with the returnin) joron part7 'efore whom the Kan&adata
.nee"s an# fami"7 in&ites the 'ri#e=)room to marr7 the 'ri#e on the we##in) #a7% This is ca""e# dora-mata in
/amrup% Arom this #a7 onwar#s,'oth the 'ri#e an# the 'ri#e)room are ceremonious"7 'athe# un#er the new"7
p"ante# p"antain=tree attache# with a 'athin) p"atform% This p"atform with the p"antain tree is ca""e# Bei an# the
'athin) ceremon7 is ca""e# 0owani or (howani. On the #a7 prece#in) the we##in) #a7,a sacre# ceremon7 of
di)asa is performe# '7 the priest an# since then 'oth the 'ri#e an# 'ri#e=)room o'ser&e comp"ete
Brahmachar&&a. di)asa is fo""owe# '7 %athi&an khunda ceremon7 in which an o## num'er of
)ir"s or 7oun) Sadhaba Ba woman whose hus'an# is sti"" "i&in)Cwomen ceremonious"7 pow#er an aromatic roste
ca""e# %athi&an,mah B'"ac. )ramC an# haladhi BturmericCan# mi? the paste with oi" an# put it on the hea# of the
'ri#e with a he"p of dubari Ba .in# of )"assCat the time of ceremonious 'ath% At the #awn of the marria)e #a7,the
ceremon7 of dai&an is performe# in the fo""owin) manner% The 'ri#e sits at the #oor of her 'e#room,a fema"e
re"ati&e touches her chee.s,arms an# feet with two 'unches of 'ete" "ea&es,one in each han#,ha&in) #rippe# in
cur#s%
On the marria)e #a7,the Sraddha ceremon7 is performe# 'efore noon 'oth in the houses of 'ri#e)room
an# 'ri#e an# in the afternoon )enera""7 the in&itees are honoure# with refreshment% At an auspicious in the
e&enin) the 'ri#e)room )oes with his part7 to the 'ri#eIs house% The ceremon7 of sua%tola is performe# in the
fo""owin) #a7 in 'ri#e)roomIs house 'efore his #eparture an# in the 'ri#eIs house the )room arri&es% The fema"e
re"ations procee#s to a 'athin) %hat with music L one of the women carries on her hea# a 'am'oo tra7
!dola#containin) se&en earthen "amps an# another a winnowin) fan !kula#on which is p"ace# a copper coin
fastene# a piece of c"oth a"on) rice pow#er% The marria)e ceremon7 is performe# ser&in) a"" the ritua"s fu""7 as
in the sastras !Bibah Bidhi#. The homa an# sa"ta"adi are the two most essentia" e"ements of the 6in#u marria)e
without which the marria)e is incomp"ete% On the e&enin) on the thir# #a7 after marria)e,the marrie# coup"e
ma.e an offerin) to two #emons as Khoba-khubuni. The ceremon7 is performe# in the house of the new"7
connecte# fami"ies an# 'oth 'ri#e an# the )room 0oint"7 pa7 homa)e to the societ7 which '"ess the coup"e for
happ7 an# prosperous marrie# "ife% 3ow=a=#a7s,to a&oi# e?penses,marria)e in the temp"es specia""7 in the
/ama.h7a are so"emnise#% The Haridhania section of the Assamese .aisna)as,who #o not ac.now"e#)e caste
'ase# priesthoo#,perform the marria)e in 0am%har '7 usin) trans"ate# &ersion .adamantras in front of the 6o"7
Bha%awata-Kirtan.
(n Saklan%,the marria)e custom of the Ahoms,'efore the arri&a" of the 'ri#e)room on the marria)e #a7 a
'i) circ"e is #rawn on the )roun# at the 'ri#eIs p"ace% This is ca""e# morol an# it has se&en #ifferent co"ours
#epictin) the so"ar s7stem from which the *aha%ni ori)inates% The who"e morol consists of si? circ"es one insi#e
the other,representin) the Bthen .nownCsi? p"anets,with the sun as the pi&ot #i&i#e# '7 si?teen radili )i&in) 96
crossin) for 96 "i)hts to stan# on% To these "i)hts 4 a##itiona" "i)hts are a##e# in honour of the )reat father an#
another "i)ht is p"ace# at the centre to represent the sun% Thus,there are a"to)ether 1$1 "i)hts in the morol.
Pra7ers an# offerin) are ma#e '7 un#er the )ui#ance of an Ahom priest% The7 then 'oth e?chan)e )ar"an#s,each
of 1$1 f"owers,an# "ater the 'ri#e offers a swor#,.nown as Hen%dan%,an# a Ton%ali to her new"7
PEOPLE 295
marrie# hus'an# 'eseechin) him to ta.e a &ow that he wi"" #efen# the countr7,protect the ri)hteous an# her
chastit7 an# #ominate the wic.e#% The swor# is accepte# '7 the 'ri#e)room p"e#)in) himse"f to #o the #ut7
assi)ne# to him% The priest he"ps the 'ri#e an# the 'ri#e)room in their offerin)s an# chantin)s,recites the histor7
of their forefathers an# e?p"ain to perform we"" in their new"7 marrie# "ife% The who"e function ta.es a'out two
hours 'ut &aries accor#in) to the functionin) capacit7 of the priest% After this the7 are ceremonious"7 ta.en
insi#e the house,where tit='its of other socia" functions such as %adi&a,n%athi lukuwa etc%,are restore# to in
the mi#st of fema"e )uests an# re"ati&es%
5hristian marria)e customs< ,arria)e amon) the 5hristian is re)u"ate# '7 the (n#ian 5hristian ,arria)e
Act of 1!2 as amen#e# in 1952% The fo""owers of #ifferent #enominations )enera""7 o'ser&e the same )enera"
s7stem in their marria)e% The marria)e ma7 'e arran)e# '7 re"ati&es or '7 parties themse"&es prece#e# '7 an
en)a)ement,which ma7 'e short or "on) #uration% 1anns are pu'"ishe# three times '7 the priest in the church
were the marria)e is to 'e so"emnise#% (t is performe# '7 the priest in the church where in&itee an# re"ations of
'oth si#es are present% The ceremon7 inc"u#es the )i&in) awa7 of 'ri#e '7 his father or her re"ati&esLthe
repeatin) a"ou# of the marria)e &ows,after the priest '7 the coup"e an# the p"acin) of a rin) '7 'ri#e)room on
the thir# fin)er of the "eft han# of the 'ri#e% ;hen the priest pronounces coup"e as man an# wife,the7 si)n the
marria)e re)ister a"on) with their witnesses% The coup"e then return home with their re"ati&es an# frien#s who
are treate# to a feast% The 5hristian marria)e is mono)amous% There are on"7 2%61 per cent 5hristian popu"ation
in Assam,accor#in) to census of 191%
Si.h marria)e custom < ,arria)e amon) Si.hs has man7 simi"arities with that of 6in#us an# the
in#i)enous Si.hs of Assam has a#opte# the 6in#u customs in marria)es% E&en in Si.h customs,the se"ection of
the 'o7 is #one in the same manner an# the en)a)ement ceremon7 is ca""e# man%ni or turmai. The actua"
marria)e ceremon7 ca""e# anand karaj is so"omnise# a"wa7s in the fore=noon,the barat is ta.en out in some
cases in the e&enin),whi"e in others in the mornin) itse"f% After the %hurchartu ceremon7 which means mountin)
of horse '7 the 'ri#e)room is performe#,the 'o7 )oes to the $urdwara to pa7 homa)e% The barat is recei&e# '7
the )ir"Is father an# others% Then the milni ta.es p"aces in which the fathers of the 'o7 an# )ir" em'race each
other an# the "atter ma.es a cash )ift to the former% The same thin) fo""ows amon) unc"es an# 'rothers% The
parties are entertaine# 'rea.fast an# then the ceremon7 of 4oimala is performe#% This is fo""owe# '7 actua"
marria)e ceremon7 which is presi#e# o&er '7 the %ranthi. Then shabad Kirtan fo""ows% After it,the %ranthi rea#s
four
lanwas an# the coup"e wa". roun# the $ranth Sahib four times% Karah +rasad is #istri'ute# amon) the )uests at
the conc"usion of the anand karaj. The farewe"" ceremon7 to the 'ri#e is ca""e# doli. After it the barat returns
ta.in) the 'ri#e with them%
)u$lim marriage &u$tom$ :,arria)e of ,us"ims is a contract marria)e% :n#er the Shariat a"" ,us"ims
are 'rothers 7et in ear"7 perio# of the present centur7,a S7e# marrie# either a S7e# or a Shei.h an# ,u)ha" or
Pathan% 1ut now=a=#a7s marria)e outsi#e the caste,or dhat are usua"% A ,us"im can marr7 an7one e?cept the rea"
'rothers,'oth the paterna" an# materna" unc"es an# motherIs sisterIs hus'an#%
(n a ,us"im marria)e )enera""7 'o7Is si#e ta.es initiati&e first sen#in) a "etter reGuestin) for the han# of
the )ir" to her parents% (f the "etter satisfies her parents re)ar#in) the 'o7Is fami"7,a)e,e#ucation,character,etc%, a
#ate for en)a)ement ca""e# man%ni is fi?e#% Aor this ceremon7,)enera""7 fema"e re"ations of the 'o7 with a few
men )o to the )ir"Is house ta.in) presents,ornaments,sweets,etc%, After some ceremonies,a )o"# rin) an# a si"&er
'an# are put on the thir# fin)er of the )ir"Is han#% Then a few re"ations of the )ir"Is si#e with simi"ar )ifts )o to
the 'o7Is house on that &er7 #a7% The fema"e re"ations of the 'o7 a)ain )o to the )ir"Is house after some time for
fi?ation of the #ate of marria)e% (t is ca""e# biah nam%oa. A few #a7s 'efore the marria)e,the )ir" is ta.en to an
inner room where she is to remain iso"ate# from a"" ti"" the marria)e #a7% This is ca""e# moni&on bithane. The 'o7
is a"so .ept in the same manner,'ut on"7 a #a7 or two 'efore the marria)e% 3e?t ceremon7 is ca""e# sacha5 or
hinna bandill in which women part7 of the 'o7 ta.es sacha5 which inc"u#es amon) other
thin)s,com's,scents,some cin#iments,mehendi,two cost"7 c"othes which the 'ri#e wear on the marria)e #a7 an#
the #a7 after,ornaments,etc% The same #a7,the )ir"Is part7 a"so ta.e mehendi a"on) with #resses which the 'o7
wi"" wear on the marria)e #a7 an# other presents to the 'o7Is house%
On the #a7 of the marria)e the 'ri#e)room an# his part7 starts to the 'ri#eIs house an# the 'ri#e)room is
recei&e# '7 the 'ri#eIs part7 an# p"ace# on a #ais% The ceremon7 of 0ikah then 'e)ins% The 6uazi,the .akil an#
two witnesses sit opposite him% ;hen Khutba is rea# an# finishe# the witnesses attest the consent to the
marria)e of the 'ri#e% The 'ri#e)roomIs consent is a"so forma""7 ta.en% The 6auzi enters the 0ikah in his
re)ister an# prepares the Kabil 0ama or the marria)e paper in which the names of the coup"e,the mehr fi?e#,the
#ate of the marria)e,etc%,are written% The marria)e paper is si)ne# '7 the )room an# a coup"e of his re"ations as
witnesses% The sehra is recite# an# the )uests are treate# to a feast% The )room is ne?t ta.en insi#e the house for
certain other ceremonies% The rukhsat 'e)ins,i%e%, the 'ri#e)room an# his part7 return home ta.in) the 'ri#e with
them%
PEOPLE 29
)arriage &u$tom$ of ,ari$ :The /ar'is are one of the most numerous tri'es inha'itin) the /ar'i An)"on)%
The7 are a"so foun# in other #istricts of 3a)aon,/amrup,+arran) an# Si'sa)ar% The7 #o not .now a'out
po"7an#r7 'ut mono)am7 is the ru"e with some e?ceptions% The marria)e 'efore maturit7 an# 'etween the same
c"an #oes not ta.e p"ace% E&en such marria)e is not a""owe# if the mothers of 'oth are of the same c"an or the
)ir"Is c"an is that of 'ri#e)roomIs materna" unc"eIs wife% /ar'i tri'es a#opt three .in#s of marria)e,the first one is
akejoi marria)e i%e%,marria)e without price% Secon#"7 akemen B"itera""7 ripeCmarria)e with ser&ice is that in
which the 'ri#e)room is to ren#er ph7sica" ser&ice in the 'ri#eIs house 'efore the marria)e for a certain perio# or
e&en for the "ife as per marria)e a)reement% The thir# .in# of marria)e .nown as osomer 0i0an chalan%lock. It
resembles the )an#har&a marria)e of ear"7 6in#us an# ha&e 'een seen rare"7 amon) the /ar'is%
The 'o7Is parent )enera""7 )oes to )ir"Is parent for contract an# if the "atter a)rees the 'o7Is father
presents a 'etrota" ornaments for the )ir"% This ceremon7 is .nown as ke-roi-dum.
(n akejoi marria)e,the 'ri#e )oes to her hus'an#Is house ne?t #a7 with her parents an# accor#in) to the
akemen the 'o7s sta7s in the father=in="awIs house% :sua""7,if the #au)hter is the on"7 chi"# of the parents,the7
prefer the "ast .in# of marria)e in a hope of )ettin) their nursin) in their o"# a)e% (n such case,the 'o7 inherits
the entire propert7 of the )ir"Is parents%
A#u"ter7 is &er7 uncommon% ;i#ow marria)e is permissi'"e amon) them an# #i&orce is seen in rare
cases% After #i&orce the parties ma7 enter into remarria)e a)ain%
T"e marriage &u$tom of %ima$a ,a&"ari$ : The /acharis "i&in) in 5achar an# 3orth 5achar 6i""s #istrict are
.nown 'roa#"7 as the +imasas% The7 are strict"7 mono)amous% The marria)e '7 ne)otiation is the pre&ai"in)
custom amon) the +imasa /acharis% ;hen the 'o7 chooses his )ir",he informs his a'out it,an# ma.e his choice
.nown throu)h presentation of sa"t in p"antain "eaf wrapper to the 'ri#eIs house% Sometimes the parent a"so se"ect
)ir" for their son% (f the pac.e# is accepte#,the marria)e is consi#ere# sett"e# an# presentation of rice='eer '7
'ri#e=)room ta.es p"ace% /a"ti is fi?e# then an# is pai# at the time of marria)e% The marria)e ta.es p"ace in
'ri#eIs house an# a"so consummate# there% After marria)e,the coup"e spen# a few return #a7s a"ternate"7 in
'ri#eIs an# )roomIs house% Sta7in) in the 'ri#e)roomIs house,is ca""e# +hira "heiba,an# sta7in) in 'ri#eIs house
is ca""e# *in-"habha. There after the 'o7s ta.es his consort to his own &i""a)e where he )enera""7 puts up in a
new"7 constructe# #we""in)%
5hi"# marria)e amon) the +imasa /acharis is not in &o)ue% ,arria)e
outsi#e the tri'e is not fa&oure#% +i&orce is a""owe#% (f the #i&orce comes out of the fau"t of the hus'an#,the
/a"ti Bprice of the 'ri#eCis not a""owe# to 'e returne# to him 'ut on account of the fau"t of the wife,/a"ti must 'e
repai# to the hus'an# at #i&orce% ,utua" #i&orce sett"ement is a"so seen amon) this tri'e%
T"e -alung$ :The La"un)s are ti)ht"7 e?o)amous,"i.e other a)ricu"tura" societies of Assam,former"7,the La"un)
7outh a"so common"7 a'#ucte# their )ir"s of choice to start a new fami"7% This practice is no "on)er in &o)ue% (n
present La"un) societ7,marria)e is performe# '7 ne)otiation% This s7stem of marria)e are ca""e# Khoja Bi&a. The
marria)e ne)otiation is ca""e# zelas. ,ost of the P"ains a#opt 6in#u marria)e% 5hi"# marria)e are un.nown
amon) them an# po"7)am7 is rare thou)h not 'are#% The 7oun)er 'rother can marr7 the wi#ow of his her e"#er
'rother% A#u"ter7 is not common amon) the La"un)s% 5ross cousin marria)e is a"wa7s preferre# an# s7stem of
pa7in) 'ri#eIs mone7 is not pre&a"ent% The p"ains La"un)s are patri"inea",whi"e hi""=La"un)s are matriarcha"%
)arriage &u$tom$ of )i$"ing$ :The ,ishin)s has two forms of marria)e,i%e%,an# (u%lalanam,*idan%
is the ne)otiate# marria)e arran)e# '7 the parents an# it entai"s hea&7 cost on por. an# "on% on 'oth si#es%
(u%lalanam is the "o&e=marria)e arran)e# '7 the parties,i%e%,'o7 an# the )ir" themse"&es%
(n ,i#an) ,the )uar#ian of the 'o7 approaches the )uar#ian of the )ir",forma""7 offers "on% Brice=
'eerCan# if the parties a)ree,the 'ri#e price ca""e# li% in &a"ue of a *ethon Bwi"# 'uffa"oCis fi?e#% On the
wee#in) #a7,the 'ri#e=)room part7 "e# '7 the &i""a)e e"#ers come to the 'ri#eIs house where 'ri#eIs price is
offere#,a feast is performe# with por. an# "on%. The new coup"e is forma""7 unite# '7 the priest an# '"esse# '7
the communit7 an# then the 'ri#e )oes to her hus'an#Is house%
(n (u%lalanam a"so,the e"ope# coup"e are presente# to the societ7 in the court7ar# of the )ir"Is parents
where nomina" li% an# feast are offere#%
,ishin) #o not a""ow marria)e within the same su'=c"an or o"in which 'ears in#entica" sur=name% 3or it
can 'e performe# 'etween the a""ie# )roups of fami"ies% As ru"e the7 are mono)amous 'ut po"7)am7 is a"so
pre&a"ent amon)st the rich% (n case of po"7)am7,on"7 the first wife en0o7 the #etai"e# ceremonies of *idan%. As
the ,ishin)s strict"7 a#here to e?o)am7,in case of cross=cousin marria)e,on"7 marria)e with materna" unc"esI
an# paterna" auntsI chi"#ren are a""owe#%
As re)ar#s #i&orce,it can 'e effecte# with consent from 'oth si#es on"7% ;i#ow marria)e is in &o)ue an#
)enera""7 the wi#owers marr7 them% A ,ishin) woman #oes not inherit an7 propert7% 3ow=a=#a7s,howe&er,the
position has chan)e# as 'ein) 6in#us,the7 are a"so co&ere# '7 the 6in#u (nheritance an#
PEOPLE 299
Propert7 Acts%
92
)arriage &u$tom$ of %eori$ :
The +eoris perform their marria)es as per 6in#u rites with sectiona" touch% There are three of ne)otiate#
amon) them% These are Bor-bi&a B3 #a7s forma" marria)eCan# Bhakat-ru"i&a or Saru-Bi&a Bsin)"e #a7 marria)eC%
1esi#es there is a form of "o&e=marria)e ca""e# 2andharba-bi&a in which case the e"ope# coup"e shou"# perform
Suje 'a%ua or entertain 3 hea#men of 3 #ifferent c"ans with feast to )et socia" reco)nition%
(n Barbi&a,four persons &i9%,one Kakati,one +athoria,one s7m'o"ic parent for the 'ri#e or the 'ri#e=
)room an# one frien# on either si#e are se"ecte#% On the #a7 of we##in),the rea" parents of parties are prohi'ite#
from &isitin) each otherIs househo"#s% +athorias of 'oth the si#es act as )o='etween an# p"a7s a &er7 important
ro"e in the function% 6e wears a specia" hea#=)ear an# #ress for the occasion%
The +eoris are )enera""7 mono)amous an# thou)h #i&orce an# wi#ow marria)e are a""owe#,these are
&er7 rate% A +eori woman is a"wa7s a manIs su'=or#inate as a ru"e%
93
(ono!al ,a&"ari marriage &u$tom$ :
The7 o'ser&e 6in#u rites of marria)e in )enera"% These marria)es are ca""e# 0owa-dhowa or Bar-Bi&a
an# 6om +i7a 1i7a% 1ut amon)st the poor,$andhar)a an# Churchuria maria)e are performe# thou)h e"opement
fo""owe# '7 forma" presentation of the coup"e 'efore the societ7 throu)h frien#s an# communa" feast% (n case of
churchuria-bi&a,the communa" feast is unceremonious where a few &i""a)e e"#ers of 'oth the parties are
entertaine#%
Their marria)e are e?o)amous an# mono)am7 is the )enera" ru"e% +i&orce an# wi#ow marria)e are
a""owe# amon) them%
'oro ,a&"ari )arriage Cu$tom$ :
The 1o#o=/achari societ7 has 'een foun# to 'e strict"7 fo""owin) the ru"e of c"an eno)am7 in their
marita" re"ationship ti"" the recent past% ,arria)e amon) the tra#itiona" 1o#o=/acharis is "i.e a ci&i" contract
un"i.e the status of a sacrament in other 6in#u marria)e a""iances% The usua" practice of contractin) a marria)e is
'7 ne)otiation BHatachumC% 1ut marria)e '7 ser&itu#e !Chawdan%-4a%arna&#an# wi#ow remarria)e !3(hoka3#
#o often ta.e p"ace% There is another t7pe of marria)e .nown as Khar-Chanai. 6ere the )ir" )oes &o"untar7 to a
man with the intention of puttin) up with him as hus'an# an# wife an# when this unceremonious union is
sanctifie# su'seGuent"7 in a marria)e it is .nown as

92% 2% 5% Sarma Tha.ur < The +lains Tribes of 'akhim"ur, (ibrua%rh, Sibsa%ar and 0a%aon, 192, pp% 1=13, 21=
22 an# 32=33%
93% 1ha'an 3ar0i L Boro- Kachari in ssam 4anajati. Asom Sahit7a Sa'ha Pu'"ica=tion, 1962,pp% 64=66%
ASSA, STATE 2A>ETTEE- 3$$
,"ar&"anai )arriage.
9/
The s7stem of #eman#in) 'ri#e=price sti"" pre&ai"s 'ut in hi)her ache"on of the societ7,it is practica""7
non=e?istent% +i&orce an# wi#ow marria)e are a""owe# amon)st the 1oro=/acharis%
T"e )arriage Cu$tom$ among$t t"e Ra"a$ :
(n #etai"in) the -a'ha ,arria)e s7stem,it is essentia" to .now some 'asic customar7 ru"es )o&ernin) the
materia" re"ationship amon)st the -a'has%
B1C3o ,arria)e can ta.e p"ace 'etween the same Barai Bthis is eGui&a"ent to $otro in AssameseCor
'etween two Burais inc"u#e# in *ur.
Amon)st Pati an# 1it"ia -a'has some "a?it7 in these restrictions #o often occur 'ut no #e&iation has
'een notice# amon)st the -an)#anies an# ,aitories%
;i#ow marria)e an# cross=cousin marria)e is permissi'"e with some "imitations%
The Pati -a'ha marria)e is so"emnise# in a &er7 simp"e wa7 thou)h it reGuires to pass throu)h se&era"
pre"iminar7 sta)es 'efore the actua" marria)e rites are performe#%
95
,ono)am7,Po"7)am7 an# Po"7an#r7 < Arom the ancient time po"7)am7 was pre&a"ent amon) the
6in#us% 1ut the 6in#u ,arria)e Act,1955,strict"7 prohi'ite# it an# #ec"are# mono)am7 to 'e a ru"e% E&en then
there are sti"" some e?ceptions% ,oreo&er,the customar7 "aws of some c"ans,tri'es or castes a""ow po"7)am7
amon) them an# in this respect,the 6in#u ,arria)e Act,1955,a""ows them to o'ser&e their respecti&e customar7
ru"es% The ,us"ims o'ser&e the practice of po"7)am7 in the manner as persona" "aw% 1ut #a7s are chan)in) an#
amon) en"i)htene# section of the ur'an an# rura" popu"ation,po"7)am7 is usua""7 not preferre# too% ,ost of the
tri'a" peop"e are mono)amous% Po"7an#r7 is Guite un.nown amon) a"" section of peop"e of Assam%
%o!r* (*$tem :
The #owr7 s7stem as such is not pre&a"ent in the State% (n ancient in#i)enous societ7 of Assam,whether
it is tri'a" or non=tri'a",the 'ri#e)roomIs fami"7 offere# some cash,ornaments or other .in#s as %adhan Bprice of
the personCof the 'ri#e to the father or )uar#ian of the 'ri#e% (n case of tri'a" it was )enera""7 the price of methon
Bwi"# 'uffa"oC% E&en now in some interior remote areas,this practice pre&ai"s,amon) the ,ishin)s,1o#o=
/acharis,La"un)s,-a'has,etc% 2enera""7 ornaments,c"othes,utensi"s inc"u#in) other househo"#
)oo#s,cash,etc%,are )i&en wi""in)"7 '7 the 'ri#eIs parent% E&er7 fami"7 or 'ri#e)rooms e?pects some
utensi"s,ornaments,c"othin) an# furniture to accompan7 the 'ri#e% These,howe&er,remain the propert7 of the
'ri#e% (n Assam,a #owr7 thou)h not

94% 1% 3% 1or#o"oi 2% 5% Sarma Tha.ur an# ,%5% Sai.ia < Tribes of ssam, Part=1, p% 11=12%
95% 1%3% 1or#o"oi, 2%5% Sharma Tha.ur an# ,% 5% Sai.ia < Tribes of ssam, Part=1, p% 131=32%
PEOPLE 3$1
compu"sor7,is .nown as 4outuk an# in o"# times% The aristocratic fami"ies e&en sent some ser&ants with the
'ri#e to the )roomIs house as joutuk for the bride. The o"# aristocratic fami"ies in Assam consi#er the #eman# of
#owr7 as #etermenta" to their presti)e%
Inter-&a$te marriage :
Some #eca#es a)o caste en#o)am7 was somewhat ri)i# amon) the peop"e of Assam% (n spite of this
ri)i#it7 there too. p"ace some inter caste marria)es% 1ut now=a=#a7s inter=caste marria)e an# inter=re"i)ion
marria)es are common"7 accepte# '7 a"" sections of the ur'an peop"e specia""7 the e#ucate# section% Sprea# of
e#ucation,"i'era" i#eas,economic in#epen#ence of men an# women,to"erance an# man7 other factors are
responsi'"e for the 'rea. of this tra#itiona" custom% (n man7 &i""a)es of the rura" areas of Assam,the inter=caste
marria)es is sti"" consi#ere# a ta'oo% An7 &io"ation wou"# "ea# to e?pu"sion from the caste an# the person
concerne# wou"# 'e e?=communicate# '7 his own societ7%
Ci#il )arriage :
The Specia" ,arria)e Act%of 1954 a""ows e&en a 6in#u to re)ister marria)e un#er this Act% Performance
of marria)es as per 6in#u ,arria)e Act is no 'ar to such re)istration% (n case of such re)istration,the parties wi""
'e )o&erne# '7 the (n#ian Succession Act%of 1925 an# not '7 the 6in#u Succession Act of 1956 an# wi"" entit"e
the parties to a ci&i" #i&orce% 3um'er of such ci&i" marria)es in Assam is not 7et 'ut it is )ra#ua""7 'ecomin)
more popu"ar amon)st the e#ucate# an# socia""7 conscious in#epen#ent min#e# coup"es%
An o&erwhe"min) ma0orit7 of the marria)es amon) a"" communities of the State are so"emnise# in
accor#ance with the persona" "aws of each communit7 at their homes,temp"es,mosGue,)uru#waras,churches,etc%
Peop"e )enera""7 resort to a ci&i" marria)e on"7 when the marria)e un#er persona" "aws is foun# #ifficu"t an# a"so
when the parents of the parties are not a)reea'"e to the marria)e% As such the ci&i" marria)e ta.es p"ace where
the parties 'e"on) to the #ifferent castes,#ifferent re"i)ions an# a"so in cases of "o&e marria)e% These marria)es
are confine# )enera""7 amon) the en"i)htene# peop"e%
)arital (tatu$ :
The marita" fi)ures for 'oth ma"es an# fema"es in #ifferent a)e )roups as shown in the census of 1961
ma7 'e seen in the fo""owin) ta'"e
96
<=

96% Census of India, 1961, Fo"=(((, Assam, Part ( A% )enera" -eport% p%16$%
ASSA, STATE 2A>ETTEE- 3$2
)arital $tatu$
B+istri'ution '7 ,arita" status '7 1$$$ persons of each se? un#er a"" a)e=)roupC
(tate of A$$am
A)e )roup 3e&er ,arrie# ,arrie# ;i#owe# +i&orce#
,a"es Aema"es ,a"es Aema"es ,a"es Aema"es ,a"es Aema"es
$=14 999 995 1 5 = = = =
15=34 531 196 456 ! 16 5 9
35=59 29 9 91$ 9! 52 1!$ ! 12
6$ an# o&er 6 4 ! 4 2$ 55$ ! 9

(t appears that in the a)e=)roup of $=14, the num'er of marrie# persons was &er7 sma"" 'oth amon) ma"es
an# fema"es% (n 2oa"para B un#i&i#e#C, 19 )ir"s per thousan# un#er the a)e=)roup $=14 were marrie#% Amon)
ma"es in the a)e=)roup 15=34,456 persons per 1$$$ ma"es were marrie#% :n#er this a)e=)roup schoo" )oin) an#
co""e)e )oin) stu#ents were a"so inc"u#e# 7et the proportion of marrie# 'o7s was too much ne)"i)i'"e% The
fi)ures were as hi)h as 91$ per thousan# ma"es in the a)e=)roup 35=59% (t wou"# ha&e shown more ha# there
'een no wi#owe#, #i&orce# or separate# peop"e which accounte# for 6$ per 1$$$ persons% The proportion
appeare# more or "ess the same in a"" the #istricts of Assam (n the a)e=)roup 6$ an# a'o&e, 6 persons per
thousan# ne&er marrie#% (n this a)e=)roup 55 per cent fema"es were wi#owe# whi"e 2$% per cent ma"es were
wi#ower% The reason for such 'i) #ifference was main"7 the socia" customs pre&ai"in) in this State a'out the
wi#ow marria)e% On the other han# wi#owers cou"# marr7 e&en at a "ate sta)e,an# the7 were terme# as marrie#%
(n the 6i""s areas, there was a 'e"ief that a 7oun) man mi)ht "ose his "ife if he wou"# marr7 a wi#ow an# for this
cause num'er of wi#ows were proportionate"7 more than the wi#owers%
The ta'"e 'e"ow shows the rates of fema"es to 1$$$ ma"es for each marita" status as 'roa#=a)e=)roup in 1961 <=
PEOPLE 3$3
A$$am Pro#in&e
+escription of ratio A)e )roup
$=14 15=34 35=59 6$ an# a'o&e A)e not state#
B1C B2C B3C B4C B5C B6C
1%-atio of ,ai# 965 334 2$$ 5$! 5!
fema"es to 1$$$
'ache"ors
2%-atio of wi&es 9,46! 1,54! 5!4 42 499
to 1$$$ hus'an#s
3%-atio of wi#ows 5,2$ 1,!96 2,2! 2,$3$ !4
to 1$$$ wi#owers%
4%-atio of #isco&ere# 6,6!2 1,!$2 1,$51 !66 5!5
or separate# fe=
ma"es to 1$$$
#isco&ere# or sepa=
rate# ma"es
5%-atio of un= !55 1,$31 1,142 !41 62!
specifie# fema"es
to 1$$$ unspe=
cifie# ma"es%
Anot"er tale i$ gi#en elo! to dra! up ratio of !i#e$ to
1000 "u$and$ at ea&" age-group :-
State* A)e not
+istrict state#
B1C B2C B3C B4C B5C B6C BC B!C B9C B1$C
1$=14 15=19 2$=24 25=29 3$=39 4$=49 5$=59 6$E
Assam 9,46! ,359 2,5!1 1,23$ ! 5!9 45 42 499
2oa"para 12,425 !,!3 2,5!! 1,23$ 4 563 419 349 $3
/amrup 1,$3 6,936 3,$4 1,2$4 4 569 42! 265 6$6
+arran) 92,545 ,64 2,366 1,13! 26 55! 465 469 2,$55
La.himpur 9,!! 6,5 2,442 1,19$ 66 55 445 4!3 663
3a)aon 35,25$ 6,!$6 2,!1 1,2! !$ 6$1 5!$ 623 23$
Si'sa)ar 129,4$$ 15,415 2,59 1,315 !34 6$3 51 665 32
5achar 5,412 ,24! 2,53 1,234 !$ 611 3!9 261 556
:%,%8 2!!,$$$ 3,!!3 2,145 1,1!5 6 636 4! 349 6!4
3%5%6i""s%
Source <=5ensus of (n#ia,1961,Fo%(((,Part=P=A,2enera" -eport
p%162=63%
(t appears from the a'o&e ta'"es that the ratio of wi&es to hus'an#s was #isproportionate towar#s the en#
of "ife% The a)e #urin) which the two se?es were more or "ess e&en"7 'a"ance# was 0ust 'e7on# 3$ 7ears an# a""
the #istricts showe# simi"ar pattern% A comparati&e stu#7 of unmarrie# ma"es an# fema"es as per census of 1961
is )i&en 'e"ow
9
<=

9% 5ensus of (n#ia, 1961, Fo"%(((, Assam, Part=1=A, 2enera" -eport, p%16$%
PEOPLE 3$5
State*+istrict ,a"es a)e# Aema"es a)e#
15 an# o&er 15 an# o&er%
1961 1951 1961 1951
Assam 34%5! 26%52 12%52 9%45
2oa"para un#i&i#e# 2%$9 22%33 5%61 4%3
/amrup ,, 31%$ 26%!! 9%51 5%34
+arran) ,, 2%1 2!%54 !%3 9%24
La.himpur ,, 33%1$ 26%$4 13%2 11%62
3a)aon ,, 33%!3 24%16 22%11 9%25
Si'sa)ar ,, 35%6 2!%3 1!%95 11%35
5achar ,, 25%!3 25%33 %53 5%3$
:nite# ,i.ir an#
3orth 5achar 6i""s 2!%36 29%62 15%3! 1!%65
The Assam fi)ures inc"u#e# the #ata on ,e)ha"a7a an# ,i9oram a"so 'ecause these areas were parts of
Assam #urin) those censuses%
(t appeare# that the proportion of unmarrie# Bamon) 'oth the se?esCa)e# 15 an# o&er ha# )one up #urin)
the #eca#e 1951=61% @et the increase was not uniform in a"" the #istricts of the State% The un#i&i#e# #istricts of
2oa"para,/amrup,La.himpur,3a)aon an# Si'sa)ar showe# upwar# tren# whi"e the other #istricts of
+arran),2aro 6i""s,:nite# ,i.ir an# 3orth 5achar 6i""s,in#icate# an apprecia'"e #ecrease% On"7 in 5achar
#istrict,the increase #urin) the #eca#e was &er7 ne)"i)i'"e% Simi"ar"7 in respect of
fema"es,2oa"para,/amrup,3a)oan,La.himpur,Si'sa)ar,5achar #istricts,showe# a rise of such proportion% The
increase of fi)ure in the State as a who"e in#icate# that the a)e at marria)e ha# )one up in 'oth the cases of
ma"es an# fema"es as with the specia" of e#ucation,'oth the ma"es an# fema"es preferre# "ate marria)e% (n &iew
of the a'o&e,it ma7 'e conc"u#e# that there mi)ht 'e other socia" causes for such #ifferences%
Another ta'"e is )i&en 'e"ow to show the percenta)e of marrie# an# wi#owe# persons amon) ma"es an#
fema"es #urin) the #eca#e 1951=61%
9!

9!% E%6% Pa.7ntine < Census of India, 1961, Fo"=(((,Assam, Part (=A, 2enera" -eport, p%164%
State*+istrict Percenta)e of ma"es Percenta)e of fema"es
,arrie# ;i#owers ,arrie# ;i#ows
1961 1951 1961 1951 1961 1951 1961 1951
Assam 3%11 3!%1 2%2! 3%!2 4$%21 41%26 5%56 9%5
2oa"para un#i&i#e# 3%46 42%53 3%3 3%45 42%6! 43%93 %69 13%2
/amrup ,, 3%24 39%24 1%44 2%6 4$%15 42%32 6%3$ 11%1
+arran) ,, 39%61 3!%$ 2%2 4%33 42%1 42%6$ 4%$ !%3
La.himpur ,, 35%$2 3!%56 3%$ 4%96 39%1 4$%1 4%65 %1
3a)aon ,, 35%3$ 42%$3 1%$ 2%!! 36%9 42%46 2%29 9%
Si'sa)ar ,, 35%21 35%49 1%61 4%$ 39%5! 3!%64 2%31 %
5achar ,, 39%24 3!%51 2%93 4%51 4$%!4 41%!5 9%29 12%1
:%,%8 ,, 4$%2 31%24 2%61 9%5! 41%3$ 3!%5! 6%$2 !%2
3%5%6i""s
The ta'"e shows that the percenta)e of unmarrie# persons ha# increase# in the State an# the percenta)e
of marrie# persons of 'oth ma"es an# fema"es ha# #ec"ine# #urin) the perio#% The percenta)e of wi#owers ha#
a"so #ecrease# in the State as we"" as in a"" #istricts% Such fa"" was &er7 si)nificant in :nite# ,i.ir an# 3orth
5achar 6i""s an# Si'sa)ar #istrict% The cause of fa"" mi)ht 'e that the fema"e mi)ht ha&e "i&e# "on)er than 'efore
#ue to the increase of e?pectanc7 of "ife #urin) the #eca#e an# secon#"7 there was no custom of non=marria)e of
wi#owers an# this proportion mi)ht represent most"7 peop"e who )enera""7 #o not marr7 'ecause of o"# a)e,or
for other reasons% (t a"so mi)ht 'e that some wi#owers at the time of the pre&ious census marrie# "ater on an#
enumerate# as marrie# in the ne?t census%
(n the case of women,there was no chan)es of socia" customs which cou"# encoura)e the wi#ows 'ut on
the other han# no such 'ar was impose# upon wi#owers to marr7% @et there was a steep fa"" of the proportion%
The reason mi)ht 'e that hus'an# "i&e# "on)er than wife an# the premature #eath of peop"e ha# )one #own%
)ARRIA+E 12 3I%13:
Amon) the caste 6in#us the wi#ow marria)e is not fa&oura'"7 "oo.e# upon '7 tra#ition an# custom%
The 6in#u ;i#ow ,arria)e Act,1!56 has a""owe# such
PEOPLE 3$
marria)e in a"" castes of 6in#us 7et such marria)e has har#"7 ta.en p"ace% E&en to=#a7,in the ur'an areas of the
State,the percenta)e of wi#ow marria)e is &er7 sma""% Amon) the sche#u"e# tri'es an# poor
peasants,howe&er,wi#ow marria)e is a""owe# thou)h no re"i)ious rite is performe# in such marria)e% Amon) the
,us"ims,the wi#ow marria)e is a""owe# '7 their persona" "aws an# e&en then the percenta)e of such marria)e
amon) them is not hi)h% The wi#ow marria)es are permitte# amon) the 5hristians% The economica""7 most
'ac.war# castes or Sche#u"e# castes who consi#er a women he"pfu" as an earnin) mem'er )enera""7 accepte#
wi#ow marria)e%
The State consist of peop"e comin) from #ifferent States of (n#ia an# the7 )enera""7 fo""ow their o"#
custom in respect of wi#ow marria)e%
%I41RCE : E"sewhere in (n#ia,the Assamese 6in#us a"so consi#er the marria)e to 'e pre=#estine#
an# in#isso"u'"e% 6ence #i&orce is not in &o)ue amon) hi)h caste 6in#us of Assam% E&en amon)st the
in#i)enous ,us"ims an# 5hristians #i&orce is not )enera""7 fa&oure#% 6owe&er,separation throu)h mutua"
consent an# #esertion of marrie# wife '7 the hus'an# are common happenin)s% (n the tri'a" societ7 of
Assam,#i&orce throu)h mutua" consent is a""owe#,thou)h #i&orce occurs &er7 se"#om% (n rura" a)ricu"tura"
societ7,such women sometimes arran)e co=ha'itation with some wi#ower of her choice% Such unions are
)enera""7 accepte# '7 the societ7 an# no marria)e rite in such case is consi#ere# necessar7 as the parties once
went throu)h such rite% 1ut usua""7 such #eserte# or separate# women #o not )et sett"e# in fami"7 "ife,thou)h
#i&orce cou"# 'e effecte# "e)a""7 an# socia""7 with the authorit7 of the 2aon Pancha7at or concernin) 5aste
Pancha7at which a""ow the woman to remarr7% The sanction of the customar7 "aws has 'ecome in&a"i# amon)
with the enactment of the 6in#u 5o#e 1i"" of 19%55,un#er which either the hus'an# or the wife see.s #i&orce%
1ut e&en thou)h the Act a""ows #i&orce '7 mutua" consent without inputation of miscon#uct a)ainst either part7%
-ecourse to #i&orce are not ta.en usua""7 as such persons are "oo.e# #own '7 the societ7 is )enera"%
(s"am re"i)ion treates the marria)es as pure"7 socia" an# contractua" o'"i)ation% A ,us"im hus'an# in
(n#ia can #i&orce his wife '7 on"7 pronouncin) the wor# IITa"a.II three times% A #i&orce# wife #oes not )et an7
maintenance from her hus'an# as,in theor7,she has 'een pro&i#e# for at the time of her marria)e '7 fi?ation of
mehr. Amon)st the immi)rant ,us"ims,such cases of #i&orce are &er7 common an# )ettin) of a hus'an# for
such #i&orce# women is not a pro'"em for them% 1ut amon)st the in#i)enous ,us"ims such #i&orce an#
remarria)e is &er7 rare% (nspite of the #isso"ution of ,us"im marria)e Act%1939,court cases un#er the Act is
a"most ni"% (n a"",Assamese societ7 irrespecti&e of re"i)ious #ifferences is &er7 conser&ati&e in this respect%
ASSA, STATE 2A>ETTEE- 3$!
PR1(TIT5TI1N :Prostitution as an institution was in e?istence in Assam e&en in the past thou)h at a &er7
"imite# sca"e% The societ7 in )enera" in the State was 'ase# on tri'a" mora" on se? an# se?=crimes an#
prostitution was not &er7 common% There was free mi?in) of 7oun) 'o7s an# )ir"s an# caste s7stem was a"so not
&er7 ri)i#% There was se"#om an7 unmarrie# 7oun) )ir" or se?=star&e# wi#ow to form the institution was a
reco)nise# one an# maintaine# in form of (e)dasi or 0ati attache# to temp"es,who 'e"on)e# to no particu"ar
in#i&i#ua"% 6owe&er,with mo#ern ur'anisation,the institution )rew up in the town su'ur's an# cities% The
mem'ers are )enera""7 7oun) &i""a)e )ir"s who 'ecome &ictims of innocence,po&ert7,am'ition,)"amour of cit7=
"ife an# immature romanticism% As there is no particu"ar "oca"it7 in the towns to ho"# the institution,it is &er7
#ifficu"t to #etect the tra#ers thou)h "oca" peop"e a"wa7s pin=point certain areas,as its #en% +urin) the 1ritish
ru"e,some &i""a)ers use# to se"" their )ir"s for mone7 to some tra#ers who e?porte# these )ir"s outsi#e the State
most"7 to /a'u" an# Pun0a'%
After intro#uction of suppression of (mmora" Traffic Act 1956,the institution went un#er)roun#%
-ecent"7,with comin) up of a chain of mo#ern hote"s,a new form ca""e# Ica"" )ir"Is spran) up e&en in
2uwahati% E&en the )ir"s form the near'7 rura" areas are re)u"ar"7 supp"ie# to these hote"s% 1ut sa&e an# e?cept
2uwahati,in Assam it has not 7et infeste# the societ7 as 'a#"7 as it has #one in other cities of the countr7%
Esta'"ishment of a num'er of State an# +estitute 6omes a"so has mi)rate# the e&i" to some e?tent%
%RIN,IN+ AN% +-A'-IN+ :
(n Assam,the ha'it of #rin.in) amon) the in#i)enous tri'es has 'een ro""in) #own )enerations after
)enerations from the time immemoria"% This #rin. is common"7 prepare# from corns an# is ca""e# lao"ani
B6ome ma#e wineC,the tri'es )enera""7 ca"" it "on% an# in ur'an s"ums it is ca""e# 3$ela3. 3ow=a=#a7s,countr7
spirit an# #isti""e# "iGuor are of wi#e use% The 6in#us an# the ,us"ims,howe&er,shunne# #rin.in) of into?icants
socia""7 'ut inspite of that the ha'it has infecte# the societ7 &er7 wi#e"7% (n or#er to remo&e this 'a# from our
societ7 2o&ernment has ta.en #ifferent measures enactin) the Assam LiGuor Prohi'ition Act in 1952%
Le)a""7,the entire state of Assam is a #r7 area 'ut e&en then there are "icense# 'ars where forei)n "iGuors are so"#
to "icense# consumers% 5oc.tai" parties are &er7 often thrown '7 so=ca""e# aristocratic societ7,'usiness circ"es
an# tea=p"anters% (nspite of a"" statutor7 measures,manufacturin) of "iGuor an#
PEOPLE 3$9
#rin.in) ha'it of peop"e ha&e not tota""7 'een stoppe# 7et% (t ma7,howe&er,'e note# that the num'er of street
#run.ers has 'een s"ow"7 re#ucin) now%
A 'rief reference to the use of #ru)s "i.e bhan%,%anja,su"pha an# opium ma7 a"so 'e ma#e here% The sa"e
of these #ru)s were re)u"ate# '7 the )o&ernment "icense# shops% Aormer"7 the peop"e of Assam too. opium in
"ar)e sca"e% The7 a"so cu"ti&ate# the popp7 p"ants% After in#epen#ence,the )o&ernment of Assam enacte# the
Assam 2an0a an# 1han) Prohi'ition Act in 195! an# un#er this Act possession or consumption of $unja an#
Bhan% e?cept for socia",re"i)ious,me#ica" an# scientific purposes is prohi'ite#% Another Act name"7 the Assam
Opium Prohi'ition Act was enacte# to prohi'it use of opium in 194% The Act prohi'its the
pro#uction,manufacture, possession,#eportation, importation,transportation,purchase,sa"e,consumption an# use
of this narcotic e?cept on me#ica" )roun#% (t ma7 'e note# that the use of opium in this State is a"most
e?tinct,an# of $anja or Bhan% sti"" pre&ai"s amon)st a sma"" section of peop"e%
(III)H1)E -I2E :Accor#in) to the 5ensus of 1961,there were 2,5$4,56 5ensus houses in the state of
Assam% Out of this near"7 $%2 per cent were unoccupie# houses an# remainin) were occupie#% Out of the tota"
num'er of 2,499,65! occupie# houses 2,259,9$5 or a'out 9$ per cent were in rura" areas an# 1$ per cent in ur'an
areas of the pro&ince% The a&era)e num'er of persons per house in ur'an areas was 5%53 persons an# in rura"
areas such num'er of persons per house was 6%$3 persons% (n 191,a&era)e num'er of persons per occupies
house 'oth in the ur'an an# the rura" areas #ecrease#%
A ta'"e is )i&en 'e"ow to show the househo"#,occupie# houses,popu"ation of ur'an an# rura"
areas,num'er of persons per house,etc%,#istrict=wise as stoo# in 191%
99

99% Census of India, 7897, 2enera" -eport, p%5!%
State*+istrict 3o%of 6ouseho"# 3o%of Popu"ation Occupant
occupie# per house
resi#entia"
6ouses
Assam -ura" 22,1!,$3 22,14,945 1,33,55,93$ 6%$1
:r'an 2,34,9$6 2,33,!6 12,!9,222 5%4!
2oa"para -ura" 2,32,93 3,32,34! 2$,52,!$9 6%1
:r'an 29,19 29,$!! 1,2,294 5%9$
/amrup -ura" 3,9,!4 3,96,99! 25,19,$2! 6%33
:r'an 61,396 61,2!1 3,35,155 5%46
+arran) -ura" 2,6,$61 2,5,34 1,632,445 5%91
:r'an 1,269 1,14$ 1$3,43 6%$1
3a)aon -ura" 24,!! 2,4,642 1,561,55! 6%3$
:r'an 21,25 21,131 119,33 5%61
Si'sa)ar -ura" 2,!9,$$$ 2,!!,339 1,6!2,665 5%!2
:r'an 29,$!5 29,$56 154,24 5%32
La.himpur -ura" 1$5,652 1$5,2!5 6!6,25$ 6%5$
:r'an 453 45$! 2535$ 5%59
/ar'i An)"on)
-ura" 63,296 63,2!6 369,11$ 5%!3
:r'an 2,$44 2,$23 1$,2$$ 4%99
3orth 5achar
6i""s -ura" 13,!2! 13,!2! $,!5$ 5%12
:r'an 1,126 1,126 5,19 4%62
5achar -ura" 2,949 2,,3 1,5,626 5%6!
:r'an 23,1$ 22,!94 135,692 5%!6
+i'ru)arh -ura" 21441! 214135 11!35!9 5%52
:r'an 45!$ 45539 2253$ 4%9
T6PE( 12 %3E--IN+( IN R5RA- AREA( :The housin) pattern of the rura" areas of the Pro&ince is
"ar)e"7 con#itione# '7 the economic resources of the in#i&i#ua" househo"#er an# the a&ai"a'i"it7 of the 'ui"#in)
materia"s in an# aroun# the &i""a)e% (n the past,the homestea# of a rura" fami"7 )enera""7 consiste#
PEOPLE 311
of se&era" houses compact with 'ete"=nut trees,p"aintain trees,'am'oos an# &e)eta'"e )ar#ens% The who"e
premises 'ein) often surroun#e# '7 a fence of sp"it 'am'oo presente# a &er7 fine picturesGue scene% The peop"e
'ui"t their houses a"most in the centre of the compoun# with pro&ision for front 7ar# !chotal#which fema"es
a"wa7s .ept neat an# c"ean% The front house was ca""e# the reception house !Chora%har#,the mi##"e one as the
"i&in) house !*ora%har#,the thir# one is s"eepin) house !Bar%har# an# the fourth house is the .itchen
!,andhani%har#. 1esi#es the7 ha# cow she# !$ohali%har#,the )raner7 BBharal%harC, an# the pra7er house with
materia"s "i.e 'am'oo,ikra,thatch an# woo#% 3o win#ows were .ept in o"# houses,instea# jalis an# jalan% as set
on the wa""s were use#% (t is pecu"iar to note that the pattern of homestea#s in a"" the #istricts is more or "ess the
same e?cept some #ifferences in the 6i""s areas% The rich an# no'"e men of the &i""a)es 'ui"t main house with
#ifferent pattern of aristocratic st7"e pre&a"ent at that time en# .ept a Batchora or a )ate=house% The7 )enera""7
maintaine#,one chotal or court7ar# in the front an# one inner court7ar# in front of each house in $osai%har
Bpra7er houseC$ohali%har,Bharal an# Bar%har.
6owe&er, after the in#epen#ence,"ar)e portion of rura" peop"e ha&e chan)e# the app"ication of 'ui"#in)
materia"s .eepin) more or "ess the o"# pattern of homestea#% The7 ha&e use# corru)ate# iron sheet for
roofin),reinforce# posts instea# of 'am'oo an# woo# an# cement,etc%,for construction of their houses% The
&i""a)ers who ha&e sufficient mone7 ha&e constructe# -%5% 1ui"#in)s% (n conc"usion it ma7 'e sai# that the
&i""a)e houses ma7 'e c"assifie# on the 'asis of the materia"s use# in their constructions into three=kutcha,"ucca
an# mi?e#% The kutcha house is ma#e of mu#,'am'oo,i.ra,woo# an# thatch% The f"oor of such houses is a"so
kutcha. (n the case of "ucca house,'urnt 'ric.s,cement, iron ro#s,etc%,are use# an# in respect of mi?e#
construction,the house ma7 ha&e its wa""s kutcha,roof with 5%(%S% an# f"oor "uuca or kutcha,etc%
H15(E( IN THE 5R'AN AREA( :-esi#entia" 'ui"#in)s of the State ha&e 'een consi#era'"7
impro&in)% (n town areas,the kutcha 'ui"#in)s ma#e of mu#,ikra,'am'oo an# thatch ha&e )ra#ua""7 'een
witherin) awa7% There are maintaine# as temporar7 structures an# on"7 &er7 poor section of the popu"ation are
new "i&in) in such houses% The ma0orit7 of the impro&e# houses in the town areas are of the Assam t7pe ha&in)
either cement p"usture# wa""s with 5%(%S% roofin) or pucca wa""s of 'urnt 'ric.s with 5%(%S% -oofin)% The fu""
"ucca 'ui"#in)s are "ess in num'er in a"" the towns of the pro&ince e?c"u#in) 2uwahati where "ar)e num'er of
mu"ti=store7e# "ucca 'ui"#in)s ha&e 'een constructe#% (n certain areas of 2uwahati,such mu"tistore7e#
constructions ha&e 'een croppin) up in such a wa7 that the7 e&en '"oc. fresh air an# "i)ht an# "ea&e no open
space or 7ar#% :sua""7,e&en in#i)enous fami"7 of Assam maintain in#epen#ent compoun# 'ut it ur'an areas f"at
s7stem is )ra#ua""7 'ein) intro#uce#% 1ut e&en in a cit7 "i.e 2uwahati e&er7 fami"7 prefer to ha&e an
in#epen#ent compoun# an# mu"t7=strore7e# f"ats are &er7 rare e?cept in 'usiness centre "i.e Aanc7 1a9ar an#
#epartmenta" co"onies%
The pucca 'ui"#in)s ha&e not .ept an7 conformit7 to each other as no specific an# uniform pattern is
fo""owe# in an7 particu"ar area% The in#i&i#ua" owners ha&e erecte# these 'ui"#in)s accor#in) to their own
means,p"ans estimates% The 'usinessmen of a"" the ma0or towns of the State are,howe&er,constructin) mu"ti=
storoe7e# 'ui"#in)s in the bazar areas% Their )roun# f"oors )enera""7 use# as shops or )o#owns an# secon# or
thir# f"oors as resi#entia" Guarters,or 'an. an# commercia" offices% The #e&e"opin) areas of the towns an# 'oth
the si#es of the ma0or roa#s are foun# mi?e# with 'oth pucca an# Assam t7pe 'ui"#in)s%
25RNIT5RE AN% %EC1RATI1N :(n the rura" houses of Assam,furniture an# #ecoration are of 'are
minimum% 1esi#es,the "itt"e furniture possesse# '7 the &i""a)ers are 'oth tra#itiona" an# in#i)enous% Sal"ira or
cot is the on"7 artic"e of furniture that is owne# '7 e&er7 househo"# in rura" areas irrespecti&e of socia" an#
economic status% The poorest &i""a)ers construct such 'e#s with 'am'oo on"7% The &i""a)ers ha&e cane
mats,'am'oo=ma#e="ati an# dhari.an# wee#=ma#e=kath,etc%,for their use% Aormer"7,the rich an# no'"e men ha#
woo#en 'e# !+alen%# an# Sal"ira 'esi#es other furniture "i.e #ecorate# woo#en 'o? !Bor"era,+era#.'am'oo=
ma#e 4a"is an# +ira,Bar"ira,etc,for sittin) arran)ement% Aor #ecoration purpose #ifferent motifs were #esi)ne#
on the #oors,wa""s,mats,furniture,houses=posts,etc% E&er7 houses ha# some f"ower p"ants in corners of the
court7ar#% 3o co"our or paintin)s were use# on the wa""s% 1ut the pattern of furniture ha# 'een chan)in) now=a=
#a7s 'oth for the rura" an# ur'an areas,an# cane chair,murha,stoo",woo#en chair,sofa sets,ta'"e,stee" 'o? an#
other accessories ma#e of woo#,'am'oo an# cane,stee",p"astics,etc%,are 'ein) common"7 use# '7 the peop"e of
ur'an areas an# rich peop"e of the rura" areas%
(n the ur'an areas an# towns of the State,the furniture,their Gua"it7,an# other thin)s for #ecoration in
houses &er7 accor#in) to the economic con#ition an# socia" status of the fami"ies% Those who can affor#
ha&e,'esi#es the a'o&e mentione# itemsLa"mirah,meat safes,war#ro'e,cu''oar#s,refri)erator,#oor an# win#ow
curtains,carpets or durrees. On the wa""s co"ourfu" ca"en#ers,#ifferent pictures,paintain)s,wa""=han)in),co"ourfu"
#eities,etc%,are hun) for #ecoratin) the rooms% E&er7 in#i)enous fami"7 )enera""7 .eeps a Sarai an# a ja"i as
s7m'o" of their sittin) room% 1esi#es a"" the mo#ern furniture,)a#)ets,#ecrorati&es an# amenities now ha&e
entere# into e&er7 househo"# as per their means%
PEOPLE 313
H15(EH1-% 5TEN(I-( :The )enera" name of the househo"# &esse"s is Saj-basan. ;e ma7 )i&e the
names of the utensi"s as 'e"ow<=
1CBankahi,banbati,kahi,bati,thal ma#e of 'e""meta" an# 'rass which are use# for ta.in) foo#%
2C 'ota,%hati,%ilas ma#e of same materia"s which are use# for #rin.in) water%
3CCharaior (abal ma#e of same materia"s which are use# for #ifferent purposes% The 'e""=meta" Charais
are use# in washin) an# .eepin) the foo# staff% ;hi"e the 'rass Charias or (abal are use# for .eepin) the water
an# #oin) the washes%
4CSarai,bata ma#e of same materia"s are use# for .eepin) 'ete"nut an# "an. Sarai is a"so use# for
offerin) "rasad 'efore the #eities or )o#s,an# a"so we"comin) most respecte# )uests%
5C(ron pan or Kerahi for coo.in) dal or other curr7%
6C$a%ari an# Kalah BPitchers use# for 'rin)in) waterCare ma#e of 'rass an# 'e""=meta" 'oth%
C1rass spoon !karas-'i) or sma""#for #istri'ution of rice an# curr7,etc%
!Ctau-it is ma#e of 'rass% There are #ifferent si9es of it% This &esse" is )enera""7 use# for common for
ceremonies )atherin)s%
Chan%s rac.s ma#e of 'am'oo an# woo# are use# for .eepin) an# storin) thin)s whi"e Sikias are use#
as han)ers to preser&e mi".,fish,etc% There are other &esse"s a"so ma#e of menta" for coo.in) purpose an# other
purposes < Kula,(ala,Saloi,Kharahi,+asi,(uhuli khan% are a"" 'am'oo ma#e utensi"s which are use# for
c"eanin),washin) an# storin) the .itchen )oo#s% The common peop"e use# coo.in) &esse"s an# other househo"#
utensi"s ma#e of c"a7,woo# an# 'am'oo% 1am'oo pipes an# woo#en 'ow"s were use# for .eepin) artic"es "i.e
oi",sa"t,mi".,cur#,etc%,not on"7 '7 &i""a)ers 'ut town peop"e a"so use as fanc7% The7 use 'am'oo ma#e ja"is to
protect them the sun an# rain%
%RE(( AN% 1RNA)ENT( : A"" sections of the peop"e "i&in) in ur'an an# rura" areas of the State
wear ornaments ma#e of )o"#,si"&er,#iamon#s,pear"s,a""o7,pewter,'rass,'e""=mate",)"ass,nic.e"s,etc%,accor#in) to
their economic an# socia" status% +ifferent .in#s of ornaments are use# for #ifferent parts of the 'o#7% Ornaments
are worn in the ear an# nose,on the forehea# an# crown of the hea#Lnec.,chest,upper arms,the
wrist,fin)ers,an."e,foot,etc% Ornaments ma#e of )o"# is,howe&er,not worm on the foot% The Assamese women #o
not )enera""7 wear ornaments in nose,upper arms,thum',an."e,toe,etc%
Aormer"7,the Assamese ma"e a"so wore ornaments in ear an# nec.,the ha'it of which has now 'een
a"most #ecrease#% 2o"# an# Si"&er ornaments are )enera""7
preferre#% The cheap )"i#e# ornaments sufficient"7 a&ai"a'"e at the present mar.et are a"so worn '7 the women%
(n o"#en time,Assam ha# own their craftsmen who were en)a)e# in ename"in) )o"# an# si"&er 0ewe"er7 of so"i#
)o"# an# si"&er% 2erms a"so were set in )o"# an# si"&er ornaments% E&en to=#a7 ornaments on o"# forms an#
#esi)ns are foun# in the mar.ets% The tra#itiona" an# t7pica" ornaments are dhol-biri, jonbiri, bena, du%du%i,
%al"ata ,moni, kharu, muthikharu, %amkharu, keru, loka"ara, balu chandrahar,ne"ur ujati, kan"hul silhi"ati,
sona Bear=rin)C an# an)athi Bfin)er rin)C% The ho""ow tu'e of )o"# co&ere# with )o"# "ea&es,ru'ies an#
emera"#s,ma#e in the shape of a #rum !dhol# is ca""e# dhol-biri. The jonbiri is a"so ma#e of )o"# an# resem'"es
the ha"f moon is shape% Each of these two .in#s of ornaments is attache# to a "on) chain of )o"# an# worn of
nec.% The %al"ata is a .in# of nec."ace ma#e either of )o"# or cora" 'ea#s an# worn of nec.% Another .in# of
ornaments is thuria which is worn in 'oth the ears% (t is ma#e an# set with ornaments an# it is ma#e of )o"# on"7%
Kharu,%amkharu an# muthikharu are worn in the wrists% These are )enera""7 set with ru'ies an# emera"# in )o"#%
Another .in# of ornaments name"7 kardhani is worn in the waist% (t is chain "i.e ornaments an# )enera""7 ma#e
of si"&er% Kharu,$amkharu an# *uthikharu when ma#e of si"&er,are sometimes spra7e# with )o"# water%
Aormer"7,man7 of Assamese women use# nak"hul in nose% :jati is toe=rin) whi"e num"ur is either a 'an)"e or
chain worn at feet%
The #esi)n an# pattern of to#a7Is ornaments ha&e 'een chan)in)% The ornaments ha&e 'ecome more
po"ishe# with sma"" si9es% 2o"# chain with "oc.et an# nec."ace are use# in nec.,ear=rin),in ears,churi an# bala
an# kharu ma#e of so"i# )o"# in wrists% -in)s of 'oth )o"# an# si"&er set with precious )ems,emera"#s or pear"s
are use# '7 'oth the se?es of the State%
The p"ain tri'es )enera""7 use# the same t7pe of ornaments whi"e the hi"" peop"e popu"ar"7 use
cora"s,stones,'ea#s an# 'am'oo rin)s,'esi#es )o"# an# si"&er%
2ood and drin7: A "ar)e ma0orit7 of the popu"ation of Assam ta.e rice as a stap"e foo#% There are
&arieties of rice "i.e Sa"i,Ahu,1ao which are )rown in the fie"#s are #ifferent perio#s of a 7ear% Amon) these
.in#s there are fine,&er7 fine an# coarse rices% Peop"e eat )enera""7 'oi"e# rice a"on) with curr7,&e)eta'"es an#
other times% Assamese peop"e ma.e #ifferent sweets, ca.es an# other items as their 'rea.=fast an# e&enin) "unch%
The common me#ia for these sna.es is a"so rice of #ifferent &arieties "i.e Komal choul or Boka choul,Bora
choul Ba .in# of stic.7 riceC an# Borakhan Komal choul is use# for ma.in) Sandhah .in# of rice pow#er ma#e
out of frie# rice% Boradhan is use# for ma.in) *uri,Chira,khai an# +itha%uri Brice=pow#erC% The other items
use# for ma.in) the snac.s are til BsesameC,0arikal BcoconutC an# $ur Bmo"assesC%
PEOPLE 315
,i".=pastes ca""e# Khir,which is ma#e from thic.ene# mi". su)ar,is a nice"7%(oi Bcur#C,*akhan B'utterC,Sar
BcreamC,$hol Bs.imme# cur# we"" mi?e# with water,sa"t an# su)arC,Sukhen doi or 'akri BcheeseC,Chana Bsour
mi". its water content ha&in) 'een we"" e?tracte#C an# the #ifferent items are a"so ma#e out of mi". 'ut these are
scarce niceties for rura" peop"e as the resu"t of encroachment '7 immi)rants% The 'oi"e#=rice is ca""e# Bhat.
,an7 poor peop"e e&en eat rice=mi". BBhatar "otoni# mi?in) with sa"t an# mastar# oi"% This "iGui# is hea"th7
foo#% 3ow=a=#a7s wheat,'are"7,mai9e,0owar,etc%,ha&e a"so 'een ta.en as common foo# for 'rea.fast an# e&enin)
#iet,a"thou)h the use of these is not &er7 common amon) the &i""a)ers% The we""=to=#o fami"ies use pure %hee
an# 'utter whi"e mi##"e c"ass an# poor peop"e use &e)eta'"e %hee. ,i". an# cur# are more or "ess use# '7 e&er7
fami"7 of the State% Anima" protein is not a ta'oo in Assam% 1ut the Faisna&as,particu"ar"7 the *aha"urusia #o
not ta.e meat% Aish is a common artic"e of foo# for e&er7'o#7 e?cept a few who are pure"7 &e)etarians% The
,us"ims an# 5hristians are as a ru"e non=&e)etarians%
The #iet of ur'an peop"e is Guite #ifferent from the f"oo# of the common peop"e% (n a##ition to the two
main mea"s,"unch an# #inner,the we"" p"ace# cit7 #we""ers start the #a7 with 'e# tea,fo""owe# '7 'rea.fast,a cup
of tea with "i)ht refreshment 'ein) ta.en in the afternoon a"so% The poorer section of the popu"ation on the other
han#,ha&e on"7 two mea"s in the #a7% 2enera""7 e&er7 mi##"e c"ass fami"7 ha&e mornin) an# afternoon tea with
sma"" snac.s='esi#es the two ma0or mea"s% The 'rea.fast of the rich consists of tea or
coffee,mi".,e))s,ca.es,'iscuits,etc% E))s are use# a"so in the main mea"s% The popu"arit7 of the tea is increasin)%
The &i""a)ers ear"ier use# to ha&e tea with %ur in p"ace of su)ar% 1ut now a #a7s,su)ar has 'ecome a cra9e% The
farmers )enera""7 ha&e three ma0or mea"s ma#e of cerea"s% At "unch time an# #inner,)enera""7 rice with dal,
&e)eta'"es, khar,pic."es,chutten&,onion,etc,an# whene&er possi'"e fish,meat or e)) is ta.en% 5ur#s,cream an#
%hee are niceties% 2reen Sa"a#s are se"#om use# thou)h its popu"arit7 is )rowin)% ,an7 &arieties of sweet #ishes
are prepare# occasiona""7 an# seasona" fruits are a"so ta.en% A"on) with the mo#ernisation of towns an# cities
5hinese an# South=(n#ian #ishes,western foo#s an# #rin.s ha&e 'een intro#uce# in the hi)h stan#ar# hote"s an#
resturants,Kharisa,Kahundi an# Kharali are t7pica" Assamese preparations a&ai"a'"e in a"most e&er7 upper
Assam househo"#% Kharisa is ma#e from 7oun) 'am'oo sprouts,Kharali is ma#e from mustar# paste whi"e
Kahunsi is ma#e of pow#er #rie# pea"e# man)o an# its see#% Khar is another t7pica" Assamese preparation
which is in&aria'"7 use# '7 e&er7 Assamese with a ma0or mea"% Tamul-"an Bareca nut with 'ete" "ea&esC are a
must after a mea" an# a"so for entertainin) the )uests%
The in#i)enous Assamese prepare Karai, Chira, Sun%a +itha, Til"itha, +heni"itha,
Tekalimukhatdi&a"itha, Sukunitha, +ni"itha, $hila"itha an# other &arieties of #ishes from the rice% Komal saul
or 'oi"e# Barasaul with cur# or cream or mi". an# $ur is a pa"ata'"e an# popu"ar #ish amon) the Assamese
peop"e% 2oo# Gua"it7 *ah Korai,specia" item ma#e of #r7 frie# who"e mu%,*atimah,Til Bora saul,But-*ah with
sa"t,)in)er an# oi",is a must item for *a%h Bihu. ;ine is use# '7 them who are economica""7 &er7 soun# whi"e
the countr7 "iGuor or lao"ani is #ran. '7 peop"e of "ower strata% 6i)h caste peop"e )enera""7 #o not a##ict to the
#rin.in) of wine% 3ow=a=#a7s man7 co"# #rin.s an# ice creams,etc%,a"so are a&ai"a'"e in the mar.ets specia""7
#urin) the summer%
Amu$ement and 2e$ti#itie$ :
E?cept on specia" occasions amusement outsi#e the fami"7 is norma""7 a manIs prero)ati&e% The women
fo".,howe&er,)o out to witness rura" function such as Bhaonas Bp"a7s 'ase# on Faishna&ite no&e"s or
m7tho"o)ica" storiesC% Occasiona" fi"mIs show is a new #e&e"opment as in the mo#ern #rama% Bihu,an# of
"ate,(ur%a +uja are two ma0or festi&e occasions for ur'an an# rura" areas a"i.e%
At socio=re"i)ious function such as 'irth of chi"#,parents an# )ran# parents #istri'ute fish an# sa"t to .ith
an# .in an# to frien#s,not in a"" areas%
The institution he"# on account of the "ife c7c"es of the in#i&i#ua" such as
'irth,christenin),marria)e,initiation !u"ana&an#,etc%, are occasions of amusement not on"7 to the mem'ers of the
fami"7 'ut a"so to the .in )roup an# the &i""a)ers of the nei)h'ourhoo#% The 0amakaran is a ceremon7 when the
new 'orn 'a'7 is ritua""7 )i&en a name% nna"rasana or Bhatmukhatdi&a which is the ritua" of eatin) of so"i#
foo# '7 the new 'orn chi"# 'ecomes,an occasion for )reat re0oicin) where,'esi#es the mem'ers of the .in
)roup,nei)h'ours too are in&ite# an# entertaine# with their 'est homema#e snac.s% 3Churakaran3 Bceremonia"
sha&in) of 'irth=hairC"i.ewise,particu"ar"7 amon) the hi)h caste,is another re"i)ious occasion which a"so has a
socia" connotation% (n this conte?t,it ma7 a"so 'e o'ser&e# that sin)in) an# p"a7in) on musica" instruments are
a##itiona" amusements for the participants% The womenfo".,particu"ar"7 ta.e a remar.a'"e share in the
procee#in)s of such ceremonies% Amon) the hi)h castes a)ain 3:"ana&ana3 ceremon7 or the initiation rite is an
important occasion 'oth from re"i)ious an# socia" an)e"s Bfor amusement an# merr7 ma.in)C% On the attainment
of pu'ert7 '7 )ir"Is,a ceremon7 .nown as 3(huwni3 or 30owai-Toloni Bi&a3 is ce"e'rate# with )reat fun an#
amusement% This occasion is e?c"usi&e"7 meant for the womenfo".,it is a ta'oo for ma"es to participate in it%
A)ain ceremonia" entertainments,arran)e# for a pre)nant "a#7 on the fifth,se&enth or ninth months of conception
are )reat occasions for amusement '7 the womenfo".% On such occasions women frien#s an# re"ati&es are
entertaine#%
PEOPLE 31
;e##in) ceremon7 as an important 0o7ous occasion for a"" irrespecti&e of se? an# a)e of the .in )roup
as we"" as the &i""a)ers as a who"e% Of a"" the ceremonies connecte# with the "ife c7c"es of an in#i&i#ua",this is
the most remar.a'"e one which entai"s a "ot of e?pen#iture as in the case of mortuar7 rite%
The we##in) ceremon7 sprea#s o&er two to fi&e #a7s startin) with the 3joron3 the we##in) proper,an#
3(ora Kainar "atat bhat di&a3 or IKhoba Khubuni3 which terminates the happ7 we##in) ceremon7% Another rite
after the we##in) ceremon7 is .nown as Saran-bhojan or hatha-chouni or "a%adi&ani on which occasion the
new"7 marrie# 'ri#e ceremonia""7 an# ritua""7 is a""owe# to coo. foo# for the e"#ers an# other foo# prepare# '7
her to the e"#ers an# other mem'er% Amon) a section of our &i""a)e popu"ation this ritua" ceremon7 is prece#e#
'7 a saran bhojan rite where a re"i)ious preceptor offer re"i)ious instruction to the marrie# coup"e% Arom this #a7
onwar# the marrie# coup"e 'ecome fu"" f"e#)e# an# respecta'"e mem'ers of the societ7% 6enceforwar# the7 can
free"7 participate on a"" ritua" occasions an# a""owe# to ser&e coo.e# foo#% Au"" status of an in#i&i#ua" is su'0ect
to the performance of this rites in a &i""a)e communit7% +honi Bi&a or +un%saan,is a ceremon7 which has to 'e
o'ser&e# '7 a coup"e of si)nif7 consummation of the marria)e% The :"ana&ana of 1rahmin chi"# cannot 'e he"#
un"ess "un%saban has 'een performe# when the hus'an# an# the wife are ma#e to )o throu)h a a''re&iate#
&ersion of the marria)e% This is &er7 0o7ous occasion for the re"ati&es an# frien#s specia""7 the women=fo".%
1esi#es these,there are some other festi&e occasions "i.e 0a-khowa an# Sandhah khunda which are
en0o7e# '7 the &i""a)e=societies of /amrup with )reat re0oice% 0a-khowa is connecte# with har&estin) of new
sa"i crop whi"e Sandah khunda is an occasion of cerea" ma.in) o'ser&e# '7 the &i""a)e women%
Li.ewise,communit7 fishin) a"so is a 0o7ous occasion for &i""a)e &i""a)e=fo".s='oth tri'a" an# non=tri'a"%
;easts,4antra,Bhaonas,communit7 sports an# theatrica" performances,etc%, are the principa" amusements
of Assamese peop"e% The Bhaonas are often he"# in temporar7 she#s constructe# on the roa#si#e an# "ar)e"7 in
the 0am%hars an# on a winter mornin) the tra&e"er who is ear"7 a'roa#,freGuent"7 comes upon the parties of
tra&e"ers sti"" "in)erin) o&er the p"easures of the pre&ious ni)ht%
Another re"i)ious festi&a" ce"e'rate# wi#e"7 in the State is the Si)aratri an# it is o'ser&e# with much
ec"at in the Si&a temp"es at the :manan#a in 2uwahati,the ,aha'haira&a an# the 1iswanath in +arran),Si)a
(ol in Si'sa)ar,at Sadasibthan at 3a)aon an# at a"" others numerous Si&a temp"es of the State% 0andotsa) an#
+achetiutsa) are two occasions which are o'ser&e# '7 the rura" 6in#u fema"e fo". with a )reat festi&it7L
0andatsa) is o'ser&e# on the #a7
fo""owin) the 4anmastami. The +acheti festi&a" on the #a7 of sankranti of the months of Bhadra an# hin an#
*athani festi&a" on the sanskriti #a7 of hin an# Kati are o'ser&e# in man7 p"aces an# temp"es% The "ast one
he"# to o'ser&e the 'irth of 'aksmi '7 churnin) the ,i".=Ocean 'oth '7 the 2o#s an# #emons% The .is)akarma
+uja,Saraswati +uja,'akshmi +uja are a"so ce"e'rate# in Assam% Saraswati Pu0a is he"# in the e#ucationa"
institution% At present,it is he"# '7 the peop"e as we"" as '7 man7 fami"ies in their own houses% Another important
festi&a" of Assam is Kali"uja which coinci#es with the (iwali. This occasion is o'ser&e# for or three #a7s
to)ether in the month of Kati. The s.7 is a#orne# with crac.ers of se&era" co"ours% The towns,semi=towns e&en
the &i""a)es assume won#erfu" "oo.s when hun#re#s an# thousan#s of houses are i""uminate# in the e&enin) with
can#"es% The *anasa"uja or *aroi +uja,is ce"e'rate# in &arious parts of the State #urin) the months of
4aistha,sada,Sra)ana an# Bhadra. The <ja"ali is an essentia" e"ement of this +uja. The popu"ar 'a""a# of
Beula-'akhindar forms the centra" theme of the <ja-+ali as a popu"ar #ance #rama% The Faishna&ite section of
the State performs <ja"ali in which either Krishnaleela or the "ife of -ama is sun) a"on) with #ance% The
musica" instrument which <ja-"ali uses is a few "ali of Khutital. A )roup of four or si? sin)ers "e# '7 the
principa" sin)er ca""e# <ja performs it% The <ja-"ali is suppose# to 'e the precursor of bhaona intro#uce# '7
San.ar#e&a,the saint=poet of Assam%
The 1oha) 1ihu 'e)ins on the "ast #a7 of Chaitra an# form the ne?t #a7 a new 7ear 'e)ins% (t is sprin)
festi&a" an# therefore,the occasion is a#orne# with music,#ance an# other en0o7ments% The catt"e are smeare#
with oi" mi?e# with pu"p of *atimah,tumeric an# rice# an# 'athe#% After 'ath,)ar"an#s ma#e of 'rin0a",tumeric
an# 'ott"e=)oun# pieces are hun) on their nec.s an# a countr7 son) wishin) them to 'e)ot ca"f 7ear"7,is sun)%
Huchari parties )o from house to house sin)in) h7mns an# pastora" son)s an# offerin) )reetin)s% Boha% Bihu
continues for se&en #a7s amon) Assamese an# for ,iris for a month e&en% Kati Bihu is ce"e'rate# on the "ast #a7
f hin Ba'out 1
th
Octo'erCan# a kashbanti is 'urnt throu)hout the month of Kati. 67mns are sun) out=#oors in
honour of 2o# near the Tulasi p"ant an# can#"es are "it near the Tulasi p"ant,)rain=house,an# cu"ti&ation% The
*a%h Bihu or Bho%ali Bihu 'e)ins on the "ast #a7 of the month of +uh B4anuar7 13
th
or a4thC% A few #a7s
ahea#,a *eji which is a ta"" heap of straws pi"e# aroun# a centra" 'am'oo po"e is constructe#% On the :ruka
mi)ht,precee#in) the Bihu #a7,the &i""a)ers feast in the Bhale%har or huts ma#e of straw an# 'am'oo near the
*eji. At #awn the ne?t #a7,the peop"e 'athe an# offer respect to A)ni B)o# of fireC'efore the 'onfire% This Bihu
fa""s after har&estin) an# therefore,is rich with foo# stuff% 1o7s an# )ir"s ma.e merrimentIs an# pass the #a7 with
cheers% 1uffa"o=fi)htin),one of the most important part of the Bihu
PEOPLE 319
ta.es p"ace in the e&enin) at the fie"# where thousan# of peop"e thron) to)ether to en0o7%
The Bihu is o'ser&e# throu)hout the State '7 a"" as a nationa" festi&a" an# mutua" respect6 an# "o&e
con&e7e# to frien#s an# re"ations #urin) the perio#% The Bihu %eetin%s are part an# parce" of these occasions an#
constitute a pro"ific &ariet7 of son)s in the Assamese "iterature% The centra" theme of a"" the Bihu )eets is to "i&e
in its #ifferent moo#s% The merriments of the pastora" festi&a"s ha&e 'een )ainin) popu"arit7 in the ur'an areas
an# are 'ein) sta)e#% Particu"ar"7 in ,on%ali Bihu functions,the 'est #ancer !Bihu Kunwari#is a#0u#)e# an#
awar#e# with pri9es% +eath anni&ersaries of the )reat Faisna&ite preceptors of Assam are o'ser&e# '7 a""
communities throu)hout the State in the month of Bhadra as $urur Tithi. The tithis of Shri 6ari#e'a an# Shri
+amo#ar#e&a two other contemporar7 Faisna&ite preceptors are a"so o'ser&e# '7 the Bamuni&a sects of the
Faisna&ites%
E?Guisite fo". son)s an# 'a""e# such as,Bi&anam, Tokari-%it, (ehbichanar %it, i-nam, Sibar-%it,
(ur%a)ari-nam, Bar-nam, Thi&a-nam, Suknanni, Bihu-nam,etc%,sun) in honour of other #eities re&er'erate the
s.7 on #ifferent occasions% The Bar-%it,#e&otiona" son)s which forms a part of the rura" "ife #isp"a7s the musica"
ta"ent 'oth of the authour an# the sin)er% Parties of (hulia-Khulia are in&ite# to marria)e ceremonies for the
music,which has now 'een rep"ace# '7 the mo#ern music "i.e 1an#=parties% +utala-nach B#ance #ramas throu)h
ra)=#o""sCwere sta)e# in the post%
The musica" accompaniment to the wi#e &ariet7 of son)s is pro&i#e# '7 in#i)enous musica" instruments
"i.e Bin,Tokari,Khanjari,C&mbals,Khuti-tal,Bhortal,$on%s,;lutes,Ch"hun%,(aba,dh(ol,Khol or
*ridan%a,Taka,kari and +e"a,(n 0amkirtanas,Bhortal !'i) 'e""mate" c7m'a"s#,(aba an# 0a%ra are use#,in
<ja"ali,Khutital Bsma"" c7m'a"sCare use# an# in fema"e nams,Kari an# Karatal are use#%
Amon) the ,us"ims festi&a"s,the Id-uz-zuha,*aharam,Aatiha=i=#u9a=#aham an# (#=u"=fitre ma7 'e
mentione# here% ,u"ims son)s "i.e $azel an# 4ikir are popu"ar to them% 4ikir is .in# of spiritua" fo". son)
compose# in Assamese "an)ua)e an# is &er7 much popu"ar amon) a"" sections of Assamese peop"e% (n
,aharam,the 6in#us a"so ta.e part in swor# an# "athi p"a7s%
The 1o#o /acharis,La"un)s,,ishin)s,/ar'is,etc%,a"so o'ser&e their own festi&a"s a"" of which are
connecte# with a)ricu"ture main"7% The impact of the 6in#u prose"7thisation is noticea'"e amon) the festi&a"s of
the /acharis% Their main )o"# is Bathau or Siju or Si&a an# his "uja is performe# with )ran#eur an# sacrifices%
1esi#es,the7 a"so worship 'akshmi an# Kali as his fema"e counterparts% The /acharis 'e"ie&e in the supernatura"
power an# at times ma.e some offerin)s
towar# off the e&i" spirits% Kherai "uja, Habajani, 0at"uja, Bu%ramba an# *ai%ainai are the festi&a"s o'ser&e#
'7 the /acharis% The /ar'i o'ser&e ,an%ker festi&a" annua""7 to 'e)in cu"ti&ation in the 7ear% After har&estin)
3Hacha3 festi&a" is a"so o'ser&e# '7 them% La"un)s fo""ow 6in#uism in its cru#e form an# worship 6in#u #eities%
The7 a"so ce"e'rate 1ihu on the #a7s the7 fi? themse"&es% The ,ishin) o'ser&e% li-&e an# +ora%li%an% was
their communit7 festi&a"s% Aesti&a"s offere# '7 the tea=)ar#en Assamese peop"e are $ram"uja he"# #urin) the
month of hara B4une,4u"7C3Karam +arab3 he"# in the month of Bhada BAu)ust=Septem'erCI,amna)am3 an#
3(ashahara3Bin connection with Sri +ur)a pu0aC% 3Tushu3an# 3Holi3 whi"e Tushu is he"# for a wee. precee#in)
*a%h Bihu,Saharai is he"# after +ur)a Pu0a an# 6o"i #urin) 3;akuwa. Tushu is primari"7 a Tulasi p"ant worship%
Saharai is worship of "i)ht an# Holi is worship of co"our% A"" these festi&a"s are connecte# with a)ricu"ture an#
6in#u faith%
1$$
Other ammusements "i.e 5inemas an# open air theaters which are en0o7e# '7 a"" section of peop"e has
#e&e"ope# &er7 rapi#"7 in Assam% These theatres are )enera""7 sta)e# for co""ection of fun# for &o"untar7 socia"
an# we"fare or)anisation #urin) the winter season% 1esi#es,in important towns there are a"so permanent theatre
ha""s where occasiona""7 #ramas are sta)e# for )enera" entertainment% On the other han#,peop"e of the towns
)enera""7 ta.e the use# of cinemas shows as a p"easant recreation% (n e&er7 town,important centres,an# &i""a)es
of the State ha&e cinemas houses% The num'er of cinema houses has increase# '7 four*fifth times than that of
194% ,an7 of the cinema houses are either air=con#itione# or air=coo"e#%
A"" the 'i) towns ha&e now cu"tura" institutions% 2uwahati amon) them,is the 'i))est an# 'usiest centre
of or)anise# cu"tura" acti&it7% These towns possess au#itorium,sta)e pro0ection faci"ities,,usic
schoo"s,etc%,'esi#es the mo&in) cinema% 2roups of "oca" as we"" other artist form a"" parts of (n#ia perform in
those sta)es,au#itorium,etc% The operas,p"a7s,#ance recita"s,music concerts,an# musica" performances #raw "ar)e
peop"e of mi##"e an# upper c"asses%
Picnic is another popu"ar amusement #urin) the winter season% Stu#ents,office stuff as we"" as fami"ies
)o far awa7 to a p"easant site with ra#io,foo#,coffee,fruits,etc%,to en0o7% (n Assam,picnics are ca""e# Balibhat as
there are )enera""7 he"# in stan#s of ri&ers% (t ma7 'e note# here,that the &i""a)ers ha&e "itt"e of or)anise#
recreation e?cept the Bhaonas an# Sabhas.
Thou)h Assam is part of (n#ia an# the mo#ern wa7 of ur'an communit7 "ife has 'een )ra#ua""7
en)rossin) the Assamese societ7,'asica""7 Assam is an a)ricu"tura" state an# its communit7 "ife is intrinsica""7
rura" an# confines to the area as we"" as to the '"oo#=)roup% 2enera""7 communit7 "ife is manifeste# throu)h the
socia" customs,festi&ities an# the amusement narrate# a'o&e%

1$$% Prah"a# 5han#ra Tasha < Sah- Sramik sanskrit ,u"rekha- som Sahit&a Sabha Pu'"ication, 19!1, pp%14$%
PEOPLE 321
The three Bihu 'ein) the "oca" common festi&a"s of Assam,these festi&a"s are en0o7e# 0oint"7 '7 the
entire popu"ation irrespecti&e of re"i)ious or other #ifferences% (n ,an%ali-Bihu,catt"e or the entire &i""a)e is
ta.en to the nearest ri&er or the tan. to 'ath where 2aru-Bihu is 0oint"7 o'ser&e#% 5ommunit7 sports are he"# in
&i""a)e )roun#s on that &er7 #a7 where chi"#ren an# 7oun)sters of a"" communities 0oint"7 ta.e part% $amochas
are presente# an# e?chan)e# amon)st frien#s as we"" as re"ations% (n Hussari,a"" chi"#ren of the nei)h'ourhoo#
ta.e part% (n fact,e&er7 'o#7 for)ets #ifferences an# 'ecome one who"e cu"tura" an# spiritua" communit7 #urin)
this Bihu.
Apart from this,each 6in#u &i""a)e or Suba has their own 0am%har whi"e ,us"im communities ha&e
their own mosGues% 0am%har is the e&er7 #a7 common meetin) p"ace of the 6in#us whi"e the ,us"ims meet in
their mosGues% A"" other )enera" meetin)s are he"# in the &i""a)e schoo"s,pancha7at offices,7outh c"u's,or &i""a)e
)roun#% The 6in#us perform #ifferent +arbas an# +ujas in #ifferent temp"es as the occasion comman#s an#
)enera""7 communa" nam-+rasan%as are he"# e&er7 e&enin)% Pra7ers are #one in in#i&i#ua" $osai%hat an#
Tulasital.
Assam is a pre#ominant"7 Faisna&ite state where Satras ho"# a &er7 important ro"e% +urin) San.ar
4anmostsa) B'irth anni&ersar7 of Sri San.ar#e&aC$uru Tithis B#eath anni&ersaries of sri San.ar#e&aC an# Sri Sri
ma#ha'#e&a,Bihu Sankranti,Aa.ua !Holi#:tsa)a,,as :tsa)a an# 4anmastami,#e&otees pa7 &isit to Satra
0am%hars,0oin in communit7 functions he"# there an# pa7 o&ation to their Satradhikars BpreceptorsC%
On e&er7 sacre# occasion "i.e 'irth of a 'a'7, marria)es, Surhakran ,:"ana&an, +unasa)an,
0amakaran,#eath,etc%,communit7 0amkirtan is he"# in the house of the fami"7 concerne#% On the occasions of
'irth,marria)e an# #eath a"" nei)h'ours irrespecti&e of re"i)ion an# caste pa7 socia" &isit to the fami"7 concerne#%
So a"so in Idd,the 7oun) fo". irrespecti&e of re"i)ion,&isit each other,pa7 respect an# e?press mutua" "o&e an#
entertain each other with sweet snac.s% (n Assam,caste an# re"i)ious #ifferences are not ri)i# thou)h the sacre#
rites a"wa7s .ept confine# to the '"oo# re"ations,no'o#7 ta.es o'0ection to it%
Pi")rims < There are "ar)e num'ers o"# an#,new temp"es an# Satras in this State,which attract pi")rims%
The 1hu'enaswar temp"e at Bhuban "ahar in Cachar,,aha'haira' temp"e,the ,udra"ad temp"e near
1homara)uri hi""s,the Biswanath Si)a tem"le,the -u#reswar temp"e at ,aha"ipar &i""a)e in +arran) #istrict,the
Sadasib than at Sama)uri an# Bura $osaithan at 3a)aon in 3a)aon #istrict,the +u#hnath temp"e at 4o)i)hopa
in 2oa"para #istrict,the Su."eswar temp"e,the :manan#a temp"e at 2wahati in /amrup #istrict an# Si&a (ol at
Si'sa)ar in Si'sa)ar #istrict are the most famous ancient Si&a temp"es in Assam,
where Si)aratri is ce"e'rate#% Lar)e num'er of peop"e come to these temp"es on that occasion for offerin) pra7er
ser&ices to Lor# Si&a% 1esi#es,e&er7 #istrict has a num'er of 2anesha an# Si&a temp"es or Si)asthans scattere#
here an# there,where peop"e use to )o for offerin) pra7er ser&ices% The /ama.h7a temp"es are situate# at
3i"acha"pahar,2uwahati in /amrup #istrict an# at Si")hat in 3a)on #istrict% Amon) them the first one is the most
famous temp"e where mbubasi *ela is o'ser&e# for se&era" #a7s to)ether #urin) the first part of shar an#
peop"e from a"" o&er (n#ia come to the /ama.h7a temp"e for offerin) pra7er ser&ices to the mother 2o##ess%
The temp"e is a"so famous for (eodha #ance with attracts pi")rims from a"" #irections irrespecti&e of sections
affi"iation% Tamreswari temp"e of La.himpur,,ahama7a than of +hu'ri,an# 1haira'i temp"e of +arran) are
some of the other important (e)i temp"es of ancient Assam% Another mela name"7 shokastami is he"# in the
months of ;al%una=Chaitra in the 1rahmaputra Fa""e7 an# peop"e ta.e a #ip in the ho"i water of 1rahmaputra%
The famous centres for this ce"e'ration are Si")hat in 3a)aon #istrict,+hu'ri in +hu'ri #istrict,an# Aswa.ranta
at 2uwahati in /amrup #istrict% The peop"e of 5achar a"so o'ser&e this occasion an# ta.e 'ath in the sacre#
water of the 1ara. ri&er near Si#heswar Si'a temp"e where a *ela continues for a'out a fortni)ht%
A"" the #istricts are enriche# with innumera'"eFaisna&ite Satras an# ho"7 p"aces where occasiona""7
pra7er ser&ice are he"#% Amon) Faisna&ite Satras,1or#oa,the 'irth p"ace of Sri San.ar#e&a at 3a)aon,1arpeta in
/amrup #istrict,the Aouniati,2aramur,/ur'ahi an# +ha.hinpat Satras at ,a0u"i in 4orhat #istrict are
famous,where pi")rims use to &isit% Other sma""er Satras an# ho"7 p"aces are &isite# '7 "oca" peop"e who p"ace
offerin)s 'efore #eities% (t has a"rea#7 'een note# a'out the IIAa.uaII festi&a" which is ce"e'rate# throu)hout the
State 'ut the festi&a" arran)e# in 1or#owa an# 1arpeta is with pomp an# )ran#eur% Peop"e from a"" parts of the
State )ather to)ether there to ce"e'rate the occasion%
The cit7 of 2uwahati is surroun#e# '7 man7 Satras an# 0am%hars an# pi")rim centres name"7
/ama.h7a,1hu'aneswari,:manan#a,1asistha,5hatra.ar,1aneswar,Su."eswar,3a'a)raha,:)ratara,Aswa.ranta,e
tc%,which are #ai"7 &isite# '7 man7 pi")rim centre of three prominent re"i)ions=6in#uism,(s"am,an# 1u##hism is
6a0o where the 6a7a)ri&a ,a#ha&a temp"e which is &isite# '7 the 1u##hust an# the 6in#us a"i.e,an# +oa
*acca for ,us"ims are situate# there% The 1u##hist 'e"ie&e the 6a7a)ri&a ,a#ha&a temp"e as a ho"7 p"ace for
*ahamuni 1u##ha% 1esi#es,there are num'er of famous +eer (ar%ahas in Assam which are &isite# 'oth '7 the
6in#us an# ,us"ims a"i.e% Aor si.hs there are 2uru#waras,4ains there are 4ain temp"es,for 1u##hists there are
1u##ha temp"es,for 5hristians there are 'oth Pres'7tarian an# 5atho"ic churches,for ,us"ims,there are mosGues
an# for the in#i)enous tri'a"s there are Bura $osain
PEOPLE 323
thans a"" o&er the State particu"ar"7 in 2uwahati%
Pu'"ic 2ames< 2ames an# sports c"aim consi#era'"e importance as a form of )roup specia" acti&it7% The
o"# )ames an# sports of Assam name"7 (ho" khela,.anta khela, Hau%udu, (hara %udu,cowri khel, $hila
khel,Ba%h aru Sa%, Sator khel,+asha khel,$uti khel,'uka churi,ha&e )ra#ua""7 'een rep"ace# '7 the mo#ern
)ames "i.e soccer, cric.et, tennis, 'a#minton, 'as.et'a"", &o""e7'a"", etc% 6owe&er, the reminiscences reca"" the
o"#en #a7s% 2ames whene&er we see the &i""a)e 'o7s p"a7in) Banta an# the "i.e in the remote &i""a)e fie"#s% The
mo#ern out#oor )ames "i.e foot'a"", hoc.e7,cric.et,&o""e7, tennis, etc% ha&e tra#itiona""7 'een confine# amon)
the chi"#ren an# the 7oun), thou)h in recent 7ears,the hi)her a)e )roups amon) the we""=to=#o ha&e a"so
occasiona""7 starte# participatin), 'ut their num'ers is few% (t ma7 'e mentione# here that foot'a"" is not on"7
confine# to towns,it has penetrate# most of the &i""a)e centres, &i""a)es an# &i""a)e schoo"s% 1esi#es the inter=
schoo"s, inter=co""e)es,inter=#istricts, foot'a"" competitionsL +u)ar Shie"# at Te9pur, the 1or#o"oi Troph7 at
2uwahati, (n#epen#ence +a7 5up foot'a"" competition at 3a)aon are the most famous foot'a"" competitions in
Assam% These are 0oine# '7 the 'est teams of a"most a"" the states of (n#ia%
Aoot'a"" an# Fo""e7'a"" cost "ess an# therefore are &er7 popu"ar% On the other han# amon) out#oor
)ames, tennis is &er7 cost"7 an# therefore, &er7 few participate in it% 5ar#, 5arrom,Loo#u,5hess, etc% are in#oor
)ames an# p"a7e# in a"most a"" househo"#s in Assam%
(n rura" areas, swimmin), 'oat=race, runs an# c7c"e races are some of the )ames en0o7e# in )roups%
,ost of the out=#oor )ames &i9%, 5ric.et, 6oc.e7, etc%, are p"a7e# in the winter season on"7% There are
c"u's for #ifferent )ames, which arran)e the p"a7s% :r'an peop"e en0o7 recreation watchin) these p"a7s #urin)
their "eisure hours% Thousan#s of peop"e )ather to see the 1or#o"oi Troph7, the (n#epen#ence +a7 5up foot'a""
competition% (n fact, #urin) the season, sports news 'ecome the ta". of the peop"e who remain sittin) )"ue# to
their te"e&isions, ra#io sets an# transistors%
Pu'"ic )ames an# recreation c"u' < A'out pu'"ic )ames,some references ha&e a"rea#7 'een ma#e un#er
IIamusements an# festi&itiesII% The towns of this State ha&e a "ar)e num'er of semi=pu'"ic a)encies such as sports
c"u's,socia" an# cu"tura" c"u's,#ramatic c"u's,etc% These c"u's are supporte# '7 the mem'erIs fees,#onation an#
pro&i#e man7 t7pes of faci"ities for a"" tastes an# interest% The c"u's ha&e their respecti&e upon which the
recreation faci"ities to the mem'ers #epen#% 1esi#es,there are "ar)e num'er of c"u's in the tea=)ar#ens an# the7
are a'so"ute"7 for the mem'ers of the tea=)ar#ens% These c"u's are westernise# an# pro&i#e# with western
faci"ities for their mem'ers%
There are communit7 c"u's in this State an# these are esta'"ishe# '7 the mi)rants from other parts of
(n#ia,who sett"e# here% Some of the communit7 c"u's are the south (n#ian c"u's,the 1an)a"i c"u's,the An)"o=
(n#ian c"u's,etc% The main o'0ecti&e of such c"u's is to promote socia" intercourse amon) their mem'ers an# to
ta.e up such acti&ities necessar7 in or#er to promote their cu"ture an# tra#ition an# a"so the interest of their
respecti&e communit7% Some of these a"so ha&e recreationa" faci"ities,in#oor )ames an# sports faci"ities,"i'raries
a"on) with rea#in) room,etc%,an# arran)ement of cu"tura" pro)ramme a"so%
Two famous internatina" c"u's=-otar7 an# Lions ha&e their #istrict offices in Assam an# the7 ho"# their
perio#ic sittin)s &er7 re)u"ar"7% Other important recreationa" c"u' for the "oca" )entries are lochona
Chakra,"iterar7 c"u's,@outh c"u's an# re)u"ar 0am%hars where peop"e meet for 'oth recreation an# socia"
intercourse%
CHAPTER IV
AGRICULTURE AND IRRIGATION.
(A)Introduction :-
Agriculture is the mainstay of the State economy and more than 66% of its working population
derive their livelihood from agriculture !he following ta"le shows the working population depending
on agriculture as per the #ensus of $%%$ :-
&istrict'State !otal (opulation !otal working )orking as )orking as (# of work-
(opulation cultivators agriculture ers engaged
la"ourers in agriculture
$ * + , - 6
Assam 22414322 6992056 3559117 844964 62.99
$&hu"ri $++*,.- +6$//+ $/,/$$ 0.%$$/ .*%+
*1okra2har /006-% *.$$/% $...,+ ,+,*% /$-.
+3ongaigaon /0.-*+ $,,+** $+.0/% ,$.0% $*+/%
,4oalpara 66/$+/ $%,6/* $06/6* +66,* .+.$
-3orpeta $+/-6-% +66++* *$+/-% 60/%$ .-00
65al"ari $0$6+%0 *6%++* $+,0,+ ,%-** 6/$6
.1amrup *0000.$ -.,$., *0$**% ,.$-. ,+*6
/&arrang $*%//60 ,0-.,+ *,+$$+ -6/.$ .+%+
%Sonitpur $,*,*/. -0*,*$ *+%0.$ -/,0+ -%*$
$06akhimpur .-$-$. *,$--* $6,6,- $,%0/ .,++
$$&hema2i ,.//+0 $60/++ $*/$6- .%%% /,66
$*7origaon 6+%6/* $/,6%- $*.%,- *$++. /0/+
$+5agaon $/%+$.$ --+%%+ +0+-0. /$/00 6%--
$,4olaghat /*/0%6 *%+*,/ $6$+0- *,+-. 6++$
$-8orhat /.$*06 *%%-+% $+*,/, $-%6% ,%-6
ASSA7 S!A!9 4A:9!!99; +*6
$6Si"sagar %0.%%/+ ++$,+% $,..,. *06%+ -0/*
$.&i"rugarh $0,*,-. +6$*6% $$,+*/ ***66 +./$
$/!insukia %6**%/ +-$*+. $*,+6/ *0,+% ,$*+
$%1ar"i-
Anglong 66*.*+ *-*$*+ $%060, $6,6% /*$+
*05#<ills $-0/0$ -..-$ +++*/ $$,6 -%6%
*$1arimgan2 /*.06+ ***6*- %60-$ +.0+6 -%./
**<ailakandi ,,%0,/ $+06,* 606,. **.$+ 6+/$
*+#achar $*$-+/- +6$0+. $+60%* 6*6+0 --0,
Source : Statistical Hand Book, Assam "y &irectorate of 9conomics
and Statistics=Assam=p,- and *0 to *.
(")6and reclamation and utilisation :-
In the early part of the nineteenth century= there were large tracts of 4overnment waste lands
were su"se>uently opened up with the influ? of immigrants At the same time large tracts of waste-
lands have also "een "rought under crops !he following are the land utili@ation statistics of the State of
Assam in $%/$-/*
$
A4;I#A6!A;9 A5& I;;I4A!IB5 +*%
Crom the a"ove fingers it is seen that fallows lands in the plains districts of the State constitute a"out *$
per cent of the total cadastral area !hese included practically all unsettled lands=vast areas of which are either
hills or low lying areas unfit for cultivation !he net area sown in the State comes to +*- per cent in the plains
districts and $/ per cent in the "ill districts
#ultiva"le )aste : !he report of the !echnical committee on cultiva"le waste land ($%6+-66)revealed
that the area of waste land in the plains district of the State was $=*-=+,6=%$0 hectares of which ,%=$$*=*,$
hectares were not suita"le for reclamation !he committee further=pointed out that only $,=**/=-., hectares of
land were availa"le for cultivation after reclamation "y manual la"our If reclamation is done "y mechanised
process=a further area of *++%+=/,0 hectares will "e availa"le for cultivation Anauthorised occupation of
4overnment waste land= gra@ing reserves= etc=had also reduced the area of cultiva"le waste land availa"le for
settlement According to the !echnical committee=an area of *6=,,0=0,6 hectares was under encroachment in the
State in $%6+
!he #ommittee has also o"served that prior to that survey the cultiva"le waste land was erroneously and
loosely used "y people and "y some 4overnment agencies to include practically all unsettled lands=the waste
areas of which were known to "e either hills= low lying areas of rock lands
In $%/$-/*=the area of cultiva"le waste land in the plains district of the State decreased to $0,=000
hectares 6akhimpur district had the largest area of cultiva"le waste land *,=000 hectares and Sonitpur
district=the lowest +00 hectares among the plains district of Assam #ultiva"le waste land area in other plains
districts of the State were as follows : 4oalpara= +000 hectares= &hu"ri= -000 hectares=1okra2har= ,00 hectares=
1amrup= *000 hectares= 5al"ari= *000 hectares &arrang= $$000 hectares= 5agaon= $$000 hectares= 8orhat=
%000 hectares= 4oalghat= 6000 hectares= Si"sagar=$000 hectares= &i"rugarh= $+000 hectares= #achar= ,000
hectares and 1arimagan2 ,000 hectares
*
!he geographical surveyed area of cultiva"le waste in the State in $%.--.6 "ecame $=,-=000 hectares
which is definitely an increase over the $%6+-6- figure It was due pro"a"ly to formation of new char lands in
riverine areas= reclamation of low swamps through em"ankments and "unds and also clearance of unclassed
forest lands
Afforestation : As per 4overnment report of 6and Settlement (olicy ($%6/)= total area of reserve forest
in Assam was $++,% of the total area of the State In $%.$ the 4overnment of Assam took decision to increase
the percentage of reserve forest to ++ 3y $%.6-..= the area increased and formed *$0+% of the total area of

* &irectorate of 9conomics and statistics= Assam : Statistical hand Book, Assam= $%%+= p60-6+
ASSA7 S!A!9 4A:9!!99; ++0
forest to ++ 3y $%.6-.=the area increased and formed *$0+% of the total area of the State and till $%%+ the area
was $.-6.-$ s> km )hich formed +% per cent of the total geographical area of the State Ander Soil
#onservation also afforestation schemes are taken "esides the tree-plantation scheme undertaken "y the Corest
&epartment of the State
(c)Agriculture including horticulture :
Soils and #rops: !he general characteristic of the AssamDs soil is its acidity Soils on the old alluvium
and on the hills which are slowly undergoing a weathering process and constantly washed down "y rains are the
most acidic 5ew alluvial soils representing the lands on the river "anks are less acidic and often neutral and
even alkaline !he soil acidity to increase with the rainfall and the heaviness of the soil !he phospheric contents
are good in the upper 3rahmaputra Ealley where tea is grown "ut=definitely low in the 6ower Assam Ealley !he
percentages of the nitrogen and organic matters are satisfactory !hey are particularly high in the low lying soils
Soils of the Surma valley are not much different from those of the 3rahmaputra Ealley !here is an a"undance of
murshes and lakes in the #achar district !he soils of these contain a large percentage of organic matters !he
soils of the hills districts contain a high proportion of nitrogen and organic matter <eavy clays with a high
percentage of nitrogen in low land areas give a good return of rice=while sandy loams a"ove inundation level
give a good yield of 2ute <ence tea= rice and 2ute are the main crops of Assam In the hills=fruit trees respond
>uickly to heavy clays which have a high percentage of organic matters
!he soils of the three natural divisions of the State have the following characteristics features
,
Soils of the 3rahmaputra Ealley : !he Soils of the 3rahmaputra alluvium are partly new or recent and
partly old !he variation in the mechanical composition in mainly a result of the varying composition of the river
"orne materials deposited at different times and other different conditions Bn an average=the soils are of a sandy
loam type !he acid solu"le portion does not generally e?ceed *0 per cent !he contents of potassium are
availa"le and total of the riparian tract or the alluvial soils is >uite good "ut definitely low in the soils of the
other tracts !he percentage of organic matters and nitrogen are fairly satisfactory !hey are particularly high in
the case of bil soils All the soils are acidic and the phosphorous values of the a>ueous suspension vary from ,-
to 60 !hey are infertile tracts so far as tea is concerned within the tea @one )here the phosphorous values may
"e as high as .6 to /0 !he recent alluvium has generally a high phosphorous even greater than .0 whereas old
alluvial soils have a

+ Census of India, $%6$=EolIII= Assam= (art I II= 4eneral ;eport p*+
, Farmers of India, Eol III= $%6, p$*-$-
A4;I#A6!A;9 A5& I;;I4A!IB5 ++$
very low phosphorous !he percentage of total (acid solu"le)magnesium is relatively greater than that of
calcium="ut the availa"le (replacea"le)manganese is definitely lower than calcium !his is peculiar to all the
soils of Assam
Soils of Surma Ealley : #hemically=the soils are not very different from those of the 3rahmaputra Ealley
e?cept for some local variations !he soils are=as a general rule=of a finer te?ture and as such the material solu"le
in <#6 is greater In other respects eg=the percentage of the different constitutions=the soils are not much dif-
ferent !he Ealley is characterised "y its swampy nature and the a"undance of bils, the soils of which contain
large percentages of organic matter !he soils on the tillas and the plateaus of #achar differ from the est only in
so far as they occupy a higher level
Soils of <ills districts: !he main differences "etween these soils and those of the other two divisions are
in the high contents of organic matters and nitrogen !his may "e a result of the comparatively virgin nature of
the hill soils 3oth chemical and mechanical composition show great variations
Soils of Si"sagar vary from sandy loam to sandy=while soil of 6akhimpur is sandy Bn other hand= soils
of 5agaon and &arrang vary from sandy loam to clayey Soils of 1amrup and 4oalpara vary from sandy to clay-
loams 9?cept in 1amrup= in all other districts 5itrogen contents are high Soils of 6akhimpur and Si"sagar are
mostly acidic while that of 1amrup are acidic in certain areas and alkaline in others
Soils of #achar is= however= clayey and some of them are fairly heavy clays 5itrogen contents are high
and the soil is highly acidic
7a2or and su"sidiary crops including garden crops :
(addy= 8ute= 7ustard= Sugarcane= (ulses= and !ea are ma2or crops and !o"acco= )heat= 7ai@e= (otato=
Eegeta"les and Cruits= 3anana= (apaya= Branges= #oconut= 3etel-nut= (ineapple= etc=are the su"sidiary crops of
the State ;ice is the staple food !he farmers mainly depend upon cultivation of wet (addy Among the cash
crops 8ute is grown on the low lying areas of the "ank of the 3rahmaputra In $%%$-%* paddy was grown on
*-=.*=000 hectares of land with an yield of +$,.000 tonnes
!he following statement shows the area=average yield and production of principal crops of the State
from $%---%,
A4;I#A6!A;9 A5& I;;I4A!IB5 +,$
Feild rates of some ma2or crops per hectare in kilogram for the last si? years register almost a constant
trend as will "e evident from the following ta"le
$%//-/% $%/%-%0 $%%0-%$ $%%$-%* $%%*-%+ $%%+-%,
(addy $0-0 $$,/ $+$+ $*6$ $+0/ $++$
)heat $$-0 %,0 $*,/ $,-- $066 $*..
8ute $*6- $-0% $6+* $-+. *0$$ $-%/
Sugarcane ,,.6, ,*%+* ,*-$0 +/,6$ +/..0 +66/
(otato -%.- -//0 .*,0 ..0, 60%- 5A
;ape G
7ustard ,./ ,,- -+- -/6 ,.6 5A
(Source H &irectorate of 9conomics and Statistics=AssamIStatistical Hand Book,
$%%$=p,%=$%%*=p-.=$%%+=p.$)
Cluctuation in yield rate generally occurs due to flood= drought-or pests depending in >uantum of rain or
humidity in air
Clood=rainfall te?tural peculiarities of the soil and a"ove all the farming practices are the factors upon
which cultivation of the crops largely depends &uring the rainy season=all the ara"le lands are covered with
crops 3esides providing water= the drains and canals arounds the farms from natural enclosures which protect
the crops from stray cattle In the winter season=however=when the fields "ecome dry=cattle=goats and "uffaloes
are allowed to gra@e in the fields most of which are without any permanent enclosures As a result= ra"i crops are
grown only in small fields which are properly fenced !he dry season sets in from Bcto"er and lasts till April
&uring this period most of the tri"utaries of the 3rahmaputra either go dry or "ecome a"solutely shallow 7inor
irrigation pro2ects have "een taken up to augment the water supply in some areas whereas the large areas of the
State are yet to derive the "enefit from such pro2ects Sandy characteristics of the soil make the State suffer
seriously from occasional drought resulting from insufficient rain=want of proper water-reservoir and drainage
system !he crop cycle of the State still depends so much on rain water that most of the fields practically lie
fallow from &ecem"er to early April A "rief account of the cultivation of some of the crops is given "elow :-
;ice : ;ice constitutes the staple food of the State and is hence the most important crop 5umerous
varieties of rice are grown in the State 3ut these can "e divided into three "road classes according to the seasons
of sowing and harvesting=vi@=winter paddy=autumn paddy and spring paddy In $%%*-%+=paddy=occupied *-=-/=00
hectares of lands producing +*=%%=000 tonnes of rice Bf these=winter rice occupied an area of $.=.6=000 hectares
and contri"uted *,=,*=000 tonnes while autumn rice was cultivated over an area of 6=+-=000 hectares with a total
production of 6=$,=000 tonnes Summer rice occupied an area of $=,/=000 hectares and production
ASSA7 S!A!9 4A:9!!99; +,*
amounted to *,+=000 tonnes !he following ta"le shows the area=average yield and production of rice
in the State since $%--
Statement showing the Area=(roduction G Average Field of ;ice in Assam from $%----6 to
$%%+-%, Area- <ectares=(roduction-!onnes=Field-kg'hec
Autumn ;ice )inter ;ice Summer ;ice
Fear Area (roduction AvField Area (roduction AvField Area (roduction AvField

$%----6 +-/.%* ++/--* %-6 $*+.-+- $$%6+*. %/- ,-0* 60-* $+,-
$%-6--. +6,/-6 +*6.*0 %0% $**./-- $*.//,$ $06* %**- $*,0. $+,-
$%-.--/ +/*-,0 +,0/+* %0- $*0$0%$ $$/+,.+ $00* %%*- $+$+, $+,-
$%-/--% ,0+*/$ */%-%0 .*% $*.+.+% $*/+,%0 $0*- $*-6$ $6/%, $+,-
$%-%-60 ,0.0%0 *06+-* -$, $*./-+% $,-$,6. $$-, $0/.+ %660 ///
$%60-6$ +%,6+% *..*0$ .$+ $+0,*6* $+,0%/$ $0,6 $.*-+ $,/*0 /60
$%6$-6* ,+00,+ +0,%-/ .** $+$*,06 $+++*,* $0+* $+,/% $*0+% /%+
$%6*-6+ ,--0,- *-,*.. -6. $+$++.% $*$6/%$ %,* %0%6 .%.$ /..
$%6+-6, ,,$*+0 ++$-+0 .6+ $+0,,*+ $,$,.*/ $$0* %$*6 /*,- %0,
$%6,-6- ,-*-$/ +$/*-$ .$, $+$-+,. $,6006. $$*/ $$+0+ $0,0. %*$
$%6--66 ,60%+6 +6,,.- /0+ $+**$00% $+++-6/ $0*- $-60$ $-+%$ %/6
$%66-6. ,6--0. *6,,66 -./ $+-//-/ $++.%6, $000 *.,-0 +000/ $0%+
$%6.-6/ ,/$6%$ +66*%+ ..* $+.-+*/ $+//6$+ $0*6 *%/$* +*606 $0%,
$%6/-6% -**,$, +/6/$- .-+ $+%%$-% $-66%/, $$+/ +$*$. +-/-- $$,%
$%6%-.0 -***$+ +.,$$- .*/ $,$,/,, $+6,-%, %.% +0-,$ +6/-$ $*0.
$%.0-.$ -*66$ +./6/+ .*% $,*$+$$ $-.-+.. $**6 *6*6- +*6-% $*,,
$%.$-.* -*-0*, +*$-00 6** $,0,./, $-*-/,* $$++ +$-,+ ,.$*, $,%,
$%.*-.+ --0,+0 ,*,.-. ./* $,,60*% $6+%6%0 $$-$ +%$-% 6*/6, $60-
$%.+-., --+0-0 ,$/.+6 .60 $-0,0// $60-0** $0/+ +/--0 6$6/0 $600
$%.,-.- -.6%,0 ,0.-.+ .$. $,%/-*/ $606*%$ $0// +*0-* +/*-6 $$%,
$%.--.6 6$./*% ,6*..0 .6$ $-,-*06 $.,,$*% $$,6 +60$0 ,*0%. $$6%
$%.6-.. 6$-.6, +%$$,* 6,6 $-6+,.+ $6-**,* $0.+ ,00,+ *+-%. -/%
$%..-./ -%/./. ,*,-.0 .*0 $-..-.* $..+*+6 $$,$ +%06, -0,-$ $*%*
$%./-.% 60.,*. ,*,.*/ .$$ $-/-$,+ $6/,0-$ $0./ +%%60 ,,0,6 $$0*
A4;I#A6!A;9 A5& I;;I4A!IB5 +,+
Autumn ;ice )inter ;ice Summer ;ice
Fear Area (roduction AvField Area (roduction AvField Area (roduction AvField
$%.%-/0 -600-0 +++/** 6$+ $60,6%0 $-%/%%* $000 +/$.0 ,*-66 $$$-
$%/0-/$ -.$.0/ ,66,*+ /*% $6*$%.+ $%,/6** $**0 +-*,0 ,,/,/ $*.+
$%/$-/* -%0000 +..0-. 6,% $6+0*00 $/*060/ $$+/ +,/%- +,6+/ %%+
$%/*-/+ 6*-%/% ,%$.*+ .%/ $6,$/%/ *06$,.* $*.- +*/-6 +00-/ ///
$%/+-/, 6$60/$ ,6,$,% .6- $66*.6, *0$,.*% $*+0 ,+,0$ -+,+6 $*+$
$%/,-/- 606%.- ,6,-%+ ../ $6.0+6. $%$/+-$ $$66 ,.-0% --0$+ $$-/
$%/--/6 6,0-%6 -0.,%0 /0- $..//6, **%+6., $+0% ,,6-* ,-+/0 $0$6
$%/6-/. -+00-0 ++,/0$ 6,* $.0/-6- $%//,$6 $$/+ ,/,,* 6$%/- $*/0
$%/.-// -%6.+, ,$+/6- .0- $6/-/%, **+$.-. $+,, -+,$/ .0**- $+$-
$%//-/% -%.6,6 ,*,.$% .** $66/0*+ $%+0*/0 $$.- 606// /,+0, $+/%
$%/%-%0 6*//6, ,,.-%/ .*+ $.6-**6 **+%$,+ $*// ..-60 $0/$,0 $+%,
$%%0-%$ 60/$-0 -**$/% /.+ $/0$**0 *-6-,*+ $,,6 $$.+., $/*-/$ $--6
$%%$-%* 6+/%-* ,%,**+ ./- $/0,-$$ *,/66,6 $+%% $*/,6/ *$6*%6 $6/,
$%%*-%+ 6+-$+$ 6$+6%6 %/* $..6$/% *,,*,.* $+%6 $,.%-* *,+,-, $6,-
$%%+-%, 6+6-+- -/66*0 %+. $.%.%,0 *---6*0 $,,+ $*$/. *$/%0, $.0/
ASSA7 S!A!9 4A:9!!99; +,,
;ate of Field definitely went very low and cause is generally attri"ute to yearlong unusual cyclone=flood and
drought occurring one after other
Ander winter rice comes Sali and Boa. !here are various types of Sali paddy such as Monohar Sali, Hati
Sali, Lati Sali, Lau Sali, Lau Dumra, Prasad Bhog, Badsah Bhog, oha,etc !he crop is always transplanted
Seed "eds are prepared in relatively high lands and seeds are sown in the months of 7ay and 8une !he seeds
"eds are commonly called !athiatoli. !ransplantation is done from 8uly to Septem"er and harvesting
commenced from 5ovem"er and continues upto the first fortnight of 8anuary
)ith the onset of the 7onsoon the seed "eds for Sali paddy are prepared "y ploughing and harrowing
the land five or si? times after which the land is reduced to puddle !he seed which are elected from the largest
ears of the previous yearDs are sown "roadcast on the "eds in 7ay and 8une !he seed-"eds are manured with
cow-dung and compost Ase of Ammonium Sulphate and Area in seed "eds is rather rare Selected seeds from
previous yearDs crops are steeped in water for two or three days=allowed to germinate and then sown over the
"eds in 7ay and 8une In the meantime=preparation of fields is done for transplanting the seedlings
(loughing of the land is started as soon as the soils "ecomes soft after the reception of the spring rain
and the process is repeated till it is reduced to a rich puddle of mud After the third ploughing= land is harrowed
and small em"ankments "ali# a few inches high surrounding small surrounding small plots of land= intended to
retain water=are constructed or repaired where old land e?isted (rotection of fields from stray cattle is secured
"y putting up split "am"oo fencing near the roads on village paths !rans-plantation starts from the later part of
8une and continues till the second week of Septem"er !o avoid damage "y flood transplantation is done lately
in low-lying areas "ut the yield of late varieties is very poor
After transplantation=the plants are left practically unattended 5o inter-culture is done e?cept weeding
when the grass grows thickly !he crop "ecomes ready for harvest from 5ovem"er and the operation continues
till the middle of 8anuary
In Assam=the farmers have not yet taken to mechanised cultivation= scattered and small holdings of
farmers in general stand on the way of mechanised farming #o-operative farming also is not in vogue <ence
almost every farmer does his cultivation work through sheer manual la"our
!he finer variety of Sali is commonly called Lahi which ripens earlier Lahi is grown in higher fields
which dry up first at the end of the rains !he oha is finest variety of rice commonly grown in the State
Boradhan which is a species of Sali paddy is good for making Chira and cakes called $itha.
Baodhan is grown in some low-lying areas of the State !he paddy field is prepared ploughing the land
for four to five times and boadhan is sown "roadcast in
A4;I#A6!A;9 A5& I;;I4A!IB5 +,-
7arch and April It ripens in the "eginning of 8anuary and harvesting is done in the same way as Sali.
6ike Sali, there are several varieties of %hu paddy such as dubarichinga, !asalath, etc Although
%hudhan can "e sown "roadcast or transplanted=the "road-cast type is popular It is sown relatively on higher
areas as its water re>uirement is the least among all cultivated paddies !he preparation of the field starts in
8anuary when ploughing "egins !he field is ploughing three times and harrowed= and the clods are "roken up "y
a mallet Another ploughing and harrowing follow=the seed is sown during 7arch and April !he crop is=
harvested "y a"out 8uly= August !he crop is=however=precarious one and is lia"le to "e destroyed "y a sudden
rise of river !he plants can live under water for as much as a week "ut it after this time floods do not retire= they
are permanently destroyed %hu is often grown on the cha$aris in con2unction with mustard= and no 2ungle
cutting is=of course= re>uired when the land has "een cleared for the oil-seed crops !he same field is seldom
cropped for more than three years in succession
<ighland %hu is grown on land which is too high for transplanted rice and is fairly common in the
country near the foot of the <imalayas In its natural state his covered with a scru""y forest=and as the same field
is not cropped for more than years in succession !his highland %hu is seldom com"ined with pulse and
mustard=though there is no reason why one or other of these crops should not "e taken from the field in the cold
weather After the land has remained fallow for some time the villagers grow %hu paddy on it again
Boro paddy grows in low-lying areas which remain under 0+0 metre to 06$ metre deep water in
&ecem"er and 8anuary when transplantation is done
<igh yielding varieties of paddy=namely I&'(,Pusa,)ati*e +aichung'I and Ch',- are "ecoming
increasingly popular throughout the State !hese varieties are grown in the manner descri"ed a"ove as %hu, Sali
and Boro paddy corresponding seasons Average of +)'I and I&'( is /0%, kg (er hectare when grown as %hu
and Sali paddy=$0$$. kg per hectare when grown as Bodo paddy !he output of the total varieties of paddy
varies from +,,kgto +/,,-kgper hectare
Almost in all parts of the State paddy is thrashed at home Bnly in certain areas inha"ited "y immigrants
paddy is thrashed in the field itself !he dangories are spread in the courtyard in thick layers and "ullocks are
driven over these layers for some hours till the last ears separate from the stem !his process is known as
Morona mara. !he grain is ne?t passed through a sieve and placed in a flat "am"oo tray called !ula. It is then
2erked into the air and allowed to fall slowly to the ground till gradually the chaff is carried off After
thrashing=the paddy is stored in huge drums called Mer or Duli. !hey are made of split "am"oo and their outer
surfaces are plastered over with clay and cowdung !he larger portion of paddy is stored "y many cultiva-
ASSA7 S!A!9 4A:9!!99; +,6
tors in Bhoral which unlike the houses of the villages=is raised on post well a"ove the level of the ground
7ai@e : Among cereals=ne?t to rice=mai@e is an important crop of the State Cor some part of the year
immigrants and 5epalies depend on mai@e grains for their food supply It is mostly cultivated in hills in hum
during 7arch-April=though some people cultivate in homestead also In the plains=it is cultivated in "ulk as &abi
and !harf crops Antil recently mai@e was solely grown for consumption "ut at present sufficient >uantity of it is
e?ported out side the State 7ai@e covered an area of $//-/ hectares in $%%*-%+ and produced $*=-0- tonnes of
grains
)heat: !he cultivation of wheat=though of recent origin=is gaining popularity among the cultivators of
the State !his is evident from the fact that area under wheat cultivation has increased from $=.-% hectares in
$%----6 to 6+=$00 hectares in $%.6-.. and its total production in the State was 6%=+00 tonnes in the same year
!he total production of wheat in $%%*-%+ is ./.$% tonnes and covered an area of .+/.6 hectares
(ulses : (ulses are mainly in alluvial flat lands near the 3rahmaputra Several kinds of pulse are
grown=the most important variety is Mati'mah "$haselous mungo#. Bther kinds of pulse Magu'mah "$haselus
aureus linn#, %rahar "ca.anus ca.an#, Masur'mah "lens euslenta#, Motor'mah ((ea)= /aro'mah (soya"ean)=
Lesera'mah (cowpea) etc !he time of sowing of different kinds of pulses are as follows :-
5ame of (ulses !ime of sowing
$Masurmah (6entil) Bcto"er-5ovem"er
*Matimah (3lack gram) August-Septem"er
+Magumah (4reen 4ram) August-Septem"er
,/aromah (Soya"een) 8une-8uly
- Leseramah (#ow pea) 7ay-8uly
6 Motormah ((ea) Septem"er-5ovem"er
Bccasionally pulse are grown in con2unction with summer rice !o grow it separately is sufficient to
plough the land for three or four times=if the site is not covered with 2ungles Sometimes=seeds are sown over
river-flats as soon as the floods su"side (ulse is sown through "roadcast amongst the rice stu""le or in "etween
the sali plants if the ground is still softI"ut this method is not generally in use )hen the crop is ripe= mati'mah,
masur'mah and magu'mah are pulled out "y the roots and left in the field for a few days to dry !he seeds are
thrashed out "y the cattleI "ut certain percentage of seeds do not get separated readily from the pods !he rest are
thrashed out "y a hand thrashing implement ;a"i pulses covered %%=000 hectares in the State in $%%*-%+ and
total yield was ,-=000 tonnes
A4;I#A6!A;9 A5& I;;I4A!IB5 +,.
4ram is also cultivated "ut on a smaller scale &uring the same year it covered an area of +06* hectares
with a total yield of $-06 tonnes
7ustard : 7ustard is normally grown in con2unction with %hu on riparian flats !he 2ungle is cut down
in Ce"ruary and 7arch If the land cannot "e prepared in time for summer rice=it is allowed to rot upon the
grown )hat remains is "urnt in Bcto"er=the stumps are dug out and the land is ploughed over four or five times
!he seed is sown towards the end of Bcto"er of the "eginning of 5ovem"er !he crop is ready to "e pulled out
from the field a"out the middle of Ce"ruary It is generally left to dry for a few days and then thrashed either in
the field in a place prepared for the purpose or near the homestead= where it is thrashed out "y the cattle In
$%%*-%+=area covered in the State "y rape mustard was *=%0=$*$ hectares Juantity of crop produced during the
year was $=+/=00- tonnes
Sugarcane : Sugarcane is grown on high lands !iny patches of sugarcane fields are seen almost everywhere in
the State It is grown in small plots 4overnment is advancing loan and su"sidy to the cane growers to e?tend the
area under sugarcane
Sugarcane "Saccharum officinarum# is propagated from the tops of the "est canes which are cut off at
harvest time and kept in a shady place Bne of these tops yields on the average a"ove five canes= and as they
contain "ut little 2uice=the cultivator does not sacrifice much of the gross product of his field in the cause of the
reproduction Cour principal varieties of the plant are recognised !he bagi white stands a"out seven feet high
and has yellow canes of a soft 2uicy te?ture !he teli0a is shorter=harder and thinner and the canes are of deep red
or even purple colour !he Bangla or Bam (non-indigenous variety) is larger and more 2uicy than the indigenous
kinds="ut yields a smaller proportion of sugar !he Molaha is a hard thin variety of mugi and where grown=is
planted round the edge of the field (loughing of the land "egins in early Bcto"er and the land is ploughed till it
is reduced to a fine tilth Setts are planted in trenches "etween mid-8anuary and mid-7arch !he patch is fenced
with split "am"oo and there is usually a stout hedge of arahar dal "ca.anus indicus#1 "ut constant watching is
re>uired to scare away 2ackals and other animals and empty oil tin with a clapper is generally to "e seen
suspended over each field !he earth from the ridges is heaped a"out the roots to strengthen their hold upon the
soil and this process is continued until the relative positions of ridge and trench are reversed and the canes stand
upon ridges with trenches in "etween )hile growing=it is continually hoed and weeded= and a"out 8uly= August=
the leaves are tied up round each cluster of canes to prevent fall
(reparation of /ur 2 An indigenous form of mill was generally used for e?traction of the 2uice from
sugarcane in the past It consisted of two wooden rollers fi?ed side "y side is a trough hollowed out of heavy
"lock of wood !his machine has "een replaced "y crushing machines (!uhiar Sal) in recent timesI "ut "oth the
types are of the same model !he crushing machines contain these iron rollers one with
ASSA7 S!A!9 4A:9!!99; +,/
very sharp teeth and other two of soft teeth At the top of the machine at stout "am"oo pole is fi?ed so that the
movement of the rollers is regulated "y the pole !he moving power is supplied usually "y the villagers
themselves "ut "uffaloes are also used <andful of sugarcane is placed "etween the rollers and crushed or it is
forced through !he 2uice trickles from the trough upto a vessel kept "elow
!he 2uice is then transferred to a "ig iron cauldron or the furnace )hen -0-60 litres of 2uice are
collected="oiling is started !he refuse that accumulates on the surface of the 2uice when "oiling is started out "y
a small "am"oo sieve "akki# fi?ed with a long "am"oo handle Another similar sieve is constantly used for
controlling the "oiling 2uice )hen the 2uice is reduced to the proper state=it is transferred to a small "oat
"/holani# scooped out of log and stirred for some time to cool it !he finished /ur is stored in earthen pots of
tins
!his crop covered an area of +%=%$% hectares during $%%*-%+ in the State (roduction total of the crop in
the State was $-$=%.. tonnes in the year
8ute : Assam is one of the largest producers of 2ute in India It is the most important cash crop of the
State and the recent years=area under 2ute has increased considera"ly="ut in the past=the cultivation of 2ute was
mostly confined to the villages where immigrants from 9ast 3engal (now 3angladesh) settled !wo varieties of
2ute are grown in the State= +itamora "corchorus ca$sularis# grown comparatively in low lying areas and
Mithamora "ca$sularis olitorius#grown on higher areas (reparation of land starts from Ce"ruary and si? to
seven ploughings and harrowings are given to o"tain a fine tilthI seeds are sown and plants are cut in August and
Septem"er 2ust at the time of small pod stage !he crop is cut down at ground level and left in the field for two or
three days where the leaves are stripped off and tied "undles !he "undles are kept under water for fifteen or
more days to rot )hen the "arks "ecome soft and easily remova"le from the stem=the "undles are "roken in the
middle and "eaten to and fro in the water till the inner part drops out and only the fi"re remains !he fi"res are
then dried and tied in "undles and they "ecome ready for use Another important fi"re of &hea "Bochmaria
ni*es# is grown in the garden !his fi"re is e?ceptionally strong and dura"le and is used in making fishing nets
8ute was grown over %*=-0$ hectares of land with a total yield of $0=++=6.% "ales of $/0 kgs'per "ale in $%%*-%+
#otton : It is mainly a cash crop of hills It is also cultivated in small patches in the plains area here and
there !here are two varieties of cotton grown in the hill !he large "olled high growing cotton is known as
barka$ah "goss0$ium neglectum# while the smaller "olled species is termed soruka$ah "goss0$ium harbaceum#.
!he former is sown on level ground and has comparatively small num"er of seeds It can "e ginned easily than
the second variety It is plucked twice and "ears for three sea-sons !he soruka$ah on the other hand yields only
one crop in the year
A4;I#A6!A;9 A5& I;;I4A!IB5 +,%
!he cotton is cultivated in hums. Its seeds are sown "roadcast generally in con2unction with that of the
other crops such as rice= til= mai@e= chilly= mustard and melon= etc !he field is weeded once or twice and the crop
ripens in 5ovem"er to &ecem"er #otton re>uires rain when it is put into the ground to ena"le the seed to
germinate "ut afterwards= it thrives "est if it gets a good deal of sun heavy rain is lia"le to rot the stems
4enerally=the cotton is sold unginned !here is also little demand for its seeds in local market 3ut there is a very
good foreign demand not for its spinning value "ut for its coarseness and low wa? contents of the fi"re !his is
not good to spin to thread "ut ideally suited for mi?ing with wool 5early whole of the product is e?ported to
foreign countries In $0.6-..=cotton covered an area of +/00 hectares !otal production of cotton during the year
$%%$-%* was %.- "ales of $.0 kg per "ale !his is a very low crop in comparison to 4u2rat and (un2a" where
cotton is a whole year crop
!o"acco : In Assam to"acco is cultivated chiefly for the hookah "ut in the districts of 4oalpara and
#achar= It is an important cash crop It is grown in the new alluvial soils !he seedlings are raised in carefully
manured "eds in August and Septem"er At the "eginning of 5ovem"er= they are transplanted into the field
which has "een reduced to a fine tilth and protected from the sun !he "ed is lightly hoed two to three times and
not more than ten or twelve are allowed to grow on each plant=the reminder "eing picked off as they appear !he
leaves are first gathered in Ce"ruary and 7arch and there is a second "ut much inferior crop=a"out + months
later If re>uired for chewing=they are either dried in shed or else pressed into hollow "am"oo "chunga#and
allowed to ferment )hen the to"acco is destined for a pipe=leave are piled in heaps till they ferment= then cut
into pieces and mi?ed with molasses when it is ready for hookah. !o"acco was grown over an area of *$$0
hectares with a total yield of $$-$ tonnes in the State in $%%*-%+
(otato : !he cultivation of potato is done throughout the State "ut not on a large scale In the hills=it is
cultivated as summer crop (Ce"ruary-7arch)and winter crop (Septem"er-Bcto"er)and in the plains in Septem"er
and 5ovem"er !he preparation of soil for sowing goes on from Septem"er to 5ovem"er with other vegeta"les
!he small si@e potato is preferred for seed and sown in time 9arthing operation is taken up after three to four
weeks and repeated again after a"out si? weeks !he crop is harvested in the months of 8anuary and Ce"ruary
!he crop covered an area of 6+=-/+ hectares and total production was +/.=-+- tonnes=in $%%$-%* (otatoes are
imported from the neigh"ouring states as the local production is not sufficient to meet the re>uirements
Sweet potato is grown in hills 5epalese settlers grow this crop in a"undance and a"andoned hum areas
are generally utilised for this purpose
ASSA7 S!A!9 4A:9!!99; +-0
4inger : It is an important cash crop of hills especially that of 5orth #achar <ills district It is grown as
a su"sidiary crop for house use in small plots in the plains
3esides the a"ove mentioned crops=some other crops mainly small millets= mesta= tur "arahar#,castor and
sesamum are also grown in the State !hough these crops=in comparison to the other principal crops are grown in
smaller areas with lesser >uantity of production "ut these are gaining more and more importance and popularity
among the cultivators 9fforts are "eing made to enhance the production and area under cultivation of these
crops
!hree to four kinds of small millets are grown "y the people of this State to supplement their paddy
deficiency Its method of cultivation is very easy and it successfully grows under poor conditions Its area and
total yield=which were $0=,.6 hectares and -=**6 tonnes respectively in $%//-/% decreased to %*-* hectares and
,%%* tonnes respectively in $%%*-%+=in the State 7esta forms an important item in the dietary of the
people=particularly the hill people !he leaves= young shoots and fruits are eaten=cooked as pot-her"s and
included in their daily meals Its cultiva"le area decreased from %+%, hectares in $%/.-// to 6-$6 hectares in
$%%*-%+ and its production decreased from ,,=0.% "ales of $/0 kg'"ale to *%=.%* "ales of $/0 kg'"ale during the
same period !ur= which is neither a cash crop nor a food crop for the people of Assam=is sown in 7arch'April
and allowed to grow till Septem"er'Bcto"er when they are inoculated with "road lac %rahar is the only
leguminous crop grown in the State with interest and its cultiva"le area and production are also increasing every
- year !ur "arahar# covered an area of -%6% hectares with an yield of ,$+, tonnes in $%%+-%, Sesamum
cultivation=usually taken up from 8une to August=is mostly in favour with the people of Assam only "ecause it
re>uires minimum la"our !he crop is harvested from Bcto"er to &ecem"er In $%+-%,=it covered an area of
$,=6.% hectares and total yield was .=*0$ tonnes in the same year #astor crop is not only grown in the .hum
areas of hills "ut also in and around the homesteads in all places of Assam In $%%+-%,=total production of castor
was .06 tonnes and $.6- hectares of land were utili@ed for this production 6arge >uantities of castor seeds are
annually e?ported from the State 6inseed covers a small area in the State In $%%*-%+=area and production under
it were only /$-$ hectares and +=/+% tonnes respectively #hillies are sufficiently grown in the homesteads !he
varieties grown are good with regard to pungency and are "ig and attractive in si@e !he production of chilies
and the area under it were /=*-% tonnes and $*=.*0 hectares respectively in the year $%%*-%+
<orticulture and garden crops : !he soil and climatic conditions of many parts of Assam are favoura"le
for the cultivation of coffee=ru""er=etc !he ma2or horticulture crops grown in the State are "anana= pineapple=
arecanut= coconut= etc= and minor crops are guava= lemons= papaya= litchi, 2ackfruits= mango and the like
A4;I#A6!A;9 A5& I;;I4A!IB5 +-$
3anana : 3anana "Musa Sa$iantum# known as !ali in Assam is an important garden crop of the State
As many as ten varieties of this crop are grown "ut most important are those locally known as Monohar,
Chenicham$a, Malbhog, Bhimkal, Purakal, %mrit Sagar and aha.i,Purakal is used as vegeta"leI Chenicham$a
is the high yielding variety and harderI Malbhog is the medium yielder and has very pleasant flavourI Bhimkal is
the considered cool and wholesomeI aha.i, Malbhog and Monohar are= "y far=the "est in >uality of fruits
!hese=however=are very e?tracting in their soil re>uiring cultural and manurial practices and get degenerated
unless proper care is taken !he other varieties comparatively can stand some amount of negligence in field
treatments !he Bhimkal is in a way very outstanding="eing the high yielder and having the "iggest si@e !his
fruit commonly used as infant food in Assam
(ropagation of "anana is done vegetatively "y employing suckers which arise as the "ase of their plants
from the underground rhi@omes Suckers possessing long narrow leaves are removed with a "it of the rhi@omes
from the mother plant and are planted in the holes prepared in the field Foung plants take from $/ months to *
years to flower !he hanging terminated "ud of the fruit "ranch is removed
!he whole plant from leaf to root is used for different purpose such as the terminating "ud "!aldil# used
as vegeta"le=the leaves and sheath are used as su"stitute for plate or dishes and from the sheath tum"lers
"!hol#are made for serving food !he plant is general is used for decorating gates=etc=in various ceremonies !he
!alakhar is indigenous alkaline preparation and is commonly used in preparation of certain alkalic dishes among
the Assamese !he "anana plant and corns are sliced down and dried in the sunIwhen completely dried=they are
"urnt and the ashe is used as !alakhar. !alakhar is used as preparation of !harani$ani,etc According to the
Agricultural Status of Assam=$%%*-%+= in $%%*-%+= -=+/=,,* tonnes of "anana was produced in ,0=+/% hectares
of land in Assam
#itrus fruits : Assam is considered to "e the DD#rater #entreDD of citrus flora of India due to the fact that is
the home of origin of many Indian forms of citrus Bf these groups= Sontara or 1hasi Brange "citrus reticulata#
is the most prominent It is fairly grown in 5orth #achar hills= 4oalpara= 1amrup= &arrang= and Si"sagar !he
e?port market is )est 3engal It grows "etter at an altitude of a"out 60 metres !he fruit is also met with a higher
elevations upto $-* metres "ut here there is a marked deterioration in si@e and >uality
Brange orchards are mostly esta"lished on the slopes and are given open cultivation Its saplings are
planted on hill slopes !he oranges are harvested from 5ovem"er to 8anuary #ultural practices are done "y
cutting down dead and old "ranches of the tree !he average yield varies from -00 to $-00 fruits per tree
Among lemons= the Assam lemon known as China !a.h3i, )emu, ora tenga or 4ureka /enoa, 5illa
franca and Malta are commonly met with !he variety of
ASSA7 S!A!9 4A:9!!99; +-*
lemon called !a.h3i tenga is is grown in the home compounds !his is a small tree which "ears fruits throughout
the year and yields any thing upto $00 fruits annually
(ineapple : It is an important fruit crop of 5orth #achar <ills !he state of Assam offers a very congenial
for the cultivation of pineapples Several indigenous varieties are found scattered all over the State "ut their
fruits are for the most part sour and hence hardly put to any use !he introduced varieties which are grown to
commercial scale areI 4iant 1ew= Jueen= 7aurities Spanish and Saladhu$s. !he last mentioned variety though
"earing a small si@ed fruit=is reputed for its fine flavour
!he pineapple crop in Assam remains in the same field for four to five years It is grown from its suckers
which are planted in hill-slopes on terraces from 7arch to 8une and also in August and Septem"er !he harvest
commences after $-thmonths of planting in "etween 8uly and early Bcto"er !he average yield is said to "e **
metric tonnes per hectare
Arecanut : Arecanut "%reca catechu# is almost grown as universally as the "anana and with "am"oo
forms the great trinity of tree among which the houses of the Assamese are usually em"edded !he plantation is
hoed up and kept clear of weeds and the trees are almost li"erally manures with cowdung !he $an vine ("etel
piper)is fre>uently trained up their stems and the leaf and nut=which are invaria"ly eaten together=are grown side
"y side In $%%0-%$=-0-+- tonnes of dry arecanut were produced in an area of 660+* hectares of land in the
State
#oconut : Its cultivation is mostly concentrated in the plains area It is not grown as garden crop "ut
cultivated in homesteads It is doing well and there is prospect for more cultivation In $%%0-%$=.*=/++=000 nuts
were produced in an area of $0=++0 hectares in the State
Bther fruits like 2ackfruits= mango= papaya= guava= plum=etc= are also grown in small >uantities in
homesteads in the State According to the Agricultural Status of Assam=$%%*-%+=in $%%*-%+=area under papaya
cultivation was -*., hectares and the total yield was /+$*% tonnes in the same year in the State Apple
cultivation has also "een done in areas having an altitude of $=*$% metres and a"ove Some varieties of apple
grafts with low chilling re>uirements from 1ulu Ealley are planted in areas having altitudes of .6* m=%$,m=
$06.m= $*$%m= and a"ove
!ea : It is one of the most important crops of the State It is also the largest foreign e?change earner In
$%%$=tea covered an area of *=++=*/, hectares in the State out of the total area of ,=*0=-00 hectares under tea
cultivation in India &uring the same year= Assam contri"uted more than -*- per cent of the total production in
the country !he indigenous tea of Assam first "rought to the notice of the 4ovt of Assam in $/*6 "y 7r #A
3ruce Collowing statement shows area and production of tea in the State:-
A4;I#A6!A;9 A5& I;;I4A!IB5 +-+
!a!" s#$%&'( !#" A)"a a'* P)$*+,!&$' $- T"a &' !#" !a!".
Fear 5oof !ea 4arden Area under tea (roduction of tea Average yield Average 6a"our
cultivation in in thousand kg (er hectares employed in tea
hectares In kg 4arden
Assam India Assam India Assam India Assam India Assam India
$ * + , - 6 . / % $0 $$
$%-$ ./- 6=*$, $=--=6., +=$6=/.0 $=-0=+.0 *=/-=+%% %66 %0$ 5A 5A
$%6$ .,, %=,%% $=6*=+6. +=+$=*%% $=/*=+$$ +=-,=+%. $=$*+ $=0.0 5A 5A
$%66 .-$ $0=/** $=.*=+0, +=,-=0$/ $=/%=*+$ +=66=+., $=0%/ $=0/% ,=*$=/6$ /=0,=$+-
$%.0 .-$ $$=60+ $=/0=06- +=-,=$++ *=$*=0*. ,=$/=-$. $=$./ $=$/* +=%,=,$0 .=-%=6,6
$%.$ .-0 $*=0$- $=/*=+*- +=-6=-$6 *=*+=66- ,=+-=,6/ $=**. $=**$ +=%.=+.0 .=66=-0+
$%.* .-$ $*=%%% $=/,=*,, +=-/=6.- *=+%=*06 ,=--=%%6 $=*%/ $=*.$ +=06=+$6 .=6$=%$%
$%.+ .-$ $+=$$. $=/-=$$+ +=60=$0/ *=-$=/*- ,=.$=%-* $=+60 $=+$$ +=%/=.*- .=66=0+6
$%., .-, $+=*., $/.=,0/ +=6$=66+ *=6-=*/$ ,=/%=,., $=,$6 $=+-/ ,=0$=$6% .=.$=.$.
$%.- .-6 $+=*6, $=//=.%, +=6+=+0+ *=6+=0-- ,=/.=$+. $=+%+ $=+,$ ,=0*=$%- .=.,=/%.
$%/0 ... $+=+%0 *=00=-6% +=/$=0/6 5A 5A $,%% $=,%, ,=,/=%,% /=,6=6-%
$%/$ ... $+=,$0 *=0+=0+/ +=/+=6*% +=0-=$+0 -=60=,*. $=-0+ $=,6$ ,=-/=,%, /=,%=*06
$%/6 /,, $+=/*$ 5A 5A 5A 5A 5A 5A ,=/,=+,% /=%$=%-,
$%/. /,- $+=/+% *=*-=./+ ,=$$=++- +=6+=.+% 6=6-=*-$ $=6$$ $=6$. ,=%0=$/* %=06=0++
$%// /,/ $+=/-+ *=*.=-$. ,=$,=+,. +=6%=,*/ .=00=0$, $=6*, $=6/% -=*.=/,/ %=/*=/+0
$%/% /,/ $+=/-6 *=*%=,*/ ,=$,=%-+ +=.%=/-- 6=//=$0- $=6-6 $=6-/ -=,,=*%$ %=.%=*0,
$%%0 /,/ $+=/60 *=+0=+6+ ,=$6=*6% +//=$/$ .=*0=++/ $=6/- $=.+$ -=,$=66$ %=/6=./$
$%%$ /,/ $+=/.+ *=++=*/, ,=*0=-00 +=%6=60, .=-,=$%* $=.00 $=.%, -=-,=-+6 %=%6=.+-
$%%* - - - - +=/.=/$+ .=0+=%+$ - - - -
In respect of Assam another more than $00 (hundred) small tea garden as registered with the !ea 3oard have started planting the
"ushes recently Source- +ea Statistics,$%%$-%*
ASSA7 S!A!9 4A:9!!99; +-,
!ea is the worldDs most widely used "everage which en2oys the greatest popularity "ecause it is the
cheapest of all common "everages 7ethods of tea culture and marketing vary throughout the world !he tea
plants "eing perennial= its culture must inevita"ly "e different from ordinary farm practices where annual crops
are raised !he tea plant= "ush or tree is an evergreen of the D#omellaD family= which flourished in warm= rainy
regions of the tropics and su" tropics Although tea is a hard plant which grows under diverse conditions= the
climate=considered most favoura"le to tea culture=is characterised "y small daily rise in temperature= generous
rain through-out the year (at least $-* to *0+ metre annually) and the a"sence of strong dry winds and free@ing
temperature Similarly= soil on which tea grown has a strong influence on the >uality of the tea #lay soils tend to
give a strong scent "ut poorer flavour to tea 3lack organic soils in damp areas tend to produce a leaf giving a
sweet taste "ut a poor aroma 6oose sandy loams usually give a favoura"le "alance of taste and aroma !he
useful life of tea plant depends upon general care in cultivation= pruning= plucking and control of pests and
diseases
!ea plant yield crops for / months and in some cases=for the whole year round
In its natural state in the forest=tea grows to a height of from ,-.m to %$,m or more !he primary
o"2ect of pruning is to turn it into a low "ush instead of a tree Curther=pruning is necessary to encourage the "ush
to produce leaves rather than wood= and to spread into a ramification of twigs= giving a large plucking
surface=and yet not so dense as to o"struct the free passage of light and air to the leaves every-where= which is a
condition essential to the healthy life of the tea plant
!he need for replanting in a certain area arises when an area of tea has "ecome unproductive for the
reasons=vi@=(a) e?treme age of the tea=(") death or de"ility through disease= impoverishment of soil or "ad
cultural method of a large percentage of the "ushes
In order to enrich the tea=soil is made availa"le with nitrogen and also to increase its fertility=shady trees
and green crop "elonging to the family= DleguminoseaeD are grown with great advantage 3esides= they serve to
supply shade to the tea "ushes= to reduce soil wash= to suppress weed growth and also to act as wind "reakers
and protection against hailstorm= etc
!he "ush is grown with the sole o"2ect of producing leaves !he process of "uilding up of new growth is
>uite interesting and shows that the leaves are the more important part of the plant than any other part of its
structure !he new shoot which a "ush produces in the spring makes a certain amount of growth and then
"ecomes dormant= the terminal "ud at this stage "eing small and thin which is commonly termed as Bhan.hi.
A4;I#A6!A;9 A5& I;;I4A!IB5 +--
!he plucking of tea leaf for manufacture is usually "egun after the "ushes are a"out three years
old=though a certain amount of light plucking is also carried on even "efore they attain this stage In the first
flush of leaf after pruning= the e?treme tip of the growing "ranch consisting of the unopened leaf "ud together
with $ or * leaves is plucked= and * or + leaves lower down which are older=are left standing !he flushes
continue to come and there may "e $0 or $- flushes in the year
!he num"er of gardens in >uality are recognised and all of these depend upon the type of leaf of which
each is largely made up (lucking is "roadly classed as fine=medium and coarseIthe plucking of the tip and four
leaves is called coarse )hen high >uality is o"2ect=fine plucking is restored to and when >uality is the
o"2ect=medium and course pluckings are adopted
!he manufacture of the green tea leaves into tea of commerce is conducted in large tea factories !he
processes are mainly four in num"erI (i))ithering= (ii) ;olling= (iii) Ceramentation= and (iv) &rying All the D#upD
>ualities of tea= colour "ody= pungencyD= strength= and flavour depend a great deal upon the correctness of the
fermentation process
!he su"se>uent processes consist merely in shifting the tea and shorting it into the different grades and
packing them in air-tight containers
!he tea "ushes are >uite often attacked "y different kinds of pests and dis-eases Some of the ma2or pests
are looper= caterpiller= red slug caterpiller= "unch caterpiller= red "orers= tea mos>uitoes= tea leaf hopper= red
spiders= crickets= termites= root not nematodes= etc !he disease which occur in tea "ushes are primarily fungus
although "acteria= virus and non-parasitic disease are charcoal stump rot= "rown root rot= violet root rot= "ranch
canker= throny "light= thread "light= "lister "light= etc
!he !ocklai 9?perimental station which is the "iggest !ea ;esearch Institute=not only in India "ut also in
Asia=has done a good deal of investigation in different aspects of tea culture and manufacture=the results of
which are pu"lished in the !ea 9ncyclopedia=D!wo 6eaves and a 3udD=etc= 3esides numerous scientific
pu"lications and the different research 2ournals
#hanges in the area under different crops :
from the a"ove discussion it is evident that cultivated area under all the principal crops=e?cept mai@e and
cotton=has increased considera"ly in recent years Some years ago cultivation of winter paddy was confined to a
very small area "ut this has now increased considera"ly !he cultivation of wheat was almost insignificant in this
part of the country "ut this is now gaining popularity Same is the case with gram !he cultivation of mai@e and
cotton in the State was mainly confined to hill areas and the fall in the crop area is mainly attri"uted to the
transfer of hill areas to the newly created states of 7eghalaya and 7i@oram 7oreover=attempts are also "eing
made to "ring considera"le area under the coffee= ru""er= "lack pepper plantations specially in
ASSA7 S!A!9 4A:9!!99; +-6
hill areas as a su"stitute of huming culti*ation. !he cultivation of fruits like apples=etc= are also "eing
e?perimented Earious schemes are under way to make the cultivation of these crops popular
Agricultural implements and mechanisation : !he plough made of 2ackfruit tree or some other hard wood
is the age old implement still very common in the State It consists of three partsI the handle and the "ody which
are usually all in one piece= the pole which 2oins the plough at the 2unction of the handle and the "ody= and the
yoke which is merely a piece of "am"oo fastened "y rope at right angles to the pole=with pegs affi?ed to it to
keep it from sliding from the necks of the "ullocks !he Phal (spear) affi?ed to the sharp end of the front portion
of the "ody pierces the ground !his piece of iron is the only portion of the plough which the farmer has to
purchase !he rest he makes himself=sometimes in colla"oration with his cultivator friends !he tilth attained "y
wooden plough is generally 00. to 0$0 metre 5ot more than the area of two-fifths of an acre can "e ploughed
in one day with a good pair of "ullock
!he harrow "moi#,which is generally used to crush the clods after ploughing the land is a"out *, metre
in length #lods are "roken "y a mallet "Doli'mari# which is also made at home !he hoe "kor# occupies a very
important place among the indigenous agricultural implements !he hoe is used to trim the em"ankments "alis#
which help to retain the water It is also used in upturning the soil of such fields where plough cannot go It is a
multipurpose implement used for many agricultural operations= such as forming ridges= "unds= water courses and
channels=preparing small seed "eds and removing slumps of crops= digging out root crops= etc Sickles "kaci#
with which paddy is reaped= have also to "e purchased In ahu cultivation= a large wooden rake "Bindha#with
teeth nearly 00+ metre in length is dragged over the crop "y a "ullock when the plants are a"out 0$- metre
high !he nirani,a kind of trowel with a long handle= is used for weeding ahu rice
!he "ullock carts are used to carry harvested paddy or pulses from the fields and at time to carry manure
to the field=although its chief use is to carry merchandise to and from the market
9?cept in tea gardens=the use of improved agricultural implements in Assam is rather infre>uent In some
areas=tractors have "een used to reclaim waste lands <owever= this does not find favour with the ordinary
cultivators for several reasons such as heavy capital investment=paucity of large "locks of land=etc
Along the improved agricultural implements used in the State following are important ones : (I) iron
plough= (ii)improved harrows= (iii)improved seed drills= (iv) improved thrashers= (v)rotary chaff cutters=
(vi)sprayers and dusters= (vii)sugarcane crushers worked "y power= (viii)oil engines with pumps for irrigation
purposes= (i?)electric plumps for irrigation purposes and (?)power tillers
A4;I#A6!A;9 A5& I;;I4A!IB5 +-.
!he following ta"le shows num"er of agricultural machineries and implements in the State as per the
6ivestock #ensus of $%// :
Item 5um"er
$(ower !iller .*0
*!ractor .+/
+)ooden (lough $.=+/=/.*
,Iron (lough %+,-
-Sprayers and dusters +,..
6(umps for Irrigation +./6
.&isc <arrows *.6//
/)et land (addlers $.--.
%9arth levellers +=**=.%+
$0Seed drillers $$*$
$$7ai@e Sheelers *-
$*Animal #arts .%=,-%
$+Sugarcane #rushers
(a)(ower operated ++0%
(")Animal Bperated *66*
$,(otato digger $%0
$-!hrasher $$.
$6(umpset 9lectric ,*-.
Seed and manures : #ultivators usually preserve a portion of their crop to "e used as seeds for the ne?t
sowing 5eedy cultivators can also purchase at moderate rates improved seeds for
paddy=2ute=mustard=sugarcane=etc=produced in seed farms opened in the #ommunity &epartment Sap-lings of
fruit trees are also made availa"le cheaply from the horticulture nurseries !he Assam Seeds #orporation was set
up in $%6. to produce=procure and distri"ute >uality seeds All seeds farms and nurseries have "een handed over
to the #orporation "y the Agriculture &epartment Among the paddy seeds distri"uted "y the 4overnment which
are gaining popularity are Monohar sali, Prasadbhog, Badsah bhog, Basmati, )egerihar, &angadaria,. Among
other improved varieties I'&(,+aichungnating'I,a0a,Padma hankai,5agannath,!ikoahao (deep water paddy)=
ASSA7 S!A!9 4A:9!!99; +-/
!olangi,etc= are also used
!he cultivators of the State use green manuring in almost all their cultivated crops It largely consists of
dressing fruit trees=etc=with surface scrapings of grasses and weeds= ploughing of grasses=weeds and stipple of
paddy in the fields "efore the ne?t crop of paddy is grown <owever=the >uantity and >uality of green matter
"uried into the soil are "oth poor and negligi"le
Antil recently use of manure as such was almost negligi"le !here was little operation of the manurial
value of farm water including cowdung= a good deal of which was wasted or "urnt as fuel !he use of oil cake
was almost unknown e?cept "y tea gardens and "etelvine in Surma Ealley !he value of the fertili@er was not
appreciated "y the farmers and there was little demand for them <owever=in recent years=the farmers have
"ecome manure conscious like that of others states of the country 5ot only the locally availa"le cowdung and
green manure "eing more fully employed "ut also there is a growing demand for fertili@ers in the State
Agricultural diseases and pests and remedies employed : !he insects particularly /andhi "le$torisa
acuta# and Saraha "His$a acuesceus# cause e?treme damage to paddy !he traditional method of controlling
insects was very simple 3onfires were lit at night and the insects were either attracted to the fire or driven away
"y smoke Sometimes the insects were also collected "y smearing a winnowing fan with some glutinous
su"stances and "rushing it against the ears of grain= and there"y collect "ugs which found adhering to the fan
Ase of light traps to protect the crops from adult insects was not uncommon Bccasionally the "arks of some
trees and her"s were scattered in the field !he pungent smell of these "arks repelled insects !he outer skins of
various fruits such as citrus grandis were scattered over the pest infested areas are allowed to rot !he offensive
smell emitted kept away insects Sometimes dry shoots of "am"oo trees and dry twigs of 2ungle plants were kept
standing on the fields at short distances so that carnivorous "irds may perch on these and eat the destructive
insects Sometimes ashes were scattered over plants to prevent insects from harming winter crops #rop failure
was also attri"uted sometimes to the ominous glances of some persons Bld images= mostly made of straw
decorated with torn clothes and painted with lime= were kept in the fields as antidote to the ominous looks Some
of these traditional method are still in vogue
Storage diseases and insect pest of paddy potatoes and pulses are e>ually menacing and rough estimates
show that they destroy $0 to *- per cent of those products in storage !he disease and insect pests which cause
damage during storage are either carried from the fields with the harvest product of remain in the crevices in the
godowns and storage houses !his is prevented "y "etter method of storage= disinfecting the storage houses and
godowns= and treating the grains and seeds to
A4;I#A6!A;9 A5& I;;I4A!IB5 +-%
"e stored with chemicals= like #ar"on !etrachloride= 9thylene &ichloride= <ydrocyanic acid gas=etc
#aterpillars are serious pests of paddy noticed in the State Stem "orer is also e>ually harmful to the
crop
Important crop pests and diseases of Assam
#rops : (ests and &iseases
;ice :3rown Spot= 3last= Coot ;ot and 9longation=Stem ;ot= 3unt and Calse Smut= Arfa= #ase )orm
and 4ally Cly= 4rasshoppers and 8assids= 6eaf ;oller= Army )orms= 7ealy 3ug= Swarming #aterpillar= ;ice-
3ug= ;ice-<ispa and Stem 3orer
Sugarcane : !ermites and ;o Ants= Stem 3orer= 9arly Shoot 3orer and !op Shoot 3orer= 7ealy 3ug and )hite
Cly 6eaf <opper= )hite 3orer= ;ed-;ot= 6eaf Spot= 7osaic= Smut and !op-;ot= and )ilt and #ollar ;ot
#otton : Anthracnose= )ilt= 6eaf <opper= ;ed 3ug and 6eaf ;oller= and Spotted ;oll )orm
#hillies : &amping Bff= (apper Cruit ;ot= (owdery 7ildew= 6eaf #aterpillar= !hrips and Stem 3orer
4inger : Cly 7aggots= Shoot 3orer= and Soft ;ot';hi@ome-;ot
(epper : )ilt= Scales= (ollu 3eetle= Shoot-3orer and !hrips
!urmeric : 6eaf Spot and Shoot 3orer
#ardomom : &amping off= ;hi@ome-;ot= <airy #aterpillar= ;hi@ome )eevil= Shoot 3orer and !hrips
#oconut : 6eaf Spot= 3ud ;ot= 5ut-Call (7ahali)= ;hinoceros 3eetle= ;ed (alm )eevil= and 3lack-
headed=#aterpillar
Arecanut :3ud ;ot= Cruit-;ot= 1aleroga or 7ahali= 3eetles= Ana"eroga= Stem 3leeding= #ollar-;ot= Sheding of
female flowers and tender nuts= 6eaf-;ot= 7ites= Scales and 3ugs
3rin2al : )ilt=;oot-;ot=3ud 3orer=3eetles and 8assids
Bhendi 27osaic= 6eaf roller= Cruit 3orer and Shoot 3orer= 8assis and Aphids= etc
#urcur"its : (owdery 7ildew= ;oot-;ot and Cruit-;ot= 7osaic= 3eetles= 6eaf #aterpillar= Semi-6ooper and Cruit
Cly
!omato : &amping off= )ilt= 6ate 3light= 3eetles= and #aterpillar
Sweet potato : )eevil
3anana : 6eaf Spot=Cruit ;ot=3lack !ip and 3lack Cinger !ip=)ilt ((anama)3unchy !op=!ip ;ot=6eaf and Cruit
3eedle and 3orer
ASSA7 S!A!9 4A:9!!99; +60
7ango: &ie 3ack= (owdery 7ildew= ;ed ;ot (Anthracnose) <oppers= and 6eaf and Shoot <air-eating
#aterpillar
#ashewnut : 4ummosis= &ie 3ack= Shoot 3orer= and !hrips
7ai@e : 6eaf Spot= 3orer= Aphis and 3light
(otato : 9arly and 6ate 3light= 3rown-;ot= Sca"= 6eaf ;oll= 7osaic= !u"er 7oth= 4reasy Surface= #aterpillar
and #ut )orm
!o"acco : )ilt= #aterpillar and !hrips
Apple= (ear=
(each and
(lum : #anker= 6eaf Spot= Soft-;ot= Stem 3rown= &ie 3ack= 3itter ;ot= (owdery 7ildew= (each-#url= )ooly
Aphis= San-8oice Scale= Shoot 3orer= and Cruit 3orer
#a""age=
#auliflower=
1not-1hol=
!urnips=etc : 3lack-;ot= &amping off= #lu" ;oot= (ainted "ug= #ricket= )ite ;ust= 6eaf Spot= 3rown ;ot
Aphids= #aterpillar= !hrips= 8assids= Semi-6ooper and 3utter-fly
#itrus : #anker= Sca"= )inter-!ip= 4ummosis= Sooty 7ould= Coam= Seeding )ilt= &ie-3ack= (ink &isease=
Aphids= 6eaf-7iner= 6emon #aterpillar= 4reen 3ug= 3orer= 7ealy 3ug= 7ites= and Scales (Insect)
4roundnut : !ikka &isease= #ollar-;ot= and #aterpillar= Cruit-Cly= and Stem 3orer
4auva : ;ed ;ust= 6eaf-3light= Anthracnose= 6eaf 3eetle= Cruit Cly and Stem 3orer
8ute : Stem-;ot= ;oot-;ot= and Seeding 3light= 3lack 3and= <airy #aterpillar= 7ites= #ricket= and Semi 6ooper
6itchi : 6eaf #url
7ustard : &owny 7ildew=6eaf-Spot=)hite-;ust=Aphis=#aterpillar and Saw-fly
Bnion : !hrips
(ulses
Matimah
6 Mugmah 27osaic= Anthracnose and 6eaf-Spot
3eans : )ilt
(ineaple : <eart-;ot or Stem ;ot=6eaf-Spot=3ase ;ot=and Cruit ;ot
A4;I#A6!A;9 A5& I;;I4A!IB5 +6$
(apaya : Stem-;ot= 6eaf-;ot= and ;oot-;ot= Authracnose and 7osaic
1achu :#olocassia 3light
(an 6eaf : Cruit-;ot= 6eaf-;ot= ;hi@octonia and ;oot-;ot
Sesame : 6eaf Spot
(ea : (owdery 7ildew and ;ust
4rape-Eine : (owdery 7ildew
(Source :-&epartment of Agriculture=Assam)
#hemical pesticides and fungicides are "eing widely sprayed and dusted "y the #rop (rotection Corce of
the State Agriculture &epartment during ma2or croppings !he individual farmers are now "ecoming accustomed
to the use of these pesticides
Activities of Agricultural &epartment and other agencies= agricultural schools and colleges= model farms
and shows :
In the Cirst Cive Fear (lan emphasis was laid on increasing of food production !he Second Cive Fear
(lan aimed at attacking a "alanced development of food and cash crops (riority was given to the multiplication
and distri"ution of improved seeds=distri"ution of fertili@ers=creation of irrigation facilities=etc &uring the !hird
Cive Fear (lan=diversified attempts to put the Agriculture of the State on a "atter scientific plan were made !he
o"2ect of the Courth Cive Fear (lan was to increase the production of food-grains at an average annual rate of
five per cent=to assess the decline in production of 2ute "y increasing the average yield rather than area=and to
increase the production of wheat=oilseed=pulse=fruit and other plantation crops &uring the ne?t plan=more
attention was paid to the development aspects of the agriculture in the State Strategies followed were :
($)population of high yielding variety of crops=(*)stress on improved input structure to raise productivity=(+)en-
couragement of multiple cropping pattern=(,)change of cropping pattern in flood prone areas and (-)provision
for greater irrigation facilities
&epartment of Agriculture : !he development of agriculture is the function of the &epartment of
Agriculture !here is a separate directorate for it and &irector of Agriculture is the head of the directorate at the
State level At the district level there is a &istrict Agricultural Bfficer=assisted "y many other offers=they look
after the activities of the field staff of the district level At #ommunity &evelopment 3locks=there is one
9?tension Bfficer=Agriculture=assisted "y num"er of 4ram Sevaks at the village level A "rief analysis will
reveal the measure of success achieved "y the Agriculture &epartment in "ringing out an era of prosperity and
self sufficiency
Soil improvement works : Soil testing service have "een made availa"le to the farmers for >uick soil
tests in order to recommend fertili@ers on crop-wise "asis !here are three soil testing la"oratories in Assam=one
each at Silchar= 8orhat and

ASSA7 S!A!9 4A:9!!99; +6*
4uwahati !he annual capacity of testing is +0=000 samples in each la"oratory
&istri"ution of improved agricultural implements !he Agricultural 9ngineering )ing of the &epartment
of Agriculture= Assam= has provided a fleet of "ulldo@ers and tractors with necessary implements in su"-
divisional head>uarters in su"-divisional head>uarters A cultivator can "orrow tractors with re>uired charge In
addition to this=the State Argo-Industries &evelopment #orporation has also provided a num"er of tractors and
power tillers on easy hire purchase terms In the tea gardens=there are large num"er of tractors which are also
used for agricultural purposes !he following statements shows the tractors="ulldo@ers=maintained "y the
Agricultural 9ngineering )ing of the department of Agriculture
SI Bfficer <J 3ulldo@er !ractor
($) (*) (+) (,) (-)
$ Asst 9?ecutive
9ngineer=Agri 1okra2har $ %
* == 4osaigaon $ -
+ == 4auripur $ ,
, == 4oalpara $ /
- == 4uwahati $ /
6 == ;angia - %
. == 5al"ari * $0
/ == (athsala $ $0
% == 7angaldoi $ $*
$0 == !e@pur $ +
$$ == 4ohpur - +
$* == 5orth 6akhimpur - .
$+ == &hema2i - %
$, == Si"sagar $ $0
$- == &i"rugarh $ $0
$6 == !insukia - ,
$. == 8orhat $ 6
$/ == 7a2uli - *
$% == ;oha $ .
A4;I#A6!A;9 A5& I;;I4A!IB5 +6+
($) (*) (+) (,) (-)
*0 == <o2ai - ,
*$ == 1alia"ar - *
** == Silchar - +
*+ == 1arimgan2 - ,
*, == <ailakandi - ,
*- == &iphu + +
*6 == <amren $ +
*. == <aflong - +
!otal $/ $6*
Source : &irectorate of Agriculture=Assam
In order to encourage the cultivators to use and adopt scientific and improved agricultural implements in
their cropping practices=the Agriculture 9ngineering )ing of the Agriculture &epartment of Assam has taken up
the following schemes
($)Agricultural Implements Scheme (State sector): !he scheme envistages popularisation of agricultural
machinery and implements=plant protection e>uipment=etc=through su"sidised sale to farmers !he e?penditure
on wheat thrashing machineries are also "orne from this scheme &uring the year $%./-.%= specific allotment of
fund to 4uwahati= 8orhat and Silchar were provided to gear up manufacturing work of implements as per target
of production laid down under scheme
(*)#entral Sector Scheme for introduction and popularisation of improved implements under minikit
programme of rice :- !his scheme was introduced in the State from the year $%.6-.. as a component activity of
national campaign for increasing rice production in the country !he o"2ect of the scheme is to introduce
improved agricultural implements for proper seed-"ed inter-cultural weeding practice
&uring the year $%..-./ =sum of ;s $=/-=-0000 was granted "y the 4ovt of India for sale of $.- sets
of these implements at .- per cent su"sidy !he target has "een duly achieved &uring the year $%./-.%=4ovt=of
India granted *6 nos of demonstration sets of improved implements=$* nos of low lift pumps and $ nos of
<ydraulic ram for demonstration in <ills under the scheme for demonstration purposes in the State
-

- %gricultural /uide Book, &epartment of Agriculture= Assam= 4uwahati=p,0-,$
ASSA7 S!A!9 4A:9!!99; +6,
&istri"ution of Certili@ers : !ill two decades "ack=the use of fertili@er was confined to the tea gardens
only and there was very limited use of it for agricultural purpose !his may "e ascri"ed partly to the
ignorance=pre2udice and partly to the limited purchasing power to the cultivators Curther= inade>uate irrigation
facilities and uncertainly of rain restricted the use of fertili@ers !he following statement gives the fertili@ers
consumption figure (in 7etric !onnes) in the State from $%66-6. to $%%+-%,
!rend of Certili@er consumption in Assam (In terms of 7!)
K
Fear 5itrogen (hosphorous (otash !B!A6kg'hectare
K
$%66-6. $6$* *-00 %%$ -$0+ $-
$%6.-6/ *-*0 $,,0 **6/ 6*6/ $%
$%6/-6% ,000 *-00 *-00 %000 *.
$%6%-.0 +-00 $%00 $*00 6600 *0
$%.0-.$ -000 *$00 $--0 /6-0 *6
$%.$-.* ,%00 *0-0 $*00 /$-0 *,
$%.*-.+ 66-0 $.00 $%00 $0*-0 +.
$%.+-., --00 -00 *000 /000 *0
$%.,-.- ,$00 $*00 $,00 6.00 *+
$%.--.6 ++-6 $*%, /0, -,-, $%
$%.6-.. *-.$ */6 *.* +,*% $*
$%..-./ ,6/* *-% ./$ -.** $/
$%./-.% 6.-. +.* .-- .//, *,
$%.%-/0 --60 .+$ ,.0 6.6$ *$
$%/0-/$ 6%%6 $,+0 $,%% %%*- */
$%/$-/* /0*+ $$%6 $-/6 $0/0- ++
$%/*-/+ /,-6 $%$/ $-0+ $*/.. ,0
$%/+-/, $0,+/ *660 ,*06 $.+0, -+
$%/,-/- .-+/ */+. +,*+ $+.%/ ,*
$%/--/6 %+-* +6+, +.-, $6.,0 ,.
$%/6-/. /.*, +$6$ ,%$, $6.%% ,%
$%/.-// $*+*- -/$- -6+6 *+..6 6/
$%//-/% $+6%. 6*0- --./ *-,/0 .,
$%/%-%0 $*,%, -,+% ,-+/ **,.$ 6-
$%%0-%$ *0-6+ /,,6 /66+ +.6.* $$,
$%%$-%* $%*%- ./,+ /+/+ +--*$ $0-
$%%*-%+ $6$0, -*/0 -$*6 *6-$0 /-
A4;I#A6!A;9 A5& I;;I4A!IB5 +6-
$%%+-%, *%/.$ -*-. /0,, ,+$.* $*0
Source :- &irectorate of Agriculture=Assam
!he amount of fertili@ers used is stated to have gone up during the last few years <owever=the high cost
of fertili@ers=non-availa"ility of credit=lack of storage facilities in remote villages and want of distri"utors in the
interior areas are some of the factors of which the chemical fertili@ers have not "een widely used 3ut use of
green and organic manuring has increased in the State
(lant (rotection measures : !he plant protection measure is an important task to save the e?isting crops
It is carried out throughout the State under different manner of operation to com"at the attacks of insects= pests
and diseases (rophylactic measures have "een taken up to save crop from the pro"a"le attack of diseases= in-
sects and pests !he farmers are "ecoming conscious of these measures and demand for plant protection
chemical and e>uipments= etc= is increasing gradually Sprayers= dusters= pesticides= weedicides and fungicides
are made availa"le to farmers "y the &epartment of Agriculture at the su"sidised rate through the agency of the
Assam Agro-Industries &evelopment #orporation 6td
&istri"ution of improved Seeds : !he cultivators preserve a portion of their previous yearDs crop for seed
!he agriculture &epartment also improved
seed of paddy=2ute=mustard=pulse=mai@e=sugar-cane=etc=to the cultivators Seedling of fruit "earing trees are also
supplied to the cultivators from the horticulture nurseries Cor the purpose of the distri"ution of improved
varieties of seeds the Agriculture &epartment has esta"lished a num"er of farm throughout the State 3ut these
farms and nurseries have now "een transferred to the Assam Seeds #orporation esta"lished in $%6. !here are /6
seed farms and $% horticulture nurseries in the State !he Agriculture &epartment purchase the seed from the
Assam Seeds #orporation and supplies to the farmers at -0% su"sidised rates !he following statement shows
the area covered "y the high yielding variety under paddy during the last five years (in hectares)
Fear Autumn )inter Summer !otal
(addy (addy (addy
$%//-/% +0-000 -+,000 ,%$0% ///$0%
$%/%-%0 +*.000 -6-000 6$6,- %-+6,-
$%%0-%$ +-%$$6 .+66// .%0,- $$.,/,%
$%%$-%* +$*,+% .6*--+% .-0** $$=-0000
$%%*-%+ +$,0*% .66,// .-,/6 $$-600+
Source :-&irector of Agriculture=Assam
Agriculture ;esearch Station : !here are 6 research stations or centres as well as $0 field trial stations in
the State to carry out research on the varieties of crops A great ma2ority of these stations are under the control of
the Assam Agricultural Aniversity= 8orhat Collowing is the list of the Agricultural ;esearch Stations in the State
ASSA7 S!A!9 4A:9!!99; +66
Agricultural ;eserch Stations in Assam
Sl5o 5ame of the ;esearch Station 6ocation &istrict #ontrol
$ ;ice ;esearch Station !ita"or 8orhat Assam AgriAniversity
* (ulse ;esearch Station Shillongoni 5agaon do
+ ;ice ;esearch Station 4ossaigaon 1okra2har do
, ;ice 9?perimental Station Ak"arpur 1arimgan2 do
- #otton ;esearch Station &iphu 1ar"i Anglong do
(<ill crops)
6 ;egional <orticultural 1ahikuchi 1amrup do
;esearch Station
Cield !rial Station in Assam (Agriculture &epartment)
(lace &istrict
$3alagaon 1okra2har
*4erua 1amrup
+Shillongoni 5agaon
,(an"ari 4olaghat
-3ali2ana 4oalpara
6Sukli "oria 5orth 6akhimpur
.7ahakal #achar
/(at"ouchi 3arpeta
%4elapukhuri !insukia
$0#hariduar Sonitpur
Source : &irectorate of Agriculture=Assam
!he Assam Agro-Industries &evelopment #orporation :
!he corporation was esta"lished on *.
th
8anuary=$%6.=with a paid up share capital of ;s *- #rores
contri"uted "y the 4ovt of India and 4ovt of Assam on -0:-0 "asis Its main o"2ects are to assist progressive
farmers to own the means of modernising their cultivation and undertake and assist in efficient distri"ution of all
agricultural inputs like farm machinery and implements=pesticides=plant protection e>uipments=fertili@ers and
agro-chemicals= etc It also aims to set up workshop for manufacturing farm machinery and e>uipments and also
to esta"lish and run service-shops and repair-shops to assist the farmers "y rendering services in respect of repair
and servicing of agricultural machinery and e>uipments at reasona"le rates and also to provide farm machinery
on rent to those farmers who cannot afford to purchase the same It also aims to promote=esta"lish=develop and
run ago-industries= pro2ects= enterprises and programmes which will help the growth= improvement= and
modernisation of agriculture= horticulture= forestry= pisciculture= sericulture= apiculture= poultry farming and
animal hus"andry
)ith these ends in view=the #orporation has set up $0 customs services in the
A4;I#A6!A;9 A5& I;;I4A!IB5 +6.
State at places like 3ilasipara= 3ongaigaon= 4oalpara <owli= 3iswanath #hariali= &hekia2uli= &hema2i=
6aharighat and !eok at a cost of ;s *- lakh for each customs service centre It has also set up central workshop
at 1hanapara= 4uwahati= where repairing of agricultural machineries and training to technical personals are
taken up !he #orporation is maintaining a group of machineries for rendering regular and timely after sale
service to the customers It is also running a small fruit processing factory at Silchar which was handed over to it
"y the 4ovt of Assam in $%6/ A micro"iological la"oratory which is the first of its kind in the 59 ;egion was
set up "y the #orporation for production of "acterial fertili@er (;hi@o"ium culter) in the year $%/$ at 4uwahati
!his la"oratory is now producing the entire re>uirement of the 5orth 9astern (59) ;egion for "acterial
fertili@er 7oreover=the la"oratory also produces fungeal culture which the #orporation is supplying to Attar
(radesh and Brissa "esides meeting the re>uirement of the State
Starting with modest sales of ;s */6% lakh only in the first year of its inception ($%6.-6/)=the
#orporation has now reached a record sales turnover of ;s *=**,0- lakh during the year $%%$-%* with an
anticipated net profit of ;s+6% lakh during the year &uring its e?istence of *- years=the #orporation supplied
inputs with ;s $6=0/-,0 lakh
Assam Seed #orporationI6td (AS# 6td):
!he Assam Seed #orporation 6td(a 4ovt of Assam=Andertaking) was esta"lished during the year $%6.=under
the provisions of #ompaniesa Act $%-6
Since the esta"lishment of AS# 6td in the year $%6.= this organisation is carrying out its "usiness in
production of >uality seeds= processing= marketing= transportation and distri"ution of various seeds= plants=
grafts= etc and supplied to the farms through the &eptt of Agriculture for field implementation
AS# 6td is carrying out its "usiness in the following activities :
($)(roduction of certified seeds of different varieties in its own seed farms
(*)(roduction of paddy seeds through regd growers scheme and distri"ution of the same
(+)(roduction of foundation seeds and distri"ution of the same to AS#Ds own farms and to the regd growers
(,)(rocurement of the following certified seeds from outside the State and distri"ution of the same
(a))heat= (")8ute= (c)(ea= (d)6entil= (e)3lack 4ram= (f)4reen 4ram= (g)Summer 7oong= (h)7ai@e=
(i)Eegeta"le Seeds= (2);a2mah= (k)(otato=etc
(-)5ursery products=plants=grafts=some of which are produced from outside the State also
ASSA7 S!A!9 4A:9!!99; +6/
AS# 6td has twelve num"er of seed farms and four num"er of nurseries engaged in production of seeds=
plants= grafts= etc But of these $* farms= one large si@ed foundation seed farm at 6alpool (*,0 hectares)in
&arrang &istrict is utilised for production of foundation seeds only ;est of the farms cover ++6 hectares out of
which *+0 hectares are utilised for production of certified seeds Coundation seeds of paddy=mustard=pulse and
2ute are produced at Coundation seed farm (roduction of foundation seeds of paddy and 2ute is also taken up at ,
num"ers of Cield !rial Station (C!S)of Agriculture &eptt and also at large si@ed mechani@ed farm at 1hernoi
under 1ar"i Anglong &istrict Coundation seeds that are produced are sufficient to meet the present re>uirement
of the State &uring the year $%//-/%=$%%0-%$=the following >uantities of foundation seeds were produced "y
AS# !he "reeder seeds were o"tained from the Assam Agricultural Aniversity=as suggest "y 4ovt of India
$%//-/% : $(addy (a)Short duration var ,6%%0 >tls
(")6ong duration var .%0.0 >tls

$*6060 >tls
*7ustard (a)7-*. $.600 >tls
$%/%-%0 : $(addy:- (a)Short duration var +,000 >tls
(")6ong &uration var $$6+00 >tls

$-00+$% >tls
* 7ustard :- (a) 7-*. $+%/% >tls
+8ute :- 8;B--*,
8;B-6+* /$- >tls
$%%0-%$ : $(addy :- (a)Short duration var ,-*,0 >tls
(")6ong duration var $,%/*0 >tls

$%-060 >tls
* 7ustard :- (a)7-*. $6-00 >tls
+8ute : (a)8;B-6+*
(")8;B- -*, .+-0 >tls
Source :-Assam Seed #orporation=6td
Eariety wise production programme of paddy=mustard and 2ute is taken up in consultation with
Agriculture &eptts as per their seed plan="ased on local demand and adapta"ility
It is the State 4ovt policy that the re>uired >uantity of certified <FE paddy and mustard seeds must "e
produced and procured within the State Accordingly=
A4;I#A6!A;9 A5& I;;I4A!IB5 +6%
AS# is making production=procurement programme and produced the re>uired >uantity of paddy=mustard seeds
under the seeds certification programme since $%/+-/, Achievements of certified seeds production for the years
$%//-/%=$%/%-%0 and $%%0-%* are given "elow :
$%//-/% : $(addy :- AS# farm -%-, >tls
;egd=growers +6%$/>tls

,*/.*>tls
*7ustard : AS# farm $-,>tls
;4 +/0% >tls

+%6+ >tls
$%/%-%0: $(addy:- AS# farm ,0.+ >tls
;4 *60$ >tls

+0*., >tls
*7ustard: AS# farm %%-. >tls
;4 $//%6- >tls

+%//** >tls
$%%0-%$ : $(addy :- AS# farm -0$,,. >tls
;4 ,,/$*%, >tls

,%/*.,$ >tls
* 7ustard: 7-*. -*// >tls
+ 8ute $+0.- >tls

A#<I9E9795! &A;I54 .th CIE9 F9A; (6A5
#9;!ICI9& S99&S : CBA5&A!IB5 S99&S :
$(addy -*=.-=..$ >tls 6=+0- >tls
* 7ustard -**=-00 >tls 6*/ >tls
+ 8ute -/% >tls +. >tls
ASSA7 S!A!9 4A:9!!99; +.0
(;B&A#!IB5 (;B4;A779 BC CBA5&A!IB5 S99&S &A;I54 /th (6A5 (9;IB&
(Jtyin >tls)
#;B(S: $%%0-%$ $%%$-%* $%%*-%+ $%%+-%, $%%,-%-
$)(addy $060 $$*0 $*00 $*-0 $+00
*)8ute +- +/ ,0 ,0 ,0
+);ape
7ustard - $%. *0. *$- **0
,)3lack
4ram $, $6 $/ *0 **
-)4reen
4ram $0 $6 *0 *6 */
6)Arahar $-+ $-- $-- $-- *
.)(ea .0 /0 %0 $00 $*0
/)Soya"ean ,, -0 60 6, .0
(;B&A#!IB5 (;B4;A779 BC #9;!ICI9& S99&S &A;I54 /th (6A5 (9;IB&
(>tyin >tls)
#;B(S: $%%0-%$ $%%$-%* $%%*-%+ $%%+-%, $%%,-%-
$)(addy 60=000 6,=000 6.=000 .$=000 .-=000
*)8ute $=000 $=/00 $=%00 *00 *=000
+);ape
7ustard .=*00 .=-00 .=%00 /=+00 /=600
,)3lack
4ram *,6 */0 +*0 +60 ,00
-)4reen
4ram $60 *00 *00 ,00 -00
6)Arahar ,0 6+ .- .- .-
.)(ea %00 $=0-0 $=*00 $=+-0 $=-00
/)Soya"ean +.- -*- 600 6.- .-0
Cinancial position
(A)!he present financial position of AS# 6td is not at all satisfactory &ue to various reasons AS# has suffered
huge financial losses !he financial result of the last few years is as follows :-
A4;I#A6!A;9 A5& I;;I4A!IB5 +.$
F9A; !A;5-BE9; (;BCI!-6BSS A##A7A6A!9& 6BSS
$%/--/6 ;s,%$00lakh (-);s ,-00 lakh ;s ,%600 lakh
$%/6-/. ;s$$*/00 == (-);s-.00 == ;s--+00 ==
$%/.-// ;s/,-00 == (-);s$$,00 == ;s66.00 ==
$%//-/% ;s$0$$00 == (-);s$+.00 == ;s/0,00 ==
$%/%-%0 ;s..,,$ == (-);s$6*0+ == ;s%60$- ==
$%%0-%$ ;s.,*+$ == (-);s/+0+ == ;s$0,+%/ ==
(3)!he authori@ed share capital of the #orpnis ;s*0000 lakh
(#)!he su"scri"ed and paid-up capital of the #orpnis ;s$,-/0 lakh
Source : Assam Seed #orporation 6td
(ilot (ro2ect for the development of the Small Carmers=7arginal Carmers and Agricultural 6a"ourers :-
It envisages to pay special attention to the pro"lems of the under privileged farmers and agricultural
la"ourers who have not "een a"le to take advantage of the green revolution due to some handicaps and
limitations Ander the pro2ect the area is identified where there are concentrations of such categories of families
and to tackle their pro"lems in a concerted way "y evolving proper strategies for their all round development so
that these area may serve as pace-setters of development for the rest of the State
!here are such (ro2ects in the State in the selected undeveloped areas in the undivided districts of
4oalpara= 1amrup= 5agaon and 1ar"i Anglong !here is one agency=called the DDSmall 7arginal and Agricultural
6a"ours AgencyDD in each district and the respective &eputy #ommissioner of the district is the #hairman of the
Agency <owever=e?ception is made in case of 1ar"i Anglong where the (rincipal Secretary &istrict #ouncil=is
made the #hairman of the Agency Similarly=there is Agency at the State level under the #hairmanship of
Agricultural (roduction #ommissioner
!he "asic strategy in respect to the marginal and small farmers is to augment the individual income "y
multiple cropping to the e?tent possi"le and also to supplement the income "y specialised farming and livestock
pro2ects 3esides institutional credit and services= there will "e component of su"sidy in this programme= and at-
tempt is to "e made to provide off-season employment to agricultural la"ours through rural work programmes
#redit to the farmers is to "e provided through #o-operative and #ommercial "anks and the programme
are to "e operated through the e?isting development agencies 3ut all the financial assistance of the pro2ect is to
come directly to the Agency from the 4ovt of India as grant to "e utili@ed as su"sidies and in maintenance of the
Agency staff
ASSA7 S!A!9 4A:9!!99; +.*
!he main programme of the pro2ect comprises irrigation=custom service= storage= supply of inputs= live-
stock pro2ects= credit institution= risk su"sidy= marketing= consolidation of holdings= assistance to rural artisans=
rural workers= etc
Soil #onservation &epartment : !he pro"lem of soil erosion is very acute in the State especially in the
hills areas and areas ad2oining 3hutan and Arunachal (radesh !he unpercepti"ly suscepti"le to soil
erosion="ecause of the peculiarities of the soil and some "iotic factors !he soils here consist of recently
transported materials mostly coarse sand with pe""le "oulders It is very shallow and very essily eroda"le !he
e?tension practice of hum or shifting cultivation in the hill areas also helps in causing erosion pro"lem in
serious nature in Assam
!he estimated affected area "y soil erosion in Assam "y various land utili@ation classes are as under :
(in million hectare)
#ultiva"le 6and 0..0
Corest 6and 0//+
(ermanent (astures G
4ra@ing 4round 00.,
3arren 6and 0+0/
5on Agricultural 6and 0$/*

!otal **$.
!he estimated affected area "y soil erosion under special pro"lem in Assam are as follows :
(in million hectare)
4ully and ;avine 0$%+
Shifting #ultivation 0$+%
3y Surface Clooding 0,-0

!otal 0./*
Source : Soil #onservation &epartment=Assam
Crom the a"ove figure the total pro"lem area in Assam can "e estimated at *%%% million hectares=out of
which 0$%$ million hectares (mha)are treated till $%/.-//
A4;I#A6!A;9 A5& I;;I4A!IB5 +.+
!o check all these types of erosion pro"lems= the Soil #onservation &epartment has taken a num"er of
schemes= vi@= (I) )atershed 7anagement= (ii) (rotection of ;iver 6ands=(iii) (rotective Afforestation= (iv) 6and
&evelopment= (v) 4ully control works= (vi) (lantation of #ash #rop through Assam plantation #rops
&evelopment #orporation= a sister concerned organisation of the Soil #onservation &epartment= to "ring the area
in plains district of State under control
3esides the soil conservation measure mentioned a"ove= some other measures such as 6and
&evelopment "y ;eclamation and !erracing= )ater &istri"ution=Stream 3ank 9rosion #ontrol=3am"oo
(lantation ;egeneration have "een undertaken in the hill areas of the State in order to control shifting
cultivation "y motivating the local people for permanent and settled agriculture and using the land to its
potential
Soil conservation measures under centrally sponsored scheme in the catchment of the ;iver Ealley
(ro2ect start functioning in Assam since $%.--.6 under the name and caption-the DD(agladia ;iver Ealley
(ro2ectDD !he main o"2ectives of the scheme are to treat the cathment areas for reducing silt production rate and
there"y helps to improve the productivity of catchments "y checking land erosion
!he other centrally sponsored scheme=5ational )atershed &evelopment (rogramme of ;ainfed
Agriculture is implemented in Assam in the year $%%$ !he o"2ectives of the schemes are :
(i)to conserve and up-grade "oth crop lands and cultura"le waste-lands on watershed "asis
(ii)to sta"alise and increase crop yield from rainfed farming
(iii)to make arrangement the fruit=fooder and fuel resources through appropriate alternate land use
systems
(iv)to develop and disseminates technologies for proper soil and moisture conservation
!his scheme is $00% assistance to the State 4overnments In Assam=this programme is handled "y "oth
the Agriculture and Soil #onservation &epartments
!he Soil #onservation &epartment has identified as many as ,/ pro2ects (reliminary works including
purchase of survey materials and survey works are done in the entire ,/ pro2ects
!he <ir-<ir 3arpa2an )atershed 7anagement (lan for reha"ilitation of humi0as in 1ar"i Anglong
district sponsored "y the 5orth 9astern #ouncil is functioning since $%/6-/. &uring the Seventh (lan (eriod=
an e?penditure of ;s/$6 lakhs was incurred and the target achieved against it are +60 hectares of land devel-
opment and $%00 hectares of water distri"ution work
ASSA7 S!A!9 4A:9!!99; +.,
!he physical achievements in terms of hectares "y various Soil #onservation measures=since inception
of the department are shown "elow :
(eriod Achievements
+
rd
plan period ($%6*-6%) Agricultural 6and -/%,+ hectare
(including hill areas) 5on-Agril6and -/.%$ ==
,
th
(lan (eriod Agril6and -$0%-* ==
(including hill areas) Agril6and -,+** ==
-
th
(lan (eriod Agril6and -$,-.0 ==
5on-Agril=6and -,$*/ ==
6
th
(lan (eriod Agril6and -**6%* ==
5on-Agril6and -,*-. ==
Bther ;iverine
6and (rotection -*00./7
+

#ash #rop &eve-
lopment -,-. hectare
.
th
(lan (eriod Agricultural 6and -*,6-- ==
5on-Agril6and -,$,, ==
Bther ;iverrine 6and
(rotection -*$.%,7
+

#ash #rop &eve-
lopment -,// hectare
#entrally Sponsered
Scheme since $%.--.6 Agricultural 6and -*,+/ ==
5on-Agril6and -.+6 ==
Source : Soil #onservation &epartment=Assam
!he two new schemes namely the 3armulla )atershed 7anagement (ro2ect and the Aie )atershed
(ro2ect were proposed with a physical target at *00 hectares and total cost of ;s -0 lakh in each pro2ect during
the /th (lan period
A4;I#A6!A;9 A5& I;;I4A!IB5 +.-
Agricultural Carming #orporation :&uring $%.+-., State 4overnment introduced a novel scheme for
setting up Agricultural Carming #orporation in each su"-division of the State !he main o"2ective of the scheme
is to ensure management of land and its proper use "y tillers of the soil "y settling the actual landless agricul-
tural farmers in 4overnment and surplus land that may "e availa"le=as a result of enforcement of 6and #eiling
Act 9leven Carming #orporations have "een set up in the State since $%., !he following are the Agricultural
Carming #o-operatives of the State :-
5ame Su"-division Area in ;egistered
(hectares)
$(an"ari = 4olaghat *%+0 ==
*(u"erum = &i"rugarh *..0 ==
+3hardhara = Si"sagar +,*- ==
,#hampa"ati = &hu"ri $-60 ==
-(ur"o2yoti = Sonitpur 6660 ==
67origaon = 7origaon *--0 ==
.8amuna 7odanga = 5agaon+++0 ==
/Sidha"ari = 4oalpara ++-,. ==
3akaitari
%3aginadi = 5orth
6akhimpur *0$0 ==
$0Sonitpur = Sonitpur *000 unregistered
$$Silpota = 1okra2har **60 ==
Source :&irectorate of Agriculture=Assam
Agricultural 7arketing Scheme : !he Agricultural 7arketing Scheme has "een implemented in Assam
since the year=$%----. In the year $%.,=schemes for &evelopment of ;egulated 7arket=&evelopment of 7arket
Intelligence= &evelopment of 7arketing of fruits and vegeta"les=&evelopment of 2ute grading and "aling and
Juality control and Agmark grading
!he &evelopment of 7arketing Intelligence is meant for collection and dis-
ASSA7 S!A!9 4A:9!!99; +.6
semanting of market prices=market arrivals and dispatches for formulation of market policy for the 4overnment
and (u"lic "esides undertaking market and commodities surveys !he o"2ect of the &evelopment of 7arketing
of fruits and vegeta"le is to offer assistance "y way of su"sidies to the growersD associations co-operatives to
promote sale of perisha"le agricultural produce for the "enefit of growers as well as consumers !he
development of 2ute grading and "aling is meant for offering facilities to the 2ute grading to ena"le them to get a
higher price "y setting grade 2ute and to impart 2ute grading training to the unemployed youth of 2ute growing
families for their self employment in the 2ute trade !he Juality #ontrol and Agmark 4rading Scheme offers
la"oratory facility for analysis and grading of essential commodities of daily needs and consumption like
mustard oil=spices=honey=atta=etc= for the "enefit of consumers a well as producers !he main aim of the
development of regulated market id to regulate "uying and selling if agricultural produce "y esta"lishing
regulated markets with a view to eliminate the malpractice prevalent in the trade !he scheme is implemented
through the Assam State Agricultural 7arketing 3oard and 7arket #ommittees constituted "y the 4overnment
7arkets and commodities "rought under regulation are shown "elow :-
5ame of 7arkets 5ame of commodities
$4auripur $8ute /Arahar $-#hillies
*<owly *7esta %7ung $63etelnuts
+1haruapatia +Sunhemp $0#oconut $.3etel-leaves
,&hing ,(addy $$4inger
-;ice $*&hania
6)heat $+4arlic
.7atikalai $,!ermeric
Assam Agricultural Aniversity : the esta"lishment of the Assam Agricultural Aniversity at 8orhat ushered
a new era in the field of agricultural education in the State !he Aniversity is comprised of two wings=vi@
Agriculture service and Animal <us"andry G Eeterinary service located at 8orhat and 4uwahati respectively
Ander it there is a college of Agricultural service at 8orhat where education is imparted in pre-professional
course for one year=three year &egree course and (ost 4raduate #ourse of two years in Agronomy Agriculture=
#hemistry (lant (athology and 9ntomology !he college of Eeterinary Service 1hanapara= 4uwahati imparts
theoretical and practical education leading to the degree of five years (ost 4raduate classes leading to the
&egree of 7ESc have "een started in su"2ects=vi@=Eeterinary (reventive 7edicine= Animal (hysiology=
Animal G 4ynaecoligy= Animal 5utrition= &airy <us"andry (athology and (arasitology 3esides=there is one
Eeterinary Service and Animal
A4;I#A6!A;9 A5& I;;I4A!IB5 +..
<us"andry school at 4hoongoor in #achar district to impart training in elementary service to the untrained
Eeterinary Cield Asistant= 6ivestock &emonstrator and Stock-man of the &epartment as well as to the outsider
!he course of training is of one year duration and si? months for the department staff in the condensed
!raining institutes and #entres : !here are eleven training centres in the State Bf these=there are
upgraded 4;A7 S9EA1 !;AI5I54 #95!;9 located one each at 8orhat (8orhat)= 1hanapara (1amrup) and
Arunachal (#achar) for imparting training to the 4ram Sevaks !here is also one 4;A7 S9EI1A #95!;9 at
8orhat (8orhat) to impart training to the 4ram Sevikas !en days to three months farmerDs training also is
imparted in the 4;A7 S9EA1 !;AI5I54 #95!;9 Cour Carm-7achinaery !raining centres which provide
one month training in handling farm machinery and e>uipment are located at 1hanapara= Sa"aharua= Arunachal
and 8orhat
!ocklai 9?perimental Station : !he !ocklai 9?perimental Station is the research head>uarters of the
Scientific &epartment of the Indian !ea Association !his Scientific &epartment is financed and run entirely "y
the Association=and provides a research and advisory service for the 5orth Indian !ea Industry ;esearch is
carried out on the culture and manufacture of tea=and the results of this research and other useful information are
disseminated "y the &epartmentDs advisory officers
!he service of the !ocklai station and its advisory officers are availa"le to "oth I!A mem"er estates
and non-mem"er estates !he latter have to pay fees for these service in liue of the su"scription to the I!A
!he scientific &epartment of the Indian !ea Association was inaugurated in $%00 in #alcutta &r <<
7enn was appointed Scientific and was given working room in the Indian 7useum in the la"oratory of the
9conomic #hemist to the 4overnment of India
In $%0*=a new field e?perimental station was opened at Sikha !9 7ariani= Assam and in $%06=an
9ntomologist was appointed
In $%$$=it was decided to centralise the work of the various "ranches and 9?perimental Station was
opened at !ocklai near #innamara= Assam
After the Cirst )orld )ar=7r #arpenter "ecame #hief Scientific Bfficer and on his suggestions a period
of e?pansion was started=which lasted until the financial depression of $%+$
3etween $%+- and $%+%=following the recommendation of #ommission of 9n>uiry headed "y prof Sir
Crank 9ngledow there was further e?pansion of staff and service
!he period of )orld )ar II=however=saw further set"acks in the work of the Station
In the post-war years=a second #ommission of 9n>uiry again headed "y Sir Crnak 9ngledow was
constitute in $%-+=and following his recommendations= pu"lished in $%-,=the greatest period of e?pansion in the
history of !ocklai took place
ASSA7 S!A!9 4A:9!!99; +./
!he following list shows the "ranches functioning at present=and gives notes on their activities
!he (hysico-#hemical "ranch deal with the soil and climate of the tea growing areas !he functions are
to find the factors in these environments which are favoura"le or otherwise to tea=to define suita"le condition
and try different methods of ameliorating unfavoura"le factors
!he 3otany "ranch deals with the tea plant Its functions are to distinguish "etween different types of tea
to select and propagate "y suita"le means the "est types for different regions=and to study meta"olism of the tea
plant in relation to this environment
!he Agricultural "ranch deals with the culture of the tea crop cultivation= manuring shade= pruning=
plucking=etc Its main work is to test effect of different cultural treatments=different types of tea=its yield=and
>uality=etc=in field e?periments under garden conditions !his "ranch is responsi"le for the e?perimental garden
at 3or"heta situated a"out ,/+ km from the main !ocklai Station and consists of total of a"out $0$$.
hectare=of which appro?imately ,0,. hectare are under tea
!he (lant (athology "ranch deals with pests and diseases of tea "ushes and of shade trees !he "ranch
comprises sections for entomology=mycology and pesticide testing
!he 3io-chemistry "ranch is engaged in elucidating the chemical differences in tea leaf all stages of
associated with different types of tea culture practices and manufacturing methods=and to correlate these with
flavour= >uality= etc !his "ranch co-operates closely with Indian !ea Association 6a"oratory in 6ondon !here is
close co-operation "etween this "ranch and the 9ngineering &epartment 3ranch
!he 9ngineering "ranch=esta"lished in $%-$ at !ocklai=specialises in design of tea machinery and
investigation of mechanisation in "oth the field and the factory
A Statistical &epartment under it was set up in $%-/ It has two Advisory 3ranches-one for Assam and
its ad2oining areas and the other for )est 3engal each with its own #hief Advisory Bfficer
In Assam=su"-stations are maintained in #achar and on the north 3ank In )est 3engal=there is a su"-
station in &ar2eeling for the &ar2eeling !erai and )estern &uars area !wo Assistant Advisory Bfficers are
employed with the special task of assisting gardens=not mem"er of the I!A
!he work of the Scientific &epartment is "rought to the tea planter "y means of !ocklai Scientific
7emoranda= "y the !ea 9ncyclopaedia and the >uarterly 5ews 6etter=+7o lea*es and a Bud.
Bver the years the work of the !ovklai has contri"uted largely to the continued success of the tea
industry
9?tensive investigations have "een carried out in cultivation manuring= pruning and plucking= green
crops=shade=plant "reeding and propagations=etc=and an
A4;I#A6!A;9 A5& I;;I4A!IB5 +.%
active (athology &epartment has done much to minimise the damage of pests and diseases throughout the
industry 7odern mechinery has "een developed and new methods of manufacture also investigated
!o ena"le these investigations to "e carried out=an average of a"out -0 field e?periments have "een in
operation annually over the last *0 years !he ma2ority of these are "eing carried out in the AssociationDs own
e?perimental garden at 3ar"heta near !ocklai= although many are replicated in various districts of 5orth 9ast
India !he former are under the supervision of the Agricultural 3ranch=and the latter under the 2oint supervision
of the Agricultural 3ranch and the Station advisory officers
It should "e noted that the most of the work of the Scientific &epartment has "een possi"le "y the co-
operation of mem"ers of the Indian !ea Association in whose gardens and factories=many of the e?periments
have "een carried out
Agro-9conomic ;esearch #etre for 5orth-east India at 8orhat : !he Agro-9conomic ;esearch #entre for
59 India has "een esta"lished in Ce"ruary $%60 in the campus of Assam Agricultural Aniversity as an
autonomous research institution under auspices of the 7inistry of Agriculture and #o-opeartion= 5ew &elhi and
the entire finance of the #entre is "eing furnished "y the 7inistry !he administrative and technical control of
the #entre is under the 9conomic and Statistical Adviser= government of India=functioning under the same
7inistry and it is "eing carried out through an Advisory 3ody under the chairmanship of the Eice-#hancellor of
the Assam Agricultural Aniversity
!he functions assigned to the #entre= inter alia=are as follows :-
$!o make a study of changes in rural economy "y means of survey of num"er of selected villages each
year and re-survey of the same group of villages at intervals of five years
*!o conduct adhoc investigations into pro"lems of the 7inistry of Cood and Agriculture
+!o carry on research work on fundamental pro"lems relating to the agricultural economy of the
country
,!o give technical advice to the 4overnment of India and the State 4overnment on such issues as with
mutual agreement may "e referred to the #entre
!he 2urisdiction of the Agro-9conomic ;esearch #entre covers the entire 5orth-9astern ;egion
including Sikkim !he present anatomy of the #entre seems to "e >uite small in comparison to its area of
coverage
!he #entre within a short period of its e?istence could cover some of the assignments in respect of
studies in rural change and some pro"lematic studies concerning rural economy !wo reports on the "ench-mark
surveys of two tri"al villages have "een completed 1anther !erang a typical hum village in the district of 1ar"i
Anglong= Assam and 1athaliachaerra government-sponsored humia settlement colony in !ripura have covered
some of the "asic pro"lems connected with humming or shifting cultivation An adhoc study on the State
!rading in paddy in Assam has "een
ASSA7 S!A!9 4A:9!!99; +/0
done 7oreover the "ench-mark surveys of 7orangaon in the district of Si"sagar and the resurvey of &ispur=a
village in the district of 1amrup and #hota"ai"ar= village in the district of 5agaon= also have "een completed
Bver and a"ove its regular programme of continuous village surveys=the #entre proposes to undertake pro"lem
oriented studies concerning the !ri"al communities of the region
3 Irrigation
$Irrigation facilities :
Assam is a land parado? It gets the heaviest rainfall in the country and yet during certain months of the
year it suffers from drought like situations in many districts !he general impression is also that there is no
necessity of irrigation in Assam where the rainfall is more than re>uired and the most of the area is flooded 3ut
this impression is very much wrong "ecause the rainfall is not evenly distri"uted throughout the year
7oreover=most of the rainfall occurs during the monsoon period and that too in erratic As such=in a"sence of
irrigation facilities=agriculture will "e totally dependent on the vagaries of nature !he main crop in this State is
the Sali paddy (1harif crop) and this also "ecomes unassured due to the erratic nature of the rain causing either
drought like situations or flood ;a"i crop is not very much cultivated as there is no much irrigation facilities to
ensure supply of water during this period In fact=previously there was no need of dou"le cropping 3ut now=due
to heavy increasing pressure of population=the State has "ecome deficit in production of foodgrains
!he farmers and the tea gardeners have to depend largely on rain water which is uncertain In the high
plains of State=rain water does not accumulate in fields as most of it flows rapidly to small streams or in shallow
rivulets !he peasants=very often=raise Bunds at certain points "ut for want of net-work of drainage system=the
accumulated water spills over and is wasted when it crosses the height of the Bund. !hese pro"lems have "een
sought to "e solved "y implementing irrigation schemes According to the $%6$ census=as area of 6$=/,$=6%
hectares was irrigated "y 4ovt #anals= **%6*$*6 hectare "y private #anals and $/$%/..0 hectares "y other
sources In some areas of the State=farmers irrigate the paddy fields "y constructing small canal locally called
an or Dong. 5ormally the length of a an is less than a kilometre and is only a"out 06$-0%$ metre wide and
a"out 0++ -0,- metre deep Cinancial assistance is provided for such Dong construction "y the #ommunity &e-
velopment 3locks which earmark certain amount for minor Irrigation works In fact=this short of assistance had
"een continuing since Independence Crom $%6, to $%6% an amount of ;s $ #rore was made availa"le to the
(anchayats and the schemes were completed under the technical guidance of the Agricultural 9ngineering wing
of the Agriculture &epartment of Assam !he following ta"le shows the irrigation statistics as per the census of
$%6$ in the State
A4;I#A6!A;9 A5& I;;I4A!IB5 +/$
$%6$ $%-$ $%,$ Cigures in hectares
canals canals canals
5ame of
the district
4ovt
canals
(rivate
canals
!otal Sources 4ovt
canals
(rivate
canals
!otal Bther
sources
4ovt
canals
(rivate
canals
!otal Bther Sources
$#achar $=,6.+% $%+/, $=66$*, ,/-6*+ *$0,, $,/0.- $6%$$% $+++0, - 6,.-0 6,.-0 /0%+.
*5agaon - $$*+00 $$*+00 ,%=++$** $6$/% .0*-+- .$/.* --=.-.6, - - - +*/.
+Si"sagar - - - *+=/0-6- - 6,.-0 - - - - - -
,6akhimpur - $=00*$,,* $=00=*,$=,* +%=,-6/% - $=+0=//-$6 $=+0=//-$6 ,,=0.6/. - - - -
-4oalpara -=++,-. 66=0--6/ .$=+%0*- 6=.%%$+ $%/0%, 66=$$066 6/=000=60 - - 66=66.%. 66=66.%. -
61amrup -*=//-$/ $6=6/0.- 6%=-6-%+ ,/=--+=$/ 60=*,/,, $,=.///- .-=0+.*% --=66*-+ - $-=.+*%/ $-=.+*%/ *-=$//,.
.&arrang - ,,=$--*% ,,=$--*% - - -,=%,,** -,=%,,** - - 60=,,+%0 60=,,+%0 -
/A7 G 5#
<ills *$-,-- $=$%/*/ +=+-*/* %=*0-+% - - - .=,,0$- - - - -

!otal 6$=/,$6% **%=6*$*6 *%$=,6*%- $=/$=%/.6% 6*=60$6% *.-=.%$,% ++/=+%$/ $=6,=*.0$, - $,+=,%*+- $,+=,%*+- *6=0+0*$

&ata prescri"ed for $%6$ is the average of two years=vi@=$%-6--. and $%-.--/ Cor the su"se>uent years=vi@= $%-/--% to $%60-
6$ data are not availa"le

ASSA7 S!A!9 4A:9!!99; +/*
5o systematic survey has yet "een taken in the State to assess the su"-"asinwise and "asinwise need of irrigation
facilities nor any 7aster (lan for irrigation potential of the State has "een prepared so far !he ultimate irrigation
potential of the State=as was assessed "y the Agriculture &epartment is considered at *. lakh hectares
!he Irrigation Schemes are taken up "y the 4ovt on the "asis of demand from the farmers of their
representative "odies=for providing irrigation facilities in these area where even Sali paddy is not assured without
the support of supplemental irrigation
According to classification= irrigation works are divided into three sectors= namely= 7a2or
Irrigation=7edium Irrigation and 7inor Irrigation sector (rior to seventies these classifications were made
according to the schemes Schemes costing more than ;s -0000lakh were categorised as 7a2or Irrigation
Schemes irrespective of the area in the command Schemes costing more than ;s*-000 lakh "ut less than ;s
-0000lakh were categorised as 7edium Irrigation Schemes= while all Schemes'works costing less than
;s*-000 lakh were named as 7inor Irrigation 3ut letter on the modes of classification have "een changed "y
the 4ovt of India and classifications were made according to the area of command !he schemes having
#ultura"le #ommand Area (##A)of $0=000 hectares or more are known as 7a2or Irrigation Scemes while
Schemes having ##A a"ove *000 hectares "ut less than $0000 hectares are known as 7edium Irrigation
Schemes All Irrigation works or schemes having ##A of less than *000 hectares are categorised as 7inor
Irrigation and hence 7inor Irrigation comprises works like one Shallow !u"e )ell (S!))commanding ##A of
a"out * hectares costing a"out ;s*-=000 to massive works costing a"out ;s600 lakh covering ##A of *000
hectares
Again source-wise=the irrigation schemes can "e classified as Surface Clow= Surface 6ift and 4round
)ater 6ift !he Surface Clow Schemes are usually done "y impounding the flowing water=either in a reservoir
"y constructing a dam or "y construction of "arrage in which case the impounding of water is made "y operation
of gates=and the water is allowed to flow the command area due to gravitation In case of Surface 6ift
Schemes=the water is lifted from the surface resources=either from the run-of-the river or from any natural water
"ody="y installing pumps= electrically or diesel operated either in a pump house on the "ank or in a floating
"urge In case of 4round )ater 6ift Schemes=the water is tapped from the under-ground resources "y installation
of &eep !u"e )ell or Shallow !u"e )ell According to the availa"ility of a>uifer= water is lifted "y electrical or
diesel operated pumps !he range of pumps utilised for surface 6ift Schemes varies from *0 <orse power to 6-0
<orse power (so far installed)
3esides these=the Assam State 7inor Irrigation &evelopment #orporation 6td was created in the year
$%/0 and their main 2o" is to install Shallow !u"e )ell for utilising 4round water and low lift point for utilising
surface water through institutional finances and "ehalf of the farmers In that regard the minor irrigation works
A4;I#A6!A;9 A5& I;;I4A!IB5 +/+
done "y the AS7I&# 6td=are all privately owned structures
Bver and a"ove these the Irrigation &epartment have got "attery of 7o"ile &iesel (ump sets which are
made availa"le to the farmers on receipt of demand against fi?ed hire change
9arlier= ie =upto $%.+ the irrigation schemes were constructed "y the 9ngineering )ing of the
Agriculture &epartment as well as "y the Irrigation )ing of the erstwhile Clood #ontrol G Irrigation
&epartment !he 9ngineering )ing of the erst-while Agriculture department was allowed to take up only 7inor
Irrigation Schemes costing upto ;s ,00 lakh !he erstwhile Clood control and Irrigation &epartment was
entrusted with the e?ecution of all type of irrigation schemes including minor irrigation schemes costing even
less than ;s ,00 lakh !he present Irrigation &epartment Assam came into "eing in $%., &ecem"er vide
5otification 5o $,'.+'(t-$'- dt*+$*.+ to deal with su"2ect matter of irrigation and &rainage=after "ifurcation
of the erstwhile Clood #ontrol G Irrigation &epartment and amalgamation of a portion of the 9ngineering )ing
of the Agriculture &epartment into the newly created Irrigation &epartment Since then the Irrigation
&epartment is implementing all minor=medium and ma2or irrigation pro2ects in the State 3ut from the recent
past=the e?isting 9ngineering )ing of the Agriculture &epartment is again e?ecuting the minor irrigation works
like S!)=etc
Apto the *
nd
Cive Fear (lan=the emphasis was only on 7inor irrigation Schemes It is only during the +
rd
Cive Fear (lan ($%6$-66)that the 7edium Irrigation Schemes=vi@= 8amuna Irrigation Scheme and Sukla
Irrigation were taken up "ut due to inade>uate flow of funds these two Schemes could not "e completed as per
shedule
!he 8amuna Irrigation Scheme was taken up in $%6,-6- and completed in $%6/-6% at a total cost of
;s,+,+* lakh Its #ultura"le #ommand Area is *..06 hectares including $6*+ hectares in 1ar"i Anglong
&istrict !he Sukla Irrigation (ro2ect was also taken up in $%6,-6- "ut could "e completed only in $%./-.% at a
total cost of ;s ,..00 lakh with a #ultura"le #ommand Area of $///, hectares
At present=there are *-.- nos of 7inor Irrigation Schemes (upto +$-+-%$) Bf which=works of $$.*
noshave "een completed in all respects and the remaining $,0+ nos are under different stages of progress !he
7inor irrigation Schemes consist of Surface Clow=Surface 6ift and 4round )ater 6ift Irrigation In addition to
these 4ovt Schemes=the Assam State 7inor Irrigation &evelopment #orporation 6tdhave= since $%/0= installed
as many as +,$./ nos of Shallow !u"e )ell and $+..0 nos of 6ow 6ift (oints through institutional finance
under private sector upto +$-+-%$ !he Irrigation &epartment have at present $% nos of 7a2or'7edium Irriga-
tion (ro2ects= out of which % nos of pro2ects have "een completed so far remaining $0 nos are under different
stages of progress !he 7a2or and 7edium (ro2ects taken uptil now "y the State are mostly run-of-the river
diversion works and a few 6ift Irrigation )orks 5o ;eservoir or Storage Scheme has "een taken up under this
sector
ASSA7 S!A!9 4A:9!!99; +/,
of 7a2or'7edium though there is no parallel of a Storage Scheme so far as efficiency and ultimate economy is
concerned
!he following ta"le shows the num"er of 7inor Irrigation Schemes and 7a2or'7edium Irrigation
(ro2ects ("oth completed and ongoing) upto +$-+-%$
#ivil Su"-&ivision-wise 5um"er of Irrigation Schemes upto +$-+-%$ in Assam
5ame of #ivil - #ompleted Bn-going
Su"-&ivision Sur- Sur 4) !otal Sur- Sur- 4) !otal Sur- Sur- 4) !otal
face face 6ift face face 6ift face face 6ift
Clow 6ift Clow 6ift Clow 6ift
$ * + , - 6 . / % $0 $$ $* $+
A4BE!7I5B; I;;I4A!IB5 S#<979
$1okra2har ,$ $% $ 6$ % + , $6 -0 ** - ..
*4ossaigaon % $6 $ *6 + + - $$ $* $% 6 +.
+4oalpara % $+ $+ +- 6 $* ,6 6, $- *- -% %%
,5orth
Salmara - 6 , $0 - - $+ $0 - - $. *+
-3ongaigaon $ * , . - , 6 $0 $ 6 $0 $.
63i2ni * % - $$ % $ * $* $$ $0 * *+
.&hu"ri + *, , ++ * - 6 $+ - *% $* ,6
/3ilasipara - $* * $, $ * 6 % $ $, / *+
%South-Sal-
mara=7anka-
char - *- , *% - $6 */ ,, - ,$ +* .+
$03arpeta * *0 + *- * $. $+ +* , +. $6 +.
$$3a2ali $6 . - */ 6 * 6 $, ** % $$ ,*
$*5al"ari *$ *$ $. -% - 6 +* ,+ *6 *. ,+ $%*
$+;angia -+ $- , .* -$ / $6 .- $0, *+ *0 $,.
$,4uwahati % *+ $$ ,/ $* *% *6 6. */ -. +. $$-
$-5agoan - 6$ $* ./ - *$ *% -0 - /* ,$ $*/
$61alia"ar - +$ - +$ - -+ $% .* - /% $, $0+
$.<o2ai 6 $$ 6 *+ $06 * +/ $,6 $$* $+ ,, $6%
$/7origaon - 6+ , .* * $/ *0 $, . /$ *, $$*
$%7angaldoi $+ $0 / +$ - / ** +- $/ $/ +0 66
*0Adalguri *0 + 6 +. *+ $ . +$ -$ , $+ 6+
*$!e@pur $- $6 - +6 - - $/ */ *0 *$ *+ 6,
A4;I#A6!A;9 A5& I;;I4A!IB5 +/-
$ * + , - 6 . / % $0 $$ $* $+
**3iswanath
#hariali ** * 6 +0 $ + $. *$ *+ - *+ -$
*+5orth
6akhimpur * $ $6 $% * , */ +, , - ,, -+
*,&hokua
khana - % + $* $ $, $ $6 $ *+ , */
*-&hema2i - 6 $* $/ - / % $. - $, *$ +-
*68onai - * - . * $0 $ $+ * $* 6 *0
*.8orhat % $* $$ +* - . +% ,6 % $% -0 ./
*/7a2uli - / $* *0 - , $, $/ - $* *6 +/
*%4olaghat . $. + *. - / *6 +% $* *- *% 66
+0&hansiri - $- . ** - % $$ *0 - *, $/ ,*
+$Si"sagar * +/ 6 ,6 , *$ $, +% 6 -% *0 /-
+*#haraidew 6 $$ $ $/ - $* / *0 6 *+ % +/
++&i"rugarh - % $. *6 - $, ** +6 - *+ +% 6*
+,!insukia * - . % $ - *$ ** + - */ +$
+-7argherita - + * - - . + $0 - $0 - $-
+6Sadiya - + * - - , $ - - . + $0
+.Silchar $ $$ $ $+ + ,- $* 60 , -6 $+ .+
+/<ailakandi - / + $$ - $- $* *. - *+ $- +0
+%1arimgan2 * / - $0 , $% *+ ,6 6 *. *+ -6
,0&iphu $$ + + $. *- 6 $ +* +6 % , ,%
,$3oka2an / / - $6 - . - $* $+ $- - */
,*<amren * , - 6 6 6 $ $+ / $0 $ $%
,+<aflong $$ , - $- . - - . $/ , - **
,,7ai"ong $, / - ** $/ , + *- +* $* + ,.
!otal 7inor ++. 60* *++ $$.* ++$ ,,/ 6*, $,/+ 66+ $0-0 /-. *-.-
Irrigation
Scheme
37a2or'7edium Irrigation (ro2ects
$ * + , - 6 . / % $0 $$ $* $+
$1okra2har $ - - $ $ - - $ * - - *
*3a2ali * - - * * - - * , - - ,
+3a2ali G - - - - $ - - $ $ - - $
5al"ari
ASSA7 S!A!9 4A:9!!99; +/6
,5al"ari G $ - - $ $ - - $ * - - *
;angia
-5agaon - $ - $ - $ - $ - * - *
6<o2ai G $ - - $ - - - - $ - - $
&iphu
.Adalguri - - - - $ - - $ $ - - $
/7angaldoi $ - - $ - - - - $ - - $
%!e@pur - - - - $ - - $ $ - - $
$0&i"rugarh - - - - - $ - $ - $ - $
$$&iphu * - - * - - - - * - - *
$*<amren - - - - - $ - $ - $ - $
!otal / $ - % . + - $0 $- , - $%
(7a2or'7edium)
!otal Assam +,- 60+ *++ $$/$ ++/ ,-$ 6*, $,$+ 6/+ $0-, /-. *-%,
(7inorL7a2or L
7edium
Irrigation
(ro2ects)
53- 5oof schemes includes #ommand Area &evelopment and water #ourse Scheme also
Source : Irrigation &epartment=Assam
!he total irrigation potential created in the State under 4ovt minor irrigation sector upto $%%0-%$ was
*=*.=$+% hectares and that of ma2or'medium irrigation pro2ects was $=-+=%/0 In addition to the a"ove=the Assam
State 7inor Irrigation development #orporation 6td had created $=,+=/,, hectares private S!)s'66( under
institutional finance A list of 4ovt ma2or and medium pro2ects in the State as on +$-+-%$ is furnished "elow
A4;I#A6!A;9 A5& I;;I4A!IB5 +/.
A Statement showing the &istrictwise Irrigation &evelopment ((otential created)in Assam upto
$%%*-%+ is also given "elow :
6ist of 7a2or G 7edium Irrigation (ro2ects in Assam as per revised classification of Irrigation
Schemes
As on $%%0-%$
#lassification 5ames of (ro2ects #ultura"le ;emarks
#ommon Area'
5et Irriga"le
Area (in <ectare)
$ * + ,
7a2or #B7(69!9&
M$Sukla Irrigation $,=%6$ MCour pro2ects as
(ro2ect at S65o$=*=-
M*8amuna Irrigation *-=6%/ G 6 which were
(ro2ect #lassified as 7e-
B5-4BI54 dium as per pre-
+&hansiri Irrigation ,$=.00 revised classifi-
(ro2ect #ation now come
,#hampamati Irrigation $6=*%, under 7a2or
(ro2ect (ro2ects as percentage
M-Integrated 1ollong *$=*00 revised classifi-
Irrigation (ro2ect #ation
M63ordikarai Irrigation $6=%%,
(ro2ect
7edium #B7(69!9&
$6onga Irrigation +=,60 MM!wo schemes
(ro2ect as at Sl5os-
*<orguti Irrigation *=600 G 6 which were
(ro2ect 7inor schemes
+&ikhari Irrigation *=+6$ as pre-recis-
(ro2ect ed classification
,1alia"or Irrigation /=,/0 now come under
(ro2ect 7edium (ro2ects
MM- Improvement of 1ulsi *=,00 as per revised
Irrigation (ro2ect #lassification
MM63humki Irrigation ,=000
ASSA7 S!A!9 4A:9!!99; +//
(ro2ect
* + ,
B5-4BI54
.1aldiya Irrigation %=.$6 !hree (ro2ects=
(ro2ect Ei@ 8a2laigaon
/(ahumara Irrigation /=++* ;a2ada"ri=(atra-
(ro2ect &isha and 1oll-
% ;upohi Irrigation *=/.% onga which were
(ro2ect 7edium (ro2ects
$0&ekadong Irrigation ,=+00 now come un-
(ro2ect &er 7inor Sche-
$$3orolia Irrigation /=%06 mes as per revis-
(ro2ect ed classification
$* 3uridehing Irrigation *=///
(ro2ect
$+<owaipur Irrigation *=,+0
(ro2ect
&istrict wise Irrigation development in Assam upto $%%*-%+
Irrigation (otential created in D000D<ectares
5ame of !otal !otal 4ovt (rivate !otal 7a2or' !otal %of irri-
&istrict 4eogr- #ropp (7inor) (7inor) (7inor) 7edium gation
aphical ed irriga- potential
areas Area tion created
(4ovt) to total
cropped
area
$ * + , - 6 . / %
1okra2har ,.* $%0 *-=,0% -%$+ +$+** ,%60 +6*/* $%0%
3ongaigaon
4oalpara */, $-6 $0%.+ *.*, $+6%. - $+6%. /./
&hu"ri *.- $/. $+.,, %$%- **%+% - **%+% $**6
3arpeta ++$ *+% $/%.- %$/6 */$6$ +.0%+ 6-*-, *.+0
5al"ari *0* **6 $60/0 -$/, *$*6, - *$*6, %,0
1amrup ,6+ *$6 $.$,$ $$+0, */,,- $-6+- ,,0/0 *0**
5agaon
7origaon -.0 ,*+ */*+, *-0+* -+*66 6%-,% $**/$- *%0+
&arrang +,. *+6 +.0/0 %,6* ,6-,* 6*-% -*/0$ **+.
Sonitpur -*6 *0- *,/%, $.%,+ ,*/+. *-,$* 6/*,% ++*%
6akhimpur
A4;I#A6!A;9 A5& I;;I4A!IB5 +/%
$ * + , - 6 . / %
&hema2i -66 *$6 $-0+6 $00-% *-0%- - *-0%- $$6$
8orhat */6 $-% $00,$ /,*$ $/,6* - $/,6* $$6/
4olaghat +-, $++ $$*,- /,$* $%6-. - $%6-. $,..
Si"sagar *60 $6% $-6,/ //+/ *,,/6 - *,,/6 $,,/
&i"rugarh
!insukia .0* *6. $-%0/ $.-+* ++,,0 0,*, ++/6, $*6/
#achar
<ailakandi -$0 $/* /+-. - /+-. - /+-. ,-%
1arimgan2 $/, /. -0*$ - -0*$ - -0*$ -..
1ar"i Anglong $0++ $,, $+*/+ - $+*/+ 6%/+ *0*66 $,0.
5#<ills ,/% $** ,6/. - ,6/. - ,=6/. +/,
!otal ./-* +,60 *%$.-6 $,%*0- ,,0%6$ $66+$- 60.*.6 $.--
)ater potential and possi"ilities of further e?ploitation :- India has the "est irrigation and system and has
the higher irrigation area in the world "ut the percentage of irrigated area to the cultivated area is very low At
the end of third five year plan it came to a"out *-% whereas in 8apan it was .-% and in AA; It was $00%As
such .-% of cultivated area in our country depends on the vagaries of the nature
In India= Assam is the richest in water resources "ut unfortunately it lags far "ehind the sister States in
irrigated system !o give an idea of water potential= minimum and ma?imum discharge of some of the rivers are
furnished "elow :-
Sl 5ame of the 7a?imum 7inimum Annual run off
5o river discharge discharge in lack acre ft
in cusecs In cusecs
$ * + ,
$3rahmaputra $/=-+=-00 $=0$=-00 +=/-$
(at (andu)
*Su"ansiri ,=0$=%0* $$=*-$ ,%+
+;anganadi *+=+,0 %-0 */
,8ia-3harali $=./=+*/ $=+$% *$$
-&hansiri +/=//0 -%6 ,.
(5orth 3ank)
65anoi *=6%0 6, 6
.(uthimari $,=$%6 *-/ $6
/(agladiya 6$=000 $,, %
%3eki $=++=6%* -.// *0/
$07anas *=60=6%$ .=/,. *-*
ASSA7 S!A!9 4A:9!!99; +%0
$ * + ,
$$Aie $=$%=000 ./$ $-*
$*#hampa"ati /=$.. $*0 /
$+6onga -=-66 /+ ,
$,3hogdoi /=.$0 ,/ -
$-&hansiri /$=0., -60 -0
$68han2i $,=6,% $0/ $%
$.&ikhow **=0./ */. *-
$/1rishnai -=0$. +0 -
$%3arak at Silchar +*=.*. $=-*% $%/
*01atakhal ,6=00/ $,0 ,0
*$Sonai *6=%,6 $06 +6
**6ongai **=%,- $$* $*
*+8atinga *%=+-% $- ,
Source :irrigation &epartment=Assam
Crom the a"ove it is evident that water resources of the State are a"undant and only surface
water will "e more than ade>uate irrigation facilities in the State !apping of underground water will
not "e re>uired as done in other States 3ut unfortunately no concerned efforts were made in this part to
harness the water resources for the irrigation purposes "ecause of the impression that Assam needs no
irrigation !he State has enough of rain annually most of its area gets flooded
(erhaps that is why no allotment for irrigation was provided in the StateDs first two plants It is
only in the !hird Cive Fear (lan=a small "eginning was made "y allotting ;s *=*/ crores for irrigation
and a num"er of medium si@e irrigation pro2ects were taken up
)ater resources of the region offers enormous scope for the development of the hydel power in
the country for the "enefit of the north-eastern region (ower potential of the 3rahmaputra river "asin
has "een estimated at over $*- mkw= most of which are concentrated in Arunachal (radesh (ower
development in the region has "een very low and insignificant due to lack of proper load demand
<a@ardous and difficult terrains and poor accessi"ilities of the identified hydro-electric scheme came
on the way even for taking up investigations (resently=one per cent of the hydro potential is only
developed and development of another two per cent is going on leaving %.% of the potentials of the
3rahmaputra "asin still to "e developed
<arnessing of the south "ank tri"utaries= ie= the Amiam and Amtru= was started in the fifties
and so far $*- 7) hydel power has "een developed !he development of another ma2or "ank tri"utary=
the 1apili was started only recently and first phase of the pro2ect with an installation of $-07) was
e?pected to "e commissioned "y $%/*-/+ Investigations for further development of the 1apili together
with
A4;I#A6!A;9 A5& I;;I4A!IB5 +%$
other south-"ank rivers are going on and it may "e possi"le to develop a"out .00'/007) from these south "ank
tri"utaries within ne?t ten years
#ompared to the southern rivers=northern tri"utaries got potentiality for power development and
harnessing of these rivers for power development is yet to start !he investigations on the 1ameng river for
hydro-electric development and the &ihing and Su"ansiri for flood control are going on for last seven or eight
years It is e?pected that pro2ect on 1ameng and its tri"utary=the !enga= may "e taken up for implementation "y
$%//-/% in phases 3ut the pro2ects proposals on the Su"ansiri and &ihing have undergone a lot of modifications
due to present idea of inter-linking the 3rahmaputra with the 4anges "y constructing a diversion dam on the
3rahmaputra near 8ogighopa and a canal through India and 3angladesh linking the 3rahmaputra with the
4anges !he Su"ansiri pro2ect which was originally designed for installation of $000 7) with a storage dam of
$-0m high is now proposed to have much "igger storage with a dam height of over *00 m and installation of
a"out *0=0007) Similarly= the dam height of the &ihing reservoir is proposed to "e raised from *$, to *-0 m
for having larger amount of storage in reservoir for higher installation and flood control !he investigations of
two other tri"utaries=the &ihang and the 6ohit are yet to "e taken up As per present investigation=data availa"le
for the &ihang= the Su"ansiri= the 1ameng= and further discharge records of the other 7a2or tri"utaries=the hydro
potential of the 3rahmaputra river system at 60% 6oad Cactor has "een assessed as follows :-
;iver (ower potentials 5ature of &evelopments
at 60% 6oad factor
$ * +
A5orth 3ank
!ri"utaries
$!he &ihang $-00 7) ;un off the river Scheme
(a)(Apper power
house)
(")6ower power 6000 7) 7a2or storage scheme near
house (&ihang (ashighat with *$, m high
storage sheme) &am (reliminary investigation
completed
*!he &ihang 6000 7) 7ainly run off the river with little
storage
+!he 6ohit *000 7) Storage-cum-run off the river scheme
in stages
, !he Su"ansiri $000 7) Storage scheme with $-0 m high
dam (reliminary investigations
completed
ASSA7 S!A!9 4A:9!!99; +%*
$ * +
-!he 1ameng' +00 7) 7ainly run off the river scheme
!enga $$,00 7) &etailed investigation more or less
completed
3 South 3ank -00 7) Storage scheme in different stages
Ander e?ecution
$ !he 1apili
* !he Amiam - +00 7) 7ainly storage-cum-run off the river
Amtru-1ulsi schemes=in different stages Some are
already e?ecuted
+ 6ower and upper +00 7) ;un off the river cum storage
3orapani=lower schemes Investigations completed

$$00 7)

4rand !otal - $*-00 7)
It is advisa"le to include irrigation component also with the a"ove named power pro2ects including the
component of flood control to make the pro2ect via"le and "eneficial for the region
A'&ma. H+s/a'*)0 a'* 1&s#")&"s 2
In the rural economy of the State=cattle wealth occupies an uni>ue place 9very peasant has at least a pair
of "ullocks=or "uffaloes and a num"er of milk cows 6ivestock is a very valua"le asset of the farmer
!he State of Assam is rich in livestock population In $%//=the total num"er of livestock in the State
came to *=**=$+=6*/ as against $=/+=+0=-,$ in $%/* !his represents a slight increase during the last five years
Bf the total livestock=*=$*=.6=.6/ were concentrated in the rural areas and only %=+6=/60 in the ur"an areas
Among the districts 5agaon had the highest livestock population claiming %+. per cent fol-lowed "y 6akhimpur
6-+ per cent and 3arpeta 606 per cent !he districts of 1amrup and &arrang had almost e>ual livestock
population ie=--. and -6* per cent !he lowest livestock population in 5orth #achar <ills accounted for only
$+ per cent
#attle : #attle constitutes the second highest percentage of the total live-stock population in the State
According to the livestock census of $%//=it num"ered .*=..=6.$ which formed a"out +*.6 per cent of the total
livestock population !he
A4;I#A6!A;9 A5& I;;I4A!IB5 +%+
num"er increased in comparison to the livestock census of $%/* when it num"ered 6.=-0=$6+ and formed a"out
++-, per cent of the total livestock population !he cattle population in the State in $%,- accounted for
,0=+-=,/* which increased to ,%=*.=.0* in $%-$ and ,%=-.=.0/ in $%-6 !here was a marked rise during the ne?t
five years and the cattle population increased to 6*=$%=$-/ "y $%6$ 3ut it increased to 6$=0,=+6+ in $%66 and to
-.=%-=%// in $%.* !he "reed of the local cattle is generally of non-descript type !hey are neither good milk
yielder nor efficient plough puller <owever=cattle in the ad2oining areas of 1hasi and 8aintia <ills (7eghalaya)
are good milk yielder 3ulls are also tough and stout than those of Assam (lains )ith the introduction of the
6ivestock &evelopment (rogramme= many other "reeds like=Sindhi= <aryana= !harparkar= 8ersey= Sapiwal have
"een introduction in the State At present=there are a fairly large num"er of cross "reed 8ersey and graded Sindhi
in the State 5agaon district has the largest cattle population followed "y 8orhat= 6akhimpur= Sonitpur= 3arpeta
and 1amrup 5orth #achar <ills constituted the lowest cattle population as per the 6ivestock census of $%//
3uffaloes : In $%.*=there were ,=//=-%% "uffaloes in the State consisting of *=6$=,*$ males and *=*.=$./
females !hey constituted a"out 6$ per cent of the total livestock population A"out %/ per cent of the "uffaloes
were found concentrated in the rural areas !he highest num"er of "uffaloes were found in &arrang district fol-
lowed "y #achar= 4oalpara and Si"sagar !he "uffalo population of these four districts formed more than 60% of
the total population of the State In $%,-="uffaloes in the State num"ered ,=+0=%%+ !his increased to ,=-0=/,$
and ,=/,=+++ in $%-$ and $%-6 respectively !he year of $%6$ recorded at slight decline the total population of
"uffaloes to ,=6*=+*$ 3ut in $%66="uffalo population rose a"ruptly to -=,$=00, "ut decline again to ,//-%% in
$%.* !he livestock census of $%/* shows a marked rise of "uffaloes to -=-.=//* which forms *.. per cent of
the total livestock population in the State !he highest num"er of "uffaloes were found in #achar district that
constituted $+06 per cent of the total "uffaloes in the State
In $%//=the num"er of "uffaloes again rose to 6=*+=**+=claiming */$ per cent of the total livestock
population A"out %/.% per cent of the "uffaloes were found concentrated in the rural areas 5agaon is the
leading district in "uffalo population in Assam
!he "uffaloes of the State "elong to two district "reeds locally known as local and non-local "reeds !he
former is fine standing animal with wide spreading horns "ut the latter is of smaller si@e and is less imposing
!here is also marked difference "etween the prices of the two "reeds
Sheep : Sheep are not very much reared in the State and wherever they are reared=ma2ority of them are
used for production of mutton According to the 6ive-stock #ensus of $%.*=there were -0=6+% sheep in the
State=of which *$=+%$ were
ASSA7 S!A!9 4A:9!!99; +%,
males and *%=*,/ females 7ore than 60 per cent of sheep population is found concentrated in the district of
1amrup and 4olapara Crom $+=*/, in $%,-=the sheep population increased to *0=.6* in $%-$ and to ,$=,/% in
$%6$ !he population further rose to ,%=,$. in $%66 and -0=6+% in $%.* #ompared to $%.*=the year $%/* shows
a slight decline a num"er of sheep population=ie=,-=%/6 in the State 3ut in $%//=the num"er increased to
6.=+$0 that constitutes 0+0 per cent of the total livestock population in the State But of the total sheep=6-=0,0
num"ers concentrated in the rural areas and **.0 num"ers=in the ur"an areas
4oat : 4oat population in the State though increased considera"ly since $%,- is showing a declining
trend since $%6$ Crom a figure of 6=.-=6/6 in $%,-=the goat population rose to /=,%=00% in $%-$ and further rose
to $.=%6=0/, in $%6$ In $%66=the population declined to $,=6$=$.$ and to $*=-/=*$, in $%.* In $%/*=goat popu-
lation rose to $.=*/=/,6 and constituted /-/ per cent of the total livestock population In $%//=again it shows a
marked rise in goat population It increased to *$=+,=%$$ 5agaon constituted the highest num"er of goats among
the districts=ie=*=*-=.%0 !here were *0=/*=%** goats in the rural areas and rest were in the ur"an areas !he
goats are reared "oth for milk and mutton !he goats are of indigenous character and nondescript type !he
&epartment of Animal <us"andry and Eeterinary has introduced improved "reeds of goats though goat farms
4raded 8amunapara 4oats introduced though these goat-farms are thriving well and now-a-days this "reed has
"e-come fairly common in the State
<orses and (onies : According to the 6ivestock #ensus of $%.*=there were $0=0// horses and ponies in
the State and of these /=/6. were in rural areas and $=**$ in ur"an areas A"out 60% of their population were
concentrated in the districts= &i"rugarh= Si"sagar= 5agaon and 6akhimpur !hey are mainly used for drawing
carts !he 6ivestock #ensus of $%/* shows the increase of horses and ponies in num"er In num"ered $-=.%$
3ut in $%//=the num"er decreased to $+=,%* But of the total=$*=0,% constituted the rural areas 6akhimpur got
the highest horses and ponies population among the districts
&onkey=mules=camels=etc :According to the 6ivestock #ensus of $%.*=the State had *-6 donkeys=+,
mules=$- camels=$- camels and $0,+ yaks &onkeys were largely found in 1amrup district' In $%//=total
num"er of donkeys and mules decreased to only */
(igs : (ork constitutes a portion of the staple food of the tri"al people of the State and is considered a
must in all community feasts 9very home some pigs 7ost of the pigs availa"le in the State are of indigenous
origin At present=Forkshire "reed of pigs have "een introduced in fairly large num"ers According to the
6ivestock #ensus of $%.*=there were +=%6=%-- pigs in the State and out of which=$=%%=++% were males and
$=%.=6$6 females !he largest concentration of pigs was in 6akhimpur districts (6+=0,.)=followed "y 1ar"i
Anglong (-6=.06) and Si"sagar
A4;I#A6!A;9 A5& I;;I4A!IB5 +%-
(-,=.*%) !he district of #achar had the lowest pig population (.=*/.)in the State In $%/*=the num"er increases
to -=./=$66 and forms *=/6 per cent of the total livestock population In $%//=the pig population rises to 6=,*=,-6
which is */% per cent of the total livestock population !he highest population is recorded in the 6akhimpur dis-
trict=ie=/+=*++
(oultry : !here has "een a considera"le rise in poultry population of the State during the decades of
$%-$-6$ and $%6$-.$ In $%-$=the poultry population consisted of -.=$6=6-. "irds and the same increased to
/$=/+=/$, in $%6$ and to //=.%=+6* in $%.* (oultry population mainly consisted of fowls and ducks and a"out
6% per cent of the total num"er were fowls and *. per cent were ducks Among the individual species it is found
that the laying "irds (ie=the hen and the duck) accounted for a"out +0% in respect of fowls and ,0% in respect
of ducks !he densities of the poultry and fowls for the State were $$, and ./ respectively and the highest
density for the same was recorded in the district of #achar and lowest in 5orth #achar <ills 7ore than 6*% of
the poultry population found concentrated in the district of 1amrup ($%*%)= #achar ($6$%)= 4olapara
($,$%)and &arrang ($+$%) According to the 6ivestock #ensus of $%/*= the poultry population increased to
$=0,=-+=.$. "irds of which fowls constituted .-=66=+./ and ducks constituted */=/.=++% num"ers !he latest
census ($%//)shows the num"er at $=$,=-,=-6- of which .+=/6 per cent are fowls and rest are ducks !he deshi
"reed of poultry is >uite common Improved varieties like )hite 6eg <orn=a "lack 7inarca= ;hode Island ;ed
Austrolop and their crosses have "een introduced in the State through the State 4overnment 6ive-stock farms
&uck rearing is >uite common in most of rural areas Improved variety of duck such as 1haki #amp"el is at
present largely raised
Area under fodder crops :!he necessity of cultivating fodder crop in the State was not left in the past as
there was a"undance of pastures and gra@ing areas in the State )ith the increase of population= the pressure on
land has increased and many of these areas have "een "rought under cultivation !he present gra@ing areas are
not considered sufficient to meet the fodder re>uirements of the livestock in the State (resently=there are two
classes of gra@ing reserves in the State=vi@=(i)Eillage 4ra@ing ;eserve (E4;)and (ii)(rofessional 4ra@ing
;eserve ((4;) !he E4; Are scattered and located ad2acent to villages to feed the cattle and "uffaloes of the
cultivators !hese reserves are uncared for and neglected !he livestock gra@ing over these reserves hardly gets
sufficient >ualities of grass and that too is considered devoid of nutritious value !he (4; are located far away
the concentrated villages in vast tracts of uncultivated land and mostly covered with 2ungles !he total area under
(4; And E4; comes to a"out $6$=/.,, hectares "ut there conditions are said to "e not satisfactory <ardly
+ adult animals can "e maintained in 0,0,6/6 hectares of such gra@ing land As such=the total grass production
of "oth E4;G (4; is not sufficient to meet the livestock enumerated in $%.* keeping this in view=under the
ASSA7 S!A!9 4A:9!!99; +%6
Intensive #attle &evelopment Scheme=the &epartment of Animal <us"andry and Eeterinary has introduced a
scheme of cultivation of improved varieties of Codder such as 4uinea=5apier= 6ucern= (ara= 6ahuns ;eina=
&al=etc=in the 4ovt farms Eeterinary &ispensaries also hold demonstration of fodder cultivation Cee distri"u-
tion of seeds and growth of improved varieties of grasses is undertaken "y these farms 3esides=in the ;eserved
Corests of the State can also "e utili@ed for fodder purposes
&airy Carming : !he dairy development scheme in the State was taken up "y the 4ovt of Assam in $%6$
at the fag end of the Second Cive Fear (lan Ander the scheme=a survey was conducted of milk pockets and milk
shed areas in the districts of 1amrup= &arrang and 5agaon to supply pure and fresh milk to the intending
consumers of the 4uwahati town and later to all the important town of the State Ander the scheme=many #o-
operative Societies of milk producers were organised !he &airy &evelopment Scheme in the State started
functioning in $%6+ !he primary o"2ective was to supply milk to the consumers on Dno profit no lossD "asis and
to provide incentive for "reeders for increased production "y advancing loans for purchase of milk-
stock=feed=and e>uipments and to promote measure for "etter "reeding feeding and management of cattle
I5 $%.0-.$=the Scheme #reamery #entre at 4uwahati in 5orth #achar <ills= and milk supply schemes
for towns of &i"rugarh and !e@pur were taken up Another modern #entral &airy (lant was under construction
at 8orhat under the 8orhat !own 7ilk Supply scheme Curther=it is proposed to start two milk supply schemes at
Silchar and 5agaon during the Cifth Cive Fear (lan
!he 4uahati town 7ilk Supply Scheme initially supplied a"out %00 litres of milk "ut its supply
gradually rose to %000 litres per day #ollection of milk under the scheme is done from 5aya"unglow= 3arapani=
6alcherai areas (all now under 7eghalaya) and 8agiroad =Amlighat= 7ayang= 7anaha= 1acharigaon 5elly=
3hakatgaon areas of 5agaon district and Sipa2har and 4arukhuti of &arrang district 4uwahati #entral &airy
(lant had "een esta"lished in the &airy "uilding at 1hanapara Crom this (lant pasteurised "ottle milk is
supplied to the pu"lic of greater 4uwahati !he following chilling plants had "een installed at different parts of
the State "efore $%/0
5ame of the #hilling (lants #apacity &istri"ution
($) (*) (+)
$5aya"unglow $0=000 litres 4uwahati !7S
*8agiroad 6000 == ==
+Sipa2har *000 == ==
A4;I#A6!A;9 A5& I;;I4A!IB5 +%.
($) (*) (+)
,3oko $000 == ==
-3okakhat *000 == 8orhat !7S
68oysagar *000 == ==
.3iswanath #hariali *-00 == !e@pur !7S
/6akhowal *-00 == &i"rugarh
It has "een proved that &airying could "e a profit earning trade and a full time profession )ith this view
in mind=the 4ovtof Assam had created a separate head of deptt under the caption DD&airy &evelopment
&epartmentDD=Assam=in the year $%/* !he State of Assam is milk deficit State and with a view to increase the
milk production and also to gear up the economic upliftment of the rural masses through dairying the deptt of
&airy &evelopment=Assam=started a scheme under the "anner of DD7ilk SchemeDD in the year $%/-
7ilk Eillage :- #attle and "uffalo rearing is one of the su"sidiary source of income of the people of
Assam=particularly in the rural areas 1eeping in "road views=the &airy &evelopment &eptt has= therefore=
proposed to launch scheme for distri"ution of cross-"reed cows amongst the tri"al people= scheduled caste and
economically "ackward classes during the .
th
Cive Fear (lan period under the *0 point programme
!he aims of the programme are as follows :-
($)Self employment opportunity for unemployed youths through milk "usiness
(*)Increase of milk production keeping parity with the increase demand of fluid milk in the State
(+)&istri"ution of >uality fluid milk amongst the people at a reasona"le price
(,)9conomic upliftment of small and marginal farmer and landless agricultural la"oured "elow poverty
lines
&uring the year $%/--/6=the &eptt has proposed to take up the scheme through nationalised "ank which
is "eing continued till today !he selected "eneficiaries will get , (four) nos of cross-"reed milk cows through
the "ank loan of ;s *6=000'- (;upees twenty si? thousand only !he &eppt will provide cost for construction of
cow shed=insurance premium=transport and handling charge=fodder seeds and fencing materials=cost of
medicines=utensils and training facilities= etcto the "eneficials It is e?pected that through this scheme a family
will get an additional income of ;s6=*00'- (;upees si? thousand two hundred)only per year !his will not only
"oost
ASSA7 S!A!9 4A:9!!99; +%/
up their economic condition and at the same time also increase the milk production in the State as a whole
Cor successful completion of the scheme=the &eptt has taken up the distri"ution programme which
includes free distri"ution of feeds=fodder and Codder minikit= improvement of cattle shed as well as fencing
materials for fodder cultivation in the land owned "y the selected "eneficiaries !he &eptt= therefore= has
esta"lished milk-cum-feed selling centre in the selected milk villages for health cover as well as free
treatment=artificial insemination and supervision of field activities and training on grass cultivation and other
Animal <us"andry practices=so that &eptt can keep touch with the unit holder and arrange marketing facilities
in the village constantly !he &eptt has also launched a training programme for the selected "eneficiaries to give
technical knowledge in &airying
3eginning of the 7echanised &airying in Assam :-)ith a very >uick and hum"le "eginning=the dairy
development in Assam="y the end of 9ight (lan could achieve a remarka"le goal with . nos of milk supply
schemes=over $, nos= of milk chilling plants= * nosof pasteurisation plants= * nos of creamery centres and few
;ural &airy #entre
&airy &evelopment through #o-operative sector :-!he Bperation Clood II pro2ect was installed in $%/$
with outlay of ;s/ crore Ander this + (three)districts have "een covered namely=1amrup=5agaon and 4oalpara
!he implementing "ody is )est Assam 7ilk (roducersD #B-operative Anion 6tdand the "asic o"2ective are
formation of -*0 nos of via"le milk producersD Society=esta"lishment of $007! (er day capacity feed
plant=coverage of $/ lakh milch cattle under procurement and //, lakh cattle under AI (rogramme
Another centrally sponsored pro2ect in dairying was taken up in $%/$ covering the + (three) districts
namely- Si"sagar= &arrang and &i"rugarh !he cost of the pro2ect is ;s ++6*0 lakh !he pro2ect would have
achieved a"out -0% of the layout pro2ection of the pro2ect within a period of + to , years of implementation 3ut
the actual progress of the pro2ects has "een far "elow the e?pectation
!he third dairy pro2ect under mass #o-operative am"it was the centrally sponsored scheme for the
district of #achar !his was installed in $%/$ with a cost of ;s%--* lakh and only the grass root level works
have so far "een completed
!own 7ilk Supply Scheme :-Ander this scheme there are . (seven)num"er of milk supply schemes for
collection and supply of milk to the ur"an areas 3esides these milk supply schemes=there are , num"er of ;ural
&airy #entres which also collect and sell milk in the small township !here are * (two) num"er of creamery
schemes one at Amrangshu and other at 7ancachar
7ilk Anions (#o-operative Sector) :- !here are + (three)7ilk Anions run under #o-operative Sector and
are financed partially "y the 4ovt of Assam and the
A4;I#A6!A;9 A5& I;;I4A!IB5 +%%
5ational &airy &evelopment 3oard !he part of the finance given "y the 5ational &airy &evelopment 3oard
under Bperation Clood III shall have to "e returned to the 5ational &airy &evelopment 3oard "y the Anions as
this part is a loan from the 5ational &airy &evelopment 3oard to run the Anion Ander centrally sponsored
scheme=* Anions are functioning one at 8orhat and another at Silchar
&airy &evelopment in Assam Ander !echnology 7ission :- !he &airy &evelopment activities in the
State of Assam was originally a part of the State Animal <us"andry G Eeterinary activities #onsidering the
importance of 7odern &airy &evelopment=a separate deptt was created during the Si?th Cive Fear (lan
Simultaneously= +(three) 7ilk #o-operative Anions were also esta"lished for development in &airying through
#-operative am"it (Anand pattern)
!hese + (three) milk unions have "een engaged for enhancement of milk production through insertion of
e?otic "lood 3ut due to limitation of scope=these milk unions will "e a"le to cover only $+-$,% of the
indigenous cattle for upgradation within the operational areas of the milk unions
!he State Animal <us"andry and Eeterinary &epartment which is also engaged in upgradation of
indigenous cattle through the e?isting pro2ects'schemes like #attle &evelopment Scheme=1ey Eillage Scheme as
well as Intensive #attle &evelopment (ro2ect can hardly cover ,0--0% of the total indigenous cattle of the State
!hus an apprecia"le percentage (+6%)of cattle is left out from the operation of the milk unions as well as
State Animal <us"andry G veterinary department and these are to "e covered under the pro2ects'schemes of the
&airy &ev&eptt itself Ander the !echnology 7ission= the &epartment of &airy &evelopment= therefore=
proposed to cover the left out cattle population of a"out +6% for upgradation resulting enhancement of milk
production in the State
3reeding (olicy :- !he e?isting "reeding policy adopted in this State is "asically an upgradation
programme for the indigenous stock through insertion of 8ersey "lood
(ro2ect Scope :- !here is a vast scope for upgradation of the indigenous stock through insertion of e?otic
"lood since +6% of the total indigenous cattle population consist of a"out $00 lakh "reeda"le cows
Cinancial Aspects :- !he (lanning #ommission= 4ovt of India=has tentatively approved an outlay of
;s+000 lakh covering a period of --6 years "y which period the pro2ect is likely to get a clear shape
!his involvement of fund to the tune of ;s -0000 lakh will not only include the primary "reeding
programme "ut also to include regular maintenance of "oth indigenous and upgraded stock so far veterinary
services are concerned such as treatment= research= feeding= progeny-testing=etc=including other allied services
ASSA7 S!A!9 4A:9!!99; ,00
(ilot (ro2ect :- #onsidering the a"ove factors as well as financial resource constraints=the &eptt
proposed to start a pilot pro2ect during the /
th
(lan (eriod covering -% of the total left out population of
"reeda"le cows=ie=a"out -000 num"ers in an identified area
(ilot (ro2ect Area :- Cor the present a "lock of villages within an approach-a"le distance from 4uwahati
will "e taken up under the (ilot (ro2ect !his will facilitate regular attendance "y the staff availa"le at the
head>uarters (4uwahati) so that no new staff will "e necessary for the present
(ilot (ro2ect #ost :- #onsidering the availa"ility of fund during /
th
(lan and Annual (lan $%%$-%*=the
yearwise "reak-up of financial involvement will as follows:
$%%$-%*-;s6=00=000'-
$%%*-%+-;s/=%-=000'-
$%%+-%,-;s%=00=000'-
$%%,-%--;s6=0-=000'-

!otal- ;s+0=00=000'-
9mployment Scope in rural areas :- !his programme will help in generating self employment scope to
a"out 6000 rural farmers who will "e engaged in marketing of this huge >uantity of milk produced in the rural
areas and at the same time will also help to "oost up the economic condition of the farmers
#ottage &airy :- In the /
th
(lan=to give still a more impact in solving unemployment pro"lem=the &eptt
has proposed for initiating another self-employment cum regulation programme under the name of DD#ottage
&airyDD
Scientific 3ackground :- In Assam=there are many interior areas where still no accessi"le roads=are
linked up so that fluid milk though produced in a very short marketa"le surplus in this villages can "e
transported economically to the nearest consuming areas A >uick survey to such places reveals that there are
many such interior villages which produce *0-*- litre of such marketa"le surplus milk without any economic
return to the producers
!he (roposed Scheme :- #overing such villages as indicated a"ove= programme can "e initiated for
production of dairy products like cream. /hee, chana, kho7a and even $aneer in cottage scale and there"y
impact on producers as well as to the educated unemployed can "e given
(roposed (roducts of inclusion :- 3y the a"ove proposed scheme generally the following home scale
produced products can "e taken up :-
A4;I#A6!A;9 A5& I;;I4A!IB5 ,0$
(a)!ho7a
(")Chana
(c)Paneer or cottage cheese
Cisheries :-
Although in the past fishing for commercial purpose was confined to only certain section of the
people=no social stigma is now attached to such activity (isci-culture is "ecoming popular among all section of
the people irrespective of caste and creed As in the past=the "ulk of the fish sold at the present in the markets of
the State comes from the larger fisheries !he right to fishing in such fisheries is put to auction "y the
4overnment and is settled with the highest "idder usually for a period of three years !he auction sale of
lucrative fisheries is often keenly contested Bnly fresh fish is sold in the market Cish is also imported from the
neigh"ouring States and Andhra (radesh !hough no industry of canned fish e?ist in the State=the curing of fish
is undertaken "y the local tri"es Small dried fish is one of delicacies of almost all the tri"es !he small fish is
not cured or prepared in any way "ut simply dried in the sun A portion of dried fish is also sold in the near"y
markets "ut mostly it is consumed domestically
In the plains districts= nets are used for fishing !he nets that are most commonly used include
(i)/hakata= a net in the shape of a shovel which is pushed through the water and is generally used to catch small
fishI (ii)!he7ali (#astnet)= a piece of net to the centre of which rope is attached=while all round the edges there
are weights !he net weight sink and drag the sides of the net together It is cast and then drawn "y the rope to a
"oat or "ank !he names=applied to this net as the mesh decreases in si@e : &egh, %falia, Duangulia, %ngtha and
Han !he7ali, "iii#Langi, A large net which is stretched right across a river=the "ottom "eing weighed and the top
"uoyed !he fisheries are then driven towards the net and "ecome entangled in its meshes !he tanga langi is a
smaller variety=the two ends of which are "rought round to form a circle as the net is not long enough to reach
across the riverI(iv)Parangi2 a s>uare net=the opposite corners of which are fastened to fle?i"le "am"oos !he net
thus hangs like a sack from a stout pole to which the "am"oos are attached and is lowered into the water and
raised at intervals : (v)8thar is a large !he7ali which is too heavy to "e thrown "y hand and is=therefore=spread
on the surface of water from a "oat A Bathihal is variety of this net with specially large num"ers I(vi)/hat.al
(&eepnet)is fastened to "am"oo staging a"ove the water and is raised and lowered on the lever principle
3esides the nets=there are various kinds of fishing contrivances prepared out of cane and "am"oo and
used in different parts of the State !he descriptive accounts of some of the instruments are noted "elow :-
ASSA7 S!A!9 4A:9!!99; ,0*
Polo 2 !his fishing instrument is prepared with a small "am"oo strips fastened with fine and fle?i"le
cane slips !his is used for fishing in shallow water !he man who uses it holds it "y the side of the stem=presses
its rim on the mud=then pulls it "ack and lifts a"ove or up to the level of water and again presses it as "efore
while moving on through water whenever any fish is caught=the man puts his hands inside the $olo to catch hold
of the fish It has $-*, cm diameter open at the top !he diameter at the "ottom varies from 06$ metre to $0.
metre and even upto $** metre and in hight varies from 06$ metre to 0%$ metre
uluki 2 It is a fishing instrument prepared with "am"oo strips and cane in the same manner like polo
3ut its diameter "oth at the "ottom and top is smaller and in preparing the uluki,the "am"oo strips are used
thickly than polo !his instrument is more suita"le to catch smaller variety of fish like $uthi, khalihana, goroi,
magur, kaoi, and other small fishes
akai 2 !he akai is a species of wicker work shovel which is either dragged along the "ottom or placed
on the water "ed to catch small fishes which take refuge in it when the weed is trampled ati "am"oo is mainly
used for making this particular implement
!halai : !he !halai is also prepared with "am"oo strips !he strips re>uired for the weft are very
long=while those for the warp are short !he !halai is woven in the shape of an earthen !halai or pitcher !his is
used for temporary keeping of fishes during hand-net-fishing
3esides the a"ove=conical "am"oo traps locally called dingara, thunao, che$a and guri are used to catch
fish in small streams or running water near rice fields
!he favourite way of fishing in the hills is to choose a shallow river and "uilt across a dam with gaps
here and there in which long "askets are placed !he "askets are usually set when the river is discoloured from
rain as they are not very effectual in clear waterIthousands of fish of all kinds are yearly caught in this manner
Cishing "y poisoning is also very common in the hills At the "eginning of the hot weather a"out
April=many of the hill streams are poisoned Cor this purpose roots of the two creepers are used &imasa 1achari
in 5orth #achar <ills call them &uga.ao and Maka7 whereas 1ar"is in 1ar"i Anglong call them &umiat and
&ugang. !he &uga.ao is of red colour and Maka7,a milky white !he poison of the former is more effective in
proportion to the heat of the weather and water Bn a cold day= Maka7 is preferred !he villagers having
collected a sufficient >uantity of the roots proceed up the stream=some little away a"ove the place=they wish to
fish !hese roots containing the poison are "eaten out to stone=the 2uice and sap "eing allowed to flow down with
the water Almost immediately the fish may "e seen rising and slashing a"ove the surface !he effect of Maka7
is to kill the greater num"er "ut the effect of &uga.ao, if not administered in too large a >uantity=is that the fish
recovers >uickly
A4;I#A6!A;9 A5& I;;I4A!IB5 ,0+
and is apparently as well as ever #ertain fishes do not appear suscepti"le to the poi-son Mahaseer and lasp
family generally do not suffer much whereas the Baginas is killed in large num"ers !here may "e more
destructive agents in the form of fish poison in use among the people in hills
Another method of fishing is "y torch light in the night A sandy shallow river "eing choosen on some
night when there is no moon=two men start in a "oat=one pulls a paddle and the second holds torch and spear Bn
a fish "eneath seen on the sand "elow=the spear is thrown and four times out of si?=the game comes out
successful
According to the 6ivestock #ensus of $%%*-%+=there were +=6*=/$% and $=$*=$/$ person in the State
engaged in actual operation of fishing and seed collection in full time and part time respectively=$*=0-* persons
in marketing fish=$0=*,* persons in marketing and preparing nets and *=,-$ persons in other allied works !here
were +%=%%% plank "uilt "oats=%=,6- dug out "oats and ,/=/$+ catamorans and other crafts used "y the fishing
industry in the State
5um"er of fishing gears "y types and materials is given "elow :-
&rag net 4illnet !rawl !rap Shore Spawn Bther
net shine #ollection
net
+%=,+0 +=//=%+$ 5I6 $0=*,=+%$ 5I6 /.=-%- *=.+=/+%
nos nos nos nos nos
!he fishes commonly found in the State are as follows :-
Scientific 5ame 6ocal 5ame
9.Catla'Calta 9.Bahu
:.Labeo &ohita :.&ahu
-.L%beo Mrigala -.Mrigal
;.Labeo /onius ;.Baghan
<.Selonia'Selondia <.S4lkoni
,.M0stus Seenghala ,./agal
=.M0stus %ar =.%ri
(.Puntius Sarrana (.Puthi
>.+ar Putisara >.+ora
9?.Channa'Marurilious 9?./oroi
ASSA7 S!A!9 4A:9!!99; ,0,
Scientific 5ame 6ocal 5ame
99.Channa'Striatus 99.Sole
9:.Channa'Ste7alia 9:.Sal
9-.Channa'Punctatus 9-.Seng
9;.%nabas'+etudinus 9;.!a7oi
9<.Clarius Sraeterieus 9<.Magur
9,.M0stus'Fossilies 9,.Singi
9=.@allago %ttu 9=.Barali
9(.+enga'+enga 9(.Singara
Source- &irectorate of Cisheries=Assam=4uwahati
Cish &iseases : 6ike all other living "eings fishes also suffer from a num"er of common and infectious
diseases Some of the common diseases from which the fishes generally suffer are gillrot and malnutrition !hey
are also attacked "y internal=e?ternal parasites like and worms Baralis "7allago attu#are infected with tape
worms 7ost pro"a"ly that is the reason why most of the high "orn <indus in the State do not take this kind of
fish 7alnutrition in fish can "e detected "y its e?ternal indication like "igger head and thin anaemic flesh
&uring monsoon= fishes generally suffer from o?ygen deficiency and such deficient fishes float on rivers or
fisheries in search of more o?ygen=ultimately to die !hey also suffer from o?ygen-e?cess=which can e?ternally
detected from inflamated skin !he other rare diseases are !3 and #ancer in fish
Cisheries in the State are of two categories ;emove fisheries consisting of bil,small tri"utaries and rivers
are sold "y auction for a period of three years to the highest "idder "y the &eputy #ommissioner of the district
Corest fisheries in the State are under the control of the &ivisional Corest Bfficer 6ike revenue fisheries forest
fisheries are sold to the highest "idder for a specified period !he list of fisheries="oth revenue and forest have
"een amply mentioned in respective &istrict 4a@etteers Cisheries are a good source of revenue to the 4ovt
A4;I#A6!A;9 A5& I;;I4A!IB5 ,0-
!he following ta"le shows the revenue collected from fisheries in the State "y the 4overnment of Assam
in $%%,-%-
!a"le
Sl5o &istrict 5oof Beel 5oof ;iver ;evenue #ollected from
7ahal 7ahal beel mahal G river mahal
during $%%,-%- (in ;s)
$ * + , -
$ &i"rugarh / % +=-+=*-,00
* !insukia - $0 //=00000
+ Si"sagar *+ % -=**=%$6
, 8orhat $. . ,=/+=*%+
- 4olaghat $- $ *=,*=*,000
6 5agaon ,0 $* $=/,=0.%00
. 7origaon +- - %=6*=.,%00
/ 6akhimpur $$ $0 ,=,%=%-600
% &heme2i / / $=%%=-.,00
$0 &arrang $6 * 6=6*=0-%00
$$ Sonitpur * 6 $=/0=./-00
$* 1amrup $% . 6=$-=$*/00
$+ 5al"ari $6 - %$=.,$00
$, 3arpeta *0 $+ /=/0=,-+00
$- 4oalpara . + +=%0=+0-00
$6 1okra2har * * +=+.-00
$. 3ongaigaon 6 - .=-.=0,*00
$/ &hu"ri -+ $+ /=-*=%6*00
$% #achar +/ *% $=+/=06,00
*0 1arimgan2 *. % -=++=++%00
*$ <ailakandi 6 6 /0/.00
** 1ar"i Anglong - - 5I6
*+ 5#<ills - - 5I6
Source- &irectorate of Cisheries=Assam
ASSA7 S!A!9 4A:9!!99; ,06
!he development of fisheries in the State was undertaken only after Independence to meet the increasing
demand for fish (resently=there is a separate &irector-ate of Cisheries headed "y &irector of Cisheries at the
State 6evel At the district level there is a &istrict Cishery Bfficer who is assisted "y a num"er of demonstrators
and other staff !he main o"2ective of the Cishery &evelopment is to increase fish production "y demonstrating
scientific method of pisciculture with a view to popularise them !he activities of the &epartment having
increased=its staff position at district and su"-divisional level have also "een increased Among the schemes
undertaken "y the &epartment in the State so far=mention may "e made of such schemes as seed collection and
distri"ution of spawns and fingerlines= survey of natural fisheries and reclamation thereof=renovation of old and
ancient tanks=fish farming=and loan and su"sidy=all of which are designed to increase the production of fish in the
State !he &epartment has esta"lished a num"er of fish "reeding centres and nurseries in the State to make
fingerlings availa"le to the interested pisciculturists !here were one hundred forty three seed farms in Assam in
$%%+-%, !he following ta"le shows districtwise fish farms in the State ($%%+-%,)
Sl 5o &istrict 5oof fish seed farms
$ Sonitpur 6
* 3arpeta -
+ &hu"ri +
, &i"rugarh -
- !insukia +
6 &arrang 6
. 1okra2har ,
/ 4oalpara %
% 1arimgan2 $
$0 #achar -
$$ <ailakandi *
$* 5al"ari /
$+ Si"sagar .
$, 5agaon %
$- 7origaon +
$6 1amrup $-
A4;I#A6!A;9 A5& I;;I4A!IB5 ,0.
Sl 5o &istrict 5oof fish seed farms
$. 8orhat .
$/ 4olaghat $0
$% 6akhimpur ,
*0 &hema2i *
*$ 5#<ills /
** 1ar"i Anglong $,
*+ 3ongaigaon .

!otal $,+
Source -&irectorate of Cisheries=Assam
5inety per cent of fishes in Assam are availa"le from beels, rivers= rivulets= channels= dong or doba.
3esides these= some persons dig tanks=ponds and pools=etc=in their lands to rear fish for commercial purpose At
present though beels a"ounded in fisheries cover a total area of more than one lakh hectares in Assam=only a"out
si?ty thousand hectares to fishing !he rest is not at all accessi"le to fishing as it is covered with reeds and
shru"s 7oreover= fisha"le length of the rivers in Assam=at present= is ,/*0 km and the total area of
points=tanks=pools=etc=with fishes is a"out *=-00 hectares Bver and a"ove these=there are %., nurseries=$-,
rearing tanks and $.+ stocking in Assam
A"out $=+-=000 tonnes of fishes are produced in Assam from all the a"ove mentioned source=which are
not sufficient to meet the internal demand of the State
!he following ta"le shows the num"er of fisheries and their areas under different categories in Assam in
$%%*-%+
(Area in hectares)
!ype 5um"er Area
$;egistered Beels ,+0 60=*-0*,
*Anregistered Beels .66 ,0=60++.
+swamps and
6ow 6ying Areas $$%* $0=.*%+-
,(onds and !anks $/-/*- **=---$6,
-;iver Cisheries - *=0-000
.;eservoir - $=.$+
/Corest Cisheries - -=0$.
Source-&irectorate of Cisheries=Assam
ASSA7 S!A!9 4A:9!!99; ,0/
!he following ta"le shows the num"er of ;evenue Beel and ;iver Cisheries of Assam for $%%*-%+
!a"le
Sl5o &itrict ;egistered Beel ;egistered ;iver Cisheries
$ * + ,
$ &hu"uri .- $+
* 1okra2har 0* 0+
+ 4oalpara
$. 0+
, 3ongaigaon
- 3arpeta *+ $-
6 5al"ari $/ H
. 1amrup *0 0-
/ 5agaon ,0 $*
% 7origaon +- 0-
$0 Sonitpur *0 0-
$$ &arrang $+ 0*
$* 6akhimpur 0/ 0/
$+ &hema2i 0/ 0/
$, !insukia
$. $/
$- &i"ugarh
$6 8orhat $. 0/
$. 4olaghat $- 0$
$/ Si"sagar +* 0%
$% 1arimgan2 +6 0%
*0 #achar */ ,+
*$ <ailakandi 06 0%
** 1ar"i-Anglong - -
*+ 5#<ills - -

!otal ,+0 $.6
Source- &irectorate of Cisheries=Assam
A4;I#A6!A;9 A5& I;;I4A!IB5 ,0%
!he following statement elucidates the poison of the State in respect of fish production in $%%*-%+
(roduction of Cish Seed and Cish in Assam for $%%*-%+
Sl5o G Item Anit !arget Achievement
$ * + ,
$fry G Cingerlings 7illion 5os $-00 $6*6
*Cishes D000Dtonnes $+-000 $,0-6$
Source-&irectorate of Cisheries=Assam
!he following ta"le shows district-wise 5ursing=rearing and Stocking tanks in the State in $%%*-%+
&istrict 5ursery ;earing !ank Stocking !ank
5osArea (in hectare) 5osArea (in hectare) 5osArea (in hectare)
$Sonitpur 6/ *,/ $6 ,// % *-*6
*3arpeta */ $$6 , 0*. 6 6/6
+&hu"ri $6 0.0 - 060 * *00
,&i"rugarh -$ $-+ $0 06, 6 6*-
-!insukia $. 0-$ 6 0,6 / ..6
6&arrang ,$ $$, , 0+$ $. .*.
.1okra2har +. **, + 0,* - *+/
/4oalpara 6$ **6 / $$* . /**
%1arimgan2 - 0$, 5I6 5I6 5I6 5I6
$0#achar $/ $0/ * 0*$ . 0+%
$$<ailakandi $- 0.% * 0$6 * $..
$*5al"ari %+ +%$ . 0-- $ $*$
$+Si"sagar ,* $%6 , 060 $0 $$-0
$,7origaon *- $0$ 6 060 - $/6
$-5agaon %+ +,, $/ +,0 *, *-,.
$61amrup /. ,*- $$ $6/ $* *,**
$.8orhat +0 $-$ $0 0/0 . ,$6
ASSA7 S!A!9 4A:9!!99; ,$0
&istrict 5ursery ;earing !ank Stocking !ank
5os Area (in hectare) 5os Area (in hectare) 5osArea (in hectare)
$/4olaghat ,* 0%* $- $0. % -,%
$%6Akhimpur +0 0./ , 0,6 * -%+
*0&hema2i $, 06, $ 0*+ + $$0
*$5#<ills +. $./ 5I6 5I6 - ./,
**1ar"i
Anglong // -0* $+ $/. ** +*$$
*+3ongaigaon ,6 $0* - 0%/ , -0/

!otal %., ,0*. $-, *$+$ $.+ $%,$+
Source- &irectorate of Cisheries=Assam=4uwahati
Animal &iseases and Eeterinary <ospitals : !he common diseases which affected livestock and poultry
in the State are rinderpest= haemorrhagis septicaemia= "lack >uarter= anthra?= foot and mouth disease= 3#((
=ra"ies= ranikhet= coccidiosis= fowl= po?=etc #ontagious and infectious diseases are also prevalent in the State
!o protect animal from contagious diseases preventive measures are taken "y the &epartment !he other diseases
are treated in the hospitals and dispensaries and in rural first-aid-centre #ases are also treated "y the field staff
to the Animal <us"andry and Eeterinary &epartment in course of their local tours According to 6ivestock
#ensus of $%.*=there were *$ Eeterinary <ospitals=*,+ Eeterinary &ispensaries=+* 1ey Eillage #entres= $.*
I#&( #entres= . 6ivestock Carms= $* (oultry G &uck Carms= and * Eeterinary 9ducational Institutions
"esides $, 7o"ile Eeterinaries &ispensaries in the State !he num"er increased to *% Eeterinary <ospitals ,,-
Eeterinary &ispensaries including $++ 3lock &ispensaries and *- 7o"ile &ispensaries=,6, Artifi-cial
Insemination #entres= +, #attle 3reeding Carms= $6 4osadans= $+ (ig 3reeding Carms=$- (oultry Carms=and 6
3ull ;earing Carms in $%%0-%$ !he num"er of Sheep "reeding farms remained the same !he following
statement shows the num"er of cases treated=animal castrated and animals and "irds inoculated from $%6.-6/ to
$%%,-%- in the State :-
Fear 5oof animals 5oof animals 5oof animals
treated castrated inculated
$%6.-6/ %=0.=/,, $=$%=6+% *,=,$=$*$
$%6/-6% $$=6+=.6% $=0*=0-* *$=/%=*0%
$%6%-.0 $0=0+=0$+ %-=$*- $/=..=*..
A4;I#A6!A;9 A5& I;;I4A!IB5 ,$$
Fear 5o of animals 5o of animals 5o of animals
treated castrated inculated
$%.0-.$ $0=66=,$% $=$,=+/, $%=$-=-6%
$%.$-.* /=-,=/,+ /*=/$6 /=,/=-$0
$%.,-.- %=,.=000 %6=000 $-=6,=000
$%.--.6 $+=-0=000 $=,%=000 *0=%0=000
$%.6-.. $,=6.=000 $=/0=000 ,*=.%=000
$%..-./ $/=-+=000 *=*$=000 +/=+$=000
$%./-.% $/=-%=000 *=,*=000 +/=.0=000
$%.%-/0 $%=0+=000 *$=./=000 +.=*,=000
$%/0-/$ */=**=000 *=$/=000 */=+6=000
$%/,-/- */=60=000 *=+.=000 +0=+6=000
$%/--/6 *%=/*=000 $=/-=000 *,=+%=000
$%/6-/. *6=%*=+06 $=//=*,, */=-/=-6,
$%/.-// $0=6,=+*6 $=,+=//* *.=%-=0,$
$%//-/% +0=..=$-. $=+$=/%, *,=--=-%%
$%/%-%0 +0=$%=/%* $=*-=%,* $/=0*=.0-
$%%0-%$ */=%*=*$6 $=,+=/+, *.=%,=%%$
$%%$-%* +6=%%=$,. $=,/=%** +/=*%=,/6
$%%*-%+ $6=-+=6$, $=-0=+$* *%=-0=..%
$%%+-%, $.=,-=-0, $=-/=+*$ +$=0%=+-6
$%%,-%- $.=.+=6%0 $=-%=+,- +$=-$=.%*
Source :-($)&irectorate of Animal <us"andry and Eeterinary=Assam
7easure to improve >uality of the 3reeds=etc :- )ith a view to improve the "reeds of the indigenous
cattle=various measures have "een adopted "y the Animal <us"andry and Eeterinary department !he
&epartment has esta"lished eight #attle Carms at 3arpeta= 1hanapara= 5apam= 4oongoor= 1alipani=3arhampur=
1hanikar= and one in 1ar"i Anglong with the o"2ect of "reeding= research=e?tension=increase milk production
and demonstration of scientific methods of "reeding= feeding and management of farm animals In these
farms=selected pure males and females progenies from proven sires are maintained and issued to the "reeding
centres= /ausalas, dairies= and others interested in pro2ects for upgrading the local livestock of the State
ASSA7 S!A!9 4A:9!!99; ,$*
!he key Eillage Schemes undertaken since $%-* "y the &epartment of Animal <us"andry and
Eeterinary is the most important scheme to "ring a"out all round development of cattle throughout the State
Ander the scheme and area was selected for cattle improvement of package "asis "y facilitating "reeding=feeding
and management !he planned utilisation and multiplication of limited superior germ plasm are made availa"le
throughout the country for general development of cattle In $%.*=there were +* 1ey Eillage 3locks and +* 1ey
Eillage #entres with +/ su" centres in the State !he Scheme had $. ;ural Artificial Insemination #entres=$+
Ar"an Artificial Insemination #enres= * 9?tension #entres and * Semen #ollection #entres Along with the 1ey
Eillage #entres= there were some intensive #attle &evelopment (ro2ects #entres under 1ey Eillage Scheme A
total num"er of .=,** artificial insemination were conducted in different #entres of the State and the num"er of
calves "orn was $/6, In $%%0-%$=the num"er increased to $++ 1ey Eillage 3locks= -, 1ey Eillage #entres= +6
;ural Artificial Insemination #entres $+=+*+ artificial insemination were conducted in different centres of the
State and ,6*$% calves were "orn #astration of scru" "ulls=vaccinations against various diseases and treatment
of animals were also undertaken through the scheme !he following ta"le shows the num"er of
castration=vaccination and treatment during $%66-6. and $%.$-.* and $%/.-// to $%%,-%- in the State under the
Scheme :-
Fear #alf "orn AI&one #astrated Eaccinated !reated
$%66-6. ,=,$% $$=$*+ *0=6%/ $=/+=/.% $=/+=%*-
$%6.-6/ ,=/0+ $-=*./ *$=%.6 +=0$=-,- +=0$=-,-
$%6/-6% +=$-$ /=.*, $$=-+- ,=*$=-00 ,=*$=-00
$%6%-.0 +=$*, %=$+% $/=*,* *=,-=+6- *=,-=+6-
$%.0-.* *=$.* 6=-/- $,=,-0 +=$.=.,0 $$=.+=%/.
$%.$-.* $=/6, .=,** +0=./. $=//=%-6 $=//=%-6
$%/.-// 7ale *$=-0+ $=++=6-- $=,+=//* *.=%-=0,$ $0=6,=+*6
Cemale +0=.-.
$%//-/% 7ale ++=%.* $-6=.$0 $=+$=/%, *,=--=-%% +0=..=$-.
Cemale +$=$.0
$%/%-%0 7ale $%=6/* $=6*=/-, $=*-=%,* $/=0*=.0- +0=$%=/%*
Cemale *.=%-*
$%%0-%$ 7ale $/=.-$ /*=/// $=,+=/+, *.=%,=%%$ */=%*=*$6
Cemale +$=/+%
A4;I#A6!A;9 A5& I;;I4A!IB5 ,$+
Fear #alf "orn AI&one #astrated Eaccinated !reated
$%%$-%* 7ale $%=/,* $+=+*+ $=,/=%** +/=*%=,/6 +6=%%=$,.
Cemale *0=+..
$%%*-%+ 7ale -=*.$ $0=+-6 $=-0=+$* *%=-0=..% $6=-+=6$,
Cemale ,=%/%
$%%+-%, 7ale +=6*. /=.-% $=-/=+*$ +$=0%=+-6 $.=,-=-0,
Cemale +=,$*
$%%,-%- 7ale +=/*/ %=.// $=-%=+,- +$=-$=.%* $.=.+=6%0
Source :-&irectorate of Animal <us"andry and Eeterinary=Assam=
Li*estock Census of %ssam,$%.*=$%%,
!he Animal <us"andry and Eeterinary &epartment is also operating one large and one medium si@ed
programme and management practices=control of diseases ans se?ual health head>uarters at 1hanapara (1amrup
district)and &emow (Si"sagar &istrict) respectively In $%%0-%$=there are +, num"er of Artificial Insemination
#entres in the State among them 1hanapara= 6ahowal and &emow are prominent 9ach of these centres is
e>uipped with a la"oratory and stocking of semen and distri"ution to su"-centres attached to each of the
;egional Artificial Insemination #entre It is envisaged to undertake to artificially "reed one lakh "reeda"le
cows in the pro2ect area
Ander the programme ade>uate "reeding facilities are proposed to "e provided for "reeda"le "ovine
population with artificial insemination and natural service #onsidering local conditions=communication
facilities and peopleDs need=plains areas to "e covered "y artificial insemination and hill areas and remote villages
in the plains areas "y natural service Ander the "reeding policy of the programme= it is envisaged to upgrade the
local stock "y one of 8ersey and Sindhi "ulls in plains areas and foothills upto an altitude of %$,, metres
;emoval of all scru" "ulls from the operation @one is considered of utmost necessity to ensure full "reeding
control As such a mass castration campaign is proposed to "e undertaken apart from routine castration work
carried out "y the field staff
!he <ill #attle &evelopment scheme was taken up in $%6+ for the systematic development of cattle high
altitude as well as as of the foothills areas of the State "y infusing e?otic "lood into the local stock Ander the
scheme initially one #entral 3ull &epot at 4uwahati= three su"-centres at (alas"ari= #hangsiari and 1hetri= and
si? su"sidiary centres at ;ampur= 7aiari= !iniali= (anitama= ;a2aduar= !etelia and Amsing were esta"lished for
"reeding programme for hills cattle development as formulated "y the Indian #ouncil of Agricultural ;esearch
!he figure is increased at present 8ersey "ulls were maintained in #entral 3ull &epot at 4uwahati for semen
collection
ASSA7 S!A!9 4A:9!!99; ,$,
!he semen thus collected is sent to the su"-centres and su"sidiary centres for the purpose of insemination
!here are fourteen /aushalas in the State !he "reeds maintained in the /aushalas are mainly
<aryana=Sindhi=cross"reed and improved local "reeds !hese /aushalas also cater to some e?tent to the
re>uirement of milk supply of the respective areas !he 4ovt is encouraging the formation of milk supplying co-
opratives and milk producerDs co-operative societies within a radius of $60 km where town milk supply schemes
have "een implemented in different parts of the State 7ilk producers are provided with loans and su"sidies
#attle insurance scheme has also "een introduced to safeguard the interests of the milk producers
In $%.*=the following &emonstration Carms were in Assam for the development of pig=sheep and goat
$(ig and (oultry Carm=<aflong
*(ig 3reeding Anit=1hanapara
+Sheep and 4oat Carm=&iphu
,Sheep 3reeding Anit=&iphu
-4oat Carm=(an"ari-&hu"ri
3esides these Carms=some units are also attached to the 6ivestock Carms where "reeding and rearing of
sheep=goat and pig are undertaken !he attached units are at 1hanapara= 1aliapani= 3arhampur and 1hanikar
!he following ta"le shows the particulars of stock="reed etc=of pig=goat and sheep in the a"ove mentioned farms
and units :-

Stock 3reed $%66-6. $%6.-6/ $%6/-6% $%6%-.0 $%.0-.$ $%.$-.*

(ig Forkshire $,, $-* $*. $%6 $0$ 5A
3arkshire $ $ $ $ $ 5A
6arge-white -* 66 $$* .% .+ 5A
#ross ,+ -% +. +6 $$- 5A
<ampshire 6 . $+ *6 $0 5A
Saddle 3ack - - - $6 ,% 5A

A4;I#A6!A;9 A5& I;;I4A!IB5 ,$-
Stock 3reed $%66-6. $%6.-6/ $%6/-6% $%6%-.0 $%.0-.$ $%.$-.*

Sheep 5ellore 5A *-0 *-+ *,. $,/ $6/
7ondiya 5A $*. $$$ $** $%% $$*

4oat 3ar"arl 5A $/ $, $0 / $*
3etal 5A ,6 -6 ,% ,+ ,.

Source :-6ivestock #ensus=$%.*=&irectorate of Animal <us"andry and Eeterinary=Assam
Cor poultry development in the State 4ovt has esta"lished fifteen poultry and ducks farms= among them
<a2o= 3iru"ari= !e@pur= 3arhampur= 8orhat= 8oysagar= 4oalpara= 1hanikar= Silcooric= &iphu and <aflong are
prominent !here are one central <atchery at 1hanapara !here are also three &uck Carms in the State one each
at <a2o= 8oysagar and Silicoorie= (oultry keeping= generally=is protected "y the people as a su"sidiary occupation
As most of the "irds are of indigenous "reeds=the production of eggs is low <atching of eggs is done under
"roody hens and practically there is no practice of modern poultry keeping !he eggs produced in the rural areas
are collected "y the petty traders and supplied to different markets Intensive 9ggs and poultry production cum-
7arketing #entres are located at 4uwahati= 8orhat= Silchar= !e@pur= &i"rugarh= 1okra2har and 5orth 6akhimpur
with a view to popularise poultry keeping in the ur"an areas and make eggs and "irds so produced availa"le to
the consumers !here is also provision of giving loans "oth in case and in kind to the selected males for
upgrading of local "irds and flocks which are also supplied to other departmental farms to intensify production
in the farms as well as in the rural areas !here is programme to impart training to interested farmers and
"reeders in poultry keeping !here are three #entres for training at 1hanapara= 8orhat and &iphu Applied
5utrition (rogramme has "een introduced to make availa"le protective feed to the people of the rural
areas=specially the school going children and e?pectant mothers !he following ta"le shows the num"er of "irds
in the poultry farms under the State 4overnment during $%.0-.$
ASSA7 S!A!9 4A:9!!99; ,$6
Ander the State 4ovt during $%.0-.$

5ame of the Carms )6< ;I; Australorp <yline <ampsire
<en !otal <en !otal <en !otal <en !otal <en !otal

$3iru"ari -%6 /06, ,*. -$/%0 *-+ *60* - - - -
*##<Carm=
1hanapara *06- ./.0 $$0+ 6-0/ $6, $$-- +%+ /0+ - -
+Silicoorie $-% $,.. $00 $$.0 - - - - - -
,8oysagar %0 $-%% *. .*- - *6$ - - - -
-!e@pur $++ $//. $$% $0-* -% $$.+ - - - -
61hanikar +*. $-/. $** -$+ - - - - $.% ,-*
.4oalpara *6, /%. *00 ,/* ,, $0% - - - -
/8orhat $0. *,% +0. .$* - - - - - -
%3arhampur *%0 +$/ *6 +0 - - - - - -
$0<a2o **/ ,*, ,. $*$ 6$ - - - - -
$$<aflong *6 $%6 6 6 - - - - - -
$*&iphu $*/ $*6/ $0/ ,0$ - $-% - - - -
!otal- ,=,00 *-=/+6 *=-%* $6=%$0 -/$ --*6 +%+ /0+ $.% ,-*
Source:- 6ivestock #ensus=$%.*=&irectorate of Animal <us"andry and Eeterinary=Assam
According to the 6ivestock #ensus of Assam= $%.*= there were //=.%=+6* poultry in the State !he
num"er increased to *=**=$+=6*/ in $%//
Corestry : !he State of Assam a"ounds in forest resources Cavoura"le climatic conditions and congenial
topography have led to a growth of very rich flora and fauna In $%%*-%+= +-- num"ers of ;eserved Corests in
the State occupied an area of $.=-6.-* s>kms out of the total forest area of *$,//$, s> kms or a"out twenty
two per cent of the total area of the state !his =however= is considera"ly "elow the minimum of +++% under the
productive forest norm prescri"ed "y the 5ational Corest (olicy !he highest concentration of forest occurs in
the districts of 1ar"i Anglong and 5orth #achar <ills Area under forest in these two districts constitutes a"out
,0* per cent of total area under forests in the State 3esides=there are vast tracts of unclassed State Corests in the
e?tending to an area of a"out %*$%,, s>kms Altogether +-- ;eserved Corests are intensively managed "y
twenty five
A4;I#A6!A;9 A5& I;;I4A!IB5 ,$.
Corest division of the Assam Corest &epartment=area "eing worked out carefully with the o"2ect of a su"stantial
yield of tim"er and minor forest produce Anclassed States Corests more e?tensive than the ;eserved
Corests=have not "een under a systematic management to raise a regular supply of tim"er and other produces
!here are hummed e?tensively "y the tri"al people and deforested "y new settlers !his had led to the
destructions of unclassed State Corests
As the State has variant nature of climate and topography=the type of forests that e?ists in it=are of diverse
type In each type of forests=again a large num"er of different species of trees are found "ut "roadly the forests of
Assam can "e classified into two categories=vi@= 9vergreen and &eciduous !he 9vergreen forests occur in the
3rahmaputra Ealley and in the district of #achar where rainfall is higher and lasts for longer period !he species
of trees in this forests are Hallong,Makai,Hollock, %mari, Bhola, Bonsum, Sam,So$a,Cunsorai etc= !he
&eciduous types of forests mostly occur in the lower 3rahmaputra Ealley Sal is the main constituent species
Bther species found are Sida,So$a,Sam, makarisal, /omari,Bogi$oma,Sirts,etc In the riverain tracts of the
northern 3rahmaputra Ealley=Sisu,Simul,!hoir etc=are found
!he importance of forest resources in the economy of the State has not "een much appreciated "y the tim"er
consuming pu"lic !here are a"out $00 species in the forests of Assam=out of which only fine species are
generally used for constructional works=plywood=match and furniture making=for use in railway sleepers and
railway carriage and for making packing "o?=telegraph and electronic transmission posts=etc Bf the principal
commercial species Sal is the most important constructional tim"er and covers an appro?imate area of
*-%0s>kms in lower Assam Hollong and Makai are the popular plywood species occupying a"out +//-0
s>uare kilometres in upper Assam Bonsum known as Assam !eak is mainly found in &arrang district and in
patches in 4oalpara=5agaon=Si"sagar and 1ar"i Anglong covering an area a"out 6,.=-0 s>kms !hoir occurs in
patches along the streams of north "ank of the 3rahmaputra in 4oalpara=1amrup and &arrang and occupies an
area of 6,.- s>kms )ahor grows specially in evergreen forest of 6akhimpur=Si"sagar=&arrang and #achar
districts Hollock is mainly found in the alluvial flats of upper Assam Bhola occurs in patches in river "anks and
%mrai is found in patches in mi?ed forests particularly in ever-green forests Bogi$oma and /omari is found in
all mi?ed deciduous forests %.ar mainly occurs in the low lying areas /unsorai sporadically occurs in the
evergreen forests Sisoo grows in the sandy soil mainly in the north "ank with !hoir. !he availa"ility or reeds
has "een estimated at $=,0=000 tonnes of Bhutang. !here are mostly concentrated in the district of
Si"sagar=6akhimpur and 5agaon
3esides=Assam has the largest "am"oo resources in India and it is estimated that the annual yield can "e as
much as ,=.%=$6/ tonnes during $%%$-%* Another
ASSA7 S!A!9 4A:9!!99; ,$/
important point related to the "am"oo availa"ility in the State is its >uality 7uli variety from which the highest
grade pulp can "e made forms the ma2or portion of the availa"le "am"oos in Assam
!aking into consideration the a"undance of forest resources= forest "ased industries deserve to "e given
full consideration and treatment as "efitting their importance in the economy of the State Industries such as pulp
and paper=hard "oard and insulation "oard=plywood=particle "oard=sleepers=saw mills=etc=can "e esta"lished in
the State to utili@e the forest resources !he esta"lishment of tim"er seasoning plants will ena"le the use of non-
commercial species of tim"er in which forests of Assam a"ounds 7inor forest produce like cane, nahar, seed,
agor, lemon grass and other medicinal her"s provides ample opportunities for small scale and cottage industries
such as making of cane furniture=e?traction of agor oil=lemon grass oil and nahor seed oil=etc 3ut so far some
concentrated efforts seem to have "een made to harness the forest resources of Assam "y developing "ased on
forestry !here are .6 num"er of (lywood and Eaneer 7ills=-6- num"ers of Saw 7ills=+ num"ers of 7atch
Splint Anits and * num"ers of (aper 7ills at 8agiroad and 3angaigaon till $%%*-%+ 3esides=there is also one
7atch factory and three tim"er treatment and seasoning plants in the State
!he average productivity of the Assam forests is low as compared to other States of India In $%-,---=
the per capita revenue of forests was ;s+,,'- in Assam against ;s6+,-'- in 1erala= ;s +000'-in <imachal
(radesh and ;s*..'- in Attar (radesh Although Assam has large volumes of tim"ers and forest products ineffi-
cient techni>ues and wasteful conversion practices limit the yield of forests
<owever= there was "een a continuous rise in the amount of revenue from the forests !he contri"ution
of forests to the revenue of Assam which was ;s -. lakh in $%-0--$= rose to %66 lakh in $%..-./ and stood at
;s$=/*. lakh (3udget estimated) in $%%*-%+
(g)State Assistance to Agriculture :- !he steps taken for the increase of agricultural production and the
area under cultivation have "een discussed earlier (roduction oriented schemes implemented through various
agencies of the State 4overnment have "rought much improvement to the agriculture 3esides=the measures
discussed a"ove=the State 4ovt also provides loans to the agriculturists in the shape of said loan= cattle
reha"ilitation loan= land improvement loan= agricultural loan= etc &istri"ution of improved seeds and manures=
e?ecution of minor and medium irrigation scheme= reclamation of waste lands= construction of dams and "unds
to control floods=imparting necessary training to farmers "y way of demonstration=supply of
A4;I#A6!A;9 A5& I;;I4A!IB5 ,$%
improved agricultural implements and other measures have yielded rich dividends in recent times
Cloods=Camine and &rought : Camine is unknown in the State &rought affects the State from time ti
time In $%.0=the State was seriously hit "y drought in several parts !he 4ovt of Assam took several measures
including installation of deep tu"e-wells and implementation of test relief schemes in the drought affected areas
)ide spread flood has "ecome a regular phenomenon in the State 3oth the 3rahmaputra Ealley and the
3arak Ealley areas of the State are su"2ected to the fury of floods !he incidence of flood and erosion is rooted in
the typical physiographical feature and meteorological condition prevailing in this part of the country
a) 3rahmaputra Ealley :- !he 3rahmaputra with its tri"utaries is the longest river system in the 5orth
9astern ;egion comprising total drainage area of -=/0=000 s>km In the plains of Assam=the mighty
3rahmaputra flows from 9ast to )est for a length of 6,0 17 !he river dissects the Ealley and picks the
principal tri"utaries=which have considera"le hill catchment 7eteorologically= the State e?periences copious
rainfall ranging from $., cm to 6,0 cm annually=more than /- per cent of the precipitation="eing concentrated
during a period of four months from 8une to Septem"er !he heavy water and soil discharges occurring in the
Apper region during the peak monsoon find their way through numerous streams and rivulets=resulting in
e?cessive spilling of the "anks of the rivers and their tri"utaries with conse>uent water logging in e?tensive areas
in the plains region 7oreover=the large scale denudation of forests in the hill areas=giving=as it does=a further
momentum to the peak discharges=has certainly contri"uted towards aggravation of the flood situation in Assam
over the past year Another factor adding a new dimension and greater severity to the pro"lem is the great
earth>uake of $%-0 there have "een e?tensive hill slides in the catchments of the 3rahmaputra and its
tri"utaries !he "eds of the rivers have "een silted up in varying degrees
") 3arak Ealley :- 3arak with its tri"utaries is the second largest river system of the 5orth 9astern ;egion !he
"asin e?tends over an area of *=60=000 s>kmup to 3angladesh "order !he plains portion of the catchment falls
in #achar= <ailakandiand 1arimgan2 &istricts of Assam with an area of 6=%,0 s>km !he riverine area of the
district is a"out ,=+00 s>km In its valley length of a"out 60 km and a river length of $*% km= 3arak is 2oined "y
a num"er of tri"utaries "oth from 5orth and South !he narrow topographical feature of the valley=with heavy
rainfall=the flat gradient of the river and congested outfall have made the 3arak Ealley lia"le to fre>uent flooding
and drainage congestion
ASSA7 S!A!9 4A:9!!99; ,*0
&amages :- !he flood damage statistics have "een collected "y the State 4ovt since $%-+ !his shows the
ma?imum and average flood damage parameters "elow for the State of Assam as a whole
$!otal area affected 7a?imum Average
(in lakh hectare) (up to $%/6)
+$- /.
*#ropped area affected ,%0 ($%/,) $.$
(in lakh hectare)
+&amage to crops %/0$ ($%/6) $+0.
(in lakh rupees)
,!otal damage to crops= *0,-% ($%/6) *0.0
homes and pu"lic utilities
(in lakh rupees)
-6ives lost (5um"ers) $60 ($%.*) +$
!he flood of $%// in 3rahmaputra Ealley and that of $%/% in 3arak Ealley were unprecedented in nature
and caused devastation to the State=shattering its economy !he damages during $%/.=$%// and $%/% are as
follows :-
$%/. $%// $%/%
$ !otal area affected +0../ +/*6, 6%0*
(in lakh hect)
*#ropped area affected %/%$ $$.-/ +60.
(in lakh hect)
+&amage to crops $*$*,* */,,00 6%$-00
(in lakh rupees)
,!otal damage to crops= -06$,, .0=//,0* +0%%*=.-
homes and pu"lic utilities
(in lakh rupees)
-6ives lost (in num"er) $*. $6, */
!he anne?ure DAD enclosed shows the details of damages due to flood in the last decade ($%/*-$%%$)
A4;I#A6!A;9 A5& I;;I4A!IB5 ,*$
Clood #ontrol 7easures taken so far :-(rior to $%,%=the pro"lem of flood seems to have received little attention
It was only after the great earth>uake of $%-0 that the menace of recurring floods was recognised as ma2or for
the State
!he pro"lem of flood in Assam is so "ig and comple? that its permanent solution is yet to "e
conclusively found
!o tackle the flood pro"lem of "oth the Ealleys=the construction of flood em"ankments along
3rahmaputra= 3arak and their tri"utaries=has "een the main method employed=so far Some works of
improvement of drainage=river training and "ank protection works have also "een undertaken #onstruction of
em"ankments was started as a short term protection measure with the idea that those would "e fitted into long
term plans to "e taken up su"se>uently as permanent measures in the valley=as sufficient hydrological and other
data re>uired for taking up permanent measures were not availa"le at that time !ill $%/%-%0 appro?imately
,*.*,% km of em"ankments have "een constructed on the main stems of the 3rahmaputra and 3arak and their
tri"utaries (rotection works have "een taken up at -$6 places=$$$ 5os= including construction of ma2or Sluice
and /$-6% kmof drainage channels=so far
!hese short term measures could afford reasona"le protection (up to the end of $%/0-%0)to $6** lakh
hectares out of a total flood prone area of +$00 lakh hectares !he total e?penditure incurred for the flood
control works in the State up to $%//-/% in the 3rahmaputra and 3arak Ealleys is appro?imately ;s+0$
crores=out of which ;s $/+ crores is under #entral 6oan Assistance
;ecommendations of #ommittees and 9?perts :- !he 4ovt of India constituted the &ashtri0a Barh %0og in
8uly=$%.6 to tackle the flood pro"lem of the country as a whole and the %0og su"mitted the report in $%/0 !e
%0og,while evolving the future approach for tackling the flood pro"lem in the 3rahmaputra "asin made the
following main suggestions
A) Cinalisation of the proposals regarding &ehing G Su"ansiri dam pro2ects in the 3rahmaputra Ealley
and !ipaimukh on the 3arak and their e?ecution for moderating floods=generating large "lock of power and
arresting silt
3)#areful e?amination and consideration of physical characteristics of the river "efore construction of
further em"ankments
#);egulation of future development in highly flood prone valley "asin
&)6ocation and spacing of em"ankments to "e in conformity with design re>uirement to minimise
danger of erosion
9)Adopting co-ordinated soil conservation measure in the catchment areas
3y act of the parliament=the #entral 4ovt constituted the 3rahmaputra 3oard in $%/* entrusting it with
the work of preparation of 7aster plan for the con-
ASSA7 S!A!9 4A:9!!99; ,**
trol of flood="ank erosion and improvement of drainage systems in the 3rahmaputra Ealley !he 3lood has
completed and su"mitted the pro2ect feasi"ility reports of &ehing and Su"ansiri dam pro2ects 7aster plans of
the main stem of 3rahmaputra and 3arak with tri"utaries which are under scrutiny of the 4ovt of India
Clood Corecasting System :- In order to ena"le the district authorities to take timely step in the event of a
flood=system has "een evolved to transmit the flood warning message=which are issued "y the #entral )ater
#ommission !he flood warning massages are transmitted to all the &istrict authorities and field officers of the
Clood #ontrol &epartment from the control rooms of #entral )ater #ommission located at different district
head>uarters= and a #entral 3uilding= at #handmari= 4uwahati to receive and transmit all the flood warning
messages
Bn the receipt of this flood warning message= the &eputy #ommissioner and Su"-&ivisional Bfficers
take particularly measures to meet the situation arising out of the flood
As soon as the flood su"merges the low lying areas and the flood level continues to rose=relief operations
are started with full vigour !hese measures include ($)evacuation of people and cattle whenever necessary to
safer and providing for their flood and shelter till the flood recedes= (*)distri"ution of gratuitous relief in those
flood affected areas where evacuation is not necessary At times=the flood level rises very rapidly and the
swirling currents make it e?tremely risky to move from one place to another Eery often the villages appear to "e
isolated islands negotia"le only "y "oats In some char areas=the roofs of houses are swept away and only the
tree tops remain visi"le a"ove the water Anless evacuation is done in a planned manner=the loss of human life
under such circumstances may "e very high !he evacuation and distri"ution of gratuitous relief are
supplemented "y other measures such as ($)reha"ilitation of the erosion affected people= (*)e?ecution of test
relief schemes so that the people of the flood affected areas secure some amount of purchasing power=
(+)inoculation of human "eings as well as cattle to prevent out"reak of epidemic=(,)disinfecting the flood
affected areas=(-)distri"ution of seeds or seedlings "y the Agriculture &epartment to the farmers of the flood
affected areas where crops have "een damaged= (6)issue of agricultural and reha"ilitation loans to the flood
affected people=(.)issue of grants for repairing school "uildings or other pu"lic "uildings=roads and "ridges
damaged "y the flood=(/)remission of land revenue in the worst affected areas=(%)issue of educational loans or
grants to help the students of the flood affected areas !hese measures are "y nature short term ones 6ong term
measures include permanent flood control measures=such as construction of dykes=dams=culverts=sluice
gates=etc=and regulating the river courses !hus=a concerted effort is made "y several departments to mitigate the
miseries of the flood affected people 7ost of the principal departments of the 4overnment=in some way or
other=have got something to do in respect of the flood In steering relief operation=the district and
A4;I#A6!A;9 A5& I;;I4A!IB5 ,*+
the su" divisional authorities secure complete co-operation from other departments of 4ovt as well as from the
local pu"lic At times Su"-&ivisional or &istrict Clood ;elief #ommittees are formed comprising "oth official
and non-official mem"ers to devise means of providing ade>uate and 2udicious relief to the flood affected
people
Apart from evacuations of people and cattle=whenever necessary=the immediate relief made availa"le to
the flood affected people is the gratuitous relief ;elief parties visit the villages and distri"ute food
grains=pulses=salt and mustard oil at a given scale Bther commodities distri"uted include medicine=clothing and
fodder for the cattle !he relief parties move mostly "y country "oats and carry with them the stock of food
grains=etc meant for distri"ution #heap grains and fair price shops are opened at various places to sell rice or
paddy to the flood affected people at reduced rates=the difference of which is su"sidised "y the 4overnment
ASSA7 S!A!9 4A:9!!99; ,*,
D"!a&.s $- 1.$$* Dama("s -)$m 1982 !$ 1991.
Fear 5oof
villages
Affected
Area
Affected
6akh
<ectare
#rop
Area
Affected in
6akh
<ectare
(opulation
Affected
in 6akh
5oof
<uman
6ives lost
5oof
#attle
lost
<ouses &amages
5o
$ * + , - 6 . /
$%/* +6** 606$ +-- $,*+- $6 *0% -
$%/+ ,,0+ 6%- 0606 *$*$* - $-., $.0.6
$%/, %-*+ $-$6* ,%$. -6/++ %0 *6*+% $=6/=/00
$%/- *00* *.,$ 0-0% /%* *. $60 %.0-
$%/6 *=.-* ,*6 +*** *+,- $- *,*0 +=**=+*0
$%/. - +0../ %/%$ $0,// $*. $=0/=%$+ ,=0$=$$0
$%// $0,./ +/*6, $$.-/ /+$$+ **% ++=0*- +=*,=0,$
$%/% +*+- 6%0* +=60. *,=0*% */ */6+ $0=,,=0/0
$%%0 *6%/ ,++/ $+// $,%6, *- 6,0 $/=+*,
$%%$ 6.6+ %%. ++$% -+.0 $0/ *$=6*. $=.+=-6.
Source :-Clood #ontrol &epartment=Assam
CHAPTER : V
INDUSTRIES.
A. Old time Industries:-
The finesse and exquisite workmanship of a wide variety of industrial products of ancient Assam earned
universal acclamation,as is evident from many literary and historical records. In all branches industry and
craftsmanship like weaving and sericulture, or metal, ivory, wood, leather, clay, cane, bamboo works and the
like,the reputation of Assamese artisans was equal to that of the craftsmen of other parts of contemporary India.
The ancient kingdom of Kamrupa was noted for many old times industries. In the pre!ritish period where there
were independent rulers in Assam, a number of old times industries especially cottage industries got the
patronage from the kings and nobles and naturally the propagation of such industries constituted one of the
important features of the cultural life of the Assamese people. "elf sufficiency had been the keynote of Assam#s
economy in early medieval time,and various cottage industries formed,therefore,an inalienable part of her
culture. To a large number of the people these cottage industries had been,as it were,a way of life rather than
mere source of living.
$istorical evidence bearing on Assamese old time industries are not scanty and references that we have
in historical and other literature of Assam are sufficient to point to a high standard of industrial efficiency that
the people obtained in Assam in early times. Assam produced almost all that was necessary for life in the light of
the standard of living prevalent in those days. %r. &.A. 'ait in his 'A History of Assam' has stated that the
industry was highly developed in Ahom period. There are references to weavers, spinners, goldsmiths, potters
and workers in ivory, bamboo, wood, hides and cane. According to the (uhammedan historians, the people were
very skilful in weaving of embroidered silk cloths. According to records, (omai Tamuli !arbarua, a minister of
king )ratap "ingha, made it compulsory for every adult able bodied female to spin a certain quantity of yarn
every evening. The Assamese were excellent carpenters who made their boxes,trays,stools and chairs by carving
these out of a single block of wood.
a. Old time Cottage Industries and teir modern !osition :-
The principal old time industries in the "tate were weaving in country looms, pottery, blacksmithy, bell
metal and brassmetal works, goldsmithy, village carpentary, bamboo and cane works,spinning of endi,muga and
mulberry silk,vegetable dyeing,wood carving,hand pounding of rice,manufacture of ivory products,etc.
"ome of these industries are now in decaying stage due primarily to *a+lack of capital and technical
knowhow,*b+competition from machine made
A""A( "TAT& 'A,&TT&&- ./0
goods at cheaper rates,*c+lack of marketing facilities,etc. 1e may mention the following old time industries that
had been in vogue in the "tate of Assam.
*i+1eaving 2 Assam had a high reputation and early traditions in manufacturing cotton clothes required
for her use. 'Harsa Charita' mentioned one kind of dukula cotton which was sent as a present to king $arsa by
King !haskaravarman of Kamrupa. This Dukula was made from fine handspun white cotton yarn by the
Assamese weavers. 3otton weaving was and still is one of the most common industries in Assam. In
fact,weaving in Assam is characterised by its distinctiveness,and although most of the products are for purely
utility purpose,some of them which are used for certain occasions are of exquisite beauty,durable quality,delicate
weave,dainty design and delightful colours. The beautiful handloom fabrics shows the creative genius of
individual weavers whom tradition has made brilliant artisans. Traditionally,the skill in the art of weaving and
spinning has always been held to be one of the highest attainments of an Assamese women. &ven in a marriage
proposal,proficiency of the wouldbe bride in Bowa-kata,i.e.,skill in spinning and weaving is counted highly.
%uring the rule of the Ahoms,elaborate arrangements were made for keeping in the #Royal Store' sufficient
quantity of clothes of different varieties for presentation to foreign courts and dignitaries
4
. In similar references,it
is also found that until the beginning of the present century the whole of the cloth requirements of every
Assamese family were secured from the family handloom. !ut with increasing competitions from millmade
cloth,the family handlooms now supply only special varieties of clothes for women and for social and religious
purposes. &ven then in rural areas,women still depend on homemade clothes woven from mill made yarns. As
handloom clothes cater mainly to the family needs,there is very little trade in handwoven clothes therein. The
1eaving %epartment of the "tate 'overnment is trying to help weaving by organising cooperatives and
supplying yarns,fly shuttle looms and providing facilities,etc. The 1eaving Institute at 'uwahati is also training
students in various new designs and processes.
&xample of references of handloom weaving that flourished in Assam in the past are found in many
epigraphic,literary and foreign accounts. The Kalika Purana of the 45
th
century A.%.and Harsa Charita shows
that fine cotton garments were used in Assam. The Kalika Purana also refers to woolen garments,Kamala used
and manufactured in this country. %uring the Ahom period,handloom weaving was at the peak of its glory. It was
rare to find an Assamese family without a loom. (omai Tamuli !arbarua,a minister of kin )ratap
"ingha,ordered that before the sunset every woman must spin a certain number of hanks of yarn. This rule was
scrupulously followed in the Ahom kingdom to avoid punishment. In his book 'An A!!ount of Assam',

4. &.A. 'ait 2 A History of Assam, Re"ised #dition, p./6/.
I7%8"T-I&" ./6
9.).1ade observed2##1arlike cloth is made in the following manner. At midnight the cotton is ginned,passed into
rollers,spun into thread,manufactured into cloth and worn by the warriors in the morning.## It is an old custom
that the mother gives three pieces of silk garment to er daughter at the time of the latter#s marriage and complete
silk dress to her soninlaw when welcoming him. :rom early times,#ri cloth has been serving the purpose pf
woolens particularly amongst the less affluent section of the Assamese people. (uhammedan historians
observed that Assam silk was excellent and it resembled those of 3hina. Travernier refers to Assam silk as one
##produced on trees## and confirms that the stuff made of them was very brilliant. ;ike the nobility of <apan,the
Ahom kings in Assam took personal care and interest in the silk industry and the royal patronage contributed a
lot in attaining the high degree of its perfection. The fabrics prepared out of muga,eri and $at *mulberry
silk+became the national dress of the Assamese and formed a common costume of the women of the Assam
valley.
1ith the downfall of the Ahom kingdom and the advent of the !ritish came the dark era of handloom
weaving in Assam. The !ritish did not evince any interest in the development of this national industry. They
were keen only to find markets for their ;ancashire products and as such weaving industry faced keen
competition from the millmade cheap goods which dominated the markets situated even in the remote areas.
The traditional weavers could not withstand the competition and left their age old occupation to find
employment in other sectors. $owever,the industry was so deeply rooted in the substratum of the Assamese life
that it could save itself from total annihilation in spite of the competition that throttled its growth. It still
continues to be an important occupation,especially of the womenfolk. &very girl is expected to know the art of
weaving. It is still customary among the Assamese,that on Bihu occasions a grownup girl makes presents of
selfwoven Bihuan, %Phulam &amosa'to her near and dear ones as a token of love and respect. It is in this
context that (ahatma 'anshi once remarked,##Assamese women are born weavers,they can weave fairy tales in
their clothes.##
The Assamese women,as in the past,pursue the industry as a parttime occupation to produce the cloth
required by each family,but they detest production on commercial basis. Among the
immigrants,however,professional weaving is not rare. The articles of production generally include
mekhela,!hadar,riha,!huria,!heleng,orka$or,gamosa, and piece cloth,etc. The implements of weaving which
were and still are common in almost all the Assamese families are quite few in number,!esides various types of
looms,ugha,!hereki,mako,spinning wheel,neothani,etc.,are some of the accessories required for weaving. As
many as twelve types of looms are said to be in use in the "tate which may be broadly grouped under four
categories,i,e.,Throw "uttle ;oom,;oin ;oom,)it ;oom and :ly "huttle ;oom. The first one is found in almost
every
A""A( "TAT& 'A,&TT&&- ./=
found in almost every Assamese household while the second one is in common use among the hill tribes. Te
!engali weavers who have migrated from &ast )akistan *now !angladesh+ mostly use )it ;oom. The :ly "huttle
loom which is recent introduction,is an improved type of frame which considerably increase the output of the
weavers.
-aw materials required for weaving industry are mainly cotton,muga,$at,eri, and silk yarn. >arious
counts of counts of yarn ranging from 45##to =5##are generally used by the weavers. The yarn is mostly purchased
from the markets and only a few do the spinning at home. Almost whole of the cotton yarns and a greater part of
the silk yarns are imported from outside the "tate.
/
"ii#Seri$ulture :- 7ext to weaving,sericulture is the most important cottage industry of the "tate of
Assam. &xtensively practised during the agricultural offseason as a subsidiary occupation,it occupies an
important place in the rural economy of the "tate. Assam is a leading producer of the nonmulberry silk and
produces about twothirds of India#s total output and so far as the production of muga silk is concerned,the "tate
virtually holds a monopoly over it.
?
The origin of the silk industry in Assam is still obscure there is hardly any doubt about its antiquity. ).3.
3houdhury in his book,'(he History of Ci"ilisation of the Peo$le of Assam to the (welfth Century A)D)'
observes,##The art of sericulture and rearing of cocoons for the manufacture of various silk cloths were known to
the Assamese as early as the Ramayana and the Arthasastra)''
The classical writers beginning at least with 4
st
century A.%.,make important mention of the production
of silk and the silk trade in and through Assam. The Peri$lus refers to both raw and manufactured silk which
were from 3hina or Assam.##As the industry was mainly confined in the past to the Tibeto !urman elements in
Assam,it is not unlikely that along with their migration to Assam they introduced some ideas from 3hina@but the
manufacture of muga silk has been confined to Assam alone,and this land,like 3hina,had worldwide reputation
for the manufacture of varieties of silk clothes,and had a profitable foreign trade in such articles.
.
3hinese
records dating as far back as /.= A.%.mention about the trade route from the south through the "han
states,!rahmaputra river and Kamarupa to )ataliputra *present )atna+and through it,to the western part of India.
The ancient trade in silk with !hutan and Tibet,through 8dalguri in the %arrang district of Assam still exists.
A

/. Sele!ted Handi!rafts of Assam, 3ensus of India, 4B04, >ol C III, Assam, p. .A.
?. Ibid, p./?.
.. ).3 3houdhury 2 (he History of Ci"ilisation of the $eo$le of Assam to the (welfth Century A.%.,4BAB, p. ?0.
0A.
A. *a!ts aout Assam Silk + The "ericulture and 1eaving %epartment, Assam, "hillong. p./.
I7%8"T-I&" ./B
The unique distinction earned by the fabrics prepared out of muga,eri and $at *mulberry silk+in the
Assamese life and the interest taken by Ahom nobility in rearing up the silk industry have already been described
in the preceding paras under #1eaving#. It is due to this royal patronage during the Ahom days that the industry
reached its high peak of perfection. %uring the eighteenth and early part of the nineteenth century,Assam silk
especially murga,was much in demand in &urope and formed the staple trade of &ast India company during this
period.
;ike weaving,silk industry also had its period of crisis during the !ritish regime when markets in far
flung areas were flooded with foreign millmade artificial silk cloths. !ut the industry has stood the test of time
having survived and risen from ravages. The %epartment of "ericulture and 1eaving which came into being in
4B.=.B *after it was separated from the 3ottage Industries %epartment+and the various schemes undertaken by
it since then for the development of sericulture provide a fresh lease of life and the industry appears to be
making steady progress. The 3entral "ilk !oard of India has also been to great assistance to the "tate by the
providing finance for the effective implementation of various schemes for the development of sericulture.
The varieties of silk from Assam are eri or erandi *atta!us ri!hini+,made from the silk of the worm of the
same name,muga%antheroea assamoea'from a cocoon of the same name and $at %$attla')
The concentration of rearers of a particular silk worm in different areas of the "tate depends of rainfall
and climatic conditions of different parts of the "tate. The eri culture is done in areas where rainfall is done in
areas where rainfall is fairly heavy and the atmosphere is humid,whereas mulberry silk worm thrives only under
certain temperature and humidity. The composition of sericulturist groups in a few districts of the "tate is
presented below.
0
"ericulture is widely practised in the %arrang district by the Kachari *!odo+and Assamese women. Dut
of the three varieties of silk worms only eri and $at worms are widely reared in this district. ,uga worms it is
learnt,are reared by a few members of the 7ath or Eogi community. In the 'oalpara district,the -abha women
are chiefly found to be engaged in rearing silk worms. 7ext come the Assamese womenfolk. -earing of eri
worms is extensively practised by the latter. !ut in very recent times,a few Assamese women have also taken to
rearing $at and muga worms. In the 7agaon district,sericulture is widely practised in the -abha area by the 7ath
community. The particular community is known here as #Eogi#or #Katoni#. They have taken up rearing of all the
three varieties of silk worms,eri,a$t and muga) A few of the Assamese and Kachari people are also found to be
carrying on the rearing of the silk worms. %uring the reign of Ahom Kings,both undivided "ibsagar and
;akhimpur districts were

0. Sele!ted Handi!rafts of Assam, 3ensus of India, 4B04, >olIII, Assam, p./0/6.
A""A( "TAT& 'A,&TT&&- .?5
centres of all varieties of silk. "ericulture is associated with these two undivided districts. The Assamese,(ishing
and some other tribal communities are also found to be engaged in this ageold craft. !ut amongst the silk
rearing communities,the 7ath community of these districts deserves special mention,and its members are found
to be very skilful in the art of rearing all the varieties of silk worms. It may be mentioned here that the bulk of
the muga silk produced in Assam id being contributed by the rearers of the erstwhile "ibsagar district.
Kamrup district is also a ma<or silk producing area of Assam where all the three varieties of silk worms
are reared. "ualkuchi in the Kamrup district is most important centre of the silk industry. "ualkuchi is
undoubtedly the most famous silk fabric producing centre not only in Kamrup district but also in the entire "tate
of Assam. "ualkuchi claims a technique,quality and reputation of its own which are unique in so far as muga and
$at silk fabrics are concerned.
"ualkuchi silk is as old as its people. Although the origin of silk weaving at "ualkuchi is still
obscure,there is no doubt about its antiquity. %uring the olden days,the industry appears to have been patronised
mainly by the nobility and the ruling kings of Assam,and the type of fabrics produced were beautifully decorated
with designs and were very costly being more intended to serve the individual needs and tastes of the welltodo
than meet the general demand. $owever,the products of this industry en<oy a great reputation outside Assam
also for their delicate designs,quality and durability. A huge quantity of ,uga sari is being regularly exported to
1est !engal from this silk cloth producing centre. The industry seemed to have faced a period of adversity
perhaps due to the disturbed fortunes of the ruling kings and nobility in olden times. It could not thrive well
during the !ritish regime as the latter did not take any interest for the progress of this industry in the "tate
.6
$owever,after independence due to the efforts of the "tate#s "ericulture and 1eaving department,the All
India $andloom !oard and the All India "ilk !oard,both sericulture and weaving industries have received a new
lease of life and have begun to make good progress. 3oncentrated and vigorous activities have been carried out
in the development of sericulture and weaving industries in the "tate since the inception of these agencies.
In spite of many odds,the sericulture and weaving industries at "ualkuchi are functioning well with the
help of cooperative societies organised in the town and addressed to silk spinning and weaving. The names of
the registered societies are *4+Assam 3ooperative "ilk $ouse ;td.,*ii+Assam 3ooperative -esham "amabay
)ratisthan,*iii+(adhya "ualkuchi -esham "amabay "amity ;td.*iv+"ualkuchi !hatipara (uga spinners#and
1eavers# 3ooperative "ociety,*v+!amun "ualkuchi "ilk "amity ;td.,*vi+)urba "ualkuchi -esham "amity ;td.,

6. Sele!ted Handi!rafts of Assam, census of India, 4B04, >ol C III, Assam, p./
I7%8"T-I&" .?4
and *vii+"ualkuchi Pat-,uga Palu Poha "amabay "amity ;td. Though a good number of cooperative societies
are functioning at "ualkuchi,the vast ma<ority of weavers are still working outside the cooperative fold. "ome of
them are still working on wage basis in local weaving factories while the others work individually.
In this context,it may,however,be noted that the weavers who work under the cooperative fold collect.
,uga !o!oons or Pat,,uga from their respective societies,and in case of ,uga cocoons,they themselves spin
the yarn and weave the particular cloth as ordered by the societies. After delivery of the finished products to the
societies they are paid specified rates on different cloths. (ost of the weavers of this group work in their own
houses. The other group of weavers work in some factories within the town itself. They are provided with looms
in the factory and the raw materials are also supplied by the owners. The workers are paid on wage basis. The
last group of weavers who work neither under cooperative fold nor in factories,are the individual weavers. They
continue their business individually and sell their finished products to the local merchants.
(a<or portion of the finished products of the silk industry of "ualkuchi are sold through the sales depots
run by different cooperative societies and Khadi !handars located in the towns and business centres of Assam.
!esides,there are also sales centres sponsored by the All India Khadi and >illage Industries 3ommission,the
'overnment emporium and the "tate (arketing 3orporation within the outside the "tate. A good quantity of silk
products are being exported of foreign countries.
Pat is produced from the cocoons of two species of worm called univoltine or Bar-Palu %amy-
te-tor'and the multivoltine or saru-$alu %amy- !roesi')!oth the species are reared indoors on the leaves of the
mulberry tree %morus indi!a' or where mulberry is not obtainable,on the panchapa. The eggs of the Bar-Palu
take about ten months to hatch,the worms usually make their appearance in 9anuary. The life span of the worms
is about thirty to forty days. The rearing of saru-$alu is much favoured by the cultivators as it yields four breeds
in a year although thread obtained from it is regarded inferior to that of the Bar-Palu) Pat silk is used for making
mekhela,riha,louse piece and !hadar for females and #ngla-!hola and !howga-!ha$kan for males.
"everal causes make this silk rare and expensive. :irst,the worms producing this type of silk are very
delicate and a large number of them die before they spin. "econdly,the supply of mulberry leaves is also limited.
Thirdly,the rearing of this worm in the past carried a stigma of impurity and as such its rearing was confined
only to the members of 9ugi and other such communities and even they also regarded it with disfavour.
$owever,this old time pre<udice has almost died out and the rearing of the worm has become popular among the
members of other communities as well.
A""A( "TAT& 'A,&TT&&- .?/
,uga,the golden silk of Assam is produced by a caterpillar,known as ##antheroea assamoea'' which is
generally fed on the "om tree %me!hilus ordoratissima') It is a multivoltine silk worm producing five
breeds,viF.,Katia,.arua,.ethuwa,Aharua,and Bhadia in a year,only two breeds,i.e.,Katia in Dctober
7ovember,and the .ethua in the spring are commonly reared in the "tate. The complete cycle of the insect lasts
from fiftyfour to eightyone days,the bulk of which is occupied by the life of the worm. 1hen they are fully
grown,they are about five inches long and their thickness varies from /A.. mm to ?= mm. Their colour is green
with a brown and yellow stripe extending down each side,while red moles with bright gold bases are dotted
about the surface of the body. The silk is produced by feeling the cocoons. (ost of the Assamese women possess
one or more garments of muga silk and welltodo men ceremonially wear waist clothes of this materials.
The #ri worm %atta!hus ri!ini'derives its name from the #ri or castor plant on which it is usually fed.
)atches of this plant are commonly seen in the gardens of most of the villages. ##The worm belonging to the
Saturnidae is for all practical purposes habitant of Assam,##
=
as fairly heavy rainfall and moist climate are
considered ideally suitable to it. In a year,five or six breeds are generally reared and those who spin their
cocoons in 7ovember. :ebruary,and (ay yield much silk. The most useful garments made of #ri silk is the ar-
ka$oor,a large sheet,0.5B metres in length,4.A/ metres wide,which is folded and used as a wrap in cold weather
by all sections of the people. #ri silk is also made into coats and shirts,mekhela,eri-!haddar,etc.
"ericulture is mainly a household industry and generally the rearing of worms is done by the female
members of the household in their idle hours. (ostly,the rearing is done to meet the requirements of the family
though there are a few professionals who practise it more or less on commercial lines. The tools and implements
required for the industry are few and simple,and almost all these are made by the artisan himself and by the
members of his family or can be had from the market at a moderate price. The tools generally required are
2!amboo tray %dala'amoo !handrakiful thread net,!harkha %nidhiram',takli,boiling pan and loom.
The ma<or problem of the handloom and sericulture industry of Assam is the problem of shortage of
yarn. The present annual demand for yarn generated by 46 lakh weavers in Assam is as follows 2
3otton 4?A./A lakh kilogram
)at 5.=6 ,, ,,

=. &lim$se of silk /ndustry in Assam, "ericulture and 1eaving %epartment, 'overnment of Assam, 4BA0, p.?
I7%8"T-I&" .??
(uga 5../ ,, ,,
&ri 5.BA ,, ,,
1orsted wool 4.=5 ,, ,,
others 5.4? ,, ,,
"ource 2%irectorates of $andloom,'overnment of Assam,4BB/.
The four spinning mills in Assam can meet /5 per cent of the total demand for yarn. The rest of the yarn
has to be important from outside. The transport cost and for uncertain supply of yarn have contributed to the rise
in the price of yarn.
Apart from the problem of scarcity and high price of yarn,another problem which is being faced by the
handloom industry in Assam is the problem of the limited supply of credit to the weavers of the "tate. ;oan is
being made available to the weavers at a concessional rate of interest since 4BA6A=. $owever,till now only 45
primary handloom cooperatives and one apex cooperative have been benefit by such loans.
The total number of loans in Assam stands at 4. lakhs and the total amount of working capital needed is
-s. 465 crore annually. Dn an average the per capita loan offered by each cooperative is very small. According to
data published by the !anking 3ommission,only 4?.A per cent of the total number of members of the co
operatives in Assam are being provided with loans,the All India percentage being ?B.. percent.
The 7ational !ank for Agriculture and -ural %evelopment *7A!A-%+is an important source of credit
to the handloom sector in Assam. Till recently,one of the conditions necessary for supply of 7A!A-% loans to
primary cooperatives societies in the 7orth &ast was that the society was required to have 455 looms under it
with a total annual turnover of at least -s.? lakhs. This condition have been modified now and the society is
eligible for loans if it has A5 looms with an annual turnover of -s. a.A lakhs. 7A!A-% is presently conducting a
study of the performance of cooperative credit institutions in Assam,the long term and the short term credit
structure,the poor growth in lending and disturbingly high levels of overdues.
The 7orth &ast $andloom and $andicrafts %evelopment 3orporation *7&$$%3+,set up in 4B66,has
initiated a number of steps to promote the growth and development of handloom and handicrafts in Assam and
the rest of the 7orth &ast. Towards this end,the 7&$$%3 supplies raw materials and working capital to the
handloom sector and provides facilities for the marketing and the handloom products. 8nder the guidance of the
7&$$%3,handloom and handicraft products from the 7orth &ast have been displayed in various trade fairs and
exhibitions held in places like !russels,Tokyo,7ew Eork and !erlin. A wide market for the sericulture products
of Assam exists in countries like 8.K.Italy,
A""A( "TAT& 'A,&TT&&- .?.
"witFerland,:rance,"ingapore and "audi Arabia.
About 46 lakh individuals are employed in Assam#s handloom and handicrafts sector. The silk subsector
has covered about 6555 villages in Assam. A?,555 families are engaged in eri production 4B,555 families in silk
production and 4555 families in muga production.
It is noteworthy that the handloom and handicrafts sector cover all sections of people in society and all
the areas of the "tate. 1omen and weaker sections of people in the society have found wide employment
opportunities in this sector. In 4BB5B4,4/55 weavers belonging to the scheduled caste and schedule tribe
communities received a sum of -s. 6/ lakhs from the 3entre. :or the benefit of these weavers,training
programmes,construction of work sites,supply of looms and other schemes have been taken up.
%adi Programme :
Khadi *3otton and "ilk spinning and 1eaving+is at the core of the >illage Industries )rogramme
undertaken by the Assam Khadi G >illage Industries !oard. It is now generally recognised that all of the
development programmes Khadi and >illage Industries is the most essential to restore the balanced socio
economic growth of the Indian society which is the main ob<ective of our national planning.
7ecessary steps have been taken by the !oard to replace the traditional implements with the improved
ones and to introduce improved methods of technique so that the rural artisans may increase their productivity
and their earnings as well. In order to meet the demands of our weavers for adequate quantity of yarn,the "tate
!oard in addition to the traditional !harkhas introduced about 46A new model !harkhas of six spindles and two
spindles at $a<o,(arigaon and Khudra"ankara. "teps have also been taken to introduce such improved !harkha
at (anikpur and 8darband. !esides,/A Dea Katai-!harkhas have been introduced in the hill areas so as to
utilise the locally grown short staple cotton.
The !oard arranges training for the artisans in the traditional as well as improved methods of production
at its training centre at -aha and also send Khadi workers outside Assam for refreshers training and training in
salesmanship.
1ith a view to conducting research on the development of indigenous #ndi and ,uga of Assam,a
research centre has been set up at 'uwahati towards the end of the year 4B6066 after due sanction of the Khadi
3ommission. This research centre has brought effective improvement in the methods of production of Assam
silk.
:rom the achievements shown below it appears that the production and sale of Khadi and >illage
Industries have been considerably increased. This upward progress may be attributed to the use of khadi cloth in
the 'overnment departments,increasing demand of #ndi and ,uga outside Assam,and financial
I7%8"T-I&" .?A
assistant rendered by the Khadi 3ommission. "teps were taken to raise the wages of the spinners and weavers so
that they might get due return of their labour. !ut the !oard is reported to have experienced difficulty in
procuring eri cocoons for the local spinners as the traders from outside Assam purchased these by paying high
price to the agents.
In 4B6A60,the Khadi and >illages Industries !oard had /A )roduction centres in different parts of
Assam. 7ow,however,no of such centres has increased tremendously as can be seen from the table given below 2
A""A( "TAT& 'A,&TT&&- .?0
Assam Khadi and >illage Industries !oard )roduction of Khadi *3otton and "ilk+and &mployment
Eear Type of
Industry
7o.of centres
working
Total &mployment
*7o.+
Huantity
)roduced
>alue of
)roduction
*-s.in lakh+
4B=0=6 3loth
Earn
?A
I.
6BAB
I..
?4?6?B
sq.metres
I..
==..5
I.
4B=BB5 3loth
Earn
A6
I.
466..
I.
4.0/ lakh
sq.metres
I..
456./5
I..
4BB4B/ 3loth
Earn
A=
I.
4/B5?
I.
/.?= lakh
sq.metres
I.
B5.BB
I
4BB/B? 3loth
Earn
A6
I.
4A.65
I.
/..?
lakh.sq.metres
4B4.54
I.
4BB?B. 3loth
Earn
A6
7.A.
406=4
7.A.
?.4? lakh
sq.metres
?60.0kg.
4?4.B5
AA.B.
4BB.BA 3loth
Earn
AB
7.A.
4/.=/
7.A.
4,0/,.?A
sq.metres
/?,650 kg.
=4.0?
.4.4=
"ource 2%irectorate of &conomics and "tatistics,Assam,Statisti!al Hand Book of Assam,
4B=6*p.4/./A+,4BB4 *p.4?0?6+,4BB/ *p.40.0A+,4BB?*p.46564+
4BB. *p.440+and 4BBA *p.4/.+.
I7%8"T-I&" .?6
:ollowing table shows the achievements of Khadi and >illage Industries 3ommission in production and sales of
Khadi in Assam during the years,4B6B=5,4BB5B4 to 4BB/B?.
B
Types of
Khadi
8nit 4B6B=5 4B===B 4BB5B4 4BB4B/ 4BB/B?
4.3ottonKhadi
*i+)roduction of yarn
*ii+)roduction of
cloth
*iii+-etail sales of
cloth
*iv+&mployment
*v+1ages
-s.in lakh
%o
%o
7os.
-s.in lakh
45.?.
=.00
I
6B.?B
0.65
/0.A5
A...05
I
=0/?
/..4?
I
?0.=B
0=.0=
./A=
/4.60
I
./.?5
0A.40
?0?5
/6.46
I
AB.?5
==.50
A4.05
/6.A.
/."ilk Khadi
*i+)roduction
*ii+-etail salary
*iii+&mployment
*iv+1ages
-s.in lakh
%o
7os.
-s.in lakh
.A...
I
/4=B4
4B.=6
40?.?/
I
?.?B5
AB./.
4?B.=5
445.BB
4=A.AB
AB.54
4A4.B/
44/.5.
400A6
A..=?
/5..0A
4//.?=
4=44B
=/.40
?.(uslim Khadi
*i+)roduction
*ii+&mployment
*iii+1ages
-s.in lakh
7os.
-s.in lakh
I
I
I
4./4
4=0
5.65
4.0/
4/A
4.55
/.55
/AA
4.?=
4..4
4=0
5.A4
..1oolen Khadi
*i+)roduction
*ii+-etail sale
*iii+&mployment
*iv+1ages
-s.in lakh
%o
7os.
-s.in lakh
I.
I.
I.
I.
..B=
I.
?6
?./5
5.B0
?.BA
A
5./.
4...
..?A
A
5.A.
I.
0./6
I.
I.
B. %irectorate of economics and statistics. 'ovt of Assam2, Statisti!al Hand Book, Assam, 4BB4,p. 4.A@
4BB?, p. 4.A@ 4BB?, p. 46A@ 4BB.,p. 44=
A""A( "TAT& 'A,&TT&&- .?=
In the year 4BB.BA,the physical target expected to be achieved in respect of production in the handloom
sector is =0J and in the powerloom sector the percentage is 6AJ.
The review of the Annual )lans 4BB/B? and 4BB?B. shows that the physical target achieved under
Khadi was B6J and 6=J and under village industries sector was /BJ and /4J higher than target respectively.
In respect of sericulture,the "tates &ight plan accords priority to *a+plantation of silk worm food plans,
*b+production and distribution of diseasefree silk worm seed and *c+marketing of produce.
*iii+)ottery 2 )ottery is one of the ageold crafts of Assam carried on by the most antiquity method of
production. The art of making pottery was known to the people of Assam from early times. As regards the
history and origin of the pottery industry in Assam,it has been possible to gather that the use of pottery wares
was prevalent as far back as the A
th
and 0
th
century A.%.
The extensive remains of temple and buildings give ample evidence of working on stones and bricks.
This is proved also by a number of epigraphs. The art of brick making is mentioned in the "ualkuchi grant of
-atnapala. It was highly developed at a subsequent time particularly during the Ahom period. The 7idhanpur
grant mentions Kumhakaragarta *potter#s pit+,and the Kamauli grant refers to the Kumhakaras who were
professional pottery makers. "ome of the best specimens of pottery,with artistic and decorative
designs,belonging to the A
th
and 0
th
century A.%. $ave been discovered from %ah )arvatia@some specimen have
also been found in TeFpur and near "adiya. The clay seals of !haskaravarman also point to the fact that the art of
clay modeling was developed as far back as in the 6
th
century A.%. (oreover,!ana mentions among the presents
of !haskara #drinking vessels embossed by skilful artists,molasses in earthen pots and# cup of 0llaka diffusing a
fragrance of sweet wine.
45
It is very difficult to give a definite note on the existence of pottery during prehistoric epoch,as no
systematic study has been made,but random finding of smallsiFed potteries of the prehistoric times,collected
during various excavations and diggings leave no doubt that the art of pottery was also popular in Assam long
ago.
The existence of some !huas or villages bearing prefix #Kumar# to their names such as Kumar
Chuari,Kumargaon,etc.,is perhaps reminiscent of the pottery that flourished in these regions. In the plain
districts of Assam,pottery is a hereditary occupation of the people belonging to the communities like
Kumar,$ira,etc. "ir &.A. 'ait,in an article in the 9ournal of Indian Art and,the industry published in
4=B=,observes that there are

45. %r. ).3. 3houdhury 2 (he History of Ci"ilisation of the Peo$le of Assam to the (welfth Century A)D),
&uwahati, 1232, $) 456)
I7%8"T-I&" .?B
two distinct classes of persons engaged in the manufacture of pottery in the !rahmaputra >alley,the $iras and
the Kumars. The wood ##Kumar## is derived from ##Kumbhakar## and means maker of pots. The word Kumar,on the
otherhand,so far as the !rahmaputra valley is proper is concerned,is not used to denote persons of any particular
caste or subcaste but is applied to persons of several different castes,chiefly the Kalitas,Keot and Koch,who
make or whose ancestors are remembered to have made articles of earthenware. Thus,there are Kumar
Kalitas,Kumar Keots and Kumar Koches,and the people so designated continue to retain their old caste status.
##In few rare instances,persons other than $iras and Kumars were found manufacturing earthen vessels in
the !rahmaputra valley. In the TeFpur subdivision,a few people of Kaivarta caste make large earthen pots which
are used for building gur. 7ear %ibrugarh a few families of upcountry men from Arra are potters by profession.
They are known locally as $ira Kumars. "uch upcountry potters have also settled recently at 'olaghat.##
44
The present position of the Kumars is not uniform throughout the !rahmaputra valley. They are treated
more or less as members of a scheduled caste in the Kamrup district while they rank almost equally with Kalitas
and others in upper district.
In undivided 3achar district,the word #Kumar# devotes what it does in !engal,the separate potter
caste,i.e.,one of the nine professional castes %7a"ashakha' which are said to be descendants as the offspring from
8iswakarma,the divine artisan. In 3achar district,some of the craftsmen are engaged in making only images of
'ods and 'oddesses. At present,the image making is their subsidiary occupation,their main occupation being
'&raha$u9a' along with the studies of astronomy. This class is known as '&rahai$ra' or &anak *astrologers+and
the members of their families prepared images of $indu 'ods and 'oddesses during different religious
occasions. According to the estimates of the numerical strength of some backward classes prepared by the
3ensus Drganisation in 4BA.,&rahai$ra or &anak was shown as on of the backward classes in 3achar.
The principal centres of pottery industry were at TeFpur,3hatia,>iswanath,!echeria, $aleswar and
"almara in undivided %arrang district,3haralgaon, Kumargaon, )utani %haramtul and (onoi in erstwhile
7agaon district@ 9oynagar,3hatla,Kalain,-angauti,(ati<uri,!ishnupur and "ibootttar in undivided 3achar district
2 %ibrugarh,(adarkhat,(argherita,Tinsukia and 3habua in the undivided ;akhimpur district@
:akirgan<,'auripur,-upsi,

44. -eference 2 ,anufa!ture of Pottery in Assam by &.A. 'ait, published in the 9ournal pf Indian Art and the
Industry, 4=B=.
A""A( "TAT& 'A,&TT&&- ..5
"atyapur,-okakhata,%ubapara and (arnai in undivided 'oalpara district and 'uwahati, "ualkuchi, $a<o,
-angia, !arpeta, 3haygaon, )athsala, in the undivided Kamrup district.
The state of affairs of the pottery industry in the "tate is not very encouraging. ;ocal pottery has mostly
been replaced by the superior clay or porcelain goods and metal utensils imported into the "tate from outside.
The profits of the industry are also small and most of the traditional potters have left the trade and shifted to
other lucrative occupations.
According to the Khadi G >illage Industries !oard of Assam,total employment in this branch of the
cottage industry was /A,6?0 in the year 4BB?B. against /A,?0B in 4BB/B?.
4/
The raw materials required for the industry are the glutinous clay and the tools and implements used are
the wheel %!hak',mould *athali+,the mallet %hatiya $iteni' and polisher %!haki')The articles made are cooking pots
*such as akathiah and Khola,daskathia,!haru and satar+water <ars %kalah and takeli', vessels for boiling paddy
%thali',larger vessels %hari and 9aka', besides,lamps,pipes and drums. In the urban areas,there areas,there are
small groups of potters who specialise in making the image of $indu deities like Durga,Kali and Saraswati,etc)
The artisans often display an astute artistic sense in making the images,which fetch them handsome amounts. In
off season,they make beautiful dolls,toys,etc.,and sell in the nearby markets and melas)
In recent years,some schemes have been taken up by the "tate Khadi and >illages Industries
!oard,Assam,with a view to encouraging the village potters to switch over from their traditional items of
products to the production of glaFed pottery wares,bricks and tiles which have better marketing potentially. Te
!oard has been providing for training facilities to the artisans. $owever,impact of these schemes on the pottery
industry in the "tate is yet to be felt on a wide scale
*iv+&am'oo and Cane (or)s : Among the traditional crafts,the making of bamboo and cane products is
perhaps most universally practised by all sections of the people throughout the "tate. Its products may be termed
as #pure handicrafts# in which even elementary mechanical device is not used. Its products have wide range of
uses and as such are commonly found in every household.
7o definite records are available to establish the antiquity,history and origin of this craft in Assam. !ut it
can be safely assumed that the crafts is being carried on since the very dawn of civiliFation.
;ike other handicrafts,the bamboo and cane products of Assam earned

4/. %irectorate of &conomics and "tatistics, 'ovt. of Assam2 "tatisti!al Hand Book, Assam, 4BB?, p. 46564,
4BB., p.440.
I7%8"T-I&" ..4
wide appreciation in the past. 1e find mention of the use of ##well decorated and coloured Sital Pati *cool mat+##
usually made of cane. )tolemy stated that canes were grown and used as bridge. In Harsa Charita,there is a
mention of bamboo cultivation and its uses for various purposes. ##!ana testifies to this highly developed crafts.
$e states that !haskara sent to $arsa baskets of variously coloured reeds,thick bamboo tubes and various birds
in bamboo cages##.
4?
:rom this it may be inferred that this craft was highly developed in the past not only in the
production of utility articles but also of the articles of great artistic value.
This craft is now mainly a household industry and occupies an important place among the handicrafts of
the "tate. It provides a subsidiary occupation to the cultivators and fulltime occupation to the highly skilled
artisans who produce only fine decorative baskets,furniture and mats,etc.,on commercial scale.
The making of bamboo products is mainly a rural industry. It is commonly pursued by the agriculturists
in their spare time as a subsidiary occupation. Its heavy concentration in the rural areas may primarily be
attributed to the availability of bamboos in the villages and the very high demand for various bamboo
products,such as ,mats,baskets,fishing contraptions,etc.,in every rural household. The essential equipments
required for the industry are dao and knife which are invariably found in every family. The manufacturing
activities are generally carried out outdoor and all the members of the family,both male and female,take part in
it. $owever,the male members of the family predominate. (ost of the products,manufactured in such
household,are meant for domestic use and only a small percentage of the products are sold in the markets. The
professional artisans who follow this trade as a whole time occupation sell their products in the markets. .a$i,the
headgear which is produced on commercial scale,are of various designs and siFes. The 9a$is ornamented and
embroidered with different designs were indicative of the dignity and social status of those who used them in the
past. Although use of such .a$is is no longer in vogue now,the embroidered and ornamented .a$is are still
considered as precious possession by the rich and poor alike. (any varieties of #.a$is' such as 'Halua .a$i,Pitha
.a$i',Sorudoiya .a$i,'Bordoiya .a$i','Can .a$i: etc.,are produced in the undivided districts of
Kamrup,7agaon,%arrang,"ibsagar and ;akhimpur. 7albari and its neighbouring villages such as
Kamarkuchi,(ughkuchi,etc.,deserve special mention in respect of manufacturing of '*ulam .a$is' *decorated
bamboo umbrellas+. A village named 9apisagia situated at a distance of about A kms.from TeFpur in "onitpur
district is

4?. P)C) Choudhury + (he History if Ci"ili;ation of the Peo$le of Assam to the (welfth Century, A)D), 'uwahati,
4BAB, p. ?6=
A""A( "TAT& 'A,&TT&&- ../
famous for .a$i production. In the 7agaon district,the best '.a$is are made at Kandali,8riagaon,9agi and
Kathiatoli.
!amboo mats of various types are also manufactured on a commercial basis in the undivided districts of
7agaon,%arrang and 3achar. ;arge scale commercial production is reported from Karimgan< district where mats
are locally known as #dhara', 9haria or darma and thousand of people are engaged in this craft. In the district of
%arrang and 7agaon such mats are produced from the dried stalks of various kinds of marshy plants and
weeds,while in the district of 3achar,it is produced out of bamboo slips. The mats are of three kinds,kath,dhari,
and $ati) Kath mats are woven in a wooden frame and the better kinds are made from the kuhila plant
*aes!hynomeno as$era+. 3heaper varieties are made from murtha %marantha dis!hotoma' and hogal %ty$ha
angustifolia') The essential equipments required for the industry are dao and knife. !amboo mats are extensively
used for various purposes like construction of temporary walls and sheds,big pandals,roofing of country
boats,dwelling houses,screens,etc. !esides domestic uses,mats are also required by big mills and factories for
various uses.
Karimgan< is the only district in Assam where umbrella handle is manufactured on a commercial basis. It
is new addition to the list of other bamboo products of the "tate. An umbrella handle making cooperative
society is functioning in the village )aldahar under -atabari )olice "tation of the Karimgan< district. The "tate
'overnment has recently opened a training centre for imparting training to the artisans on umbrella handle
making at %idhnai in 'oalpara district.
The making of cane products is an important and growing cottage industry of the "tate which abounds in
cane. &xtrication of the throny cane from the thick <ungles is a difficult task. The forest authorities grant leases to
the ,ahaldars to extricate cane from forests. The tolls and implements required for the industry are mainly dao
and knife and it is an only in the making of furniture that few hummers,pliers or princes,etc.,are required. The
industry requires a certain amount of skill even in producing articles of day to day use but the production of the
furniture and other products of artistic value calls for a high degree of skill. In the manufacture of cane
furniture,undivided 3achar district en<oys a special advantage over other districts of the "tate in so far as skilled
artisans are concerned. !ut the skill has been recently developed among the artisans of 7agaon,%arrang and
"ibsagar also. The craft has commercial production in almost all the important urban areas of the "tate.
The main product of the cane industry is the plucking basket which is required in large numbers every
year by the tea gardens. As the tea planters find it convenient to purchase in bulk,and the small establishments of
artisans find it difficult to meet their requirements,the supply of the plucking baskets have become the monopoly
of the few farms that can afford to produce the
I7%8"T-I&" ..?
baskets on a large scale. %eprived of this market, the petty artisans look to the needs of the individual consumers
and manufacture various types of furniture and sundry articles like boxes, cradles, canestool *murrha', office
trays, tiffin baskets, bottle carriers,bicycle baskets, waste paper baskets, cane charis, etc.
The potentiality of making bamboo and cane products on commercial basis is quite considerable in the
"tate. There is a good demand for its products and raw materials required for it are also available in plenty in the
"tate. The dearth of skilled workers or technical guidance has limited scope of development of this industry to a
great extent.
8nder 3ane and !amboo Industry, an amount of -s. B,4.,555.55 was disbursed as grants and loans by
the Assam Khadi and >illage Industries !oard in 4BB.BA against -s.?,/4,555.55 in 4BB?B.. (oreover, 60A
centres of this branch of industry with an employment of A5?. produced goods worth -s. 4=A.5/ lakh in 4BB.
BA against -s. 4=4..= lakh, the value of total production made in B4A centres by engaging .?=0 persons in 4BB?
B..
4.

The Assam 'overnment marketing 3orporation and the 7&$$%3 have taken up various steps to
modernise the bamboo and cane industry in Assam and to expand its market. The "tate 'overnment has set up
sales emporium for the products of bamboo and cane industry in places like "hillong, 3alcutta and %elhi.
Assam#s cane and bamboo products are exported to countries like 8.".A. :rance and 9apan. 'Sital $ati' from
3achar has captured the market in the (iddle &ast.
"*# &rass and &ellmetal Industr+ : The brass and bell metal industry was highly developed throughout
Assam in the past. The skill of artisans who worked on metals in the past is well proved by the existing remains
of a copper temple at "adiya and copper plates issued by the rulers. 3opper and brass cups of 'oalpara district
known as Kansas are products of Assam of great significance. The industry has suffered decay and is confined
only to a few places like 3hatia, !acheria, (odopi, !ihaguri, (angaldai and )atharughat in individed %arrang
district, 9apargaon, Telekisinga, !okalma<gaon, 9api $a<ia, 'horbund and 9arwa in undivided ;akhimpur
district@ Konwaritol, -aha, 9agial, "amaguri and mau;as of !arbhagiya and Khaualgaon in undivided 7agaon
district@ Kaka<an, Titabar in 9orhat district, and "arthebari in !arpeta district, $a<o, -angia in Kamrup district.
Df all these places, bell metal and brass utensils of $a<o and "arthebari is widely acclaimed as the best
throughout the "tate. The number of artisans engaged in the industry is also very small. !ell metal utensils are
cast in moulds but brass vessels are made of thin sheets and pieced together. The articles

4.. %irectorate of &conomics and "tatistics, 'ovt. of Assam,. "tatistical $and !ook, Assam, p. 44046@ 4BBA,p.
4/./A.
A""A( "TAT& 'A,&TT&&- ...
manufactured by artisans mainly consist of utensils and vessels of day to day domestic use,such as #lota' *flattish
bowl with narrow neck+, an-kahi *plate with stand+ ,thagi *high plate+, an-gilas *tumbler with holding
stand+,kharahi *throughholed tub+, #kalah' *<ar for holding water+, 'sarai' *high tray',saria *tub+, #temi# *small
container to carry lime+, 'thali' *large vessel for boiling rice+,bell metal spoons,tumbler, kahi *dish+, etc. (irrors
made of shinning metals were also in use in the past. &ven now these mirror called da$on or dar$an are used by
the bride and bridegroom during marriage.
$istorically,the bell metal industry dated back to the 6
th
century A.%.when the illustrious Ahom kings
greatly patroniFed this industry with an unfailing Feal which was subsequently followed by an effective
patronage by the heads of monasteries and landed aristrocracy. The patronage by the kings and their progenitors
obviously helped the growth and development of this craft in Assam. The products of the industry soon found
extensive markets in the neighbouring countries of 7epal,!hutan and Tibet. It is a legend that king !haskar
>arman sent a part of 'hortal' a product of bell metal,to $arshvardhan, the king of 7orth India in the 6
th
century
A.%.as a token of his princely affection for him. Another Ahom king,Swargadeo "iba "ingha,in recognition of
the artistic genius of 9iudhan Kahar of "arthebari for making unique bellmetal products,give him a 'tamra$atra'
with the title #Kahar 3houdhury# and .5 ighas of revenuefree land.
Assam#s bellmetal industry is chiefly confined to few areas,namely Titabar,-aha and "arthebari. Though
the highest concentration being still in "arthebari,a substanial segment of the people engaged in the industry has
almost abandoned it and got engaged in agricultural pursuits and other vocations. The most important feature of
the bell metal industry is that the bulk of units %kahar sal' engaged in production are run on partnership basis as
a result of the ageold system. In each unit,normally four or five artisans pool their resources under a common
production programme,known as 'kahar-haiga' or o9a$ali) The artisans mutually decide to work under the
master artisan #Kahar' or #<9a',who owns the tools and implements in such establishments and manages
everything under him. The rest of the workers are known as 'Bhaigas') In these units,in fact,the workers are not
entitled to receive direct wages as the income is shared by them on the basis of mutually agreedupon rations.
The haigas normally get equal share and the main Kahar usually gets one and a half times the share of a
Bhaigas owing to his exclusive right of ownership over the implements needed for production. In the event of
the Kahar's death,either the productive unit is disbanded or a new Kahar is called upon to keep the unit running.
The Assam 3ooperative !ell(etal 8tensils (anufacturing "ociety,"arthebari,has been in existence
since 4B?B.5. It was started with a view to promoting the economic and craftsmanship interests of the members
by supplying
I7%8"T-I&" ..A
them raw materials,equipments and other facilities required for the industry. The bellmetal industry in the
"arthebari area remained in good stead for quite sometimes as it could provide employment to a few thousand
local artisans in some /A5 operating units. The number of such units has,however,declined to about 4/5 in recent
years. These units received a substantial portion of their supplies,say about 65=5 per cent of the total metal
consumed,in the form of scrap from local traders on the stipulation that they would return the finished products
to them which were to be moulded and processed according to specifications. The traders received not only the
finished products from the artisans after payment of their wages but also collected the residual metal. The
payment to the artisans was on piece work basis and they were no better than mere wageearners. "ometimes
deferred payments were forced upon the artisans and at times they had to accept less payment from the
traders,on the plea of lack of sale of products. The traders in a way en<oyed the exclusive monopoly of marketing
the products and this grabbed the entire profit accruing from the sales.
The 3ooperative "ociety in "arthebari,too,supplied raw materials to the memberartisans of the society
for the manufacture of finished products and got them back after payment of wages to them. $owever,due to
inadequate working capital,the society could not supply even /5 per cent of the total requirements of raw
materials to member artisans. 'enerally,the making charges of a variety of bellmetal product fixed by the
traders and the 3oopeartive "ociety were identical. $owever,in case of the society,the making charges were
more or less assumed irrespective of whether the sales were brisk or slack.
The area of operation of the 3ooperative "ociety is around "arthebari. The marketing of the finished
bellmetal products is carried on independently through its branches at 'uwahati,9orhat, 7orth
;akhimpur,TeFpur and %ispur as well as through a "ales %epot in the "arthebari area. The Tinsukia branch is
now closed.
The bellmetal industry is declining in importance because of heavy investment of working capital,high
cost of rawmaterials which is beyond the financial capacity of the artisans,a situation which leads itself to the
exploitation of the artisans by the merchants and traders. "arthebari and $a<o are the most important centres of
this industry. There is good demand for their products throughout the "tate. !ut the artisans are not in a position
to buy improved tools to produce improved goods to meet the demand.
$a<o is also a centre of this traditional handicraft of rare artistic design having more than ?55 artisans
families with about,/,555 people completely dependent on the handicraft for their livelihood.
The brass and bellmetal industry has also been facing stiff competition from substitutes which are
cheaper and a bit more attractive. A wide range of stainless steel products and other types of utensils are
generally preferred by
A""A( "TAT& 'A,&TT&&- ..0
the consumers due to the exorbitant price of brass and belt metal utensils and the simultaneous availability of
cheap and attractive machine made utensils which are abundant in the market. 1hile,with the advancement of
science and technology,the consumer preference are rapidly changing,the artisans of bell metal industry are
following old designs and indigenous methods. (odern techniques of production such as electrical moulding,
casting, polishing, etc.,are still unknown to the artisans and they continue to follow the primitive and
cumbersome process.
8nder the Industrial policy of the 'overnment of Assam,4B=0,a 3ommittee was set up to study the issue
and problems involved in the recognisation and moderniFation of the bell metal and brass metal industries in
Assam. The 3ommittee took up steps for the benefit of 45,55 artisans engaged in more than ?55 units of bell
metal industry in Assam. To ensure the regular supply of raw materials to the artisans engaged in the bell metal
and brass metal industries at "arthebari and $a<o respectively,the (inerals and (etal Trading 3orporation
*((T3+,'overnment of India,set up a raw materials depot at 'uwahati. Artisans are being sent places like
(oradabad and )atna for training and honing of skills.
"*i# &la$)smit+ :
!lacksmithy is an important and common household industry in Assam. It is invariably found as the
hereditary occupation of the household concerned. The son works as an apprentice and receives training under
his father and the skill is thus carried down from generation to generation.
In the plain districts,the ironsmith is known by the term 'Kamar' one of the nine professional caste
groups %7aasaka') The #Kamars' do not like to be designated as such but prefer to continue to retain their old
caste which,they claim,have descended from 8iswakarma)
In the olden days,the principal articles of production of this industry included agricultural
implements,domestic tools,weapons,besides the tools of the craft like anvil,hammers,chisels,etc. Time has
brought about many farreaching changes in our social and economic life but some of the tools and implements
have come down through the ages to us exactly in their original shapes. The usual products of blacksmithy
presently found all over the "tate are simple agricultural implements like ploughshare,sickle,hoe and various
implements of daily use such as 'dao' knife,axe,etc. Apart from the manufacturing of these products,the
blacksmiths also undertake repair and other servicing works.
!lacksmithy establishments are found in both rural and urban areas but generally the industry is more
concentrated in urban areas. 8sually the rural establishments are scattered and one establishment often serves the
need for several villages. !ut occasionally concentrations are also found in rural areas
I7%8"T-I&" ..6
such as village Karanga in "ibsagar district. "uch areas are found to be inhabited by a large number of
hereditary blacksmiths for generations. :or example,the blacksmiths of Karanga have been working in the
village from several generations and are only branches of the same family. It is said that in days of Ahom rule,the
blacksmiths of Karanga were specially appointed for manufacturing artilleries. The blacksmith of Karanga take
pride in their ancestors whom they claim to be the manufacturers of the biggest cannon still found displayed in
the compound of the court building at "ibsagar.
It is found that most of the artisans are working in an unorganised way. Dnly recently a few cooperative
societies have been organised and the impact of their activities on the artisans are yet to be sen. The urban units
generally provide wholetime employment and principal occupation while their rural counterparts provide only
part time and subsidiary occupation to the workers.
The chief raw materials for the industry are steel and soft iron imported from outside the "tate. A
considerable demand for raw materials is also met from scrap iron. The chief fuel is coal but some of the
blacksmiths use charcoal as well which is available from local merchants all over the "tate. -ural blacksmiths
sometimes burn logs of wild timbers and prepare charcoal for their own use. The tools and implements used by
the blacksmiths are very simple. A pair of sledge hammers,cold chisels,files,a furnace with bellows are all that
they need for their working.
"*iii#,old and Sil*ersmit+ :
The industry of goldwashing in the beds of Assam rivers like the "ubansiri,The !rahmaputra and the
!uridihing yielded considerable quantities of gold at one time. The industry suffered a gradual decay in course
of time,because the amount of labour and strain involved in gold washing could hardly be compensated by
selling the little quantity of gold dust collected from the river beds. The following account of gold washing and
<ewelery industries that flourished in some districts of Assam in the past,makes an interesting reading. An
important industry of the Ahom period was gold washing and manufacture of <ewelery. 'old was washed from
the sands of the !rahmaputra. (any people were engaged in gold washing. They had to pay to the royal
exchequer one tola of gold per head per year. 'old could be procured from the sand at all places on the banks of
the !rahmaputra. According to the reports on the Administration of Assam 4=B/B?,and 4B545/,the rivers of
Assam which yielded gold were those of the %arrang and ;akhimpur districts north of the !rahmaputra,the
!rahmaputra itself in its upper course,the 7oa%ihing and a small stream called 9agle,which rises in the Tipam
hills and falls into the !uri%ihing. In the "ibsagar district,the %hansiri,the %esoi and the 9hansi were
A""A( "TAT& 'A,&TT&&- ..=
said to be auriferous. Dut of these streams,the !harali,the %ikrang and the "ubansiri in %arrang and ;akhimpur
seem to have formerly given the largest quantities.
4A
According to the TeFpur 'rant,##The river ;auhitya carried
down gold dust from the gold bearing boulders of the Kailasa mountain.##
40
It is also recorded that >anamala
rebuilt the fallen golden temple of Si"a %Hataka Sulin'in $aruppesvara. It is probable that the reference in the
Arthasastra *II,KII+to a variety of gold called Hataka,extracted from the mines of the same name,has a bearing
on this and that such a mine might have existed in the mountains lying to the north of modern TeFpur or at the
foot of the $imalayas.
46
The histories of the invasion of !akhtiyar again state that there was a huge image of
gold,enshrined in a temple where the invader took refuge when he was surrounded by the Kamrupa army.
According to -iyaFus"alatin,the gold image in the temple weighed one thousand mounds)
16
'old washing operation was carried out by a guild known as the Sonowal Khel,who paid the
'overnment a tax at four annas weight or five rupees worth of gold per annum. The "tate derived considerable
income from the yearly tax levied on gold washing. In the early part of the !ritish rule,gold washing industry
thrived for some time but was given up ultimately as it was expensive and unprofitable.
The industry of 'old and "ilversmithy is mainly concentrated in the urban areas. The artisans are from
families which have been traditionally associated with the industry. The survival of this ageold industry may
primarily be attributed to its higher rates of profit and adaptability to individual tastes, The indigenous <ewelers
exhibit considerable amount of skill and artistic refinement in making golden ornaments such as dugdugi,
goal$ara, loka$ara, muthi, 9oniri, keru, kayur, kankan, kara!hani, ena, angathi, thuria, gamkharu, etc.
'radually,though modern ornaments like chain,necklace,earing,bracelet,tikli,etc,made their places. "till craving
for old ornaments in kind and design with modern touch still persists. The goldsmiths hail from !engal
constitutes the bulk of the artisans engaged in this industry. Among the indigenous goldsmiths only those who
have adapted themselves to the changing pattern of the <ewelery are still in the line.
"*iii#-ood(or)s and $ar!entr+ : This is one of the important old time industries of Assam. This
industry is seen functioning both on cottage and on smallscale basis. In Assam,the traditional carpenters who
have been the important elements in a village society belong to the community Suter or Sutradhar and there is
mention of this caste in #8edas') "ince time immemorial there forefathers,from whom the mantle has fallen on
them,have been working

4A. &.A. 'ait 2 A History of Assam, 4B06@ p. /6/.
40. ).3. 3houdhury 2 (he History of Ci"ili;ation of the Peo$le of Assam of the (welfth Century A)D), 'uwahati,
4BAB, p. ?6564.
46. Ibid, p. ?64.
4=. Ibid, p. ?64.
I7%8"T-I&" ..B
on wood. 'enerally, a carpenter earns his living by building houses, manufacturing carts, ploughs, looms,
furniture, icons and boats.
In this context, it may also be mentioned that carved wooden articles were also common in the olden
days such as Palang,Sal$ira,Bar$ira,Para,Dola,&aru Ason,wooden doors, windows, .atar *spinning wheel+ and
Karoni) ;ocal craftsmen can also produce carved benches, chairs, thagi or bookrest,stools, etc. The finer sense
of artistic beauty among the wood workers can also be traced from the manufacture of minor weaving
implements like makol,karhoni,dur$ati,nasani,etc., which were generally ornamented with carving of parrots,
peacocks, monkeys and other floral designs. Although this industry is found in different parts of Assam, yet it is
mainly concentrated in the important city and towns of Assam, such as, 'uwahati, %hubri, 7agaon, etc. (a<uli
7agaon and !arpeta were famous for manufacture of &uru-Ashans, door and window motifs, 7orth 'auhati was
famous for Dola and loom manufacture, %hubri and !arpeta for boat manufacture. (ost of the Satras were
patrons of good Sutra who could manufacture decorated &uru Ashan $ats, (hagis, motifs for wall doors and
windows and wooden figures as well as paint these. In the rural areas, most of the craftsmen carry on this
industry as a subsidiary occupation.
All the artisans of this industry do not possess the required uptodate skill and designs to attract the
customers for their products. Dn the other hand, they require finance for equipments, working capital, factory
sheds and knowledge about improved technique as well as the opportunity to sell their finished products. :or the
improvement of the industry, it is necessary that commonservice facilities in workshop should be provided at
the concentration pockets and raw materials depots be attached to the common service workshops. The Assam
'overnment (arketing 3orporation would find out markets for the products of the artisans and also suggest the
lines of manufacture.
&. Industries and manu.a$tures o. State :
"/# 0ining and Hea*+ Industries :-
"a#Petroleum Industr+ : 8pper Assam is well known as an oil area. The oil found in this area has led to
the installation of four oil refineries in Assam the first at %igboi,the second at 'uwahati,the third at !ongaigaon
and the fourth at 7umaligarh. The existence of petroleum in this area was first discovered in the year 4=/= by
;ieutenant 1ilcox and (r. 3.A.!ruce in 4=?6,(a<or 1hite also reported to have located several oil springs on
the 7amrup river.
An attempt was made in about 4=00 by (r.'oodenough of (c.Killop, "tewart and 3ompany to utilise
the petroleum of Assam. $e was granted certain rights over a large tract of land on both sides of the %ihing
river,from !uri%ihing to 7oa%ihing. The first successful
A""A( "TAT& 'A,&TT&&- .A5
strike at oil took place at (akum near (argherita on /0
th
(arch,4=06 at a depth of 44= feet,and about ?55
gallons *4?0?,66 litres+ of oil were collected. This well was the first successful mechanically drilled oil well in
Asia,though it had only a brief life. :ollowing this as many as eight holes seem to have been bored in (akum
area,some of them being successful producers of oil. 7otwithstanding these results,(r.'oodenough was not
successful in establishing a petroleum industry.
"ubsequently,(essrs !almer ;aurie and company,a syndicate of private gentleman and the Assam
-ailway and Trading 3ompany were granted certain rights. In 4==/,while constructing the railway line from
%ibrugarh to ;edo,petroleum was discovered at %igboi and exploitation of fields was started by the Assam
-ailway and Trading 3ompany in 4=0B. The first well at %igboi drilled in 4==BB5 marked the birth of the oil
industry in India. The 3ompany also established small refineries of an experimental character first at %igboi in
4=B? and later at (argherita in 4B=0. In 4=BB,wells had been drilled,the Assam Dil 3ompany was formed and in
the following year the new 3ompany with a capital of ?45555 pounds came into existence with the ob<ect of
taking over the oil concessions and the plant of the syndicate and of the Assam -ailway and Trading 3ompany.
As the oil wells near %igboi have more favourable results, a large refinery was erected by the Assam Dil
3ompany near the oil bearing strata and gradually the <ungle was reclaimed to make room for the beautiful oil
town of %igboi. Dil -efinery at %igboi started functioning in %ecember,4B54 and supplemented the refinery
built earlier at (argherita. !ut lack of adequate finance stood in the way of further expansion of the 3ompany#s
*A.D.3.+activities and as a result,the production of oil declined to 4.,555 gallons *0?A05 litres+per day in 4B/5
from 4=,555 gallons *=4=/0./+per day in 4B4B.
!y 4B/5,after years of urgent drilling for more oil,the 3ompany completed only =5 wells and the time
came when it could not carry on without strong financial backing. The !urma Dil 3ompany,in 4B/4,took over
the management of the Assam Dil 3ompany and with it came much needed financial backing,technical skill and
organisational experience. )roduction gradually rose to ?5,555 gallons *=4=/0/ litres+per day in 4B?4.
4B
%uring the period from 4B?. to 4BA/,the production of the Assam Dil 3ompany remained more or less
static varying from 4=.4=6 thousand gallons *=?00.A to =A5/=/ litres+per day,owing to the difficulty of
increasing the output from the depleting oil fields.
(ore than 4555 wells have been drilled in the area. The %igboi -efinery produces unusually wide
variety of petroleum products. Till 4B00,more than a million tonnes of crude oil had been supplied by the %igboi
oil fields and the current production stands between 465,555 to 4=5,555 tonnes a year. The oil reserves which
have been exploited continuously for a period of B5 years are expected to be exhausted within this century. The
crude is refined in

4B. ).3. 3houdhury 2 (he #!onomi! De"elo$ment of Assam, 4B0?, pp. 4AB05.
I7%8"T-I&" .A4
the 3ompany#s oil refinery at %igboi. The -efinery has an annual capacity of 5..0 million tonnes of crude and
the balance of its crude requirement is met from the supplies of 7aharkatia and (oran fields.
The next and most important oil field in the "tate was discovered at 7aharkatia in %ibrugarh district.
The discovery of oil at 7aharkatia was a momentous event in the history of Indian petroleum industry for it
opened up a new vista of oil exploration in the alluvial areas within the country. Dther oil fields had also been
discovered at $oogri<an and (oran. 'eophysical work in the 7aharkatia area was undertaken as early as in
4B/?. 1hen it become feasible to drill wells below 45,55 feet *?5.= metres+,some seismic work was carried out
in the area to locate the most favourable site for drilling the fast well. !ut 1orld 1ar II intervened and the
'overnment imposed a moratorium and prohibited exploratory drilling except for providing the extension of the
%igboi field. $owever,after the 1ar a prospecting licence was granted to the Assam Dil 3ompany to resume
exploration works.
)reparation for exploration of oil at 7aharkatia was made in the year 4B04 and drilling of well 7o.4 at
7aharkatia commenced on (ay,/0,4BA/. "eventy five wells were drilled upto %ecember,4B05. The deepest well
in the area is 4?,505 feet *?B65.0= metres+. The number of wells drilled in the 7aharkatia area rose to 4.. in
August. In the (oran Dil field ?5 wells were drilled till August,4B0.. The discovery of oil at 7aharkatia
accelerated the rate of oil exploration and led in 4BA0 to the drilling of a test well. !ut owing to the greater depth
of oil bearing strata in the area drilling takes much longer time at (oran than at 7aharkatia.
The estimated gross reserves of oil in the 7aharkatia and (oran fields are .=.=6 million tonnes. The oil
fields are being developed by the Dil India ;td.to produce ?.54 million tonnes of crude annually in the refineries
at %igboi,'uwahati and !angaigaon in Assam and !arauni in !ihar.
All the wells drilled by the Assam Dil 3ompany so far in 7aharkatia and (oran areas are under Dil
India ;td. The total area of operation of Dil India in 7aharkatia,7aharkatia&xtension,$oogri<an and (oran
covered by the mining lease was about A45.?A square miles *4?/4.=5 sq.kms.+. The %oom%ooma prospecting
exploration licence area under Dil India ;td.consisted of about 4/B4 square miles *??.?.0= kms.+.
(ore recently,the oil and 7atural 'as 3ommission has also been very active and has struck rich deposits
of oil at -udrasagar,;akwa,Teok,'eleki and between 9orhat and 'olaghat. It is anticipated that -udrasagar
would produce at the rate of 5.A5 million tonnes a year. According to a recent estimate,the reserves in ;akwa
field may be of the order of .A million tonnes,even though the full extent of the fields has not been demarcated
yet. An additional / million tonnes a year is expected from the oil fields of -udrasagar, ;akwa, Teok, 'eleki,
Kusi<an and between 9orhat and 'olaghat. This additional production may require
A""A( "TAT& 'A,&TT&&- .A/
an investment of about -s.05 crores inclusive of exploratory work.
It is estimated that about AA per cent of the local geographical area of Assam is made up of sedimentaries
and can be considered as potentially oil bearing. In 4B0?,Assam produced B./. lakh tonnes of petroleum crude
which accounted for nearly A= per cent of the country#s oil production. At present,Assam produces about A5 per
cent of the total crude oil production in the country. The production of crude oil was ?,AAB thousand tonnes in
4B6?,increased to ?,6?A thousand tonnes in 4B6.. The production further increased to .=.0 lakh tonnes in 4BB.
due to intensive exploration conducted on priority basis. The table below shows production of petroleum crude
utilised in Assam for past few years.
/5
)roduction of )etroleum *3rude+in Assam.

Eear *)etroleum crude *in lakh tonnes+
4B05 I.... ..0
4B0/ I... 0.=?
4B0? I... B./.
4B65 I... ??.0
4B64 I... ?A..
4B6A I... .4.B
4B=4 I... .?.=0
4B=A I... .6.B5
4BB4 I... .=.?=
4BB/ I... .6.5?
4BB? I.... .6.?6
4BB. I.... .=.04

The crude petroleum industry in Assam according to latest trend is on the rise and has greatly furthered
the prospect of Assam#s economic development and that of the country as a whole. This can be <udged from the
Index table given below 2

/5. *i+ /ndustrial Programme for the *ourth Plan for Assam by national 3ouncil of Applied &conomic research,
p. /6.
*ii+ %irectorate of &conomics and "tatistics, 'ovt. of Assam 2 #!onomi! Sur"ey :
4B6=6B,p. ... and Statisti!al Hand Book, 4B==, p.4.5@ 4BBA,p. 4?A.
I7%8"T-I&" .A?
INDE1 O2 CRUDE PETRO3EU0 PRODUCTION IN ASSA0
*!ase4B65L455+
3lassification 1eight 4BB5 4BB4 4BB/ 4BB? *)+
4 / ? . A 0
3rude )etroleum ==.0? 4.0 4.. 4.5 4.4
"ource C Statisti!al Hand Book, Assam,4BB.
,u(aati Re.iner+ :- It is situated at 7oonmati area of 'uwahati city. This refinery has been set up in the
public sector in collaboration with -umania. The construction work of the -efinery started in 4BAB. Dn 9anuary
4
st
4B0/,the refinery was inaugurated by ;ate 9awaharlal 7ehru,then )rime (inister of India. 'uwahati -efinery
id the first public sector refinery in India.
This -efinery,like the -efinery at !arauni in !ihar refines the crude oil found at 7aharkatia,$oogri<an
and (oran in 8pper Assam. The crude oil from 7aharkatia comes through Dil India ;imited *!ulk supply+to the
-efinery. The crude oil from 7aharkatia oil fields are carried through pipelines over distance of .55 kilometres.
This pipe line is capable of transporting to 'uwahati a quantity of /.6A million tonnes of crude oil a year. In all,
from 7aharkatia to !arauni,there are B pumping and 46 repeater stations. The pipeline is highly automatised and
it has uptodate telecommunication,telemetering and telecontrol equipments. !ut with more pumping stations the
pipe line can carry upto ..55 million tonnes per year in its second leg. A crude conditioning plant to facilitate the
pumping of the 7aharkatia crude has also been set up at %ulia<an in 8pper Assam at a cost of -upees two crores.
The Dil and 7atural gas 3ommission also supplies crude oil to the 'uwahati -efinery from the newly found
-udrasagar oil fields.
The Indian -efineries ;td.,'uwahati,are engaged in processing 5.6A million metric tonnes of crude oil
per year. The -efinery produces nine items of production and the table below shows some of the present pattern
of production of petroleum products in the -efinery and the amounts likely to be produced after expansion.
A""A( "TAT& 'A,&TT&&- .A.
Item
&xpansion *in tonnes+
)resent production
*In tonnes+
)roduction after
'asoline 4,05,555 /,B.,0555
"uperior and inferior
Kerosine 4,0.,555 /,.5,A55
Two varieties of diesel oil 4,=.,555 /,0B,=55
)etroleum coke. ?B,555 A6,/55
Aromax ?0,555 A/,=55
-efiner gas and losses. A.,555 6B,/55
;.).'. A,555 6,555
to to
6,555 45,555
:uel. I....... 4,4?,555

Apart from the crude distillation 8nit,the 'uwahati -efinery also has a Kerosene -efining 8nit 7ad
3ooking 8nit. It also produces gas now being flared. A plant is there to utilise this gas and produce the
liquidified petroleum gas for cooking purposes.
The cooking unit produces about ?B,555 tonnes of calcined petroleum coke per annum. The portion of
reduced crude that forms croke is solidified though a cooking process,later cut into pieces by a hydraulic drill.
The -efinery at 'uwahati has a products pipeline running from 'uwahati to "iliguri through which all
the white products which cannot be marketed in Assam area,are transported. This product pipeline has been
commissioned in Dctober,4B0.. The ma<or part of the products is pumped through this pipeline to "iliguri and
the remaining quality is distributed in Assam. The refined products are distributed through the marketing
dividion.
'uwahati -efinery which is a resource based 3entral 'overnment )ro<ect has good scope for success in
the field of industrial development of Assam and can support a number of ancillary and subsidiary units,both by
way of supplying stock items and others that would process further their products and byproducts.
The establishment of the 45 crore Dil -efinery of 'uwahati is a landmark in the field of industrial
development in the "tate. According to the -umanian experts,the -efinery can be doubled with an expenditure
of A5J of the present
I7%8"T-I&" .AA
outlay . (oreover,the established of the Dil -efinery has given a fillip to the growth of subsidiary industries
based on carbon gas and wax around 'uwahati and has also created employment opportunities in the "tate.
Re.iner+-$um-Petro Cemi$al Com!le45&ongaigaon :-The foundation stone of this one million tonne
-efinerycum)etro 3hemical 3omplex at !herbheri,A kms,from !ongaigaon was laid by (rs.Indira 'andhi,the
then )rime (inister of India on 9anuary 4B,4B6/. This public sector undertaking,completed in about four years
time at a total cost of over -s.B0 crores,is the biggest industrial pro<ect in !ongaigaon district. The crude is
supplied by Dil and 7atural 'as 3ommission from ;akwa and -udrasagar oil fields. )rovision is there to meet
the additional requirement of crude from 'eleki and 7aFira fields of Dil and 7atural 'as 3ommission. In order
to facilitate the supply of one million tonne of crude oil to !ongaigaon -efinery,the pipeline from 7aharkatia to
!angaigaon was constructed. !esides refining petroleum,this undertaking produces )olyester
film,%.(.T.)olyester,)ar and Drthoscuience and various other petroleum products. Dn the basis of these down
stream products,it will be possible to set up various industries for manufacture of a wide range of sophisticated
industrial goods and consumer items. %.(.T. )olyester fibre is a versatile raw material for manufacture of
terelene and may open up a wide base for the development of textile industry in the "tate either by itself or by
blending with natural fibrescotton,wool and silk. This heavy industry complex in an industrially backward
district like !ongaigaon is expected to usher in an era of industrial prosperity.
Oil India Pi!eline Pro6e$t :-To transport crude oil,the oil India has constructed a 44A/ kms. *46/5
miles+long pipe line from 7aharkatia to !arauni. This pipe line crosses the difficult terrain in Assam,linking the
oil fields in 8pper Assam which refineries at 'uwahati and !arauni. The pipeline which crosses 6= rivers
including the mighty river !rahmaputra was completed in two stages. The pipes running from 7aharkatia to
'uwahati is .5.0. cms,while the line upto !arauni was completed in :ebruary,4B0?. In all,there are one
pumping and 46 repeater stations. The pipeline is capable of carrying /.6A million tonnes of crude a year upto
'uwahati and /.55 million tonnes a year thereafter to !arauni. !ut with greater number of pumping stations the
pipeline can carry upto ..55 million tonnes crude oil per year to 'uwahati and ?./A million tonnes per year in
each second leg. In order to facilitate the supply of one million tonne of crude oil to the !ongaigaon
-efinery,pipeline of the length of 055 kms.has been laid down from 7aharkatia to !ongaigaon by the Dil India
;imited.
Crude Conditioning Plant :-A crude oil conditioning plant has been established at %ulia<an in 4B0/ by
the Dil India at a cost of -s.4.05 crores. The plant facilities pumping of 7aharkatia crude oil. This started
operating at its /AJ before the !arauni -efinery went on stream. In this
A""A( "TAT& 'A,&TT&&- .A0
conditioning plant,crude oil is processed and pumped into the pipeline for onward transmission to the refineries.
The waxy nature of the crude oil from the 7aharkatia and (oran fields with a pour point varying
between /65 and /=5 posed a serious problem of its transmission. !ut in collaboration with !urma Dil 3ompany
;td.and !ritish )etroleum in ;ondon,a process was evolved of making this crude flow event at very low
underground temperatures. The crude was heated to about B5.c. To 455.c. To dissolve all wax nuclei and then
cooled to bring it to the siFe and shape of wax crystals. The <ellying tendency was modified to the extent
necessary to keep it in a liquid state even at very low temperature. A pilot plant was rigged up to determine the
optimum rate of cooling to produce minimum viscosity. The crude is first heated and then cooled down to 0A.c.
!y incoming raw crude in exchanging in the )lant. The crude at 0A.c. Is then pumped into vertical vessels,when
it is cooled,at a predetermined rate. The crude #conditioned# is pumped into the crude storage tanks for
subsequent pumping into the pipeline for despatches to refineries. %uring the cooling period,the desired cooling
curve is obtained by a time schedule controller working in con<uction with a temperature recorder. A high degree
of automation has been introduced in the design of the plant which can be fully operated from a control room.
The main purpose of this plant is to keep the crude #thin# enough for pumping. A similar plant involving
expenditure of -s. 05 lakhs has been set up at (oran in %ibrugarh district.
The installed refining capacity of the oil refineries in Assam are as follows 2

-efinery (illion tonnes annually
%igboi *set up in 4B54+ 5.A5
'uwahati *set up in 4B0/+ 5.=A
!ongaigaon *set up in 4B6/+ 4.?A
7umaligarh *construction started in 4BB/+ ?.55

"et up by the 'overnment of Assam in collaboration with I!) *Indo!urma )etroleum 3ompany+,the
7umaligarh -efinery in the district of 'olaghat is expected to the completed by the end of the twentieth century.
"'#Industries 'ased on Natural ,as :-7atural gas reserved discovered so far in the 7aharkatia and
(oran Dil fields are started to be of the order of //5,555 million cubic metres. A large proportion of this gas
reserve is made up of associated gas only = wells,6 in 7aharkatia and 4 in (oran,are described as gas producers.
The gas of other wells will require processing.
I7%8"T-I&" .A6
The daily output expected to be of the order of /= million cubic metres,of which about A0 million cubic metres
can be consumed by the oil fields themselves. As the oil and gas will be required to be separated in stages,the
composition and the quantum of gas will also vary from stage to stage. $owever,the average analysis of the gas
can be taken as follows.
/4
,as Per $ent

(ethane I.... B5..5
&thane I.... A.5=
Isobutane I.... 5..6
)ropane I.... /.=.
7.!utane I.... 5.0A
Isopantanes
7.)entances I.... 5.A0
$exenesx
3o
/
I.... 7il
7/s I..... 7il

The Assam 'as 3ompany which is a "tate 'overnment undertaking has been formed to undertake the
distribution of the gas of various users as well as to set up a 'as :ractioning plant to provide a base for possible
petrochemical industries. To utilise this gas ,a thermal power station with 0? (1 capacity has been established
at 7amrup. At 7amrup,the :ertiliFer 3orporation of India has constructed a :ertiliFer factory to produce 455,555
tonnes of ammonium sulphate and AA,555 tonnes of urea per year.
A Tindari 'as 'rid has been formed to supply gas to a number of tea gardens of Tingrai circle for
running factories and other allied works. The daily requirement of gas in the above undertakings is of the order
of B million cubic metres@7amrup Thermal )ower "tation A million,7amrup :ertilFer /./ million and Tindari
'as 'rid 4.= million cubic metres. The expansion programme of 7amrup Thermal )ower "tation by another /?
(1 and the production of 45,555 tonnes of carbon black,for which the licence has already been issued,will
require another ? million cubic metres of gas per day.
The production of natural gas which was 464 million cubic metres in 4B04 rose to a level of 45?5
million cubic metres in 4BB/. The table below

/4. /ndustrial Programme for *ourth Plan for Assam by the 7ational 3ouncil of Applied economic -esearch,
p./=.
A""A( "TAT& 'A,&TT&&- .A=
shows production of natural gas utilised in Assam for past few years.
//

Eear 7atural gas utilised
*in million cubic metres+

4B65 I.... ?05
4B64 I... ?6A
4B6/ I... .B6
4B6? I... A//
4B6. I... A?B
4B6A I... 0/4
4B60 I.. =.=
4B66 I... B5/
4B6= I... ==B
4B6B I.. B.0
4BB5 I... B=6
4BB4 I... B06
4BB/ I... 45?5
4BB? I... =?=
Namru! 2ertili7er Pro6e$t ::ertiliFer is an important input which is essential for increased agricultural
production. Any programme for increased agricultural production in Assam will have to be based upon fertiliFer
consumption,irrigational facilities and supply of high yielding varieties of seeds. In Assam,where the scope of
expansion of area under cultivation is very limited,emphasis is given to these three factors. The installation of
the fertiliFer factory at 7amrup is a momentous venture in the agroindustrial sector of Assam.
The discovery of a reserve of //5,555 million cubic metres of natural gas in 7aharkatia and (oran oil
fields during the late fifties of this century led to various enquiries about the use of the gas. The 'overnment of
India appointed (M" "nodgrass Associate of the 8nited "tates to study the prospectus of the proper utilisation of
the gas. Their report disclosed that the natural gas can be used of manufacture nitrogenous fertiliFer and for
generation of electricity. The Kane 3ommittee made the final scrutiny of the plan and selected 7amrup as the
site of the fertiliFer factory. The site was finalised in 4B0/ and an import

//. #!onomi! Sur"ey + %irectorate of &conomics and "tatistics, 'overnment of Assam p. ?A.
I7%8"T-I&" .AB
licence was issued in the same year. The 'overnment of India assigned the work to (M" $industhan 3hemical
and :ertiliFers. 1hen the :ertiliFer 3orporation of India came into being it was entrusted with the
implementation of the scheme.
7amrup is situated at the foot hills of the 7aga $ills in the eastern part of the %ibrugarh district. This
industrial town is surrounded by tea gardens beyond which the green field stretches for miles. The %illi river,a
tributary of the !rahmaputra,flows nearby.
The 7amrup :ertiliFer :actory is owned by the :ertiliFer 3orporation of India ;td. and is its fiftieth
producing unit. It is the only plant of the :ertiliFer 3orporation of India,where natural gas is used as raw
material. The gas is made available by Dil India ;td.,at a pressure of 454A kg,3m
/
Mto the Assam 'as 3ompany
which is a "tate 'overnment undertaking. In the Assam 'as 3ompany,the pressure further boosted to /A kg.and
is supplied to a battery unit of the :ertiliFer plant at a distance of ?5 kms.by pipeline at a pressure of 4A40 kgs
per 3m
/
M
?
. The same pipeline supplies gas to the nearby Thermal )ower "tation and to some tea gardens. "ulphur
is the other raw materials which is imported through the "tate Trading 3orporation.
The factory is designed to produce annually AA,555 metric tonnes of 8rea,and 455,555 metric tonnes of
Ammonium "ulphate. The total capital outlay is of the order of -s./../0 crores including foreign exchange
components of -s.0.?0 crores. It went to commercial production from 9anuary 4,4B0B.
1ith the rapid rise in the demand for fertiliFers the need for setting up another fertiliFer factory in Assam
was almost imperative. Techno economic surveys conducted to find out suitability of various locations revealed
that the expansion of the existing factory at 7amrup had an edge over the erection of a new factory in any other
location. The expansion pro<ect was approved in 4B06 and construction in 4B0=.
Though this pro<ect has been termed as ##&xpansion##virtually it is a factory by itself having an installed
capacity of 4,A/,555 tonnes nitrogen and ?,?5,555 tonnes of urea per year. The capital outlay of the pro<ect is
-s.A4 crores including a foreign exchange component of over -s.46 crores. "ome of the important features of
the existing plant and the expansion plant are given below 2
A""A( "TAT& 'A,&TT&&- .05

E4isting !lant E4!ansion

Ammonium plantation
capacity /55 tonnes 3apacity 055 tonnes
per day@laid in two per day@laid in single
equal and independent streams.
"treams.
8rea plantation
3apacity 406 tonnes 3apacity 455 tonnes
per day@laid in two per day@laid in two equal
equal and independent and independent streams.
"treams.
7itrogen .A555 tonnes
per annum. 4A/,555 tonnes per annum.
)ower requirement
4. (1 4B (1.
3apital cost -s. /..0 crores. -s.A4 crores approximately.
Total tonnage =555 45,A555

7amrup :ertiliFer :actory is the first Indian fertiliFer factory to use indigenous catalysts developed by
the )lanning and %evelopment %ivision of The :ertiliFer 3orporation of India.
About 05 to =5 per cent of Ammonium "ulphate and /5 per cent of 8rea produced in 7amrup :ertiliFer
:actory are used in Assam. The surplus is sold in 1est !engal,!ihar and 8ttar )radesh. "ale I conducted through
their non "aledepot and recognised agencies. :or dissemination of technical knowhow,literature on various
uses of fertiliFers is prepared by the marketing organisation of the pro<ect and distributed among the farmers.
"$#Coal Industr+ : The existence of coal deposits in 8pper Assam had been known from the early days
of the !ritish occupation of the "tate. It is mentioned in the old 'aFetteer of ;akhimpur that in 4=/A,;ieutenant
1ilock reported that coal was found near !orhat on the %isang river. In 4=/A,about A555 maunds of coal were
quarried by (r.!ruce was dispatched to 3alcutta. The 3oal was pronounced to be equal to &nglish coal and the
best ever found in India. !ut it took time to develop this industry. A geological survey of coal fields was
undertaken by (r.(edlicott in 4=0.0A. In 4=60,(r.(allet who examined the coal fields of 7agaland,divided
the coal measures of ;akhimpur into two fields,(akum and 9aipur. According to him,(akum coal field
contained about eighteen million tons of coals,about half of which could be exploited
I7%8"T-I&" .04
easily but no progress worth mentioning in the exploitation of this mineral could be made until the formation of
the Assam -ailways and Trading 3ompany in 4==4.
The survey of the coal resources of Assam was started by the 3entral :uel -esearch Institute at %hanbad
in 4BA?,and later in 4BA6,the 3oal "urvey "tation for the Assam coal fields was established in temporary
premises at 9orhat. Then it was permanently shifted to -owriah where the -egional -esearch ;aboratory for
Assam has been constructed. The survey and research conducted by the 3.:.-.I and its station at 9orhat has
revealed that Assam coals are very important geologically. The Tertiary coals are found generally to be a rank of
lignite but Assam coals have abnormal properties in so far as they exhibit dual characteristics of a high and of a
low rank coal,and their abnormality is generally attributed to high organic sulphur contents.
0a)um $oal.ield :(akum coal field near (argherita is ?5 kms.long,and about A kms.wide between the
%irak on the west and the hairpin bend on the Tirap river on the east. The coal seams extend eastward from
7amdang,along the two opposite limbs of the east plunging 7amdang syncline. The sourth limb of the syncline
is obscured,at places by the $aflong%isang thrust and consequently the coal seams extending along this are
either highly distorted or totally cut off at intervals.
At present,working collieries in the (akum area are at ;edo,7amdang Tipong and !orgolai. These
collieries are situated in a line among the lower hills about 0.. kms.south of (argherita. The coal field at ;edo
*at Tikak,;edo valley and 8pper ;edo+was discovered in 4==/ and since then it is producing coal of good
quality. The work at 7amdang and Tirap 'rants which formerly belonged to (r.$aly and which paid a small
dead rent in place of royalty,began in 4=B6 and 4B== respectively. The colliery at !orgolai was established in
4B5B and while colliery at Tipong in 4B/..
8ai!ur $oal.ield : The coal bearing strata extends along the western edge of the Tipam $ills. Dutcrops
of the seams are seen along a strip of /A miles *.5 kms.+long,about half of which lie in the "ibsagar district. A
thickness of more than 4? metres of coal in 0 seams is exposed in the %illi river. The coal bearing rocks dip to
the east with high inclination, *?5
5
to =5
5
+. Dn the "ibsagar side,that is,to the west of the %illi -iver,the colliery
has an area of four square mile *45./. sq.kms.+. 3ompared to the coal of (akum field,the %illi coal has as
shown by investigation carried out at the -egional 3oal "urvey "tation at 9orhat,low calorific value and high
oxygen on unit coal basis. The coal so investigated appears to have been oxidised in situ,and it is likely that they
may improve in quality at depth. ;ike all Teritary coals of Assam,the %illi coals are friable and produce high
proportion of fixes.
A""A( "TAT& 'A,&TT&&- .0/
Na6ira $oal.ield :-The 7aFira coalfield about /A kms.in length lies about 0.. kms.south of 7aginimara
station up the %ikhou river. &xcept for a small outcrop of coal measure within = kms.of the "affrai railway
station,the coalfield lies in the 7aga $ills. "ince the coal is worked from the "ibsagar district,the 7aFira
coalfield may be conveniently described here.
The thickest coal measures are exposed in the "affrai river where there are A workable seams totaling
about // metres in thickness. The reserves of coal estimated in limited areas of the coalfield,appear to be about
.5 million tonnes.
%ata available from sources other than the -egional 3oal "urvey "tation indicated that the coals are
good quality. They have about A per cent moisture,4 to . per cent ash and / to ? per cent sulphur.
8an6i and Disai Coal de!osits :- The coal bearing on the 9han<i river is quite narrow. 1hile the %isai
lies <ust on the "tate border,the other area stretches further in the 7aga $ills. The seams are few,thin and highly
inclined.
!esides these coalfields,there are also two collieries namely Koila<an colliery and "ibheta located in
Karbi Anglong district. The Koila<an colliery is near $ills and has been in operation since 4B.B. The area of
working operation is about 655 acres.
The output of coal from this colliery is gradually on the decline. $igh mining cost,transportion difficulty
and poor quality of coal render its coal less attractive as compared to coal from ;edo and (argherita coalfields.
The "ilbheta colliery is situated at a distance of ./ kms. :rom %iphu on the %iphu7agaon -oad. Its
base area is /.AB sq.kms. The mining operation in this colliery commenced on 0
th
:ebruary,4B0?. The thickness
of coal seam in this colliery is very low. This coal mine is operated through manual labour. In peak period of
working,it provides employment to ?55 labourers.
Assam products about 4.?J of the total Indian output of coal. !ecause of higher labour cost and greater
difficulties of transport the coast of coal in Assam is higher in comparison to that of other coal producing centres
in India.
The higher sulphur content *about ? to A per cent in contrast to about / per cent in 9haria and -anigan<
fields+,in the coke produced from Assam coal makes it unsuitable for metallurgical purposes except for smelting
sulphuric ores,e.g.,lead copper or Finc. It is also not suitable for boilers. !ut this coal has the unique advantage
of lesser ash content *about / to A per cent as compared to 4A to /5 per cent in 9haria+and higher calorific value.
If a process could be evolved to disulphurise it cheaply,then its demand will naturally show a sharp rise as it will
then be ideally suitable for metallurgical purpose and will also produce much needed sulphur as a byproduct.
I7%8"T-I&" .0?
The overall production of call in Assam was A/.,555 tonnes in 4B04. The coal production was increased to
A6=,555 tonnes in 4B64. There was noticeable increase of coal production during the year 4BB. when it reached
the peak of 4/B/ thousand tonnes.
The following table shows the production of coal from 4B04 to 4B0B.
/?

9ear Produ$tion "in :;;; tonnes#
4B04 I..... A/.
4B0? I..... A=.
4B0A I..... AA5
4B06 I.... ..6
4B0= I..... .B/
4B0B I.... A/4
4B65 I.... A//
4B64 I.... A6=
4B6/ I.... A64
4B6? I.... .64
4B6. I... A56
4B6A I... A=/
4B60 I..... AA=
4B=5 I.... A6A
4B=A I.... =?A
4B=0 I... =0.
4B=6 I... B//
4B== I... 4555
4B=B *)+ I... =.5
4BB5 I... 04/
4BB4 I... B=/
4BB/ I... 450B
4BB? I... 4/.B
4BB. I... 4/B/

/?. *i+ #!onomi! Sur"ey: %irectorate of &conomics and "tatistics, 'ovt. of Assam, 4B65, p0=.
*ii+ Ibid, 4B666=, p.?0.
*iii+Ibid, 4B=BB5,p..=.
*iv+ Statisti!al Hand Book, %irectorate of &conomics and "tatistics, 'ovt.of Assam,p.4/6.
*v+ Ibid, 4BBA,p.4?A.
A""A( "TAT& 'A,&TT&&- .0.
"d#3imestone and Cement : ;imestone occurrence in Assam are confined to 7orth 3achar $ills and
Karbi Anglong districts. The "ylhet limestones continue into the 7orth 3achar $ills across the Kharkor and
Kopili rivers. They are found to cover an extensive area near 'arampani to The northeast of the confluence of
the two rivers. In Karbi Anglong, the principal occurrences are "ilbheta(eyong %isa,3hopung
$ills,9arapagaon,Koila<an !ar $ariha<an and %oigrung. Df these the first two are rather high in iron even though
the reserves are large@reserves in "ilbheta(eyong %isa are ?= million tonnes,in 3hopang $ills 46 million
tonnes and in 9arapagaon 0.A million tonnes. The total reserves between Koila<an and Kidimithapa are of the
order of =4 million tonnes of which .? million tonnes are reckoned as being high in silica. The "tate %irectorate
of 'eology and (ining has proved that ? million tonnes of these limestones are of cement grade. Average
composition of the samples analysed gave,3a5 .6./5 per cent and (g5 4.?5 per cent. "ilica varies between =
and 4/ per cent and alumina and ferric oxide 4 and ? per cent and / and . per cent respectively. In !ar $ariha<an
of Karbi Anglong district,about ..A million tonnes are likely to be available at "aini ;angso,3hota $ariha<an and
%isai 7ala analysing.

;ocality 3a5 (go -/55 Insoluble
*per cent+ *per cent+ *per cent+ *per cent+
"aini ;angso .. to .B 5.6 to 4.0 ?./= to =./B . to =
3hota $ariha<an ?=.=. 5.=4 A./A I.
%isai 7ala ./..? I. 44.5 0.65

&xposures of limestones are known along the %oigrung river 4B kms.south of 'olaghat but the quantity
of reserves have not been estimated. Dne available analysis estimates3a3o
?
6/B5 per cent,(g3o
?
6.?? per
cent,(g5NAl
/
5
?
N:e
/
5
?
B.5 per cent and Insolubes 45.65 per cent.
3ement (anufacture constitutes the most important use of limestone. 7ext in order of importance is its
use as a fluxing agent in the metallurgical industry. Dther uses,apart from lime for building mortar,are in the
manufacture of various chemicals,glass,refining of sugar,oil and as a filler.
The following table shows the production trend of ;imestone in Assam as of late.
/.

/.. Statisti!al Hand Book + Assam 4BBA@ %irectorate of &conomics and "tatistics, 'ovt. of Assam,p. 4?A.
I7%8"T-I&" .0A
PRODUCTION O2 3I0ESTONE IN ASSA0
Eear ;imestone
quantity
*#555 (.T.+
4BB4 /0=
4BB/ /.?
4BB? /=.
4BB. ??=

&o)a6an Cement 2a$tor+ : 3ement being an important construction material is required for
development of every sector of the economy. In the eastern region,there is heavy shortage of cement and its
transportation from surplus areas of other parts of the country involves long haulage and heavy railway freights
even though there is no shortage of limestone in the "tate of Assam. "o on the request on the "tate
'overnment,the 'overnment of India agreed to set up a cement factory in the 3entral sector and accordingly the
3ement 3orporation of India was entrusted with the task of implementing the pro<ect at !oka<an in the Karbi
Anglong district with an estimated cost of -s.4..A crores. The factory was set up around 4B64 and it was
completed by the end of the year 4B60. The factory has already gone into production and its production capacity
is 055 tonnes of )ortland cement per day. The factory has provided employment to about 055 persons.
The following table shows production of cement in Assam during the period 4B=A4B=B.

Eear 3ement
4B=A 40B
4B=0 406
4B=6 405
4B== 4A/
4B=B *)+ 400

"ource 2 #!onomi! Sur"ey,%irectorate of &conomics and "tatistics,
'ovt. of Assam,4B=BB5.
"<#3arge and Small S$ale Industries :
"i#3arge S$ale Industries :
Tea Industries :
The history of the tea industry in Assam dates back to the year 4=/0,
A""A( "TAT& 'A,&TT&&- .00
when indigenous tea plants growing in the plains of Assam came to the notice of the &ast India 3ompany. The
cultivation of this plant in the "tate was first introduced in the thirties by the &ast India 3ompany#s
Administration. A tea garden was started by the 'overnment in 4=?? in erstwhile ;akhimpur district. 1ith the
arrival in ;ondon of the fine quality tea from this garden in 4B?=,the commercial circle of the city took a keen
interest in tea plantations in Assam and a company known as the Assam 3ompany was formed in 4=?B to take
over the experimental holdings of the &asy India 3ompany#s Administration over the tea gardens established in
Assam till then. This was the first company in India to undertake the commercial production of tea and was,in
fact,the direct successor of the &ast India 3ompany. A site was cleared from the <ungle at 7aFira which became
and remained as the headquarters of this company until it was shifted to 3alcutta in 4B0A. The official
incorporation of this 3ompany was effected in 4=.A. This company,however,did not attain much prosperity
during the first ten years of its existence. !y about 4=A/,under the management of 'eorge 1illiamson,one of the
great pioneers in tea garden management,its condition began to improve and its success made the prospect of the
industry so promising and attractive that speculators egarly rushed to it . In 4=AB,the second important tea
company,the 9orhat Tea 3ompany was formed. To encourage tea plantation in the province,the 'overnment also
made liberal provisions for the settlement of the waste land for tea cultivation. In the early sixties,many
provisions of the former waste ;and "ettlement -ules were waived. !etween 4=05 and 4=0A,the industry was
the ob<ect of wild speculation. Then came the collapse in 4=00,when all tea properties depreciated and all the
babble concerns burst. "o severe was the situation that a 'overnment 3ommission of &nquiry had to be
appointed. It reported that the industry was basically sound, and by 4=6564 public confidence was restored and
development continued on sounder basis. In 4=6B,further slump occurred following the boom in prices due to a
false rumour of shortage of exports from 3hina. Though condition improved after three years,another slump
occurred for a period between 4=B? and 4B50 because of overproduction. The industry did not recapture its
expansion mood again in the present century. Dn the other hand,great improvements have been made in the yield
per acre under tea,in the grouping of gardens under a limited number of companies,in the progressive
mechanisation and rationalisation of production and in increasing their efficiency in regard to the productivity of
labour.
In 4B44,the Toklai -esearch "tation was established near 9orhat with a view to carrying on research on
cultivation and manufacture of tea. This -esearch "tation has been very useful in disseminating knowledge for
the increase of yield
I7%8"T-I&" .06
for the industry on sounder basis. The tea industry faced another crisis during the :irst 1orld 1ar due mainly to
the release of tea stocks built up during the was years by the !ritish 'overnment,and the consequent fall in
prices. At the suggestion of the Indian Tea Association,the tea gardens in Assam stopped plucking on 4A
7ovember,4B/? to decrease the output in order to improve the price structure. 8p to 4B/6 an era of prosperity
followed,during which modernisation of factories and production techniques made rapid strides. The industry
again faced an acute crisis during the early thirties. This crisis was successfully averted by enacting the Indian
Tea 3ontrol Act,4B??,and instituting an International Tea 3ommittee and Indian Tea ;icensing 3ommittee.
%uring the 1orld war 44,the industry again passed through a boom period and after 4BA4 it reached an
unprecedented prosperity. Then followed a severe crisis in 4BA/ when prices of tea crashed to an extent often
below the cost of production. Among the manifold causes suggested as being responsible for the recession in tea
prices,The most potent ones seemed to be over production in competing countries,a glut in medium and
indifferent grades of tea which could not attract a ready market owing to the cessation of the bulk purchase
system in the 8nited Kingdom,and the impact of the general downward trend in the commodity prices during the
postKorean slum of late 4BA4 and early 4BA/. 3onditions improved considerably in the following year and since
then the tea industry has been en<oying a satisfactory position,although it faced some difficulty due to severe
drought in 4B05.
The Dpening of Tea Auction 3entre at 'uwahati on /A
th
"ept.4B65,augurs a new era for the tea industry
of Assam. (arketing of tea has always been a problem for the products of this region. )reviously the Tea
Auction 3entre at 3alcutta was the only centre of sale for Assam Tea. The imposition of 1est !engal &ntry Tax
on Assam Tea,transport bottlenecks and many more difficulties involved in arranging the sale at 3alcutta
Auction centre,necessitated the opening of the Tea Auction 3entre in Assam which produces the bulk of it.
!oth in acreage and output the tea industry in Assam expanded very rapidly upto the 4B/5J#s. !ut the
increase of acreage slowed down considerably thereafter, though output continued to increased rapidly owing to
a high yield per acre. The Toklai &xperimental "tation has been helping the tea estates to increase their yields by
improved techniques and cultivation and by control of diseases and pests affecting the plants. The coarser
plucking,since the "econd 1orld war,has also contributed greatly to the higher yield per acre.
Dnly about one quarter of the total area of the tea estates is actually
A""A( "TAT& 'A,&TT&&- .0=
planted with tea. &ven admitting that some portion of the garden land had been utilised or reserved for other
purposes,eg.,far factories,quarters for employees,future expansion,forests.etc.,and that some portion is unsuitable
for plantation or other cultivation,large tracts or waste land are still available in the tea estates. "ome portion of
this waste land might be devoted to cultivation of other crops like paddy,wheat,cotton,hemp and medicinal herbs.
:rom the very beginning of tea plantation in Assam,the planters have faced great difficulties in securing
the necessary labour force. The experiment with immigrant 3hinese labour in the early days proved a complete
failure due to the high cost of requirement and maintenance and to the difficulties in their management. ;ocal
labourers were not available in sufficient number. There was also the risk of their desertion. It thus became
necessary to bring labourers from other parts of India in large number to cope up with the expansion of the tea
plantations in Assam. As a result of continuous inflow of immigrant labourers,there are now large number of tea
garden labourers in the tea producing regions of the "tate. "ome of the labourers have settled down in the farm
lands near the tea gardens. After the expiry of the term of their contract,many of them have taken up ordinary
cultivation. The tea acreage has not increased proportionately to the increase in the number of tea garden
labourers and as a result it has no longer been possible to give employment to all the labour force in the garden
areas. There is thus a large surplus of labour in the tea areas of Assam. These labour can be utilised in food
crop,fibre and medicinal plant production.
Among the Indian "tates,Assam has the largest acreage under tea,producing the highest quantity and
employing the highest number of labourers.
:ollowing tables give various data on tea industry of the "tate.
/A

/A. *i+ (ea Statisti!s, 4B6.6A.
*ii+"tatistical Abstract, Assam, %irectorate of &conomics and "tatistics, 'ovt, 'ovt.of Assam, 4B6=,
p.4A..
*iii+Statisti!al Hand Book, Assam) 4B6=,p.4A..
*iv+ Ibid, 4B==,p.4?4.
*v+ Ibid, 4BBA,p. 4/B.
I7%8"T-I&" .0B
A-&A A7% )-D%83TID7 D: T&A I7 A""A(
Eear 7o.of tea
estates
Area in
hectares
Total
)roduction
in thousand
kg.
Average yield
per hectare
in kg.
%aily aver
age no.of
labour
employed.
4BA4 6=A 4AA.06. 4A5.?65 I. I.
4B04 6.. 40/,?06 4=/,?44 I. I.
4B0= 6A= 460,=4/ /5/,04. 4,4.0 ?==,=./
4B0B 6A= 46B,.46 /5.,6?= 4,4.4 ?=0,?A4
4B65 6A4 4=5,50A /4/,5/6 4,46= ?B.,.45
4B64 6A5 4=/,?/A //?,00A 4,4/6 ?B6,?65
4B6/ 6A4 4=.,/.. 4?B,/50 4,/B= ?B0,?40
4B6? 6A4 4=A,44? /A4,=/A 4,?05 ?B=,6/A
4B6. 6A. 4=6,.5= /0A,/=4 4,.40 .54,40B
4B6A 6A0 4==,6B. /0?,5AA 4,?B? .5/,555
4B60*)+ 7.A. 4=B,??= /60,?5= 4,.AB I........
4B=5 666 /,55,A0B ?55,655 4,.BB ..=,B.B
4B=. =5= /,4.,6.4 ??=,A?? 4,A60 .6.,=A4
4B== =.= /,/6,A46 ?0B,./= 4,0/. A/6,=.=
4B=B =.= /,/B,./= ?6B,=AA 4,0A0 A..,/B4
4BB5 =.= /,?5,?0? ?==,4=4 4,0=A A.4,004
4BB4 =.= /,??,/=. ?B0,05A 4,655 AA.,A?0

As can be seen from the above table,the number of tea gardens,total production and area in hectares have
shown an upward trend since 4B04. In fact,the tea industry of Assam has contributed greatly to the foreign
exchange earnings of India,apart from being the ma<or supplier of tea in the domestic market of the country.
I7%8"T-I&" .64
Tea being a commodity which is sub<ect to direct taxation by way of excise duty,export duty and cess under Tea
Act,the industry makes substantial direct contribution to 3entral Income Tax,"uper Tax *3orporation Tax+and
Agricultural Income Tax. The Agricultural Income Tax along with "ales Tax levied upon the tea industry inflates
the income of the "tate 'overnment to a very great extent.
Tea is the mainstay of the plywood industry and a big buyer of fertiliFers. It is also a very important rate
payer which pays heavy freight charges of the transport organisations. Te industry has also played a very
valuable part in opening up and developing areas which were previously inaccessible <ungles and forests. The
areas retrieved and developed into flourishing tea gardens were not areas where food gains could ordinarily be
grown and as such there is no problem of competition between this crop and any other food crop. The
importance of the industry in the social structure is also noteworthy due to its both direct and indirect
employment giving labour intensive aspects. Agricultural in nature,the tea industry needs the application of
modern scientific way of cultivation. A single unit of the tea estate has to accomplish all the process right from
seedling ti final packing of the manufactured tea.
The 'uwahati Tea Auction 3entre has successfully completed /A years of its existence. It is remarkable
that in respect of 3T3 *3rush Tear and 3url+tea,the 'TA3 has earned the distinction of being the world#s largest
tea auction centre. 1hen all types of tea are considered,the 'TA3 is the world#s second largest tea auction
centre,the first being 3olombo. $owever,only ?= per cent of total tea produced in Assam is routed through the
'TA3.
Assam has =.= tea estates both high and small,and most of them are in "ibsagar district. Tea cultivation
covers an area of /.?. lakh hectares in Assam. 1ith an annual production of about ?B0 million kilogram of
tea,the tea industry employ 44 lakh workers. The 'overnment of Assam collects the highest amount of
Agricultural income tax from the tea industry. The 'overnment collects -s.4/ crores as sales tax the 'TA3
annually.
Pa!er Industr+ : Assam having the richest bamboo resources of the country offered good scope for
development of paper industry in the "tate. "o at first,the "tate 'overnment issued licences to private companies
to set up paper mills in Assam. !ut due to various reasons,they did not come forward and the licences remained
unutilised. The "tate 'overnment had,therefore,to review the position and decided to associate with the !ihar
'overnment in revitalising the almost liquidated Ashok )aper (ills ;td.owned by (ahara<a of %arbhanga and
set up the same at 9ogighopa in Assam.
A""A( "TAT& 'A,&TT&&- .6/
The foundation stone of the 9igighpopa unit was laid by the )rime (inister of India in Dctober,4B65 with loans
received from I:3I,I3I3I and ;I3. 1ith some of the machinery brought from the %arbhanga unit of the
company together with some new machinery,the 9ogighopa unit was set up and production was started. The total
cost of this paper mill was -s.?4 crores. It has a capacity of producing 455 tonnes of pulp and B5 tonnes of paper
per day. At present,the production of this mill has been stopped as it becomes sick.
In order to ensure steady supply of bamboo the company has taken up a programme of manmade
bamboo forests in the hilly areas of the "tate particularly around 9ogighopa.
In addition to this mill,the $industan )aper 3orporation of India *'overnment of India undertaking+set
up two paper mills in Assam each with a capacity of 4,55,555 tonnes of writing and printing paper per annum
one at 9agiroad in (arigaon district and the other in 3achar district.
A new pro<ect,Industrial )apers *Assam+;td.is being completed at %ihing. The number of new units
under forestbased industries has increased from ??/,to ?A?. $owever,the midterm appraisal of the &ight :ive
Eear *4BB/B6+plan of Assam shows that there has been a decline in production of paper by A per cent in 4BB? as
compared to the 4BB/ figure. &fforts are underway to revive the sick and closed Ashok )aper (ill.
Causti$ Soda and Clorine Plant : Important processing chemicals required for paper making are
caustic and chloride. These chemicals are also required by other industries of the "tate. !ut with the coming of
the Ashok )aper (ills ;td.,the question of these chemicals assumed greater importance. As such,essentially to
meet the requirement of these chemicals for Ashok )aper (ills a captive unit was set up ad<acent to the paper
mill site. This unit had a capacity of producing /A tonnes of caustic soda and little over // tonnes of chlorine per
day.
The $industan )aper 3orporation which has set up two paper mills in Assam also set up caustic soda
and chlorine plant for each of these two paper mills. &ach of these units has capacity for producing 40,A55
tonnes of caustic soda,4A,555 tonnes of chlorine and ??5 tonnes of $ydrochloric Acid *455J+ per annum.
India Car'on 3td : India 3arbon ;td.#s )etroleum 3oke 3alcination plant
I7%8"T-I&" .6?
was set up in collaboration with (M" 'reat ;akes 3arbon 3orporation of 8.".A.
:oundation stone of the plant was laid on .
th
%ecember,4B04. The creation work was completed in a
record time of 44 months and the plant went into production by 7ovember,4B0/. 1ith the establishment of this
3alcination plant at 'uwahati,India 3arbon became the pioneer in manufacturing carbon in India by producing
petroleum coke,the purest electrocarbon.
)etroleum coke,a byproduct of oil refining is the primary material used by the light metal producers. It
is the primary ingredient in the manufacture of anodes,cathodes and thermic eloctrodes as well as other carbon
and graphite products.
3alcined petroleum coke is used mainly by manufacturers of aluminium,titanium, magnesium, steel and
ferro alloys,producers of calcium carbide and silicon carbide and other manufacturers of carbon and graphite
products.
There are only three refineries in India )roducing raw petroleum coke,which is the vital raw material for
calcined petroleum coke. They are *a+Indian Dil 3orporation ;td.,'uwahati, *b+Indian Dil 3orporation
;td.,!arauni and *c+Assam Dil 3o.;td.,%igboi.
!efore setting up of this plant,this material was being imported from abroad mainly 8.".A.,and by
producing this material at 'uwahati,the foreign exchange that was being spent on import of calcined petroleum
coke is now saved.
Assam Car'on 3imited :In 4B0/,three entrepreneurs got together to set up the second carbon factory at
'uwahati to produce metallic and hard carbon grades of carbon blocks and electrical carbon brushes mainly for
automobiles,%.3.motors and sliprings. The company after collecting complicated details about the
industry,finalised the pro<ect and the unit came into being in the year 4B0?. The unit had,however,to pass through
several initial difficulties. !ut in the year 4B00,the unit could produce some grades of (.'. 3arbon !locks
which could well be compared with those produced in an industrially advanced country. !y 4B06,the company
was producing almost the full range of metallic carbon blocks,some grades of silver graphite carbon blocks and
almost all varieties,types and qualities of carbon brushes. The company was converted into a )ublic ;imited
3ompany in 4B0?. The second unit to manufacture electrographiatised and resin bonded carbon blocks,was set
up in collaboration with (organite 3arbon limited of 8.K. In 4B6.. The company has covered the entire range
of carbon blocks and carbon brushes for all applications.
A""A( "TAT& 'A,&TT&&- .6.
Assam Petro-Cemi$als 3td :In order to utilise natural gas of Assam#s oil fields in manufacture of
methanol,formalin,8.:.adhesive and 8.:.moulding powder,etc., the Assam Industrial %evelopment 3orporation
drew up a scheme for petrochemical industry in Assam and obtained an industrial licence from the 'overnment
of India in :ebruary,4B64. The foundation stone of this concern was laid at 7amrup on the 4A
th
9une,4B64. The
pro<ect was sanctioned for an installed capacity of 6,555 metric tonnes of methanol,4/,555 metric tonnes of
formalin,4?,A55 metric tonnes of 8.:.adhesive and 4,555 metric tonnes of 8.:.moulding powder per annum. The
total investment estimated for the pro<ect was -s.4/55 lakhs. The pro<ect has already started production and
provided employment to nearly ?A5 persons with a potential for further employment of 655 persons.
The pro<ect was implemented in collaboration with a 9apanese consortium. (Ms 9apan 'as3hemical
3ompany Inc.,Tokyo,9apan,provided technical assistance and supervision during erection and commissioning
and pro<ect engineering. The detailed engineering of imported machinery,inspection,procurement of machinery
and materials from 9apan was accomplished through two other 9apanese firms. The plants were designed on the
basis of the processes of (Ms 9apan 'as3hemical 3ompany,Inc.,Tokyo,(Ms Industrial 3onsulting !ureau
)t.;td.,!ombay,was entrusted with the task of working out detailed design and engineering of the indigenous
equipments including supervision during erection and commissioning of the plants.
As indicate above ,the unit produces important raw materials like 8.:.adhesive for the plywood industry
in the "tate and with the 8.:.moulding powder,a number of subsidiary industries will come up in the "tate.
2erti$em 3td : In order to meet the requirement of mixed fertiliFer in the "tate,the Assam Industrial
%evelopment 3orporation set up a unit for production of 7)K mixed granulated fertiliFer at 7arangi with
production capacity of /55 metric tonnes per day. The unit was commissioned in "eptember,4B6. and had been
set up with an investment of -s.6/.55 lakhs. It provides employment to about 455 people.
Sa.et+ 0at$es and S!lints : The first attempt at manufacture of safety matches in the small scale
industry in the "tate was made in 4B4/ at "ibsagar in the name and style of -ampur (atch :actory. !ut the unit
was closed down soon after its birth. The second and biggest attempt was the !rahmaputra (atch :actory at
9orhat,which was also closed down almost at its very start. The reason for the failure was perhaps the high cost
of production and nonavailability of abundant suitable timber near about.
!ut in 4B/.,abundance of simul timber in 'oalpara,Kamrup and 7agaon and imposition of import duty
on safety matches by the 'overnment of India,prompted a "wedish 3ompany to form the Assam (atch
company and set up a match factory at %hubri. !y the end of the second phase this factory was
I7%8"T-I&" .6A
able to produce about ./,555 cases of matches. As a result of expansion carried out by this factory during the
late sixties it is now able to produce more than BA,555 cases a year. It provides employment to nearly 4A5
persons. The Assam (atch 3ompany has since been taken over by the 1estern India (atch 3ompany ;td.
There is also a small match factory at Karimgan< with a capacity of =5,555 gross match boxes per
annum. It provides employment to about A5 persons.
In addition to this,a small match splint factory was set up by the Industries %epartment at !i<ni in the
year 4B0?. The unit had to face several difficulties during the initial years. It was later taken over by the A.I.%.3.
To run the same in a commercial manner. This unit has been able to overcome the initial difficulties and is now
running smoothly. The capacity of the unit is =5 million splints per day. The product of this unit is now being
taken by the 1estern India (atch 3ompany of %hubri and is also being sent to Tamilnadu,Drissa and Tripura.
The unit provides employment to about .5 persons.
Asso$iated Industries "Assam#3td.:
"Cemi$al Unit and te S!inning Units#:
This company in the private sector was setup at 3handrapur near 'uwahati for manufacture of ?55
tonnes of super phosphate and 4A55 tonnes of sulphuric acid per month in its chemical unit and for spinning of
cotton yarn with 4/,A55 spindles in its spinning units. !ut due to various short comings of the management both
the units were closed down in the year 4B6/6? and a large number of employees faced retrenchment. The "tate
'overnment in a bid to revive the unit negotiatede with the 'overnment of India and as a result the 7ational
Textile 3orporation of India *a 'overnment of India undertaking+took over the management of this spinning unit
and called back the employees and started production. The 7ational Textile 3orporation has now taken up
programme for expansion of the spindle capacity to /A,555 spindles and accordingly a licence had been obtained
in 9anuary,4B6.. The chemical unit was,however,taken over by the Assam Industrial %evelopment 3orporation
in the middle of 4B6.. The A.I.%.3.thereafter carried out extensive renovation and overhauling of the plant and
recommissioned the unit in the year 4B6A.
S!inning Unit : !esides the spinning unit of the Associated Industries *Assam+;td.,there is a spinning
mill at 3hariduar in the %arrang district. This spinning mill came up in the early sixties with a capacity of
4/,A555 spindles. This mill has also carried an expansion programme with addition of 4/,A55 spindles. This mill
now provides employment to more than 4555 people.
Sugar Industr+ : To utilise the sugarcane grown in the "tate,the first sugar mill of the "tate in the co
operative sector was set up during the "econd )lan period. The Assam 3ooperative "ugar (ill "ociety was
registered on /0
th
(arch,4BAA and the Assam 3ooperative mill was established at %ergaon,
A""A( "TAT& 'A,&TT&&- .60
40 miles */A.0 kms.+east of 9orhat near the Assam Trunk -oad. The manufacturing license to start the sugar mill
under the Industrial %evelopment and -egulation Act was obtained on 4.=.A0. The machinery of the mill were
produced from 3Fechoslovakia through (essrs "koda *India+)rivate ;td.,3alcutta.
The foundation stone was laid by the 3hief (inister of Assam on /.AA6 and the erection started on
45.B.A6,under the supervision of 3Fech technician and it was completed in (arch,4BA=. The factory went into
full production in 4B0504.
The mill provides direct employment to large number of technicians,educated youngmen and unskilled
labour and a vast population is connected with supply of raw materials and other ancillary activities resulting in
the improvement of their economic condition. The total strength of employees is 0A5 which is much less than
what is being employed by older mills of similar capacity owing to the most modern machineries installed. The
crushing capacity of the mill is =55 to 4,555 tons per day.
The second sugar mill in the "tate was set up in 3achar district,with a crushing capacity of 4/A5 metric
tonnes per day. The 3apital investment for the pro<ect was estimated at -".A.5.55 lakhs and the pro<ect had an
employment opportunity for about 055 persons. :or this pro<ect 4A,555 acres mostly of tea garden surplus land
are being utilised for cultivation of sugarcane.
Assam S!un Sil) 0ills 3td. :- This is the largest public sector undertaking in (arigaon district and was
started with a capital outlay of -s.=A lakhs,the subscribed and paidup capital being -s.=5,?6,655. The
construction works started on ?4
st
(arch,4B05 with a loan of -s. 45 lakhs as its working capital which has been
subsequently converted to 'overnment#s share contribution during 4B0=0B. Te construction was completed in
7ovember,4B04,and the mill went into production of 4= %ecember,4B04 with the installed capacity of ?,555
spindles for spun silk yarn and ./5 spindles for 7oli yarn. The mill was expected,while working in two shifts,to
produce ?.,5/5 kgs.of "pun silk yarn and //,0=5 kgs.of 7oil yarn annually. The spun mill pro<ect was set up to
find out new markets for eri and muga fabrics by producing standardised yarn and to ensure reasonable price to
the cocoon reares in the "tate. The (ill was an essential aspect of welfare ancillary to eri culture,which is the
main cottage industry of Assam.
8ute 0ill : Assam produces about 45 lakh bales of <ute per year which <ustify setting up as many as 0 to
= mills in the "tate. $owever,only a modest beginning could be made during the earlier )lans for setting up of a
small <ute mill in the cooperative sector at "ilghat in 7agaon district with 4A5 looms and with a provision for
expansion up to ?55 looms. The "ilghat 9ute (ill happens to be the first coopeartive <ute mill in the country.
9ute being a foreign exchange earner and the most important commercial agricultural produce in the "tate,the
setting up of a number of <ute mills in the "tate could have made substantial contribution towards the
development of the "tate,but due to various difficulties nothing tangible could be done even up to the end of the
Third )lan to set up any more <ute mill
I7%8"T-I&" .66
in the "tate. The "tate 'overnment from the beginning of this decade took up the matter very seriously and in
4B6. obtained two more licences for setting up of <ute mills in the "tate,one with a capacity of 4/,A55 tonnes and
the other with a capacity of 4/,005 tonnes of sacks and hessians per annum. "uitable site have been selected for
these <ute mills one at %algaon near (angaldoi in %arrang district and the other at 'uagacha near !arpeta. The
'uagacha units is being organised under the cooperative sector and the %algaon unit in the "tate sector through
Assam Industrial %evelopment 3orporation. !esides these <ute mills,a <ute twine factory has been recently
established at 7agaon in addition to the one already existing at 'uwahati,viF.,!rahmaputra 9ute (anufacturing
3ompany.
)rofiles of Assam "pun "ilk (ills ;td.And Assam 3ooperative 9ute (ills ;td.
Ad
minis
trative
%e
part
ment
"tate
level
)ublic
&nter
prise
Infor
mation
fur
nished
for the
year
)aid
up
3api
tal
'ov
ernment
Invest
ment
Total
3apital
Invest
ment
Turno
ver
)rofitM
;oss of
the year
Accu
mulated
;oss
7et
1orth
)osition
*7ega
tive+
&m
ploy
ment
*7os.+
4 / ? . A 0 6 = B 45 44
Indu
stries
%epa
rtment
;td.
Assam
"pun
"ilk
(ills
4BB/B? 465 ?/A ?/A /.5 =. .0B /B. .//
3oop
erative
%epartm
ent
Assam
3oop.
9ute
(ills
;td.
4BB/B? ?46 ?4= ?4= A?0 4.?0 4=4 4?= =A6
Sour$e :Statisti!al Hand Book,Assam,%irectorate of &conomics and "tatistics,'ovt.of
Assam,4BB.,p.4?=.5.
It appears that the Assam "pun "ilk (ills ;td.is a sick industry and needs urgent revamping of
management,marketing and personnel. 3omparatively,the 9ute (ills at least made a profit of -s. O.?0 lakhs for
the year 4BB/B?,although this industry too had an accumulated loss of -s.4=4 lakhs.
As'estos Cement :A company in the private sector has set up a factory near 'uwahati to manufacturers
cement sheets and cement pipes. This factory has a production capacity of ?.,555 asbestos cement sheets and
.,555 asbestos cement pipes per annum.
Industrial ,ases :To meet the requirement of the steel fabrication industry in the "tate (M" Industrial
'ases ;td. *annual production capacity 2 oxyFen
A""A( "TAT& 'A,&TT&&- .6=
/,.5,555 cubic metres and dissolved acetylene 4655 cubic metres+and (M" Indian DxyFen ;td. *annual
production capacity 2 DxyFen 4,B5,555 cubic metres and dissolved acetylene A5,555 cubic metres+set up their
respective units at 'uwahati for production and supply of industrial and supply of industrial gases. The third unit
for production and supply of industrial gases *annual capacity 2oxyFen C 5.?/. million cubic metres and dis
solved acetylene 5.4= million cubic metres+has been set up at !ongaigaon.
India ,as Com!an+ ::or proper and gainful utilisation of the waste refinery gas of the 'uwahati
-efinery as cheap domestic fuel gas,a scheme was sponsored as early as in 4B04 by some local entrepreneurs for
manufacture of ;.).'. After prolonged persuasion,the 'overnment of India agreed to set up a gas company in
public sector. "o,in 4B0?,the India 'as 3ompany was formed. It was duly approved and recommended by the
"tate 'overnment to the distributors of ;.).'.'as to be made available from the public sector 'uwahati
-efinery. The Indian Dil 3orporation ;td.in pursuance of the "tate 'overnment#s recommendation,has already
appointed the India 'as 3ompany as their distributors for ;.).'as in Assam. The 3ompany has also set up a
manufacturing unit of different siFes and types of gas cookers to serve the gas users in Assam at a low cost.
&is(anat &rass Rolling -or)s5,u(aati : This large scale industry is now running in the private
sector. It was started in 4BA.,with the cooperation and assistance of the 'overnment of Assam. It
manufacturers mainly sheets of brass,bell metal and copper. It is started that this industry was established at a
time when the supply of brass sheets of Assam from outside had declined and consequently the artisans
manufacturing utensils had to suffer a great deal. The installed capacity of this rolling mill is 4A55 tonnes per
year. This factory has been helping the brass and bell metal industries in Assam,and about 45,555 such artisans
all over the "tate have been depending upon the manufacturing products of this industry.
Siotia 0etal Industries5,u(aati :This private factory was established in 4B0/. The factory has got a
fixed capital of -s.4,A5,555M and a working capital of rs.A,55,555M. It manufacturers brass sheets,brass
circles,bell metal sheets blocks,gun metal items,alloys and castings,etc. The factory has engaged more than
/5,555 local artisans in the manufacture of brass and bell metal industries throughout the "tate.
Steel -ort Pri*ate 3imited 2 "teel 1orth )rivate ;imited is a ma<or industry in Assam. Its head office
is located at Tinsukia and brunch offices are there at 'uwahati and TeFpur. In respect of rawmaterials,it mainly
deals with mild steels,heavy and light structural sections,sheets and plates,doors,windows and standard sections.
Its main productions are <eep trailors,'.I.sheets,water tanks,hospital beds and bed side lockers,wheel
burrows,(.'.and !.'.clamps,low desk steel frames,overhead tanks and storage tanks,river gates *sluice
gates+,control power for aviation,electric towers,all types of steel doors and windows,manufacture of agricultural
implements like (.!.plough,brackets,etc. This enterprise is also recognised and registered by %efence
%epartment,-ailways,"tate
I7%8"T-I&" .6B
'overnment, 7agaland ,3.).1.%., Indian oil 3orporation , ).$.&., ).1.%. and other parties.
Te Assam Tanneries 3imited5 ,u(aati 2 The Assam Tanneries ;td. 1as established in 4B.5 by a
handful of local industrial people for manufacture of leather and leather goods. In 4B04, the 'overnment of
Assam having recognised the importance of the only leather manufacturing industry of the "tate, came forward
to pull up the industry from its decaying condition by contributing A4J of its subscribed share capital. This
marked the beginning of a fresh chapter in the life of the company to revive its business with a nucleus working
capital of A4,?5,/=4M ,:urther, with the assistance of the %irectorate of Industries, Assam and the "mall
Industries "ervice Institute, 'uwahati, After the third year of its revival ,the 3ompany disclosed a net profit of
-s.?4B?.A5 as on ?4
st
%ecember,4B0?@ over a total business of -s.4,/A,A=?.6? during the year 4B0?.
"ubsequently, it had to close down due to want of a suitable site of working and nonsupply of chemicals.
Te Assam Rail(a+ and Trading Com!an+ at 0argerita 2 It is one of the pioneer institutions that
fostered the industrial development of Assam. The 3ompany has three ma<or establishments at (argherita,
namely coal fields, timber works and brick fields. The 3olliery department of the 3ompany is functioning since
4==. and its organisational monolith is headed by the 3hief mining manager with a 3olliery "uperintendent
below him. The Average annual output of coal form the 3ompanyPs collieries is of the order of ??5=== tonnes.
The Timber %epartment of the 3ompany is administered by the Timber "uperintendent with the help of a
(ill (anager. :or the development of plywood industry the 3ompany opened its own factory at (argherita in
4B/. . The ;edo !rick )lant which is one of the two machine operated brick fields of the undivided ;akhimpur
district is owned by this 3ompany .
After the formation of the 3ompany in 4==4, the work of construction of the %ibrugarh "teamerghat -ailway
was undertaken by them . The first railway line form %ibrugarh "teamerghat to 9aipur -oad , was opened in
4==/. The coal fields were connected by -ailway lines in 4==..
-ailway workshops2 The railway workshop at %ibrugarh was established in the year 4==4 with an approximate
investment of -upees fifty lakhs. This is considered to be one of the biggest workshops in 7orth &ast India.
Altogether 4=A6 persons were employed there in 4B0.. !eside overhauling works, repairing of locomotives and
coaches are undertaken in the workshop and various components required for the above are manufactured. It
also undertakes casting of both ferrous and nonferrous metal and forging of steel items. The materials required
in the workshop are provided by the 3ontroller of "tores 7.:.-ailway, )andu.
Rail(a+ (or)so!s: The railway workshop at %ibrugarh being overburdened with the works of carrying
out repair of locomotives, carriages, and wagons, a second -ailway workshop was established at 7ew
!ongaigaon on !ongaigaon district in 4B0A covering an area of about =5 hectares. The pro<ect at 7ew
!ongaigaon consists of ? amalga
A""A( "TAT& 'A,&TT&&- .=5
mated factories and was completed at a cost of about -s.45A/ crores. It has a periodical overhauling capacity of
4,A55 units of passenger coaches and ?,555 units of goods wagons per annum . It also undertakes manufacturing
work for various %ivisions of 7orth&ast :rontier -ailway. The total number of employees in the workshop is
/,4/A including 4,.6B 3lass III and 0AA 3lass I> staff . Dver 0.J of the staff have been provide with
accommodation by the -ailway in the colony spread over an area of about ..5 hectares and lying about a
kilometer from the workshop.
"ii# Small S$ale Industries:
Ri$e 0ills2 In the urban areas of every district of the state, there are rice mills, some of which are
combined rice and oil mills. The 'overnment is encouraging handpounding of rice through the Khadi and
>illage Industries !oard. A number of licenses to install ricehullers have been issued in recent years.
The capital investment in the rice mills ranges from -s. A5,555 to -s. /,A5,555. Average number of
labour per day employed in each mill varies from ?5 to A5 through a lesser number is also found in very small
establishments. The raw materials required for the industry is paddy which is locally procured and its main
product is rice which finds its way into the local markets. )addy procurement is the monopoly of the "tate
'overnment and the millers are allotted paddy from time to time for milling on commission basis.
2lour 0ills2 There are small units of flour mills in the "tate with an annual capacity ranging from ?A
metric tones to .A metric tones and in average employing ? to A persons. 1heat is allotted by the "tate
'overnment and the product which mainly comprises flour is sold locally.
%uring the last part of the "econd :ive Eear )lan, a roller flour mill involving a capital investment of
-upees nine lakhs was established at TeFpur. It provides employment to A5 persons both as full time and part
time workers. The Assam >alley :lour (ill which is also a -oller :lour (ill was opened on 6.=.AB <ust near the
-angghar 3harali, about a mile *4.0 km+ from "ibsagar town with a total capital of -s. 6,=/,4A0.4? %etailed
account of this flour mill is given in the "ibsagar %istrict 'aFetteer.
Sa( 0ills2 The saw mills are playing an important role in exploitation of the forest wealth of the state.
The timber requirement of the %efence %epartment during the "econd 1orld provided great impetus to the
industry. The progress of the industry was accelerated by many other factors during the postwar period and now
it occupies the place of an important industry. There are more than A55 saw mills Assam at present. The capital
investment of these
I7%8"T-I&" .=4
saw mills varies form rupees ten thousand to rupees two lakhs. %iesel, steam sets are used for running these saw
mills. "aw timbers are mostly sent outside the "tate particularly to places like 3alcutta, -ourkela, %elhi,
-a<asthan, etc.A larger number of sleepers are also supplied to the -ailway
,inning 0ills 2 3otton is widely cultivated in the Karbi Anglong district of Assam and almost whole of
it is exported outside the "ate in unginned form. It has also a good international market if it can be blended with
wool very suitably . The %iphu 3otton 'inning 3o Dperative (ill was establishment it is not working
satisfactorily. !esides the %iphu 3otton 'inning 3o operative (ill, there are seven cotton ginning mills in
Assam.
Pl+(ood Industries 2 The development of tea industry had a catalytic effect on the development of
ancillary industries in the "tate. Tea even form the beginning of its planned cultivation and processing found
both internal and foreign markets. (arketing of tea, more so when it is to be exported, and for packing of tea,
plywood was found to be the most suitable material.
;ike tea , coal, and petroleum, plywood industry was also started originally by the !ritishers after the
:irst 1orld 1ar and primarily to meet the requirement of tea industry. The plywood industries originally set up
started manufacturing plywood in the form of tea sacks only, and gradually developed teachest plywood of ?
plies. 1ith the discovery of various species up tea chest plywood factories in Assam and these units gradually
were able to meet the bulk of the requirement of teachest plywood for the tea industry of the "tate.
All plywood factories in Assam , however, continued to manufacture only tea chest plywood almost upto
the middle sixties.
3ommercial and decorative plywood *including flush doors, block boards, etc.+ produced in Assam is now
being exported and thus it is earning valuable foreign exchange. Assam is now being exported and thus it is
earning valuable foreign exchange. Assam started this industry with two miniature units in the twenties , but
there are now as many as ?4, many of which are equipped with the most uptodate plant and machinery and
provide direct employment to about 45,555 persons. !esides this industry is also making substantial contribution
to the state exchequer by way of various taxes, royalties, etc.
Soa! 2a$tories 2 About 4/. units are engaged in manufacturing washing soap in Assam and almost all
of them are concentrated in the urban or semi urban areas of the "tate . The average annual production of these
units varies form .5 metric tonnes to 4=5 metric tonnes.
A""A( "TAT& 'A,&TT&&- .=/
Oil 0ills2 There are more than /55 oil mills in Assam . The ma<ority of them are located in the urban
areas of the "tate , A number of rice mills have oil crushing plants attached to them. The oil mills employ 45 to
.5 persons and produce mustard oil, oil cakes, wood oil, etc. There are also more than doFen citronella oil mills
in Assam .
Candle (or)s: There are a number of candle works in the "tate. They obtain materials form the
'overnment and make candle of various siFes.
Automo'ile -or)so!s 2 1ith the increasing use of motor cars, trucks stage carriages, etc. a large
number of automobile repairing workshop have come up in the urban areas of the "tate . These are mainly
repairing and servicing centers. "ome of them also undertake the spray painting of automobiles. "ome firms of
main towns of the "tate undertake body making of trucks ans buses.
Vul$anising and T+re retreading 2 'rowing use of automobiles have also led to the development of
another category of rapairing workshop known as tyre retreading and vulcanising shops. These are mainly
located in the urban areas of the "tate .
Steel 2urniture 2 The new and multifarious uses of steel largely contributed to the growth and
development of steel furniture industry. The demand for steel furniture for offices, hospitals , shops, factories,
and homes is increasing rapidly due to its overall advantage in respect of economy , durability, risk of fire and
scarcity of good seasoned timber . As a result , a large number of steel furniture factories are coming up.
&ri$) 0a)ing 2 1ith the increase in the tempo of constructional activities and urge for higher standard
of living , the brick making industry has come to occupy an important place in the economy of the "tate .The
brick fields, scattered mostly in the outskirts of towns are a common sight, thought a few can be noticed even in
the interior villages. The normal practice in the brick kilns is to make the bricks by manual process with help of
the moulds called forma and then burn them in the oval pattern multichambered kilns.
Trun) and Suit$ase 2a$tories2 A large number of trunk and suitcase factories manufacture and repair
trunks, suitcases, brief cases, kit boxes, water tanks, ridgings, etc.
"hoe making 2 In addition to several individual shoe makers *3obblers+ in the urban areas of the "tate, few are
engaged in making shoes and rubber chapals.
2i'er &oard Industries: To utilise the waste form the local saw mills and plywood factories one
licence for establishing a factory at (akum for the manufacture of chip board been issued .The volume of
wastage in the saw mills and plywood factories is considerable. IT varies from .5J to A5J . This waste is not
put to any use other than as fuel. There are many nondurable species of timbers not
I7%8"T-I&" .=?
suitable for any of the industries but which can be processed for production of hard board and chipboard. The
chipboard industry will depend mainly upon the local mill wastes . !esides this chipboard industry at (akum,
one hard board factory has been installed near 'uwahati by (M" $ard !oard ;td. The capacity of this plant is A5
tonnes per day. This plant has utilised the tops and branches of felled tress left in the forests and poles of
firewood species, The estimated requirement of these raw materials is ?5,555 tons annualy. The 'overnment of
Assam is a participant in the share capital in this forest based industry. The licence of ?,6A5 tonnes per annum at
'uwahati was granted in 4B04 under the name and style of Assam $ard !oard limited with an authorised capital
of -s.4 crore. The "tate 'overnmentPs share participation was an amount of A lakhs till 9anuary, 4B0A.
Tim'er Seasoning Plant 2 To meet the ever increasing demand for seasoned timber, a timber treatment
and seasoning plant has been established in the )ublic "ector by the :orest %epartment at (akum, at a cost of
more than four laks of rupees, !esides this, there are several small scale timber seasoning plants in Assam .
Engineering industries: There are a large number of engineering works concentrated mostly in the
urban and semi Curban areas of Assam .These engineering works have sprung up in recent years .They
manufacture parts of water pumps ,sugercane crushers ,cast wheels,axels,cast wheel rims,wire nails,barbed
wire,tea chest fittings,nuts and bolts ,building materials,simple agricultural implements,hume pipes,steel
trunks,buckets,drums,cans,<eep trailers,etc. They generally employ three to ten persons. There are also a few
aluminium industries in the "tate which make utensils . :acility of casting of ferrous and nonferrous metals is
also provided by several establishments.
0anu.a$ture o. tools and im!lements .or tea industr+:- Tea is the main industry of Assam and one
of the countryPs leading foreign exchange earners. Its demand for various types of implements, machineries and
spare parts is so great that this alone can support a number of ancillary industries. "everal firms have already
been established to cater to the needs of tea garden factory equipments,storage tanks , trailer,seel containers,
drums , trolleys, garden leaf shifters, pulleys, 3.T.3.machines and their components ,rice and oil machines, etc.
It may be noted that each tea garden has a factory of its own to process tea leaves.
-eigts and 0easures2 1ith the introduction of the (etric system of weights and measures, the
demand for these also increased manifold. "ome of the firms are manufacturing weights and measures as
subsidiary products.
Steel stru$ture 2 Tabular structures are mainly required for construction of structural houses like
factory godowns, factory sheds, etc. 1ith the growth of industries the demand for these items has increased
rapidly. "everal
A""A( "TAT& 'A,&TT&&- .=.
firms are also manufacturing steel structures in Assam.
-ire .en$ing: A number of industrial units are engaged in making wire fencing of all types including
barbed wire as a part of their other manufacturing activities and a few are exclusively engaged in making barbed
wire. The main items of production include oven fencing ,fencing corner and posts, 8. bolts, angle cross arms
and other wire products. The tea gardens of the "tate are the leading consumers of wire fencing products.
0etal Industries 2 There are several expanded metal industrial units in the "tate manufacturing
reinforcing concreate materials for roads, foundation, dams, reservoirs, etc. &xpanded metals are generally used
in manufacturing and for making partitions and enclosures. Its popularity can be imagined from its tremendously
increasing use in -ailway passenger coaches,windows, factory machines and protective coverings, etc. The
labour cost is very small in comparison to the value of the products. !esides these expanded metal units,
!agrodia (etal Industries at 'uwahati is manufacturing brass wires, silicon gas, welding rods, manganese,
bronFe, copper coated , aluminium, etc. The normal capacity of production is 4555 kg. per day.
Printing !resses :- There are a large number of printing presses and these are mostly in the urban and
semi C urban areas of the "tate. "ome of the establishments are run with treadle type of printing machines. There
is also arrangement for color and block making in a few of the printing process. &lectricity is being used to run
the printing machines. "ome of the printing presses have offset printing as well as computer facilities. "ome of
the printing presses have a binding as well as computer facilities . "ome of the printing presses have a binding
unit attached to them .
Um'rella 0a)ing :- The number of umbrella making units in Assam is very small and all are in the
urban areas. The umbrellas are, in fact, assembled from different parts obtained form outside the "tate. 7o
umbrella parts are manufactured in the "tate and a very few indigenous people are found engaged in this in
industry or in repairing umbrellas. The repairing <ob is done by the people, mostly (uslims from outside Assam
moving from house to house and place to place also in town markets and weekly village markets.
Tailoring :- 1ith the improvement in the standard in the standard of living and with the increased use
of tailored garments both in urban and rural areas, the tailoring industry in growing extensively and can be seen
almost everywhere throughout the "tate. The ma<ority of workers in this industry are males.
I7%8"T-I&" .=A
Df late, however, women in good number have also started tailoring , working mostly within their own houses.
The ,ahila Samitis 3ommunity %evelopment !locked and other nonofficial Drganisations in the "tate have
arrangements for imparting training in tailoring to women and in some cases to men too. The Industries
%epartment of the "tate runs a few tailoring institutes in Assam . (ost of the tailoring shops are engaged in
tailoring of shirts, trousers, py<amas , blouses and frocks with cloth supplied by customers, while some are
engaged in making readymade garments with cloth supplied by dealers.
0anu.a$ture o. &edding re=uisites :- As in various other places, manufacture of bedding requisites in
the "tate is a monopoly of a section of &ast !engal (uslim settlers and of (uslims from !ihar. 1hile some of
the units have number of workers of this trade move from house in search of work. The fixed shops keep a stock
of ready C made articles and also make mattresses, quilts, pillows, cushions etc., out of materials supplied by the
customers themselves.
0anu.a$ture o. Cement Con$rete Ring and Urinal and 3atrine Sla's :- This industry is of recent origin and
can be seen in a few places of the "tate ."ome units manufacture the items mostly on contract either from the
)ublic 1orks %epartment or 3ommunity %evelopment !locks or public $ealth &ngineering %epartment, or
against order from large establishments like tea estates, etc.1ith the growing hygienic sense in the rural areas,
squatting type water sealed latrine slab placed over a deep narrow pit is now in extensive use and the slabs are
supplied by these units. "ome units also manufacture -.3.3. fencing posts against other . &very unit , $owever,
maintains a ready stock for sale.
Re > roling 0ills :- The tea industry , crude oil exploration , oil refinery , etc. have together helped
growth of engineering industries all over the "tate . To meet the iron and steel requirement of these engineering
industries all over the "tate . To meet the iron and steel requirement of these engineering industries and
extensive building programmes , during the sixties, two billet rerolling mills came up in this "tate which could
not meet even a fringe of the "tatePs demand . As such , the "tate 'overnment had to encourage scrap rerolling
mills in the small scale sector in the "tate . In the second plan period , two such scrap rerolling mills in came up
but during the decade as many as 4. more scrap rerolling mills in the small scale sector came up in the "tate .
The capacity of these re rolling mills varies from .,555 to 4A,555 metric tonnes per annum . &ach of these units
provides employment to about 4A to A5 persons. These rerolling mills together are now in a position to meet a
partial requirement of the "tate for iron and steel of different sections. The Assam 8dyog 3ompany , the re
rolling mill located at %ibrugarh , is engaged in the production of rolled products like rods, bars etc. The mill is
not working at its full capacity due to the shortage of raw materials.
!esides these industries in small scale sector, several small units
A""A( "TAT& 'A,&TT&&- .=0
manufacturing different items are scattered in Assam . %ue to the paucity of information , these industries are not
detailed .
"iii# Cottage Industries : Dld time important cottage industries like weaving, sericulture, pottery,
bamboo and caneworks, brass and bell metal, gold or silversmithy, blacksmithy, etc. which are still in existence
have already been described above. A reference may, however , be made to the handpounding of rice. It is
commonly practised in almost every household in the rural areas of the "tate . &very rural family has get a
wooden instrument called Dheki to husk paddy by pounding it with the foot. The rural population regards it as
an essential part of their family requirement and about treefourth of entire husked rice of the rural areas are
processed in the Dheki)
3arpentry in the rural areas, is more or less a subsidiary occupation . >illage carpenters do not specialise
in any branch and generally do all types of works like furniture making , house building ,etc. 1ooden
agricultural implement like plough, harrow yoke etc. are main items manufactured by the village carpenters.
3art wheel and boats are also made.
Among other industries of the "tate , mention may be made of rope making netmaking , bee keeping ,
leather tanning , oil crushing etc. practised by the individuals here and there in the "tate . In the sugarcane
producing areas, gur making is also very common . In recent years, tailoring also appears to have made large
inroads into interior areas of the "tate. %ue to increasing use of bicycles, the cheapest means of conveyance, a
number of cycle repairing shops are coming up both in the urban and rural areas of the "tate. They are mostly
concentrated in urban and semiurban areas.
C. Industrial Potential :- Assam with her vast natural wealth has still remained untapped except for a
small modest beginning . %ependence of its people mainly on agriculture, preponderance of tea manufacturing
and a modest beginning in oil mining are some of the important features of economy of the "tate.
As per the 3ensus of 4BB4, about 65J of the statePs population depends on agriculture . Agricultural
census 4B6066 reveals that average siFe of the operational holding in the state declined to 4.?6 hectare in 4B60
66 from 4..6 hectares in 4B6564. $owever in 4B=A=0, the average siFe of the operational holding slightly
increased to 4..4 hectare. This indicates high and uneconomic pressure on land which requires diversion and
industrial outlets. About 0?J of the total working population of the "tate depend on agriculture. As per 4BB4
3ensus, 4?J of the total working population of the "tate was found to be agricultural labourers. This sad picture
is still persisting in spite of immense natural resources and industrial potentiality of the "tate . 8pto 4B=5, there
were only 4=B? registered factories including only . ma<or factories with employment
I7%8"T-I&" .=6
facilities of =A.A thousand labourers found to be functioning in the "tate. The significant , /.J saw mill and
plywood factory and //J are rice ,atta and oil mills . At present agriculture contributes more than .5 per cent to
the "tate %omestic product and 0A per cent of the economically active population in Assam is directly engaged
in agriculture.
The following "tatement will show the forest vegetation based natural resources of Assam , 1hich can be
explored and expanded through planned plantation in the "tate for better utilisation of the labour force and raw
materials found locally . "ome of them can be used as foreign exchange earners.
;ist of locally found raw materials, their area and producible goods in Assam.
;ocally found raw material
4
1herefound
/
)roducible goods
?
4.Timber *Sal, Bansum,&amari, &ntire "tate. *a+ -ailway "leeper.
Sishu, Sonaru, (itaso$a, )articulary Kamrup, *b+ )lywood , )article Khokan, Simalu,
et! ' 7agaon,'oalpara, boards, hard board,etc
%arrang *c+!uilding materials.
*d+ :urniture.
*e+Dther timbers frames,
icons,figures of use
like cotton.
*f+)aper pulp and fuel.
/.(edical plants *Ar9un, *a+(edicinal oil and scent
Aswagandha,Ashok,,olar, &ntire "tate.
silika, Amlakhi,Bel,Sewali, *b+(edicine)
.aa,Sar$agardhe, (eteli,
Bhoira,(hekera, Salmugra, *c+:uel.
<latkamal, <u,Boku,.amu,
Amara,(ulasi,et!) And Hun-
dreds of herds and !ree$ers)'
?.3ane *Raidang, Patidoiet, &ntire "tate *a+:urniture baskets,chairs
etc.+ particularly etc.
8pper Assam and *b+8mbrella handle,stick,
3achar, rope,etc.
..!amboo *Bhaluka, .ati, &ntire "tate *a+!uilding materials.
Kotah, 7al,Kekoa,etc.+ *b+8tility *domestic and
cultivation+goods.
*c+)aper pulp,fodder etc.
A""A( "TAT& 'A,&TT&&- .==
4 / ?
A.Dther utility plants *khoir ,
7ahar, Agor,,a9ankari, do *a+7onedible oil
Som, #ra, Sowalu, Barhamthuri *b+,uga and #ri cocoon
,a9athi, /ndigo, Bata, Khagari, rearing
Kher, (akeu, (ara, etc.+ *c+"cent and other utility
goods,Khoir,gum,dye,
.a9u,etc.
"tone,stone chips, &ntire "tate *4+!uilding materials.
&arth and sand. */+!rick,earthen wares,
tiles,etc.
*?+'lass,icon,figures,etc.

!esides there are A5 to 05 less durable or Akathi timber species in the "tate and these timbers can be
made fit for use in manufacturing frames, boxes,plants, building , etc., with due treatment . "o, there is also
scope for timber treatment plants in the "tate . 1astes from plywood and saw mills can be utilised in making
particle and insulation boards.
3astor oil, 7ahar oil, 7eem seed oil, Agor oil, (enthol and popperuiant oil, seed oil, etc.,can be
prepared extensively if seeds are properly collected in time . !esides citronella or lenon C grass oil, all the above
oils are good foreign exchange earners.
;ac, rubber , gum , Katha or Khoir can be extracted from forests and production can be continued and
expanded with proper plantation planning . !eside it seems there is no scheme to protect and increase these
plantations in the "tate.
!esides, there are A5 to 05 less durable timber species of low royalty class in the "tate. These species
have little or no market at present . These timbers can be treated and introduced in the market . There is a good
scope for increasing the number of timber seasoning plants in the "tate, It is stated that the "tate is moderately
rich in hides and skins . If chemicals are supplied at subsidised rate, a number of tanneries can be successfully
operated in Assam, provided bonemill organic pantry breed and fertiliser manufacturing units are also set up
within the same compact and extensively expanded campus. !esides glue, gelatine, and decalcium phosphate
which are also produced from bones can be set up along with the tannery . All the three types of gelatin C edible ,
7onedible and photographic can manufactured if bones are collected through an organised machinery. All these
goods are foreign exchange earners and savers. As Assam is a rice growing "tate, mills for manufacturing rice
borne oil can also be
I7%8"T-I&" .=B
established . The nonedible oils can be utilised in soap manufacturing and prevent the outflow of a huge
quantity of money from the "tate.
2ruit $ulti*ation5 or Preser*ation and Canning Industr+ :-
Assam with a wide range and pineapple are commercially most important for processing . )rocessing and
canning may be extended to other perishable fruits. )ineapples and oranges are cultivated on a commercial scale.
!ananas and papayas, and to a small extent pears, plums, peaches, etc.,are also grown.
"ince fruit is perishable in nature in nature it requires careful handing especially during transportation .
:or the fruit industry to progress on a commercial scale it is necessary to provide quick and easy transport and
refrigeration facilities. In Assam , at present , these, are fruit preservation centres one each at 'uwahati, "ilchar ,
Kuthari *7agaon+ , %ibrugarh , Tinsukia and 9orhat.
:ruit cells, peels, seeds and wastes also can be utilised profitably for processing to avoid wastes.
According to expertPs opinion , there is ample scope for development of set up a large fruit preservation unit at
"ilchar with a modern composite unit capable of processing pineapple slices and 9uice, orange segments , orange
concentrates , orange oil and vinegar from the waste products.
!esides the "tate 'overnment fruit preservation 3antres at 'uwahati an "ilchar, there are several unit in
Assam . (M" !irla !rothers are floating a company to set up a large fruit preservation unit at "ilchar with a
modern company to set up a large fruit preservation unit at "ilchar with a modern composite unit capable of
processing pineapple slices and <uice, orange segments, orange concentrates, orange oil and vinegar from the
waste products.
At present , nearly three fourth of the total fruits are exported outside the "tate. If this ratio is altered
and brought down to fifty per cent then nearly /A5 million lbs. *44?..5 million kgs + of fruits will be available in
Assam for caning purposes. Assam should aim at exporting canned fruits as it will increase the industrial income
for the "tate. $ence, there is good scope for development of small and big fruit canning industries.
At present , a total number of 6/ fruits and vegetable processing units are functioning in the 7orth &ast
of which // are in Assam . The centre has provided -s. .5..5 lakh to these units in 4BB? . The total installed
capacity of fruits and vegetable processing industry in India is currently estimated at B lakh (t of which the
7orth&ast contributes only about A5/ (T. The capacity utilisation in the units is low , ranging from A to ?5 per
cent . (arketing has been recognised as the single most important factor holding up the progress of fruits and
vegetable processing units in Assam and the rest of the 7orth&ast . The 7orth &astern -egional (arketing
3orporation *7&-A(A3+ was set up in 4B=/ to act as a regional apex body for organising
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processing , marketing and promotion of the sales of agrihorticultural produce of the region.
Paints manu.a$turing :- There is no paintsmaking unit in Assam at present . The demand for different
types of paint is high enough to feed some units. !asic raw materials such as linseed oil is available throughout
the "tate. )igments are imported products and in this respect all "tates all "tates are on equal footing. The
difficulty is only about the containers. This also can be partially met by the plastic industry.
Container ma)ing:- In view of the prospect of different industries in the "tate, manufacture of tin
containers has turned out to be a necessity. The prospective fruit preservation units and the paint industry and the
like, 1ould depend on the tin, plastic and glass containers for packing their final products.
The carrying of empty drums,cans and containers places a great strain on the transport system as they
occupy a large volume in the available capacity. It has not been possible to estimate the "tatePs demand for
drums and containers in precise terms as it would mean a proper assessment of the fruit canning , various
agricultural processing industries, etc. $owever, even <udging from the excellent prospects for the fruit canning
industry itself, it is felt that there can be a large unit in Assam to manufacture about 4,555 tonnes of drums and
containers.
Re$laimed ru''er : At present , old rubber tyres are thrown away in Assam. These tyres might be
collected and old rubber could be reclaimed from them . All rubber factories consume reclaimed rubber to mix
up with new rubber. The industry would be quite profitable. The <ob also does not require technical skill of high
degree.
Surgi$al instruments5 dressing and os!ital a!!lian$es :- There is a good scope for surgical dressing
manufacture in Assam . Dne or two units may take to manufacturing these in Assam . According to 73A&- at
present absorbent cotton , surgical instruments, etc., might not be economically produced buy bandages could be
manufactured and it would be pushed in the market.
Um'rella Ri's:- The umbrella ribs are not manufactured in Assam . A good demand exists for umbrella
because of heavy rainfall in Assam. A unit may be encouraged to take up manufacture of umbrella ribs.
Cerami$s :- The basic raw material is 3hina clay and this is available in the 'aro $ills . *now in
(eghalaya+. !ut considering other economic factors like relative position about availability of technical ,
financial , management, transport and marking facilities, it is suggested that the factory may be put up near
'uwahati. The 'overnment of Assam has already started imparting training in ceramics at 'uwahati in the
3ottage Industries Training Institute. ;ow tension and high tension insulators, and sanitary wares and pottery are
being taken up for manufacture.
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Enamel (are 2 The demand for this type of product is increasing day by day in Assam . 9udging from
the number of hospitals in Assam it was "uggested in the Techno&conomic "urvey that there could be a unit in
Assam for manufacturing about A5,555 number of enamel ware per annum. There is a unit at 'uwahati which is
engaged in the production of this item but its capacity is not known. It is suggested that the existing unit in the
"tate doubles its production and also a large unit for manufacturing about 4.A million pieces per annum be
established.
Among other industries, which can be started in Assam are *i+ 3halk 3rayon , */+ (irrors, *?+ )lastic
Articles and Toys, *.+)lastic -ain 3oats, *A+ "ports goods, *0+ 3ontainers for ;iquified petroleum 'as, *6+
"toves and !urners for burning ;.).'., etc.
7.:. -ailway is also a big customer of a large number of items *"tores requirement + 1hich could be
manufactured on small scale basis. A list of items which the 7.:. -ailway occasionally bring and which can be
manufactured on small scale basis is furnished below 2
"A# Hard(are items:- !olts , nuts, rivets, washers *square and round +, wire, nails, screws, iron and
mild steel, split pins, tube, fire, and water buckets, pans, iron mortar, latrine pans, etc.
"&# Tin smit+ items : ;amps of all sorts and their spare parts viF.., hand signal lamps, hurricane
lamps, points of trap indicator lamps, signal lamps, etc., can and measures of all sorts, feeder oils, come under
this category of items and there is scope for entrepreneurs to manufacture this items in an individualistic small
scale industry.
"C# Aluminium and &rass (are : 8tensils, mugs, aluminium , deg!hi aluminium with lid lota brass,
dipper brass with handles.
"D# 0e$ani$al .ittings 2 $ose trips, clips ,door locking devices, reservation label holders, handle
carriage door, face plates for axle boxes,alarm signal, communication chain , etc.
"E# "i# Castings 2 !rake blocks, fire bars, piston rings, full stands, etc. and other cast iron signaling
items.
"ii# &ron7e :- !earing brushes, cans, liners, boiler countings.
"2# -ooden items :- $andles wooden all sorts, furniture of all description , wooden block , boards, etc.
",# Personnel re=uirements 2 $oldalls, tents, bags, tarpaulin, etc.
"H# 3eater goods: %ust shield, cash bags, shoes, chappals, etc.
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0ineral 2 In the industrial programme for Assam , it stated that the whole petrochemical family of
industries is yet at a nascent stage. &ven the known items like causic soda and calcium carbide have not evoked
any interest among investors. An oxygen and acetylene unit went into production in 4B0/. It has already been
mentioned that the 7amrup unit, of the :ertiliser corporation of India ;td., went into production with effect from
440B. The unit was originally designed to produce 4 lakh tones of ammonium sulphate, 00,555 tonnes of urea
per annum . The 3orporation took up an expansion programme for this unit which was completed in the year
4B6A for production of ?,=A,555 tonnes of urea per annum. The sulphuric acid is used in the field of fertiliFers
explosives, artificial silk, dyes, etc. to name only a few. !eside the 7amrup :ertiliser 3orporation of India ;td.
)roducing =/,A555 tonnes of sulphuric acid per year , there is another unit in production at 'uwahati. The
present unit at 'uwahati is producing 4A,555 tonnes annually.
At present there is no factory to produce caustic soda, in Assam . The industries which consume caustic
soda may be put up as follows2 *i+ )ulp mill for writing paper, *ii+ 7ewsprint mill, pulp mill for rayon , *iii+ "oap
and *iv+)etroleum. 1hile other raw materials for paper , rayon, soap and petroleum are abundantly available in
Assam , setting up of a large unit of caustic soda unit will help and accentuate growth and setting up of these
industries.
!esides the petrochemical industry, fertiliser plant and power generation, the natural gas in Assam also
provides a good raw material for the manufacture of polypropylene acid in Assam .
)olypropylene has a wider field of density, dimensional stability, good mechanical strength and superior
appearance blended with enough crystallinity. Its physical properties withstand the high and changing
temperatures. Articles made of polypropylene have been found to be of excellent appearance and is also
moisture proof. :ilms are also being made of )olypropylene. It finds an important use in manufacture of fibres
which are being used as monafils in the production of ropes, nettings, upholstery fabric and many other items
)olypropylene production capacity licensed under different petrochemical schemes in India is 4A,555 tonnes,
but total requirement of this item is /5,555 tonnes. Therefore, it is suggested that a unit be set up in Assam to
match this A,555 tonnes gap.
3arbon !lack is considered as the backbone of the rubber industry at large .The demand for carbon
black in India was estimated 65,555 tonnes by 4B6564. Assam is in a position to contribute 4A,555 tonnes of
carbon black to the type, paint and printing ink industry by manufacturing petroleum coke*3alcine +
I7%8"T-I&" .B?
from refinery waste and utiliFing it as raw material for production of 3arbon !lack.
Acetaldehyde is mostly used in the manufacture of acetic acid, acetic hydride, butanol, penta erythritol ,
etc. Dne of the byproducts in manufacturing acetaldehyde from natural gas *butane or )ropane + wil be 4. per
cent formaldehyde solution. It is suggested that acetene and acetic can be manufactured from natural gas plant
with /5,555 tonnes capacity per year to manufacture all the endCproducts is suggested for Assam by the national
council of Applied &conomic -esearch.
Artificial graphite is as good as natural graphite. &xcept for making of clay graphite crucibles, it
substitutes the natural graphite in all other uses. 1ith all its purity the artificial graphite has exclusive uses as a
high temperature ;ubricant or for electrodes in various chemical manufactures and for petroleum coke which is
abundantly available from the refineries of Assam."o a unit, with a capacity of 45,555 tonnes per annum can
easily be set up in Assam to manufacture various types of graphite utlising the calcinated petroleum coke.
The main raw materials for the production of calcium carbide are chemical quality limestone , petroleum
coke and cheap electricity. In Assam , all these are available . Therefore, setting up of calcium carbide unit may
be worth considering. !ut from the market point of view,Assam is in a disadvantageous position. A small plant
which will cater to the needs of Assam and its neighbouring "tates only has to be planned . (ainly the carbide
will be used for generating acetylene for welding purposes. A small furnace with ?5 tonnes of carbide per day is
being suggested I the industrial development programme for Assam. Acetylene which can be produced from
calcium carbide, is also needed at innumerable consumption points in the "tate in engineering industries.
Te Assam Petro- Cemi$al 3imited 2 &nvisages the manufacture of methanol from natural gas and
conversion of methanol to formaldehyde. The formaldehyde by reacting with urea which will be available from
the 7amrup :ertiliser )lant will produce urea formaldehyde glue and moulding powder. Although, the products
methanol and formalin will be for captive consumption, these two products can also be sold to other consumers
if it gives better profit than converting to synthetic glue and moulding powder. Thus the pro<ect has got great
flexibility in marking the products.
There is a good demand for urea formaldehyde glue in Assam as it is used by plywood industries.
(oulding powder is used by the plastic industries for manufacture of various utility articles. At present, glue is
supplied to various plywood industries in Assam from 3alcutta, :aridabad and !ombay. The price of glue is
very high in Assam . Dnce the glue is locally available at a reasonable
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price, the demand of glue will increase considerably.
There are many plywood industries in Assam and almost all of them are situated in 8pper Assam . There
are immense possibilities in the "tate for factories to manufacture chip board, etc. 1ith the availability of glue
locally it would be possible for the existing plywood industries to expand their production and this would give a
great impetus to exploit the forest resource of the "tate and also lead to the development of a number of other
industries based on forest produce. &ven chipped off wastes of timbers can be converted into water proof
building materials with synthetic glue.
The availability of urea formaldehyde moulding powder will encourage establishment of a number of
plastic processing industries I n the "tate.
(ethanol and formaldehyde are closely related products . A larger percentage of methanol is used as a
raw material for the production of formaldehyde. At present methanol is only manufactured in India by the
:ertiliFer 3orporation of India at Trombay . A huge quantity of methanol is annually imported from abroad.
!esides, as a raw material for formaldehyde, methanol is also required for a wide range of products such
as paints, synthetic resins, polyester fibres, etc.,also finds applications in aircraft, medicines and as a solvent.
It will be possible to supply about /,055 tonnes of methanol per annum by the Assam petrochemical
unit, to the proposed polyester fibre plant to be established at !ongaigaon. (ethanol can be supplied to
consumers in tank wagons, special vessels and drums.
:ormaldehyde solution which is usually sold in the market contains ?6 per cent formaldehyde, AA per
cent water and = per cent methanol and it is technically known as formalin.
Dver BA per cent of formalin is consumed as a raw material for the manufacture of synthetic glue,
moulding powder and synthetic melamine, :ormaldehyde glue, cresol formaldehyde glue, xylene formaldehyde
glue, various types of moulding powder and polyvinyl alcohol *)>A+ fibre.
:ormalin is also used for manufacture of hexamine, pentaerythritol for textile, etc.
$examine which is the trade name of Q$examethylane titramine Q is a white crystalline powder
manufactured with formalin and ammonia as the main raw material .It is extensively used as a hardener for urea
formaldehyde glue and phenol formaldehyde glue, foaming agent and vulcaniFing accelerator for rubber and
explosives.
I7%8"T-I&" .BA
)entaerythritol is manufactured from formalin and is used mainly in synthetic glue,paint as a plasticiser
in the manufacture of vinyl chloride.
:ormalin is usually sold to the consumers in the tank wagons,special vessels,and drums. :or long
distance transporation,formalin is conveniently transported as paraformaldehyde in paper bagswhich is =5 per
cent formaldehyde and is a white solid substance manufactured by means of condensing formalin.
)araformaldehyde which as a large demand also finds use as insecticides,disinfecant and antiseptic.
At present,the production of formalin in India is too small compared to its demand and this is mainly
due to the shortage of methanol. Therefore,a considerable quantity of )araformaldehyde is now imported.
)roduction of these materials by Assam )etrochemical ;td. will save a huge amount of foreign exchange for the
country as a whole. (elamine is a very important plastic material and also has wide use in the manufacture of
melamine resins which are used for moulding powder, textile industry,laminated board,etc. (elamine can be
used for the manufacture of plastic utility articles such as cups,plates,tumblers,etc.
3urrently,over A,555 tonnes of melamine are being imported every year into India. "etting up of units
for manufacture of these goods will save the country substantial foreign exchange.
The main raw material for the manufacture of melamine are ammonia and urea and these are available
from the 7amrup :ertiliFer plant.
(ethyl (ethacrylate 2 (ethyl methacrylate *((A+is very important plastic and has very wide use
including those of defence requirements. The raw materials required for the manufacture of methyl
methacrylate are hydrocynic acid,methanol,ammonia,natural gas,sulphuric acid and acetone. &xcept for acetone
which has to be brought from !ombay other raw materials will be available at 7amrup. The Assam
)etrochemical limited is also planning to set up an acetone plant in Assam using refinery offgas or other
suitable substances. Acetone has to be carried from !ombay for a few years in the initial stage.
$ydrocyanic acid will be manufactured by catalytic synthesis between ammonia,natural gas and air.
$ydroacetone forms acetone cynohydrin. This intermediate product when reacted with acetone in presence of
sulphuric acid forms methyl methacryylate monomer. This being a monomer,needs refining to obtain a pure
product.
1hen the monomer is polymerised,it becomes methylmethacrylate polymer,a pure substance which can
be utilised for manufacturing sheets,pellets,rods,etc. (ethylmethacrylate which is a thermoplastic product is
A""A( "TAT& 'A,&TT&&- .B0
#artificial glass# and generally known as windresisting glass or organic glass, and is called the ##Hueen of
)lastics## owing to chemical resisting properties,its transparency and its beautiful lustre. It is widely used in
advertising boards,buildings,lighting appliances and industrial equipments.
The manufacture of methyl methacrylate in Assam will meet the demand of India for quite some years
and save foreign exchange to a considerable extent.
/0
1ith the planned development of various industries,based on petroleum resources of the "tate there will
be a profound in the economy of 7ortheastern India and the sluggish economy of Assam will vibrate with a new
life and vitality.
1hile the potential of oil appears fairly well set with the recent oil struck at -udrasagar and more
recently at ;akwa and 'eleki,natural gas is almost entirely dependent on further reserves being proved. In so far
as new structures have been discovered,this possibility cannot be ruled out. In the case of coal,an appreciable
reduction on the demand due to dieselisation of the railway in the region has been taken into account. It is
envisaged that this would be more than offset by increased demand for the cement industry in Assam and
utilisation of Assam coal in the cocking blends at steel centres in 1est !engal.
!esides increased production of sillimanite,utilisation of the other ceramic materials have also been
considered. The possibility of utilising the recently discovered iron in the 'oalpara and Kamrup districts using
natural gas for production of spongeiron has been decreased.
Among the various minerals that may be taken up for investigation to implement the programme of
development are 2
Coal:- *a+%etailed providing of low ash coal in the (akum field, *b+&xploration for coal in the
Karbi Anglong district.
2elds!ar :- :eldspar occur in pegmatites in the Archacean gneissic complex in the Karbi Anglong,7orth
3achar $ills,'oalpara and Kamrup.
Iron ore :- -ecently,the geological "urvey of India has intensified the search for metalliferous deposits
in Assam. As a result,occurrence of banded magnetic quartFite,similar to the "alem iron ores of (adras,have
been found in 1est 'oalpara and along the Kamrup border. The bands on the 3handordinga $ill on the north
bank of the !rahmaputra,west of 'oalpara and also the one on the hill south of $ahim in Kamrup district are
reported to be fairly large.
I7%8"T-I&" .B6
The total reserves may be of the order of A5 million tonnes.
The proportion of magnetite in the rock is reported at /A to ?5 per cent and the total iron content may be
upto A5 per cent.
,+!sum :-A gypsiferous shale has been reported in the %isama -eserve :orest in the Karbi Anglong
district. In view of the importance of this mineral to the cement industry,which has to be brought from a far as
!ikaner in -a<ashthan,the investigation of the occurrence assumes great importance.
Salt :-!rine springs occur in !hubhan $ills in 3achar district. "mall quantities of salt were extracted
from these. $owever,the sources are small and large scale production cannot be thought of .
2ire-Cla+ :- :ire3lay occurs in association with coal in the (akum coalfield. Though the reserves have
not been estimated so far,the deposit is reported to be large. !esides,a number of clay horiFons varying in
thickness from 4 to A metres are found associated with coal seams near Koila<an. The reserves have not been
assessed but according to one source as much as A0 million tonnes may be available here. "amples from the
horiFon at the base of the "ylhet limestone are reported to be promising for high grade refractories.
)resence of copper has been reported from (eghalaya hills in 'oalpara district.
In view of poor copper resources of India,its above occurrence should be investigated further.
Dver and above these,liquified petroleum gas can be burnt in stoves for heating appliances for domestic
cooking. The manufacture of stoves and burners may be undertaken with a moderate degree of business risk.
The 3entral :uel -esearch Institute,%hanbad,has evolved a technique for economic use of Indian coal
for manufacture of calcium carbide. The suitable composition was made by blending Assam coal,petroleum
coke,and wood charcoal. !esides the above materials,lime is required. All these above materials are available in
Assam. 'uwahati being the main market the suitability of putting up a unit near 'uwahati is suggested.
There is also immense potentialities for the development of the following industries in the "tate *i+Tea,
*ii+wooden electrical accessories *iii+trucks and bus body building *iv+(echanised carpentry *v+;eather tanning,
*vi+;eather foot wear,*vii+!one meal,etc.
2ormation o. State ,o*ernment Cor!oration .or De*elo!ment o. Industries :- In order to formulate
suitable infrastructural and followup guidance
A""A( "TAT& 'A,&TT&&- .B=
in the sphere of industrial development in the "tate,the 'overnment set up a number of corporations to work as
its agency in respect of functions entrusted to each of them. These are as follows 2
Assam Small Industries de*elo!ment Cor!oration 3td. :- This corporation was established in the
year 4B0/ under the Indian 3ompanies Act. The ob<ectives of the 3orporation,inter alia are *i+to
promote,establish and set up small scale industries in the "tate with a view to transferring any of such small
industries ultimately to entrepreneurs who evidence interest and keeness in setting up such small industries,*ii+to
aid,assist,counsel and finance any industrial undertaking with capital,credit and resources, *iii+to
promote,establish,and execute industrial pro<ect or enterprise for manufacture and production of various
pro<ects,*iv+to promote and operate schemes for small industries, *v+to procure capital and financial assistance
or provide machinery and other facilities for the purpose of establishment of industries and *vi+to assist small
scale industrial units in getting essential raw materials.
The 3orporation took over a number of units from the Industries %epartment to run them commercial
basis,one of which is match "plint :actory,!i<ni. The other units are 2
"a#Assam A+ur*edi$ Produ$ts :-This units has been successfully manufacturing a wide range of
ayurvedic which have been well received throughout the "tate.
"'#Ca$ar Te4tile Industries5&adar!ur :- This unit came up with 4B0 powerlooms with a siFing and
calendering plant. !esides commercial manufacturing of gray cloth, the unit had also a training unit. After
running the unit for about eight years,the powerlooms have recently been distributed to a number of local
entrepreneurs. The 3orporation is running the siFing and the calendering plant to help the powerloom units run
by private entrepreneurs.
"$#Distri'ution o. ra( materials :- :or distribution of raw materials,the 3orporation has depots at
'uwahati,Tinsukia,9orhat,!ongaigaon,TeFpur and !adarpur from where small scale units can get supply of
essential raw materials.
"d#Programme o. Assistan$e :
"i#0ini Industrial State :8nder its programme of assistance to small scale industries,the 3orporation
has also taken up scheme for setting up mini industrial estates and developing industrial areas in different
important places of the "tate. Two mini industrial estates have already come up,one at 7orth ;akhimpur and the
other at "ibsagar. (ini industrial estates in many other places are under different stages of implementation. A
vast industrial area has been
I7%8"T-I&" .BB
developed ad<acent to the Industrial &state,'uwahati. In his industrial area,plots of land and builtinindustrial
sheds have been provided to a number of entrepreneurs. (any of them have already gone into production.
"ii#Su!!l+ o. ma$iner+ on ire !ur$ase : In order to aid and patronise small scale industries,during
the /
nd
plan,the government of India introduced a scheme of supply of machinery on hire purchase under the
7ational "mall Industries 3orporation *a 'ovt. of India undertaking+. In Assam,the scheme for supply of
indigenous machinery to ""I units upto a limit of -s. 4 lakh in each case was taken up by this 3orporation in the
year 4B6/6?.
"iii#Pro*ision o. Seed 0one+ : To enable local young entrepreneurs to obtain assistance from banks
and financial institutions,the 3orporation provides them with seed money towards the margin required for the
purpose.
"i*#En=uit+ Parti$i!anttion : 8nder this scheme the 3orporation has participated in the share capital of
some small scale units.
"*#S!e$ial Em!lo+ment Programme : 8nder the special employment programme undertaken by the
3orporation a number of small scale units like bakery,tailoring,umbrella assembly,su$ari making,atta
!haki,mustard and sesame seed crushing and dehydration of ginger,etc., were taken up. The entrepreneurs were
given financial assistance in the form of loan in soft terms to meet their entire capital requirement.
"e#Training Programme : 8nder the 3orporation#s Training programme,a large number of local
youngmen have been trained in different fields of industry.
".#Consultan$+ : To guide and advise young entrepreneurs ,the 3orporation set up a consultancy cell
attached to its head office at 'uwahati. !esides providing advice and information regarding development of
small scale industries,this 3ell publishes pro<ect profiles for different small scale industries from time for
circulation among prospective entrepreneurs .1here an entrepreneur is required to obtain a pro<ect report from
private consultant,the entrepreneur concerned is given a subsidy towards cost of pro<ect report.
Assam Industrial De*elo!ment Cor!oration 3td. : This 3orporation was incorporated in the year
4B0A with the ob<ectives to promote,establish,assist and finance industrial pro<ects or enterprises,companies and
associations for the purpose of development of industries in the "tate.
In fulfilment of these ob<ectives the 3orporation has already taken up the following pro<ects 2
A""A( "TAT& 'A,&TT&&- A55
a+ Assam )etro3hemical ;td.
b+ 3achar "ugar (ills ;td.
c+ :ertichem ;td.
d+ 3hemical unit of Associated Industries *Assam+ ;td.
e+ Assam 3onductors G Tubes ;td.
f+ 9ute mill at %algaon.
In addition to this,the A.I.%.3. ;td. $as participated in the share capital of 7orth Assam Agro Industries
3ooperative "ociety for setting up of a rice bran oil plant at -owta in the %arrang district. The 3orporation has
taken over management of Assam 'lass Industries )vt. ;td. !esides these industrial units,the 3orporation has
also obtained a number of licences for industries like *i+manufacture of cigarettes, *ii+sponge iron, *iii+card
board, *iv+ portland cement, *v+ carbon black, *vi+maiFe products, *vii+cotton yarn, *viii+ melamine,
*ix+brewery,etc.
Assam Hills Small Industries de*elo!ment Cor!oration 3td. ,u(aati :-
As the hill districts of the "tate are relatively backward in industrial growth,the "tate 'overnment
constituted a separate small Industries %evelopment 3orporation ;td.to take up the sub<ect intensively. The
3orporation was incorporated in (arch,4B0= with the principal ob<ective of development of small scale
industries in the two hill districts of Karbi Anglong and 7orth 3achar $ills. !ecause of steep terrains the district
were without infrastructural facilities,even for minimum development. The lack of entrepreneurship which is a
problem for the entire extremely acute in the hill districts. As such,the Assam $ills "mall Industries
%evelopment 3orporation ;td.had not taken steps for development of industries but also to create
entrepreneurial skill in these areas. 1ith this end in view and in order that the industries in the hill districts could
be developed on the resources available there and also that the people can be associated with the devel
opmental activities,the 3orporation carried out a technoeconomic survey and identified the possibilities of
industrial development. The 3orporation undertook schemes to set up the following industrial units by
themselves.
*4+Khandsari sugar mill at (ania near %iphu.
*/+A fruit preservation unit at !aro$aflong in 7.3. $ills.
*?+The second khandsari sugar mill at Kheroni in the Karbi Anglong district.
*.+A solvent extraction plant at $owraghat in the Karbi Anglong district.
*A+A battery of lime making units both in Karbi Anglong and 7orth 3achar $ills.
I7%8"T-I&" A54
*0+A number of citronella oil extraction plants in Karbi Anglong and 7.3.$ills.
*6+'inger %ehydration and olearesin unit in 7.3.$ills.
*=+3innamon oil extraction plant in 7.3.$ills.
*B+Dil seed crushing mills.
*45+Timber seasoning plants.
Assam ,o*ernment mar)eting Cor!oration 3td. : The Assam 'overnment (arketing 3orporation
;td. was established in %ecember,4BA= with the primary ob<ective of marketing the products of the cottage
industries,handicrafts and small scale industries of the "tate. The 3orporation has under it a chain of emporia
within the "tate as also in the important cities like %elhi and 3alcutta. The 3orporation during the last decade
made special efforts for marketing of handloom and handicrafts products. It also undertook training schemes
under the "pecial &mployment )rogramme. The 3orporation has recently been transferred to the "ericulture and
1eaving %epartment of the "tate 'overnment.
Assam 2inan$ial Cor!oration :- This 3orporation has been making substantial contribution towards
industrial development in Assam and in other "tates of the 7orth&astern -egion by giving financial assistance
to industrial units in the form of block capital.
Assam Tea Cor!oration 3td. : After India became independent,the !ritish tea interest in Assam
naturally suffered and a spurt in sales of !ritish tea gardens started. The !ritish tea estates in Assam were being
sold to the first bidder who were mainly from the trading community. They appeared to be more interested in
immediate profit then in long term development of the industry. As a result,the production in a number of tea
gardens gradually declined. There was a loss of quality to. As tea is one of the few most important foreign
exchange earners for the country and also in view of the fact that tea has built up the entire secondary sector of
the "tate#s economy,and also that a number of tea gardens fell in the hands of inexperienced management,the
"tate 'overnment formed the Assam Tea 3orporation ;td. in a bid to save the tea industry. The 3orporation was
incorporated in the year 4B6/ with the primary ob<ective of purchasing and or take over management of tea
gardens where such purchase or take over was considered necessary. The 3orporation has by now purchased
many tea estates. "ome of the tea estates purchased by the 3orporation have the reputation of being the best tea
estates in this region,because the production and the profit of these tea estates have been increasing since the
take over by the 3orporation.
A""A( "TAT& 'A,&TT&&- A5/
D.Po(er :Assam has the highest power potential in the country,based on water,natural gas,coal and oil.
The hydroelectric potential available in the "tate is estimated at 4/ million K.1.,ie.,about ?5J of India#s hydro
power resources excluding that of the !rahmaputra which is itself ?5 million K.1.at 05J load factor on the
basis of minimum discharge. This represents one of the largest concentration of hydro power potential in the
world. In spite of the bounties of nature,Assam is one of the least development "tate in India as dearth of power
has been a limiting factor to industrial development in the "tate.
%uring the preindependence period,not to speak of the rural areas,even the urban population in most of
the towns of Assam were used to kerosene lights for want of power.
After the independence attempts were made to generate hydraulic power in the "tate. )rior to the first
:ive Eear )lan,there were only seven small undertakings with an installed capacity centre. In addition,there were
a few private power generating stations worked by the railways,collieries and oil fields with an installed
capacity of /.B5? K.1. The period from 4BAA to 4BA= of the "econd )lan saw a substantial expansion in Assam#s
power output from B.= million K.1.T. To 4=.56 million K.1.T. consequent upon the commissioning of the
8mtru $ydel )lant in 4BA6. The %epartment of &lectricity came up in 4BA4 and the "tate &lectricity !oard was
constituted in 4BA=.
%uring the first two plan periods,however,power development in the "tate was very slow. The per capita
consumption of electrical energy in 4B0504 was only /..0 K.1. as against the all India average of ?/ K.1. The
installed capacity in the "tate in 4BA6 was only 4.555 K.1. generated mostly from diesel sets except from
8mtru $ydro&lectric )ro<ect. Thus during the first two plan periods,twothirds of the total electricity output
was generated from oil plants. %uring the :irst )lan,the output from oil plants increased from ... million K.1.$
.to 6.= million K.1.$. The Assam &lectricity !oard which came into being in 4BA= undertook the following
ma<or pro<ects estimated to generate the total capacity of 4,65,555,K.1. during the Third :ive Eear )lan.
*a+ 8miam $ydro &lectric )ro<ect.
*b+ 7amrup Thermal )ro<ect
*c+ 'aro $ills "tream )ower )ro<ect.
*d+ 'uwahati Thermal )ower )ro<ect.
The construction of the first phase of hydroelectric pro<ect was taken up on the 8mtru -iver in the year
4BA.. This station with an installed capacity of =.. (.1. was commissioned in 4BA6. In the year 4B05,the
8mium $ydroelectric pro<ect with an installed capacity of /0 (.1. was taken up for construction. This pro<ect
was commissioned in the year 4B0A.
The installed capacity in Assam was only ? (.1. at the commencement of the :irst )lan. This rose to 45
(.1. in4B0B65 and further to 464 (.1. in 4B6564. Assam#s power position continued to be unsatis
I7%8"T-I&" A5?
factory. )ower generation *about 4A00 (.1.+per capita consumption of electricity *?/.6 Kwh in 4B6066+, and
rural electrification *45.?J+are very much behind the AllIndia average. %uring 4B6.6A,per capita consumption
of electricity in the "tate was one of the lowest in India being only /= K.1.$ and much lower than the national
average of BB K.1.$ during the same year.
The responsibility of coordinated development of generation,transmission and distribution of power in
the "tate lies with the Assam "tate &lectricity !oard *A"&!+. The !oard was bifurcated in 9anuary,4B6A
between the "tates of Assam and (eghalaya as per provision made in the 7orth &astern Areas *-eor
ganisation+Act,4B64. As a result,the 8mium and 8mtru $ydro&lectric )ro<ect under the !oard were transferred
to (eghalaya due to their location within that "tate,3onsequently,power generation in the -econstituted Assam
came down considerably. $owever,power supply from these sources continued to be made for the consumers in
Assam without any break or restriction. "ubsequently,an agreement was arrived at between the (eghalaya
'overnment and the 'overnment of Assam to form a <oint and integrated venture on 4B
th
9anuary,4B6A,by which
the 8mium )ower Installation was transferred to work in an integrated system in coordination with the
3handrapur Thermal "tation district for maximum power generation to facilities power supply in both the "tates
throughout the year.
-espective shares of power for the two "tates during the next 6 years or till a new pro<ect is
developed,have also been agreed upon. At present,Assam has an installed capacity of about 4A0 (.1. with two
ma<or generation stations,viF.,3handrapur Thermal *?5 (.1.+and 7amrup Thermal *44.0 (.1.+and a few
insolated diesel generation station aggregating to approx. 4A (.1.
%uring 4B6564,power generation in erstwhile Assam was of the order on ?AB.A million K.1.$.
"eparate figure of power generation in the reconstituted Assam was available only for the year 4B6A60. In that
year power generation in the reconstituted Assam was ..B.?6 million K.1.$. The table below shows the
generation of power in Assam from different sources over the past few years.
/6

Installed Ca!a$it+ and ,eneration o. Ele$tri$it+ in Assam
Total Installed 3apacity of 'enerating
)lants *(.1.+
Total 8nits 'enerated
*(illion 8nit+
)ower
pur
chased
from
other
*(illion
8nit+
4 / ? . A 0 6 = B 45
4BB5B4
4BB4B/
4BB/B?
4BB?B.
A4/..
A4/..
.A/..
A?/..
/.5
/.5
/.5
/.5
05.5
A4...
A4...
A4...
A?...
4/50..
456B.A
450=.?
B?B.B
5.5/
7.A.
4/50../
456B.A
450=.?
B?B.B
BB0.A
BB0.=
45==.A
446A.?
/6. Statisti!al Hand Book, Assam, 4BBA@ %irectorate of &conomics ans statistics, 'ovt. of Assam, p.456=.
A""A( "TAT& 'A,&TT&&- A5.
)attern of power consumption in Assam had undergone noticeable changes since 4B6564. (ore and more
power is now being consumed by industries,tea gardens,defence establishment,etc. Industrial consumption of
power *at low.medium and high voltage+in the "tate increased from 4A..A million K.1.$ in 4B6564 to A/B
million K.1.$ in 4BB?B.. 3onsumption of power by tea gardens has also increased considerably. Thus total
consumption of power in the "tate stood at 4044.55 million K.1.$ in 4BB?B. as against /==.A million K.1.$
in 4B6564 *including (eghalaya and (iForam+. The following table shows the consumption of electricity in
Assam for few years.
/=
"ector 4BB5B4 4BB4B/ 4BB/B? 4BB?B.
4 / ? . A
4.%omestic 4=5.55 /.?./5 /?/.55 ?0B.55
/. 3ommercial 44A.55 44=.55 445.55 4?4.55
?. Industrial )ower 4.B.55 00.A0 65.55 4.B.55
.. Industrial )ower ..5.55 .A6..6 ..=.55 ?=5.55
$igh >oltage
A. )ublic lighting 4..55 A.B/ 46.55 4=.55
0. :ree "upply 45.55 4/A.55 4?A.55 45.55
6. Irrigation /0.55 ?A.B/ ?5.55 ?=.55
=. )ublic 1ater /6.55 ?4./A /6.55 ?A.55
1orks
B. Tea 'arden /.5.55 4==.A? 4B?./5 /?6.55
45. !ulk supply 40A.55 4A=.B. 4A5.55 4A0.55
in the "tate
44. Dutside "tate /4=.55 60.A/ 456.64 ?A.55
4/. -ural Industry A5.55 60.AA 65.55 A?.55
Total 8nits 40?0.55 4A=../= 4AB5.55 4044.55
consumed by the
ultimate consumers
It has been mentioned earlier that power generation within the "tate has come down to a much lower
level due to bifurcation of the "tate &lectricity !oard between Assam and (eghalaya. If adequate attention is
not paid to power developmental programmes in the "tate,there is likelihood of considerable power shortage in
the "tate in view of the likely rise in the demand for power in near future as a result of the developmental
schemes that are being initiated. In order to meet this anticipated shortage of power,a number of pro<ects have
been taken up in hand.
:or distribution of power to all corners of the "tate long distance 00 K> and 4?/ K>
transaction lines have also been installed. %uring the year 4B646/,an

/=. Statisti!al Hand Book, Assam, 4BBA@ %irectorate of &conomics and "tatistics, 'ovt. of Assam, p. 456=.
I7%8"T-I&" A5A
extensive programme of drawal of ?? K>.,44 K>.and ;.T.lines all over the "tate was taken up. Dne //5 K>
transmission line has been completed in the last part of the year 4B6B.
The Tenth annual electric power survey *3.&.A+estimate the peak load and energy requirement of Assam
to increase from 4/5 (>.and 05A million units in 4B6066 to /4. (.1.and 456A million units respectively in
4B6=6B,whereas peak availability and energy availability by the year are placed at =A (1 and 0A. million
units. Thus Assam#s installed capacity for power generation at present is far behind the estimated present
demand. As far as new power generation pro<ects are concerned mention may be made of the following
*i+7amrup Thermal )ower "tation , *ii+ 7amrup 'as Turbine , *iii+ !ongaigaon )ower "tation, *iv+Kopili $ydro
&lectric )ro<ect,*v+3handrapur Thermal )ower "tation, *vi+;akwa 'as Turbine "tation and *vii+ ;ower
!orapani $ydel )ro<ect. The 4
st
extension work of 7amrup Thermal )ower "tation has already been completed
and has been commissioned in 4B6.. The 7amrup 'as Turbine "et has also recently been commissioned.
'uwahati 'as )ro<ect at 7arangi which was commissioned in 4B0. was subsequently shifted to 7amrup and the
reinstallation was completed in 4B6/6?. The 3handrapur Thermal was commissioned in 9une,4B6/.
Namru! Termal Po(er Station :
Dil struck in the 7aharkatia area abounds gas,but the associated natural gas is dependent on the
extraction of crude oil and when the offtake of crude oil to the refineries goes upto /. million tonnes per year
the production of associated gas that will be available for utilisation after meeting the requirement of oil fields,is
very conservatively estimated at about 4.? million cubic metres per day.
The 7ational expert committee recommended the installation of a thermal power station with gas
turbines,along with other gas based industrial installation for timely and proper utiliFation of natural gas found
in 7aharkatia. In (ay 4B0/,the Assam "tate &lectricity !oard started installation of a thermal power station at
7amrup,initially containing three gas turbine generating units of /?,555 K.1 each to be later augmented by one
/?,555 K.1 gas turbine and two /?,555 K.1 steam turbine units,totaling a station installed capacity of about
4,.5,555 K.1 and consuming about 5.A million cubic metres of natural gas per day at A6 per cent load factor.
/B
The plant with total outlay of -s. 4..6A crores for the present was commissioned in April,4B0A.
The power from this plant is available to different industries based on natural gas of which the 7amrup
:ertiliFer plant is the most important. Dther beneficiaries are the tea estate factories,Assam -ailways and
Trading company at %igboi. Dther industries and consumers of the entire upper Assam are able to utilise the
power from this plant. :or the purpose, a vast network of 00 K.>.,?= K.> and 44

/B. 7amru$ (hermal Pro9e!t Su$$lement + (he Assam (riune dated 45
th
April, 4B0A.
A""A( "TAT& 'A,&TT&&- A50
K.> transmission and subtransmission lines has also been installed. The main transmission and sub
transmission lines are *i+00 K.> %ouble circuit line, */+ 00 K.>.%ouble circuit line, *?+ 00 K.>."ingle circuit
line, *.+ ?? K.> and 44 K.> subtransmission lines and *A+ 00 K.>. "ingle circuit line.
In order to distribute power,several grid substations on other distributing substations have also been
installed. The associated 00 K.> grid substations are distributed in 0 to 6 places while ?? K.> substations are
provided at several other places. "pecial care has been taken in the alignment of transmission and distribution
lines so that ma<or industrial areas fall within the tea estates and other consuming centres fall within easy reach
of the system.
&ongaigaon Termal Po(er Station : The !ongaigaon Thermal )ower )ro<ect was sanctioned on
4.6.6A at an estimated cost of -s. .6.5/ crores. It was installed near 7andangiri $ill at a considerable distance
from !ongaigaon.
There is one powerful turbo generator set with provision for extension. The turbine sets are fed by a
system raised in boilers. The required coal is supplied from the 1est!engal!ihar coal mines as the coal of
(argherita;edo contains higher sulphur content.
The required water is drawn locally. The total generation of energy in the power station is 00 crore units
annually.
%o!ili H+dro Ele$tri$ Pro6e$t : )ower generation pro<ect will be completed in two stages at a total cost of -s.
AA to 05 crores.
There will be . stations with potentials for /. (1,64 (1,= (1 and /5 (1 respectively,the total
potential of all these stations thus coming to 6? (1,/?4 (1,/. (1 and 455 (1 continuous.
The total potential of the whole valley development works out to be .00 (1 continuous where an
installation of 4555 (1 can be easily envisaged. The total estimated cost of the entire pro<ect with . stations
coins to -s. 4?. crores.
Dn April /A,4B60,the )rime (inister of India laid the foundation stone of the Kopili $ydro &lectric
)ro<ect which is being executed by the 7orth &astern -egional )ower 3orporation ;imited recently formed for
power development in this region. It is expected that Assam#s requirement of power will be met to a great extent
after completion of the above pro<ects .
The Assam "tate &lectricity !oard has taken up construction of a net work of transmission of power to
the load centres. &leven new single circuit transmission lines are being construction in the "tate. )ower to
Allipurduar also is supplied by the !oard through double circuit line.
In the undivided 'oalpara district of Assam,the power supply was taken over by the "tate &lectricity
!oard since 4BA6 by phases. A beginning was made by starting thermal stations in 'oalpara and Kokra<har
towns while diesel generating sets were installed with initial capacities of 4/. K> at 'oalpara and 4A5 K.1 at
Kokra<har. )ower supply in %hubri town was managed by the 7ational )ower "upply 3orporation which had
been functioning in the district since 4BA. and
I7%8"T-I&" A56
prior to that another private company supplied electricity in this town for some years. The !oard took over
power supply in %hubri in 4B00 making a beginning with %iesel generating sets. The number of power stations
under the management of the "tate &lectricity !oard increased to three in 4B00,and in 4B64,another station with
a /A K1. %iesel set was commissioned at (ancachar.
At present,the !oard supplies electricity to the from 8mium 8mtru 3handrapur power stations through
gridsub stations.
A thermal power pro<ect with two 05 (.1. Turbo generator sets extension by another ?K05 (.1 set has
been undertaken near !ongaigaon by the !oard which is extending electrification to other towns and even rural
areas in phased manner.
It may also be mentioned that some big industries including including the tea industry have own power
houses at !ongaigaon and :akiragram 9unctions.
)ower supply and its development in the undivided %arrang district are of very recent origin. )rior to the
formation of the Assam "tate electricity !oard in 4BA=,there was only one diesel power station run by the
TeFpur )ower "upply 3ompany )vt. ;td.at TeFpur to supply power to the town. In 4BA=,the Assam "tate
electricity !oard took over this 3ompany and subsequently in 4BAB installed ? more diesel sets in the
district,one each at %hekia<uli,3harali and (angaldoi towns. :or the management of the power supply in the
district,the Assam "tate &lectricity !oard has now opened one &lectrical %ivision at %hekia<uli,!alipara and
(angaldoi. :ollowing the completion of the long distance 4?/ K.> double circuit transmission line crossing
over the !rahmaputra at )andu in 4B06,the Assam "tate &lectricity !oard has began to supply hydroelectricity
to TeFpur "tation since 9anuary,4B0.. The diesel stations were kept as a stand by from that time.
In 9anuary,4B0B,the Assam "tate &lectricity !oard installed a diesel set at %hekia<uli,and another diesel
set at 3harali in 9uly,4BAB.
In 4B0=,all the diesel stations of %hekia<uli,3harali and (angaldoi became hydroelectricity
transformer.
"upply and distribution of power in the undivided 7agaon district have been undertaken by the "tate
&lectricity !oard in the year 4BA=. )rior to this it was under the control of )ower %epartment of the 'overnment
of Assam. The first electrification scheme in the undivided 7agaon district was started in the year 4B.5 by a
private company,which ran upto 4B.B.
After taking over the scheme by the "tate &lectricity !oard,the source of power supply was diesel
generating set which continued till 9une 4B65,and after that some portion of the 7agaon town was connected to
8mium 'rid "ystem. In case of its failure,power is supplied from the stand by %iesel )ower station which is
situated near the 7agaon -ailway "tation. $o<ai was connected with hydraulic power system during the third
five year plan only.
The power house at %iphu was set up by the "tate &lectricity !oard, Assam in 4BA6 and commissioned
in 4BA= with two generating sets. 3onsequently with
A""A( "TAT& 'A,&TT&&- A5=
the increase of load another set was installed in 4B0?. 1ith the further increase of load,one more set was
installed in 4B0A. In (arch,4B0=,the 7amrup Thermal )ower supply was energiFed and connected with %iphu.
The power house is now kept as stand by supply during the period of interruption or lowering down of the load
in the main line. !y now "iloni,(ahindu<ur and ;umba<ong also are covered by electrification system of the
!oard.
)ower $ouse at $aflong was installed by the Assam "tate &lectricity !oard in 4BB0. It has two
generating sets and it extends service upto (aibong and (ahur. !ut the capacity of the )ower $ouse is very
limited.
"upply and distribution of power in the urban areas of the undivided "ibsagar district have in recent
years been undertaken by the "tate &lectricity !oard. All the "tate power stations of this district are run by diesel
oil. There is every possibility of $ydroelectric pro<ect being installed in the district in near future. All the tea
gardens have their own diesel power generating sets though the "tate &lectricity !oard has now extended their
supply system throughout the gardens of the district.
The following stations are supplied with energy from the "tate electricity "upply,9orhat,through tension
line 2 *4+Assam &ngineering 3ollege, */+ regional -esearch ;aboratory, *?+<orhat 3ivil hospital and *.+ -owriah
Airfield.
Dne generating set each at "ibsagar and 'olaghat has been installed. The Toklai experimental
"tation,3innamara,(ariani,7aFira,9oysagar town,"imaluguri,:arkating have been electrified.
!oth Tinsukia district and %ibrugarh distri$t ave high power potential based on water,natural gas,coal
and oil. Two private electric supply companies were operating at %ibrugarh and Tinsukia.
The 3ompanies were taken over by the Assam "tate &lectricity !oard in 4B6/. Dver and above
these,Assam Dil 3ompany,%igboi,Dil India ;td.,%ulia<an,and Assam -ailway and Trading 3ompany ;td.,
(argherita have their own electric supply units. These 3ompanies are generating electricity mainly for their own
use but sometimes they supply power for public use also.
)rior to constitution of the !oard,the "tate &lectricity department started two diesel stations one at 7orth
;akhimpur in ;akhimpur district and the other at %oom%ooma in Tinsukia district in 4BA6A=. Then with
constitution of the !oard,the programme was extended to cover almost all the towns of both %ibrugarh and
Tinsukia districts during the period from 4BA= to 4B6/.
In 3achar,prior to Independence there was only one power station at "ilchar which was under the control
of the "ilchar &lectric "upply 3ompany ;td.established in 4B/=. In 4BA/,Karimgan< &lectric "upply 3o.
;td.came into being but it was acquired by the 'overnment in 4BA0 for its inefficiency. 1ith the establishment
of the Assam "tate &lectricity !oard in 4BA=,the "ilchar &lectricity "upply 3o. ;td.was also taken over by the
'overnment.
The district is now served by the substation at )anchgram near !adarpur.
I7%8"T-I&" A5B
There is another power station at %urlavcherra which supplies electricity to the whole of Tripura and a part of
3achar.
7otwithstanding the fact that the !rahmaputra!arak basin and the eastern $imalayas account for more
than ?5 per cent of India#s total hydroelectric power potential of =.,555 (1,Assam#s power scenario makes a
grim reading. The installed generating capacity in Assam stands at about A.5 magawatt *(1+which is a more
5.6A per cent of the country#s total installed capacity of 65,555 (1. In 4BB/B?,while the per cent capita electric
energy consumption was /=4..= Kwh *Kilowatt hours+for the country as a whole,that of Assam#s stood at only
45A Kwh.
At present,the !ongaigaon Thermal )ower "tation *!T)"+runs on coal from !engal!ihar belt,is the
largest power plant in the 7ortheast with an installed capacity of /.5 (1. The installed capacity of the first
natural gas based 7amrup Thermal )ower "tation *7T)"+has raised from 0B (1 to 4??.A (1. The ;akwa
Thermal )ower "tation *;T)"+has four gas turbine sets each with a 4A (1 capacity. At Kathalguri and
'eleki,the A"&! has installed mobile gas turbine generating sets.
!ased on the ##:ourteenth electric )ower "urvey of India## published by the 3entral electricity
Authority,the energy availability in Assam works out to be 40A0 (kwh against the energy requirement of ??.=
(kwh thereby creating a deficit of 40B/ (kwh *A5.A?J+.
Two important power generation pro<ects now in the process of completion are the Kathalguri Thermal
)ower )ro<ect,a /65 (1 pro<ect of the 7orth eastern &lectric )ower 3orporation *7&&)3D+and the /=A (1
Amguri 3ombinedcycle )lant of A"&!.
?5
Rural Ele$tri.i$ation : In Assam,the pace of electrification in the country side had been rather slow. Till
the end of 4B666= only /,/06 villages or 45.?J of the total village in the "tate were electrified as against ?=J
for the 3ountry as a whole. The number of irrigation pump setsMtubewells energised till the end of ?4
st
(arch,4B6= stood at 4,5A..
In 4BB?B.,the total number of electrified villages has gone up to /4,.BA which works out to be =6.4 per
cent of the total number of villages in Assam. 1ith release of funds from the -ural &lectrification 3orporation
the number of villages electrified is expected to rise in 4BB.BA. In the same financial year,it has been proposed
to electrify .5 villages under the "tate )lan.
E.3a'our and Em!lo+er:s Organisation :
The "tate of Assam has a number of labour organisations or trade unions in the different industrial
establishments.
Tea Industr+ : The following employer#s associations are functioning in tea industry of the "tate 2
*4+Assam !ranch India Tea Association, */+Assam Tea )lanters# Association, *?+ !haratiya 3hah )arisad, *.+
Indian Tea )lanters# As
A""A( "TAT& 'A,&TT&&- A45
sociation and *A+Assam !engal India Tea Association. Df all these &mployers# Associations,the Assam !ranch
India Tea Association calls for special mention.
/. The A.!.I.T.A was formed following a meeting hold at Kokilamukh on the /B
th
Dctober,4B=B and was
originally called the Assam >elley Tea Association. The Assam !ranch Indian Tea Association is divided into 40
circles which are grouped in the three Fones as follows 2
?one /. %oom %ooma,%ibrugarh,)anitola,Tingri,7aharkatia and (oran.
?one < . "onari,7aFira,9orhat and 'olaghat.
?one @ . 7agaon,!iswanath,TeFpur,!arsala,(angaldai and 7orth ;akhimpur.
&ach circle is represented in the appropriate Fone committee and also on the general committee in which
is vested management and control of the association#s affairs. There is an executive subcommittee of the general
committee to assist the chairman in arriving at decisions of matters of urgency when time does not permit of a
reference to the general committee. The !ranch 3hairman and also committee members are elected annually.
The office of the !ranch "ecretary and 9oint "ecretary of ;abour are at %ikom in %ibrugarh district. In each
Fone,there is ,one "ecretary and an Additional "ecretary ,their offices being located at 3haukhowa *Fone
4+,3innamara *Fone /+ and "onabeel Tea &state *Fone ?+.
The ob<ective of the Association are to watch over and safeguard the interest of its members and labour
employed on member estates. 3lose contact with the 'overnment of Assam is maintained by the Association#s
adviser and with district officials by the Fone stipendiary officers. There is also constant liaison with the parent
Association,i.e.,Indian tea Association in 3alcutta and with sister Associations elsewhere on matters of common
interest. The association#s stipendiary officers advise members on labour and other problems and assist them in
negotiation with trade unions and in proceedings under the Industrial under the Industrial %ispute Act. The
Association also represents members on various tripartite committees set up by the 'overnment to advise on
matters of labour policy.
<. The Assam Tea )lanters Association is another employer#s organisation in the "tate established to safeguard
the interests of small tea growers. The headquarters of the Association are now at 9orhat. The formal
inauguration of the Association was made in the year 4B?A under the name of Assam >alley Tea )lanter
Association,but in 4B.6 when "ylhet was carved out of Assam,the name was shortened to Assam Tea )lanter#s
Association.
The aims and ob<ects of the Association are *4+to promote the common interest of all persons concerned
in the cultivation of tea in India particularly of the tea planters of Assam and the welfare of the labour
employed, */+ to keep in touch with 'overnment in matters affecting the tea industry and *?+to maintain close
association with the industry with the same or like ob<ects in view and to ensure uniformity in all garden
practices amongst the member estates.
'enerally,one tea estate is a member of one association but some gardens
I7%8"T-I&" A44
are members of more than one association. These associations are advisory bodies of their members and see to
the interest of the members in matters of business,industrial relations and progress of the industry.
Assam Chah Karma!hari Sangha,Assam Chah ,a;door Sangha and Sramik 8nion are the organisation
for employees functioning in the "tate. Assam Chah Krama!hari Sangha is the organisation for staff other than
the manual workers. It is affiliated to the Indian 7ational Trade 8nion 3ongress. Its head office is located at
%ibrugarh. Assam Chah ,a;adoor "angha is an organisation of the manual labourers and is also affiliated to
Indian 7ational 8nion 3ongress. Its headoffice is also located at %ibrugarh. !esides these two
associations,there are also branches of Bharatiya Chah ,a;door Sangha affiliated to All India Trade 8nion
3ongress in some tea gardens of Assam and they are also working amongst the tea labourers. 3achar Sramik
8nion looks after the tea garden labourers of 3achar district.
!esides the employers# associations in the tea industry there are only a few other employers# association
in the "tate of Assam. The most important association are *4+the railway and Trading 3ompany,(argherita
&mployer#s# Drganisation is affiliated to the *a+Indian (ining Association,3alcutta, *b+!engal 3hamber of
3ommerce and Industry,3alcutta, *c+&astern India Tea 3hest and )lywood (anufacturer#s
Association,(argherita, *d+Indian )lywood (anufactures# research Association,!anglore@ */+ Assam
(anufacturers# Associations, *?+ All India (anufacturers# Association , *.+ Assam -ice and oil (ills Associa
tions, *A+ Assam 3hamber of Inter"tate 3arriers.
Trade union activities are predominant in Assam. The workers of almost all factories and industrial
establishments are organised as trade unions. (ost of these are affiliated to Indian 7ational Trade 8nion
3ongress or All India Trade 8nion 3ongress. $owever,there are few exceptions which claim to be independent
of any affiliation to such bodies. The Indian national Trade 8nion 3ongress has branches all over Assam.
There are many labour organisations in the "tate. The following are some of the important labour
organisations 2
"/# The Assam 3olliery ,a;door 3ongress *affiliated to the I7T83+, !oragoli.
"<# The Assam 3oal (ines 1orkers# 8nions, *affiliated to the AIT83+;edo.
"@# The Assam -ailways and Trading 3ompany 1orkers# 8nion (argherita.
"A# The ;akhimpur %istrict !rick 1orkers# 8nion ;edo.
"B# The A.! G T.3o. ,a;door 8nion *affiliated to AIT83+, (argherita.
"C# The TeFpur Dil G -ice (ills ,a;door Sangha with their respective of
fices at TeFpur *affiliated to Indian 7ational Trade 8nion 3ongress+.
"D# The %arang (ill ,a;door 8nion,TeFpur.
"E# TeFpur Industrial &mployee#s 8nion, *affiliated to Indian 7ational Trade
8nion 3ongress+.
"F# (akunda Sramik 8nion,3achar.
A""A( "TAT& 'A,&TT&&- A4/
*45+ 3achar (ills 1orkers# 8nion.
*44+ 3achar %istrict !iscuits 1orkers# 8nion,!anamali,Karimgan<.
*4/+ The All Assam 7ation )ictures &mployees# 8nion.
*4?+ Assam "pun (ill 1orkers# 8nion,9agiroad.
"/A# 7agaon =illa (il ,a;door 8nion.
"/B# Assam (atch 3oSramik Sangha,%hubri.
"/C# 'oalpara =illa !idi 1orkers# 8nion,%hubri.
"/D# ;ower Assam (ill ,a;door Sangha,%hubri.
*4=+ A(33 Technicians# 8nion, %hubri
*4B+ A(3D "taff 8nion, %hubri.
"<;# %hubri )lywood :actory ,a;door 8nion, %hubri.
*/4+ %hubri 9ute 1orkers# Association.
*//+ A(3D &mployees# 8nion,%hubri.
*/?+ %hubri )ress 1orkers# 8nion.
*/.+ Ashok )aper (ills &mployees# 8nion,9ogighopa.
*/A+ Assam Tribune &mployees@ 8nion,'uwahati.
"<C# Kamrup (ill ,a;door Sangha,'uwahati.
*/6+ Assam "tate &lectricity "upply 1orkers# 8nion,at 'uwahati and TeFpur
*/=+ Assam "tate &lectricity &mployees# 8nion,'uwahati.
*/B+ 'oalpara ,illa &lectric "upply 1orkers#8nion,%hubri.
*?5+ TeFpur &lectric "upply &mployees# Association *affiliated to the I7T83+.
*?4+ Kamrup Iron and "till ;imited 1orkers# 8nion,'uwahati.
*?/+ Kamrup Industrial 1orkers# 8nion,'uwahati.
*??+ "teel 1orth 1orkers# union,'uwahati.
*?.+ 'uwahati &ngineering 1orkers# 8nion,'uwahati.
"@B# Assam Khadi !oard 1orkers# 8nion,'uwahati.
*?0+ $ume )ipe ;ine 1orkers# union,Amingaon .
*?6+ Kamrup 3onstruction 1orkers# 8nion,Amingoan.
*?=+ -efinery 1orkers# 8nion, 7oonmati,'uwahati.
*?B+ Assam petroleum 1orkers# 8nion,'uwahati.
*.5+ Tata Dil (ills and Associated 3o.s &mployees# 8nion,'uwahati.
*.4+ !.D.3. )ipe ;ine 1orkers# 8nion,'uwahati.
There is also labour unions in the Assam Dil 3ompany and the plywood factories of 8pper Assam.
2. 3a'our -el.are :
The ;abour %epartments of the 3entral and "tate 'overnment shoulder the responsibility of labour
welfare in the "tate. The departments have been armed with a number of labour legislations passed by the Indian
)arliament and the "tate Assembly. The legislations so far enacted cover public and private sector
establishments. The employers have been brought under the purview of the legislation and are expected to adopt
necessary welfare measures in their establishments. "ome of these acts regulations are 2 *4+ The 1orkers
3ompensa
I7%8"T-I&" A4?
tion Act,4B/?, */+ The Indian Trade 8nion Act, 4B/0, *?+ The Tea %istrict &migrant ;abour Act, 4B?.@ *.+ The
payment of 1ages Act, 4B?0@ *A+ The Assam (aternity !enefit Act,4B..@ *0+ The Industrial &mployment
*"tanding Drders+Act,4B.0@ *6+ The Industrial %ispute Act,4B.6@ *=+ The :actories Act,4B.=@ *B+ The Assam
"hips and &stablishments Act,4B.=@ *45+ The (inimum wages Act,4B.=@ *44+The 3oal (ines )rovident :und
and !onus "chemes Act,4B.=@ *4/+ &mployees :und Act,4B.=@ *4?+&mployees "tate Insurance Act,4B.=@ *4.+
The (otor Transport 1orkers Act,4BA4@ *4A+ The )lantation ;abour Act,4BA4 and *40+The Assam )lantations
provident :und "cheme Act,4BAA,etc.
These acts and regulations cover a wide range of labour welfare measures such as housing ,medical,
education ,nutrition ,establishment of canteens,etc.,rest and recreation ,day nurseries,sanitations,holiday with pay
and sickness benefits.
The ;abour %irectorate of the 'overnment of Assam is responsible for the implementation of the above
acts and regulations. The said %irectorate consists of several officers of different cadres of which the ;abour
3ommissioner is the head .In the headquarters, the ;abour 3ommissioner is assisted by one additional ;abour
3ommissioner, one 3hief Inspector for )lantation, one 3hief Inspector for (otor Transport undertakings, one
;abour 1elfare Dfficer, one "pecial Dfficer of ;abour for committees and conferences ,one -egistrar and other
staff. The functions of the labour 1elfare Dfficer relate to the looking after of the interest of workers in welfare
matters. This %irectorate has five administrative Fones each in charge of an Assistant ;abour 3ommissioner .
!esides the enforcement of the acts mentioned earlier,most of the officers from the ;abour 3ommissioner right
upto the rank of labour Inspector functions as concilation offices under the Industrial disputes Act for
maintaining industrial harmony and settling the differences between the employers and the employees. !esides
the officials of the "tate ;abour %epartment stationed a t 'uwahati,3entral ;abour Inspectorate with its
headquarters at 'uwahati is functioning here extending its <urisdiction over Assam,7orth !engal,etc. The
officials of the 3entral Inspectorate have been declared as Inspectors under the following important acts amongst
others *4+ )ayment of wages Act *-ailway -ule+, */+ )ayment of 1ages Act *(ines -ulers+, *?+ (inimum
1ages Act, *.+ $ours of &mployment -egulations , *A+ employment wages of 3hildren Act, *0+ :air 1ages
3lause3.).1.% and (ilitary &ngineering "ervice, *6+ Industrial &mployment "tanding Drders Act, *=+
Industrial %isputes Act,etc.
8nder the :actories Act,4B6=., there is one Inspector of :actories at 'uwahati who works under the
administrative control of the 3hief Inspector of :actories,Assam. $is main functions is to ensure strict
observations of the provisions of the :actories Act.
:or trial of industrial disputes,'overnment of Assam has set up two industrial tribunals one for upper
Assam with headquarters at %ibrugarh and
A""A( "TAT& 'A,&TT&&- A4.
the other for lower Assam including 3achar with headquarters at 'uwahati. Their functions are to ad<udicate the
disputes referred to them by the 'overnment under provisions of industrial %isputes Acts.
:urther,it may be mentioned here that under the :ive Eear )lans the 'overnment of Assam had
undertaken the establishment of community centres for plantation labour in concentrated tea areas with a view to
ameliorating the condition of labour and training up in cultural,social,economic,educational and similar other
activities.
The "tate ;abour %epartment has also established a number of welfare centres for urban industrial
labour in Assam and also arranges training of departmental officers in the sub<ects relating to labour welfare.
The enactment of )lantation ;abour Act in 4BA4 has brought about improvement in the working
condition of the plantation workers in Assam. It is a comprehensive plece of legislation and had put employers
under obligation to all tea,coffee,rubber,cinchonna plantations with an area of /A acres or more and employing
?5 on more persons. It can be extended to other plantations by the "tate 'overnment. It provides for creation of
inspecting staff by the "tate 'overnment and imposition of penalties for contravention of provisions of the Act.
8nder this Act the employers are required to provide drinking water,sufficient latrines and urinals for men and
women,canteens in every plantation where 4A5 or more workers are employed and creches where A5 or more
women are employed. &mployers are also to make arrangements for proper medical and educational facilities
for the workers and their children. )roviding standard type housing accommodations for the workers and their
families is also the responsibility of the employer. !esides maternity and sickness benefits,the workers are
allowed leave with wages. 3hildren below 4/ years are not to work in plantation and night work between 6
).(.and 0 A.(.is prohibited for women and adolescents. 1elfare Dfficers are to be appointed in every plantation
where ?55 or more workers are employed.
In accordance with that Act,free education upto the lower primary standard is provided by the
management on most of the tea estates of Assam. !esides,to provide medical facilities,the management of the tea
estates has established hospitals and dispensaries within their estates.
In tea plantation areas,houses are provided free of charge. In the early thirties and forties. B5J of the
houses in the tea plantations of Assam were Ka!ha houses made of mud walls and thatched roofs. These houses
were devoid of sanitary provisions. There were no latrine,window or "erandha in any house. ;abourers were
required to get their houses repaired themselves. &ven access to labourers# quarters was prohibited to all except
worker#s friends and relatives on grounds of right to private property. The -oyal 3ommission in 4B/B ob<ected to
this recommended that all the plantation areas should be thrown open to the public and there should be !oards
of $ealth and
I7%8"T-I&" A4A
1elfare to determine minimum requirements of housing.
?4
The problem of providing improved housing accommodation came up for discussion at the first
Tripartite )lantation 3onference which held in 7ew %elhi in 9anuary,4B.6. ;ater on,it was discussed at the
second session of the Industrial )lantation 3ommittee#s meeting held in "eptember,4B.B and 7ovember,4BA5.
The Indian Tea Association drew up certain minimum housing specification which were accepted by the
'overnment of Assam. 1ith the enactment of the )lantation ;abour Act,4BA4,responsibility for making
necessary houses for the workers and their families,now rests with the employers of respective tea estates. In
pursuance of this Act,some progress,no doubt,has been made but still much remain to be done especially in
uneconomic and small tea gardens.
The introduction of the Assam Tea )lantation )rovident :und and )ension :und "cheme Act, 4BAA has
ushered in a new era of socioeconomic uplift of the plantation workers in the "tate of Assam. It extends the
statutory guarantee of social <ustice and social security to the working class engaged in the plantation in the
estates.
The scheme of provident fund under the Act is applicable to *a+)lantations having /A or more acres of
land under tea with productions of more than /55 kgs. Df tea per acre,and *b+)lantation having A5 or more acres
under tea irrespective of the rate of production. In pursuance of the provision of the Assam Tea )lantation :und
"cheme *Amendment+Act,4BA=,some small and uneconomic plantations have been exempted form its purview.
The benefits of the 3ontributory )rovident :und are compulsory extended to all categories of employees
barring personnels of managerial and executive cadres and other employees whose total *cash+ emoluments
exceed -s.4555M per month per head. The employees of the tea gardens are classified into three broad
categories,viF.,adult labour,adolescent and children but the :und recognises no such classification for this
membership. The rate of contribution to the provident funds has been raised from 0
4
M/J to=J of the wages of the
workers both from the employees.
The scheme provides for advances refundable and non refundable to the members from this provident
fund accumulations on specific grounds. -efundable advances are made available ceremony and death rituals of
a family member and nonrefundable for construction of dwelling house,payment of life insurance
premium,purchase of shares of cooperative societies and subsistence when famine conditions prevail due to
natural calamities and unemployment due to closure of gardens.
The scheme is administered by the !oard of Trustees and the cost of administration is met from a
separate fund created by contributions.

?4. -.3. "exena 2 >aour Prolems and So!ial ?elfare,$) /4.,//6.
A""A( "TAT& 'A,&TT&&- A40
"ince the introduction of the scheme,its functions and scope have been considerably expanded by
adopting other ancillary schemes,viF.,;ife Insurance "cheme through )rovident :und,Dldage )ension "cheme
and :amily )ension "cheme.
;ife Insurance through )rovident :ind was introduced in 4B0? with a view to rendering financial
protection to the family of the deceased member. 1hile extending this additional benefit,it was ensured that no
additional financial burden was put upon the members on that account. The lives of the )rovident :und members
in the age group 4= to .5 years are insured for -s.4555M,-s.A55M and -s./A5M in respect of the clerical
staff,male labourer and female labourer respectively. The papers are assigned to the !oard of Trustees who keeps
these in the custody and prefers claim as and when necessary on the ;ife Insurance 3orporation. This obviates
the medical examination or age proof of individual members and direct payment of premium by employees. The
amount of premium is paid by the !oard of Trustees from the provident fund contributions of a member annually
and the balance is credited to his provident fund account. $owever,on the amount paid off as premium,no interest
is paid by the !oard of Trustees. The cost of administering the scheme is very economical and it is met from the
commission earned on the policies from the ;ife Insurance 3orporation of India.
The pension scheme which provides for oldage pension the workers after retirement was introduced
with effect from /.45.06 covering the entire provident fund members. Its benefits are in addition to the benefit of
the contributory provident fund and insurance without entailing any extra financial burden on the employees and
employers. The fund for the pension scheme was created by provident fund contributions.
The scope of the pension scheme has been much widened since 4...6/ to provide family pension to the
family of a member in the event of his death while in service. The benefit under the oldage pension scheme
would continue in respect of the members who retired or died prior to 4...6/,while the revised pension scheme
including family pension has been made applicable in respect of the member who dies or retries on or after
4...6/. 8nder the new scheme family pension is granted R -s..5J p.m.for life or till remarriage and lump sum
of -s. 4,555M to the family of the deceased member who dies while in service.
?/
The :amily )ension :und comprises the annual contribution made by the 'overnment of India and the
amount annually transferred from the 'eneral )ension :und R 44.0J and /4.?J of the wages of the employees
covered

?/. 3omplied from the Annual of the ?orking of Assam (ea Plantation #m$loyees ?elfare *und A!t)
I7%8"T-I&" A46
under the scheme respectively. !esides,the 'overnment of India have agreed to bear the entire administrative
cost of the :amily )ension "cheme.
The enactment of the Assam Tea )lantation &mployees 1elfare :und Act,4BAB is another landmark in
the history of welfare legislation for the tea employees in the "tate of Assam. 8nder the provisions of this Act a
fund is to be constituted out of the fines realised from the employees in the course of management of the
plantations,all unpaid accumulations,all grants from the "tate or 3entral 'overnment or the Tea !oard,any
voluntary donation,any sum borrowed under "ection = of the Act and any sum unclaimed for forfeited in the
provident fund account of the employees. The fund shall be maintained by the !oard of Trustees constituted by
the "tate 'overnment and shall be applied to meet the expenditure in connection with measures which in the
opinion of the "tate 'overnment are necessary for promoting the welfare of the employees employed in the "tate
of Assam. 1ithout pre<udice to these general provisions,the fund may be utiliFed by the !oard of Trustees to
defray expenditure on adult education,community and social education centres including reading rooms and
libraries,community necessities,games and sports,excursions,tours and holidayhomes@entertainment and other
forms of recreation@homeindustries and subsidiary occupation for women and unemployed persons,corporate
activities of a social nature@cost of administrating the Act including the salaries and allowances of the staff
appointed for the purposes of the Act and such other ob<ects as would in the opinion of the "tate 'overnment
improve the standard of living and ameliorate the social condition of the employees provided that the fund shall
not be utilised in financing any measure which the employer is required under law for the time being in force to
carry out.
CHAPTER -VI
BANKING, TRADE AND COMMERCE
A. BANKING AND FINANCE :
(a) History o I!"i#$!o%s Ba!&i!# : As observed by the Assam Provincial Banking Enquiry Committee
in 1920-0! the history o" indigenous banking in Assam is shrouded in obscurity# $uring Pre-British days! Assam
had a sel"-su""icient economy %hich %as mainly based on the barter system# &here %as hardly any need "or credit
money itsel" %as scarcely available to the 'ublic "or day-to-day transactions e(ce't coins "or smaller
denominations and cowries or conchshells %hich %ere used in minor transactions# )uch an economy %ould have
never "ostered the gro%th o" any banking system or so-called indigenous banking as %ell as money-leading#
Peo'le belonging to the higher echelon o" the society %ere in the habit o" hoarding money and valuable
ornaments# *n the other hand!++those in acute 'overty could u'on the hel' o" their co-villagers in the sha'e o"
doles o" 'addy or "acilities "or cultivation++#
1
,#,# -unter in his Statistical Account of Assam,1./9! details the gro%th and develo'ment o" Assam
during the early British 'eriod# 0t %as along %ith them that their coins and currency system came to circulation
driving out gradually the old indigenous system# 1ean%hile the British administration %as consolidated in
Assam and 'eo'le became %ell acquainted %ith the ne% monetary system# 2ro%th o" the tea industry! and "ree
trade and commerce resulted in their %ake in the in"lo% o" a number o" business talents 'articularly "rom
3a4asthan and Bengal as %ell as in the im'ortation o" em'loyees and labourers# 0n rural Assam! the 'eo'le had a
sur'lus cro' %hich they could dis'ose o" in the local market in e(change o" other necessities or to get the little
money "or 'ayment o" land revenue# 0n the 'ermanently settled areas o" 2oal'ara and )ylhet 5then in Assam6!
the 7aminders o"ten restored to coercive measures like arrest and detention o" de"aulter tenants %ho %ere
com'elled to 'ay the arrear rents by borro%ing "rom some subordinates or relatives o" the Zamindars on
e(ecution o" a stam'ed bond#
2
1oney began to accumulate in the hands o" 1ar%ari businessmen %ho dominated and still do so in the
entire trade and commerce o" the country

1# E#A# 2ait! A History of Assam, Calcutta! 198/ re'rint! '# 2/0#
2# ,#,# -unter! A Statistical Account of Assam, 9ol# 00! :e% $elhi! re'rint! '#8/!/8#
BA:;0:2!&3A$E A:$ C*11E3CE <19
by establishing commercial enter'rises in all im'ortant trade centres! tea gardens and even in some remote
areas# &hese 1ar%ari merchants as %ell as other u'country traders 'articularly "rom Bengal 5$haccayaa6 had
ready money %hich they could a""ord to lend at a 'ro"itable rate o" interest beside investing in trade# &hus!
money-lending business came into vogue# ++Accumulation o" coin made by the lo%er classes are usually
hoarded=the middle and u''er classes em'loy their savings in trade and lend them out on usury#+
+
&he divide and rule 'olicy o" the alien rulers succeeded in reducing the old hierarchy and in bringing
"orth ne% social order mostly dominated by landlords! big lando%ners and the business community %ho
maintained the su''ly line or credit money# &he 1ar%ari sho's and "irms and other merchants used to issue
short term loans "or %hich they maintained a register# &hey also transacted a large business in hundies, cheques
or dra"ts# &his ty'e o" banking transaction %as a secondary ty'e o" business o" these 'eo'le in those days #)ome
o" the businessmen succeeded in mobilising the savings in the rural sector# &hey used to acce't de'osit "rom the
villagers and some "irms 'aid interest on such de'osits# &his is evident "rom the statements o" 1ar%ari
merchants recorded in di""erent to%ns by the Banking Enquiry Committee in 1929-0 ++%e acce't de'osits but
'ay no interest# &here are 1ar%ari traders %ho 'ay interest at 9 to 11 'er cent on de'osits %hich are used by
them in business++
>
# &he sense o" security %hich these 1ar%ari "irms could instill in the minds o" the de'ositors
encouraged the latter to entrust those "irms %ith their savings# &he de'osits %ere o" the nature o" de'osits at
call# Pass-books %ere rarely used though recei'ts %ere "requently granted to the de'ositors# &he 1ar%ari "irms
and other money lenders also made advances "or short terms to agriculturists in the villages against their
standing cro's in sti'ulation to 'urchase at the market rate during harvest or at a sti'ulated 'rice %hich %ould
have been much lo%er than the harvesting season market 'rice though!in "act!it meant a 'er'etual income and
great 'ro"it to the lenders due to the under-estimation o" the cro' yield as the yield as the economically 'oor
borro%ers in most cases had never been able to re'ay the loan in time# &he middle men or intermediate beparis
%ho made such advances against cro's at sti'ulated 'rices %ith borro%ed money "rom big "irms in the to%ns
charged interests generally in terms o" cro's %hich in terms o" money %as e(ceedingly lucrative and such
interest varied "rom <0 to /< 'er cent#
(') G$!$ra( Cr$"it Fa)i(iti$s A*ai(a'($ : 0t %as only during the early 'art o" the current century that
the credit structure o" Assam economy took some concrete sha'e# )o long credit "acilities %ere 'rovided by the
money lenders!indigenous banks!"riends and relatives o" land lords as already re"erred to#

+. ,#,# -unter ? A statistical Account of Assam, 9ol# 00! :e% $elhi! re'rint! '#.1#
># 3e'ort o" Assam Provincial Banking Enquiry Committee! 1929-0! ' >/
A))A1 )&A&E 2A7E&&EE3 <20
&he money lenders had "reehold u'on the credit "ield and earned big 'ro"its on usury %ithout check# :e(t is
im'ortant as the sources o" credit %ere "riends and relatives o" the borro%ers# 2overnment also 'rovided loans
in times on natural calamities but the 'ro'ortion o" such loans %as quite insigni"icant# 0t is clear "rom -unter+s
Statistical Account of Assam that there %ere no banking establishments in Assam %here loans %ere conducted
by the %ealthy and holders and sho'-kee'ers %ho combined their regular trade %ith money lending# &he money
lenders retained the 'redominant hold even a"ter banking institutions like the co-o'erative credit societies and
banks loan o""icers! etc#! gre% u'# 0t %as only in the "orties o" the current century that some commercial banks
incor'orated outside Assam o'ened branches in a "e% to%ns# &he com'arative 'osition o" the credit sources %as
money lenders %ho 'layed the dominant role as "inanciers in rural areas# Contrary to common belie"! the
lando%ners 5%ho are the o%ners o" lands cultivated by the debtors6 su''ly only a small 'ortion o" the credit
need in the rural areas# &he 2overnment also 'layed an insigni"icant 'art in su''lying rural credit# Because o"
the 'oor develo'ment o" the commercial banks in the )tate! they accounted "or less than one 'er cent o" the
credit su''ly in most districts# @riends and relatives %ere the second 5a"ter money lenders6 im'ortant sources o"
loan in rural Assam# 0t is!there"ore!clear that "our-"i"th o" the rural credit %ere su''lied by the money-
lenders!"riends and relatives# &he institutional credit %as 'ractically non-e(istent#
<
&he co-o'erative credit
societies and banks also 'layed very insigni"icant 'art in the credit "ield# &he "ollo%ing table sho%s the
com'arative 'osition o" the credit sources as revealed by the series o" the 3ural Economic )urveys conducted
during 19<0-<8 in the rural areas o" erst%hile $arrang! )ibsagar! :agaon and ;arbi Anglong districts#
8
)ource o" loan as 'ercentage o" total cash loans in Assam#
)ource $arrang )ibsagar Aakhim'ur :agaon ;arbi Anglong
;#9# 5:on-;#9#6
1#Co-o'erative
banks
2#1oney Aenders
#Aando%ners
>#2overnment
<#Commercial
banks
8#*thers
0#>
8#1
2#
>#>
10#>
19#>
2#
<8#8
#2
>#<
0#9
2#8
0#01
<#8
2#9
0#<
0#<
>2#<
>#0
8.#2
1#1
0#8
0#2
28#0
B
/>#
-
-
-
2>#/
B
<8#9
-
-
-
>#
:ote ?-;#9 -;arbi villages
:on-;#9 -:on-;arbi villages#
<# P#C# 2os%ami ? The Economic Development of Assam, Calcutta! 198! '#82-8#
8# 0bid#
BA:;0:2!&3A$E A:$ C*11E3CE <21
@rom the above table! it is clear that the 'eo'le in need %ere to look "or hel' or loans "rom the source +others+
%hich include "riends and relatives as an alternative to avoid the e(traction o" money-lenders 'articularly in the
hill districts# &he All-0ndia 3ural Credit )urvey 3e'ort gave the 'ercentage o" sources "or All-0ndia as "ollo% B
516 Pro"essional 1oney-lenders! >>!.= 526 Agricultural 1oney-lenders! 2>#9= 56 3elatives!1>#2= 5>6 &raders and
Commission Agents! <#< 5<6 Aandlords!1#<= 5862overnments!#= 5/6 Co-o'eratives! #1= 5.6 Commercial banks!
0#9= 596 *thers! 1#.#
,ith the change o" time!the relative 'osition o" the credit sources also changes as a consequences o"
various control measures and Acts 'assed in regard to money-lending and e('ansion o" the other credit "acilities
a"ter inde'endence# &he co-o'erative credit societies have come in a big %ay to meet the credit requirements in
the rural sector# ,ith a vie% to ensuring steady "lo% o" credit organisational set-u' o" the rural credit has been
re"ashioned recently %ith the Assam Co-o'erative A'e( Bank at the to' and the Primary Co-o'erative Credit
)ocieties at the base# &hus! the amount o" rural credit 5e(tended by the Primary Agricultural Credit
)ocieties6%hich stood at 3#s 1#8 million in 198-8> steady gre% u' in the succeeding years and reached 3s#
2.#/ millions in 198.-89! 5including 1eghalaya6# 0n addition to increasing co-o'erative credit "acilities! banking
"acilities %hich %ere so "ar con"ined to the urban areas only have been gradually e(tended to the semi-urban
and rural areas o" the )tate# A"ter nationalisation o" the 1> big commercial banks in Culy!1989 and introduction
o" the Aead Bank scheme!there has been noticeable e('ansion o" bank o""ices in the )tate though in com'arison
to other states it legs "ar behind# &he number o" bank o""ices in Assam reached <> in 19// against only /> in
1989 sho%ing a marked im'rovement in the coverage o" 'o'ulation 'er bank o""ice!the average number o"
'o'ulation covered by each bank o""ice being >1 thousand in 19// against 1.. thousand in 1989#
/
Banking
"acilities are still inadequate in Assam and are mostly con"ined to urban and semi-urban areas#
As a result! a vast ma4ority o" the rural 'o'ulation are still in the gri' o" money-lenders# &he
Kabuliwalas are still "ound engaged in their usurious business o" money-lending all over Assam# ,ith
the e('ansion o" various credit "acilities!the demand "or credit has also steadily gone u'# 0t is di""icult to
ascertain the 'ro'ortion o" credit 'rovided by di""erent sources "or %ant o" data#
&he Planning Commission observed that easier credit "acilities should be e(tended to small and
marginal "armers in order to utilise the in"rastructural

/# Economic Survey of Assam, 19/<-/8 by the $irectorate o" Economics and )tatistics! 2ovt# o" Assam!
2u%ahati! 19/9! '#82#
A))A1 )&A&E 2A7E&&EE3 <22
"acilities like irrigation! trans'ort! %are-housing! technical methods em'loyed in modern "arm 'ractice! etc#
Credit is the critical requirement to 'urchase "arm im'lements! "ertilisers! and other agricultural in'uts in the
rural areas o" Assam# Banks s'reading to the rural areas e(tend credit only against security but the ma4ority o"
the cultivators have no such tangible assets to mortgage as security# &he nationalised banks 'rovide only long
term loans and are reluctant to give short term loans e(ce't on security# Consequently! the 'oor and marginal
"armers are to a''roach the money-lenders "or credit on usurious rates o" interests# 3ecent moratoria and
control measures have though brought some e""ects!the money-lenders cannot be eliminated "rom the credit
"ield so long the real ga' in the line o" credit su''ly 'ersist and the big traders act money-lenders# 0t is
suggested that the rural banks should take the risk o" lending on the basis o" cro'-loans and to realise the loan
in kind through the marketing agency to achieve the desired end#
())I!"$'t$"!$ss :
R%ra( I!"$'t$"!$ss : &here is considerable burden o" indebtedness in the rural sector o" the )tate#
++2ro%th o" 'o'ulation and stagnation o" rural 'roductivity %ith limitation o" em'loyment o''ortunities are sure
to lead to greater indebtedness++#
.
B#C# Allen described in the old $istrict 2aDetteers o" Assam! 190< )eries! that
a considerable 'ortion o" the villagers %ere in debt but doubted that indebtedness could assume serious
'ro'ortions in any district though a certain amount o" 'etty borro%ing %ent on# As time rolled on! the )tate o"
Assam began to lose sel"-su""iciency in 'roduction# Economic condition in the rural areas began to deteriorate
due to various "actors such as loss o" occu'ation due to decay o" cottage industries!increasing 'ressure o"
'o'ulation on the soil! non-develo'ment o" resource based industries in the )tate and the like# 0m'rudent habit
o" the 'eo'le villages o" incurring debt "or 'er"ormance o" social ceremonies like marriage and srAdha by
mortgaging the agricultural land %hich once mortgaged! caused greater indebtedness 'articularly a"ter the @irst
,orld ,ar!the a"ter e""ects o" %hich led to the great economic de'ression since 1929# &he magnitude o" the
'roblem %as revealed by Provincial Banking Enquiry Committee+s 3e'ort in 1929-0 %hich estimated the total
volume o" indebtedness in Assam at 3s#220 million# 0ndebtedness %ould have assumed a "urther dimension i"
all sorts o" credit "acilities had e(isted# According to the "indings o" the said committee!the average debt 'er
"amily in Assam in 1929-0 %as 3s#20<! and 'er indebted "amily 3s#2>2# &hese "igure %ould have been at a
variance as <0E o" the surveyed villages %ere in )ylhet district %hich %ent to Pakistan in 19>/ and %hich
sho%ed higher indebtedness 53s#2> 'er "amily6caused by un'rec-

.# P#C# 2os%ami ? The Economic Development of Assam, Calcutta! 198! '#80#
BA:;0:2!&3A$E A:$ C*11E3CE <2
-edented "loods in the district in 1929#
A"ter the said Enquiry there %as! ho%ever! much im'rovement in res'ect o" 'ro'ortion o" indebted
"amilies to total "amilies during the ne(t t%enty years ending in 19>9 %hen a series o" )tate surveys into rural
economic conditions in the districts o" Assam %ere conducted# Even then!t%o-"i"th o" the total number o" rural
"amilies %ere in debt in 19>.->9# &hough the average debt 'er indebted "amily a''ears to remain at much the
same level as in 1929!there %as some im'rovement i" the rise o" the 'rice level is considered# &he "ollo%ing
table gives a com'arative idea o" the e(tent o" indebtedness in 1929-0 and 19>.->9#
9
)tatement sho%ing the e(tent o" indebtedness in 3ural Areas o" Assam#
$istrict Eo" indebtedness
to total "amilies
in the sam'le
Average debt
'er "amily
53s#6
Average debt
'er indebtedness
"amily 53s#6
A# Provisional Banking Enquiry!1929#0#
$arrang .1#< 10. 229
:agaon /.#9 1. 2<
Corhat )ubdivision .#< 120 1><
2oal'ara 82#0 111 1.0
Cachar 90#0 1/9 200
B# 3ural Economic )urveys#
$arrang >2#2 98#0 22/#0
)ibsagar 9#1 88#1 1/#2
Aakhim'ur 1#0 </#/ 1.8#<
:agaon 9#2 />#> 1.9#/
;arbi Anglong
5a6;arbi villages 8#9 28#2 >0#9
5b6:on-karbi villages >.#9 >9#> 10#1

@rom the above! it a''ears that in 1929-0 among the districts! 2oal'ara occu'ied a better 'osition in
res'ect o" incidence 'er indebted "amily %hile $arrang sho%ed the highest 'ercentage o" indebted "amily# 0n the
series o" rural economic surveys! ;arbi Anglong sho%ed the highest 'ercentage o" indebted "amilies %hile
$arrang district to''ed the list o" average debt incidence# :o

P#C# 2os%ami? The Economic Development of Assam, Calcutta! 198! '#81#
A))A1 )&A&E 2A7E&&EE3 <2>
rural economic survey %as done in the districts o" 2oal'ara! ;amru' and Cachar %hile ;amru' %as le"t out
"rom all sorts o" economic survey# &he All-0ndia 3ural Credit )urvey "i(ed the average debt 'er "amily in Assam
at 3s#219# &he All 0ndia 3ural $ebt and 0nvestment )urvey conducted by the 3eserve Bank o" 0ndia revealed
that in Assam! 20#1 'er cent o" the rural households re'orted borro%ing during the 'eriod "rom Culy! 1981 to
Cune! 1982 against >9#1 'er cent "or all 0ndia# &he amount borro%ed during the 'eriod %as 3s# 18 'er
borro%ing rural household and the average amount borro%ed 'er rural household %as 3s#! the average "or
cultivators and non-cultivators being 3s# 8 and 3s# 2 in Assam as against the corres'onding all 0ndia average
o" 3s# 1.0! 3s#20<!and 3s# 111 res'ectively# $uring the 'eriod!the 'ro'ortion o" households re'orting re'ayment
%as 20#2 'er cent and the amount o" re'ayment 'er involved household and rural household %ere 3s#11 and
3s# 28 res'ectively# &he "ollo%ing table sho%s the 'osition o" borro%ings and re'ayment during the 'eriod#
10
Borro%ings 3e'ayment
E o" house-
holds re'-
orting
Average
'er re'-
orting
house
hold 3s#
Average
'er
house-
hold
3s#
Eo"
house-
holds
re'orting
3s#
Average
'er re'-
orting
house
hold 3s#
Ave-
rage
'er
house-
hold
3s#
1 2 > < 8 /
1#Cultivators
2#:on-cultivators
#All rural house
holds
20#<
1.#.
20#1
1/>
12>
18
8
2
21#<
18#1
20#2
12
128
11
2.
20
28
&he survey "urther revealed that in all states e(ce't Assam and *rissa! more than <0 'er cent o" the
households re'orted outstanding loans# 0n Assam! the 'ercentage o" households re'orting outstanding loans %as
9#< against 82#1 "or all 0ndia# &he "ollo%ing table sho%s the 'osition o" outstanding loans in Assam at the end
o" Cune!1982#
11

10# Economy Survey of Assam, 19/0! by the $irectorate o" Economics and )tatistics! 2ovt# o" Assam! '#111!112#
11# 0bid#
BA:;0:2!&3A$E A:$ C*11E3CE <2<
E o" households
re'orting
Amount 'ercentage
re'orting
household
Amount 'ercentage
household
1#Cultivator
2#:on-cultivator
#All rural households
>1#1.
1#
9#<
0
>09
>8
1.
12
1/
)ince then! rural indebtedness is believed to be mounting high due to credit revitalisation 'rogramme o"
the Co-o'erative $e'artment and e('ansion o" branch o""ices o" the commercial banks in Assam# &he increasing
credit trend in the rural areas o" Assam is more a''arently noticed a"ter nationalisation o" 1> big commercial
banks in 1989# As 'er Banking )tatistics o" 3eserve Bank o" 0ndia!outstanding credit o" scheduled commercial
banks in Assam stood at 3s# ..2#.. lakhs in $ecember!19/> against 3s# 880#88 lakhs in $ecember!19/2#
Agriculture and allied activities accounted "or <2#> 'er cent and industry "or 29#1 'er cent o" the outstanding
bank credit in the )tate# &his cou'led %ith outstanding credit "rom other sources sho%s the gigantic 'roblem o"
increasing indebtedness in the rural areas o" Assam#
As has been already mentioned!the debt burden o" the 'eo'le in the rural areas o" Assam increased
considerably along %ith the great economic de'ression in 191- and 2overnment o" Assam took several
measures to relieve the rural 'eo'le "rom the burden o" indebtedness# ,ith a vie% to reducing money-lenders
e(tortions "rom debtors!the Assam 1oney Aenders Act %as 'assed in 19># &his 'rohibited com'ound interest
and restricted sim'le interest to 9
F
.
'er cent and 12
F
.
'er cent de'ending u'on the security o" the loan# 0n 198!
the Assam $ebt Conciliation Act %as 'assed and other it several $ebt Conciliation Boards %ere established to
hel' the debtors in setting old debts# &he )econd ,orld ,ar o'ened am'le avenues o" em'loyment and vastly
im'roved the trade and commerce o" the 'rovince# &he burden o" debt in the rural sector have been materially
a""ected by the soaring 'rices# Although the rise in 'rice o" agricultural 'roducts had to some e(tent relived the
agriculturists in reducing their debt burden!the general 'rice in"lation that set in during the 'ost %ar 'eriod o""set
the bene"its and!as such!demand "or credit in the rural areas began to increase# &he average debt 'er indebted
"amily as revealed in the series o" rural economic surveys in Assam conducted by the )tate 2overnment since
19>.->9 a''eared to be lo%er in com'arison to that in the Assam Provincial Banking Enquiry Committee+s
3e'ort! 1920-0= but it %as actually not so in terms o" the 'rice hike in the latter 'eriod# 2overnment had to take
several measures to curb the usurious activities o" the money-lenders# 2overnment gave stress on the
develo'ment o" the commercial banking "acilities and strengthening o" the co-
A))A1 )&A&E 2A7E&&EE3 <28
o'erative credit structure# Besides!2overnment also 'rovided various kinds o" loans!loans to "lood and drought
e""ected 'ersons! etc# &hough the credit "acilities are gradually e('anding to the rural areas! they "all "ar short o"
meeting the credit requirements in the rural areas o" the )tate as the 'rice in"lation is going on unabated
adversely reducing re'aying ca'acity o" the borro%ers# Consequently! the volume o" outstanding loans and
overdues in the rural areas are cro''ing u' year a"ter year it is believed that the volume o" indebtedness in the
rural areas o" the )tate has in recent years assumed very serious 'ro'ortions#
&he debt in the rural sector is incurred "or various 'ur'oses! viD#! re'ayment o" old debt! marriage and
sradha ceremonies! 'urchase o" "arm cattle! im'lements! seeds and other in'uts! 'urchase o" land or its im'rove-
ment! education o" children! medical e('enses! litigation and "amine and "ailure o" cro's# As regards 'ro'ortions
o" loans incurred "or di""erent 'ur'oses in Assam P#C# 2os%ami observed ?)ocial ceremonies like
marriage!sradha 5"uneral ceremonies6!etc#! account "or one tenth to one-"i"th o" the total loans and 'roductive
'ur'oses like 'urchase o" cattle!seeds!im'lements! etc# and im'rovement o" loans only "or 1< to 0 'er cent# &he
'ro'ortions o" loans "or education o" children and medical e('enses are quite insigni"icant# @amines and cro'
"ailures are the general causes o" loans++#
12
&he 'ro'ortion o" loans "or un'roductive 'ur'oses is al%ays higher
than that "or 'roductive 'ur'oses# &he 'ro'ortion o" un'roductive loans %ould be more 'ronounced i" the grain
taken during "amine and cro' "ailure and credit 'urchase o" consumer goods are also added to it# P#C# 2os%ami
also quotes the 'ro'ortion o" debt "rom all 0ndia 3ural Credit )urvey Committee+s 3e'ort "or di""erent 'ur'oses
as "ollo%s ?- +5a6 Ca'ital E('enditure on "arm!3s#2/#.E! 5b6 Current E('enditure on "arm!9#E= 5c6 :on-"arm
Business E('enditure!8#8E= 5d6 @amily E('enditure <0#2E= 5e6 *ther E('enditure!<#/E= 5"6 1ore than one
'ur'ose#0#>E#
1
But a striking contrast is noticed in case o" Assam %here loans under un'roductive 'ur'oses
such as 'urchase o" "lood articles!'re"erence o" social ceremonies! etc#!claim the highest 'ro'ortion varying "rom
/0 to .0 'er cent "rom district to district as revealed in various )tate )am'le )urveys# )uch high 'ro'ortion o"
debt under un'roductive head is the national outcome o" the lo% 'roductivity o" soil and cro' "ailure due to
"requent "loods and other natural calamities# 0n recent years!indebtedness in the rural areas on such accounts has
assumed alarming 'ro'ortions due to "lood shortage and ever increasing 'rices#

12# P#C# 2os%ami ? The Economic Development of Assam, Calcutta! 198! '#82#
1# 0bid! '#2>2#
BA:;0:2!&3A$E A:$ C*11E3CE <2/
2enerally! the debt burden is higher "or the non-cultivating "amilies than the cultivating ones and in both
cases! the labourers bear heavier burden than the landless due to better credit %orthiness o" the lando%ners#
,r'a! I!"$'t$"!$ss : &he sources o" credit in the urban areas o" Assam are the same as those in the
rural areas!but the role o" each o" those agencies is di""erent in the t%o sectors# ,hile in 'roviding loans
Mahaans or the lando%ners 'lay insigni"icant role in the rural areas!the businessmen 'articularly %holesale
dealers and Kabuliwallas, occu'y an im'ortant 'lace in this res'ect in urban areas# &hey allo% credit to trusted
retailers# :o interest is usually charged on the outstanding amount "or a certain 'eriod# 0n most cases! the
transaction is com'leted on the basis o" some entries in their registered! usually called !oc"er# &he total amount
o" credit 'roved in this %ay is believed to be more than %hat the 'etty dealers secure "rom other sources# &he
commercial banks have set u' branches mostly in the urban areas# 9arious ty'es o" loans are advanced by banks
"or industry!trade and commerce and are availed by di""erent sections o" the 'eo'le# &he total loans advanced by
all banks in the semi-urban and urban areas o" Assam amounted to 3s# 18#1 lakhs and 3s# 18#82 lakhs
res'ectively in $ecember! 19/ against 3s# 1#/> lakhs in the areas# &his sho%s ho% much greater is the volume
o" urban indebtedness in Assam on banking account alone and taking into account o" credit "rom other sources
including 2overnment! Ai"e 0nsurance Cor'oration! etc#! %hich also 'rovide di""erent kinds o" loans such as
building loans= the total volume o" urban indebtedness %ill reach by this time a gigantic "rom# &he 'resent
in"lationary trend is believed to have seriously a""ected the re'aying ca'acity and the 'urchasing 'o%er o" the
'eo'le in the middle and lo%er income grou's in the urban areas enhanced their debt burden #
Pr$*a($!)$ o ,s%ry :- As has been already 'ointed out usury %as the common 'ractice o" the 'rivate
money-lenders %ho resorted to various e(tortions u'on the debtors in e(acting re'ayment o" the loans and that
2overnment had various legislation including Gsurious Aoans Act to curb such usurious activities# &he rate o"
interest varied "rom 10 'er cent to more than <0 'er cent and sometimes to 1<0 'er cent# ++&he Provincial
Banking Enquiry Committee!1929-0 "ound /
1
F
2
'er cent as the most usual rate o" interest charged "or loans in
rural areas++#
1>
&he high rates o" interest charged by the money-lenders seriously a""ected the economic
conditions o" the rural 'eo'le!many o" %hom had no tangible assets to give as security against the loan# As a
result!most 'eo'le once "alling in the clutch o" money-lenders and mahaans,had to give %ay to "urther 'overty
and become 'rey o" their debtors %ho %ould engage them a clean labourers# &he 'ro'ortion

1># P#C# 2os%ami ? The Economic Development of Assam, $alcutta! 198! '#8>#
A))A1 )&A&E 2A7E&&EE3 <2.
o" loans bearing high rates o" interest %as also very high# ++ &%enty t%o 'er cent o" the debt in $arrang! . 'er
cent in )ibsagar!<< 'er cent in Aakhim'ur! <1'er cent in :agoan! .9 'er cent in the ;arbi villages o" the ;arbi
Anglong and 2< 'er cent o" the non ;arbi villages o" the ;arbi Anglong bear interest above 20 'er cent 'er
annum#
1<
As a result o" the control measures! 'revalence o" usury had sho%n a declining trend# -o%ever! the
rates o" interest in case o" loans taken in kind or in cash as advanced "rom the Kabuliwallas are e(orbitant but
the terms o" re'ayment a''ear to be alluring to the villagers# &hese 'ro"essional money-lenders "amous "or their
usurious interest and e(tortions in re'ayment!%ere "ormerly con"ined to the tea-gardens but gradually they have
e(tended their business to the interior villages all over Assam# &hese 'eo'le not only charge high rates o"
interest but also do not 'ay the "ull amount o" the loan and the loanee receives the 'rinci'al less the interest
thereon "or the "irst year#
0n order to eliminate the usurious o" the money-lenders!the real ga' in the credit "ield should be bridged#
0n this res'ect!the nationalised banks can 'lay a big role by e(tending their branches in the rural areas 'roviding
easier credit "acilities# 3ecently!the Planning Commission suggested that the rural banks should take the risk o"
issuing cro'-loans to achieve the elimination o" usury o" the 'rivate money-lenders# &he rates o" interest on
loans issued by the 0ndustries $e'artment! co-o'erative banks! nationalised banks and other commercial banks
varies "rom > to 10 'er cent#
T-$ Ro($ o Pri*at$ Mo!$y-($!"$rs a!" Fi!a!)i$rs ? 0t has been already 'ointed out that the 'rivate
money-lenders! 'ro"essionals and semi-'ro"essionals# Played 'redominant role in rural "inance# 0n the 'ast!they
%ere the only 'ersons to %hom the 'eo'le in distress could look "or credit though "riends and relatives too
hel'ed to some e(tent# 0n s'ite o" legalisation "or controlling the usurious activities o" the money-
lenders!e('ansion o" banking institutions and co-o'erative credit societies!and various "inancial agencies!the
money-lender continues to be the most im'ortant source o" credit 'articularly in the rural areas# As revealed by
the sam'le survey in the 4ute gro%ing areas o" Assam in 198! the money-lenders! agricultural money-lenders
and middlemen!and %holesalers in 4ute trade together accounted "or 80#.1 'er cent o" the total loans# Even at
'resent! the money-lenders retain their 'redominant hold u'on the society# &his is due to the 'rivileged 'osition
o" the money-lender %ho is al%ays at the door o" the needy 'eo'le %hose requirements he "ul"ills immediately
%ithout much "ormality and security required by the banks or other sources# *n the others hand!a viable net-
%ork o" the banking institutions is yet to gro% u' in the rural areas# As revealed by the Banking )tatistics o"
Cune /< there %ere only 21> banking o""ices

1<# P#C# 2os%ami ? The Economic Development of Assam, Calcutta! 198!'#82#
BA:;0:2!&3A$E A:$ C*11E3CE <29
all over Assam in 19/< the 'o'ulation coverage under each being 8.!000 against 2!000 in 0ndia# 0t is di""icult
"or the rural 'eo'le to obtain loans "rom banks or other agencies in times o" urgency due to ignorance or
inability to go through the com'licated 'rocedure or "or %ant o" security# &hus! the money-lender is the saviour
o" the 'eo'le in their urgency# &he Planning Commission remarked that unless and until the ga' in the credit
structure %as bridged by a viable net%ork o" banking institutions and used cro' loan system! it %ould be very
di""icult to eliminate the 'redominant hold o" the 'rivate "inanciers! agricultural money-lenders and lando%ners
u'on the rural society#
5d6 Coint )tock Banks and Aoans and 0nvestment Com'anies ? 0n Assam! the gro%th o" 4oint stock
commercial banks is o" com'aratively recent origin# Be"ore 1920! there %as no organised banking sector in
Assam e(ce't only to% banks viD#! the )ylhet Aoan Com'any 53egistered in 1..16 and the )ylhet :ational
Com'any 53egistered in 1.86 %hich %ere little more than loan o""ices receiving de'osits and in a very "e%
cases 'roviding "or %ithdra%al by cheques# By 1928! a "e% more +loan o""ices+ registered %ith head o""ices in
di""erent 'laces o" Assam and nine 'rivate 4oint stock com'anies all e(ce't one being located at )hillong started
"unctioning# &he Provincial Banking Enquiry Committee 1929-0! "ound during its course o" enquiry some such
loan o""ices "unctioning in the districts o" Assam# &hese loan o""ices in some cases e(tended their o'erational
4urisdiction beyond the district o" its incor'oration# As "or e(am'le! the $hubri Aoan *""ice incor'orated %ithin
the district covered under its 4urisdiction the Assam 9alley $ivision and Bengal to some e(tent# 0n addition to
these banks or loan o""ices!a "e% other non-scheduled commercial banks gre% u' in Assam viD#!the &eD'ur
0ndustrial Bank %as established at &eD'ur in 191. as a 'rivate limited com'any and then converted to 'ublic
limited com'any in 1921# 2auhati Bank %as established at 2u%ahati in 1928# &his Bank o'ened branches at
some im'ortant to%ns o" Assam# 0t may also be mentioned that Co-o'erative Central Banks and urban banks
%ere established at most o" the headquarters to%ns o" the districts mostly around 1920# 2radually! more
so'histicated scheduled banks incor'orated outside Assam e(tended their branches to Assam# 0n this
conte(t!s'ecial mention may be made o" the 0m'erial Bank o" 0ndia!%hich had t%o branches in Assam!one at
)hillong and the other at $ibrugarh %hich! in addition to its normal commercial "unctions! used to serve as the
bank to the government# &his Bank %as nationalised in 19<< %ith its ne% name as the )tate Bank o" 0ndia# &he
Cummila Gnion bank Atd# ,hich later merged into the Gnited Bank o" 0ndia also o'ened a "e% branches at
some district headquarters# &he Gnited Bank itsel" o'ened a branch at $hubri on 28-9-.# )ome other Banks
such as the )unlight Bank! &ri'ura Bank! )urma 9alley Bank! :ath Bank! etc#!had a "e% branches but these
Banks had to close their doors due to run in the Banks in the a"termath o" the )econd ,orld ,ar# Assam
remained during the 're-inde'endence 'eriod a 'redominantly agricultural 'rovince!agriculture being 'urely
based on the
A))A1 )&A&E 2A7E&&EE3 <0
traditional methods# )uch an economy did not "oster the gro%th o" the so'histicated banking institutions# $uring
this 'eriod!e(ce't the non-scheduled 2auhati Bank as already mentioned not a single scheduled commercial
bank %as incor'orated in Assam# 0t %as only a"ter the inde'endence that Assam sa% the gro%th and e('ansion
o" banking institutions# &he )tate Co-o'erative A'e( Bank! a non-scheduled bank %as set u' in 19>.# 0n the
meantime! the Banking Aegislation! 19>9 ushered in a ne% era in the history o" banking in the %hole country
and the launching o" economic 'lanning s%itched on the gro%th o" bank and e('ansion o" branches#
0t is! ho%ever! observed that the gro%th o" banking and institutional credit system in Assam had been
tardy till nationalisation o" the 1> big scheduled banks in Culy! 1989# By the end o" the &hird @ive Hear Plan only
seven scheduled commercial banks %ere %orking in Assam %ith or %ithout branches# &he total number o"
branches o" all these banks stood at >2 in 198<!%hich %ere located in im'ortant to%ns o" the )tate# *" the seven
banks! the )tate bank o" 0ndia had the largest number o" branches 5196 closely "ollo%ed by the Gnited Bank and
the Assam Co-o'erative A'e( Bank had 1. branches in the district and subdivisional headquarters to%ns o"
Assam# 0n 1988!the number o" branches o" the scheduled banks in Assam 5e(cluding 1eghalaya and 1iDoram6
increased to >/ %hich increased to />bin Cune end 1989 in the eve o" bank nationalisation# ,ith a vie% to
e('anding banking "acilities in the hitherto unbanked areas! the 3eserve Bank o" 0ndia introduced the +Aead
Bank )cheme+ in $ecember! 1989# &his accelerated the 'ace o" e('ansion o" banking o""ices in the country
including Assam but in com'arison to other states such e('ansion in Assam has been rather a tame a""air# Gnder
the scheme!districts %ere allotted to the )tate Bank grou' 5)tate Bank and its / subsidiaries6!the 1> nationalised
banks and 2 other 0ndian Banks# &he districts o" Assam have been allotted to the three ma4or banks viD#! the )tate
Bank o" 0ndia! the Gnited Bank o" 0ndia and Commercial Bank o" 0ndia and accordingly the districts o" 2oal'ara
and $arrang have been allotted to the Gnited Commercial Bank!the districts o"
:agaon!)ibsagar!Aakhim'ur!$ibrugarh and Cachar to the Gnited Bank and the other district to the )tate Bank o"
0ndia# As a result! the number o" banking o""ices in Assam rose to 108 at the end o" )e'tember! 19/0! the ne%
o""ices being generally o'ened in the hitherto unbanked areas#
&he total number o" bank o""ices in Assam rose to <> in Cune end 19// "rom /> in Cune end 1989
dis'laying a rise o" cent over 1989!the coverage o" 'o'ulation 'er bank o""ice being >1 thousand and 1..
thousand res'ectively# &he table belo% sho%s the number o" bank o""ices and 'o'ulation 'er bank o""ice in
Assam and All 0ndia "rom 198/ to 19//#
BA:;0:2!&3A$E A:$ C*11E3CE <1
Hear
5Cune end6
:umber o" o""ice Average 'o'ulation
'er bank o""ice in
thousand
Assam All 0ndia Assam All 0ndia
198/ /2 8!9.< 199 /
1989 /> .!282 1.. 8<
19/1 122 12!01 120 >8
19/ 18. 1<!82 ./ 8
19/< 21> 1.!/0 8. 29
19// <> 2>!.02 >1 22

0t may be mentioned that banking "acilities available in the )tate are still inadequate and "ar belo% 0ndia
average# A vast ma4ority o" the 'o'ulation in the rural areas are still unable to take advantage o" the banking
"acilities due to absence o" bank o""ice %ithin an accessible area# 0n 19//!average 'o'ulation covered by a bank
o""ice in Assam %as 22 thousand %hile it %as belo% 20 thousand in most o" the states o" 0ndia like
2u4arat!-aryana! ;arnataka! 1aharastra! Pun4ab! &amilnadu! ;erela! etc# 0t sho%s that there is enough sco'e in
Assam "or e('ansion o" banking "acilities#
Gro.t- o "$/osits a!" $0/a!sio! o Cr$"it :-&he volume o" de'osits o" scheduled commercial banks
and their advances to di""erent sectors o" the economy o" the )tate have increased considerably over the 'ast "e%
years# &heir de'osits %hich stood at 3s# 88#<> crores in $ecember! 19/2 rose to 3s#.2#19 crores in $ecember!
19/ and then gradually rose to 3s# 102#<0 crores and 3s# 12> crores in $ecember! 19/> and 19/< res'ectively#
)imilarly!advances o" these banks had also increased "rom 3s# 0 crores in $ecember! 19/2 to 3s#>8 crores in
$ecember!19/> and then to 3s# <8 crores in $ecember! 19/<# -o%ever!advances made to the rural sector had
sho%n little increase# &he "ollo%ing table sho%s de'osits and advances o" the scheduled commercial banks in
Assam district%ise "or the 'ast "e% years#
A))A1 )&A&E 2A7E&&EE3 <2
50n 3s# Crores6
$istricts $ecember 19/ $ecember 19/> $ecember 19/<
$e'osits Advances $e'osits Advances $e'osits Advances
1 2 > < 8 /
1# 2oal'ara >#/. 1#2. <#0> 1#8< /#22 2#/
2# ;amru' 29#10 1/#<. 8#8/ 2>#91 >8#.0 1#20
# $arrang <#90 1#>2 8#> 1#>/ .#09 1#/2
># :agaon >#>9 1# <#0> 1#81 8#</ 2#1>
<# )ibsagar .#81 2#22 10#2< #09 1#. #/1
/# $ibrugarh 21#20 9#2/ 0#> 11#9 0#22 11#>9
.# Aakhim'ur 1#0. 10 1#1> 1> 1#98 1.
9# Cachar 8#> 1#> 8#.0 1#9. .#<9 2#/2
10# ;arbi
Anglong > 8 2 <1 1
11# :#C#-ills < 1 > 1 >> 1

Assam &otal .2#19 >#8/ 102#<0 >8#2/ 12#/. <<#91
0n has been observed that ++agriculture and allied activities 5including 'lantation6++ and industry are the
t%o notable sectors receiving ma4or share "or credits "rom the commercial banks o" the )tate# &hese t%o sectors
accounted "or >.#2 'er cent #1 'er cent res'ectively o" the total outstanding bank credits in the )tate in
$ecember! 19/<!against <2#> 'er cent and 29#1 'er cent res'ectively in $ecember! 19/># &he "ollo%ing table
sho%s the occu'ation %ise classi"ication o" outstanding credit o" scheduled commercial banks in the )tate since
19/2#
5Amount in 3s# Aakhs6
*ccu'ation 19/2 19/ 19/> 19/<
1 2 > <
1#Agriculture
and allied activities
including 'lantation
2# 0ndustry
#&rade
># Personal loans
5including consumers
durables6
<#All *thers
2/#01#/
21>#/9
/9/#/
99#0/
>>.#>
/0<#/1
1.1<#.8
..2#<2
12<#1
<1#>1
>81.#.>
2<88#.
108<#10
1>0#8>
>0#92
>9#/#00
>1.
10>/
188
/11
&otal Bank Credit 880#88 /0>1#8 ..20#.. 101<
BA:;0:2!&3A$E A:$ C*11E3CE <
Although agriculture is the biggest reci'ient o" bank credit!the ma4or amount has been absorbed by
'lantation sector 5about 9< 'er cent o" the total other agricultural credit6%hile in other ma4or 'lantation states
like ,est Bengal! &amilnadu! Andhra!etc#! such discrimination to rural cultivation does not e(ist# &his sho%s that
agriculture and other allied occu'ations in the vast rural areas o" the )tate have been very badly neglected by the
national scheduled and commercial banks in the "ield o" credit advancement# 0t is necessary to 'ut greater
em'hasis on the e('ansion o" banking "acilities in the rural areas so as to develo' the agricultural economy o"
the )tate# )imilarly!outstanding credit under small scale industry sector accounted "or >>#9 'er cent o" the total
industrial credit in 19/> against /0#9 'er cent and >9#1 'er cent in 19/ and 19/2 res'ectively# 0n this s'here also
Assam e('erience total neglect "rom scheduled and nationalised banks! as it is evident "rom the table# &he
"ollo%ing statement %ill sho% that though de'osits in scheduled commercial banks in Assam have been
gradually increasing "rom year to year!advances by these banks have not increased so much and it is still belo%
the acce'ted 'rinci'le o" 100?80 bet%een de'osit and advances#
&he table belo% sho%s credit de'osits ratio in other states!and in Assam in 19/#
18
)tate Hear $e'osit Advance
Assam
Andhra
;arnataka
&amilnadu
1adhya Pradesh
Gttar Pradaesh
;erela
,est Bengal
3a4asthan
19/ $ec#
19/
19/
19/
19/
19/
19/
19/
19/
.2!19
>02!/
>.!8
/1<!.9
2/2!80
./.!9
1/!10
129>!91
19!<
>!8/
8!88
>!<
/</!81
1>>!>>
82!92
22>!<0
1081!>>
10/!0>
&he "ollo%ing table sho%s the develo'ment in banking and "inance in Assam during the 'eriod 19.0-
1998 51arch6

18# Banking )tatistics by the 3eserve Bank o" 0ndia! $ecember! 19/#
A))A1 )&A&E 2A7E&&EE3 <>

Gnit 19.0 19.< 1990 199< 1998
)cheduled
Commercial Banks

Banks branches :os# >.. .0< 11/ 122. 122
$e'osit 3s# crore >0 /.< 1.91 929 >9
Credit 3s# crore 1<8 >< 10<0 1>9< 1/28
Po'ulation 'er
bank o""ice &housands >0#. 2/#1 21#< 19#9 20#
$e'osit 'er
bank o""ice 3s# crore 0#/0 0#9/ 1#88 #20 #</
$e'osit 'er 'erson 3s# 1/1 80 //2 1808 1/<.
Credit 'er bank
o""ice 3s! crore 0#2 0#<8 0#92 1#22 1#>0
Credit 'er 'erson 3s# /9 20. >29 811 891
creditFde'osit
ratio 'er cent >8#0 </#. <<#< .#0 9#
All "inancial
institutions
sanctions 3s#crore 8#// .#< 228#0 1>#>0 /20#10
$isbursements 3s#crore 8#9> 2<#18 8>#>0 9.#/0 12/#0

)ource ?- Centre "or 1onitoring 0ndian Economy 1arch 199/#
&he "ollo%ing table sho%s the number o" branches o" commercial banks!regional rural banks
533B6and co-o'erative banks in Assam in 1998#
Commercial Bank 33B Co-o'erative Bank
.2/ >0> 8/
&he credit de'osit ratio in these banks is as "ollo%s#
Commercial Banks ? <#.1
33B ? >9#20
)CB ? 81#2
)ource ? 3e'ort *n Currency I @inance!3B0!1998-9/#
BA:;0:2!&3A$E A:$ C*11E3CE <<
&he datas are su""icient to sho% that advanced in Assam is not as satis"actory as it is in case o" other states#
3ather it re'resents a dark 'icture o" neglect#
1oi!t 2to)& Co3/a!i$s : Corhat )tock Com'anies generally gre% u' in the 'rivate sector in Assam# *n
the other hand! gro%th o" such com'anies in the 'ublic sector has been very slo%# 0n 19<8-</! there %ere 89
Coint )tock Com'anies!109 Public Aimited Com'anies and 280 Private Aimited Com'anies at %ork in Assam#
&he number o" com'anies sho%ed some decreased in the ne(t three years and came to stand at <1 in 19<.-<9
due to liquidation o" some com'anies though 1/ ne% ones %ere registered in that year in the 'rivate sector# &he
total number o" com'anies registered an increasing trend since 1981-82 in %hich year it stood at 8> and
gradually it %as increasing to >0> in 198<-88# $uring the 'eriod!the increasing trend %as maintained by annual
registration o" ne% com'anies in the 'rivate sector though some old ones %ent on liquidation# 3egistration o"
'ublic limited com'anies %as very e(ce't in 1982-8 58 ne% ones being registered6%hich in the 'rivate sector it
maintained a level bet%een 1 and 19 nos# -o%ever!there %as a set-back in the registration o" "e% com'anies
during the ne(t years till 1989-/0 and as a consequence a""ecting the gro%th o" the total number o" Coint
Com'anies at %ork in Assam#
0n 19/0-/1! total number o" Coint )tock Com'anies at %ork stood at >2-98 Public Aimited Com'anies and
2/ Private Aimited com'anies# $uring the ne(t year!the number o" com'anies in both sector decreased but
since 19/2-/! both sectors sho%s increasing trend!the rate o" gro%th in the 'rivate sector being much higher
due to large number o" ne% registration# &he total number o" Private Aimited Com'anies increased by 10 in
19/>-/< over 19/-/># &hus!the total number o" Coint )tock Com'anies reached 8.9! o" %hich 12 %ere 'ublic
and <88 'rivate in 19//-/.# $uring 19/8-//! altogether <> ne% com'anies %ere registered in the )tate against
2 in 19/<-/8# *ut o" <>!. %ere Private Aimited and 18 %ere Public Aimited Com'anies# &he total authorised
ca'ital o" these ne% com'anies amounted to 3s# < lakhs in 19/8-// and 9> lakhs in 19//-/.# &he total
authorised ca'ital o" all the Coint )tock Com'anies numbering 8> at %ork in Assam in 1981-82 stood at 3s#
.0<#1 millions %hich increased to 3s#1082#0 millions in 1989-/0! the share o" Public Com'anies being only J th
o" the total ca'ital# &he "ollo%ing table sho%s the number o" Coint )tock Com'anies at %ork in Assam over the
'ast "e% years#
A))A1 )&A&E 2A7E&&EE3 <8
Hear :o#o" Public Atd# :o#o" 'rivate &otal
Com'anies Atd#Com'anies

19<8 109 280 89
1980-81 92 281 <
1981-82 9 2/1 8>
198-8> 9< 2.> /9
198<-88 9< 09 >0>
1989-/0 9< 1> >0/
19/0-/1 98 2/ >2
19/1-/2 .8 1> >00
19/2-/ 90 > >2>
19/-/> 9/ 9< >92
19/>-9< 10< >9. 80
19/<-/8 10/ <2. 8<
19/8-// 11< <> 8<.
19//-/. 12 <88 8.9
1990-91 90 180 199
1991-92 92 1/20 2112
1992-9 >0> 1./9 22.
199-9> >1 20>0 2><

)ource ? $irector o" Economics I )tatistics!Assam#
&he "ollo%ing table sho%s the authorised and 'aid-u' ca'itals o" the Coint )tock Com'anies at
%ork in Assam since 1981-82#
53s #0n 1illions6
Hear Authorised
Public
3s#
Ca'ital
Private
3s#
&otal
3s#
Paid u'
Public
3s#
Ca'ital
Private
3s#
&otal
3s#
1980-81 210#2 <9>#9 .0<#1 <<# 2<#1 0.#>
198-8> 219#8 82#. .>#> 80#< 28#/ 2>#2
198<-88 22/#1K 88/#>K ./>#<K 8>#2 12/2#2 18#>
198/-8. 22.#1 8<>#. ..2#9 8>#> 2.>#8 >9#0
198.-89 22.#1 8<9#1 ../#2 8/#2 29# 80#<
1989-/0 ----- ---- 1082#0 :#A# :#A# >.1#<
19/-/> <>#. 2#1 <</#9 <#0 10#0 ><#0
19/>-/< 10>#8 2.#9 1#< 1#0 1#8 2#8
19/<-/8 8#00 <#/ <.#/ <#09 #1 <#>0
19/8-// >2#00 11#2 <#2 .#12 :#A# :#A#
19//-/. #< 9#00 9#9< 1#21 #1 1#<2

:ote? KAess authorised ca'ital o" the liquidated com'anies#
:#A# ?:ot available#
BA:;0:2!&3A$E A:$ C*11E3CE </
Co-o/$rati*$ Cr$"it 2o)i$ti$s a!" Ba!&s :- &he )tate o" Assam is no% served by the Assam Co-
o'erative Central Bank Atd#! 2u%ahati at the to' and nearly >000 'rimary Co-o'erative Credit )ocieties
including both agricultural and non-agricultural societies and banks at the bottom# &here %ere seven $istrict
Central Co-o'erative Banks at $hubri! 2u%ahati! :agaon! &eD'ur! Corhat!$ibrugarh and )ilchar %hich %ere
merged the Assam Co-o'erative A'e( Bank Atd## by the end o" Culy!19/8#
&he gro%th and develo'ment o" the Co-o'erative Credit )ocieties in Assam can be traced back to 190>
%hen the Co-o'erative )ocieties Act %as 'assed Gnder this Act! a number or rural agricultural credit societies
%&aolia 'an"s(%ere organised all over Assam# &o cater to the needs o" the urban areas Co-o'erative &o%n Banks
%ere also organised in some to%ns# )o long!the Act 'rovided "or "ormation o" credit societies only and
there"ore!the Co-o'erative )ocieties Act o" 1912 %as 'assed to cover non-credit as'ect %ithin the co-o'erative
"old# &he societies both credit and non-credit generally %orked %ith the share ca'ital o" the members in the
initial years# &here %as no central organisation in any district "or "inancing and coordinating the activities o" the
societies and as a result the societies could not make much head%ay# )oon a"ter%ards! the $istrict Central Co-
o'erative Banks %ere organised in each district "or "inancing the 'rimary co-o'erative credit and non-credit
societies# But these societies and banks 'assed through various stresses and strains during the 're-inde'endence
'eriod# &he co-o'erative movement in general received a serious set-back 'articularly since the de'ression o"
the thirties# By the time the country achieved her 'olitical inde'endence!the entire movement %as on the verge
o" decay and the credit societies! 'articularly the agricultural credit societies! %ere in moribund condition
groaning under over%helming burden o" outstanding loans and overdues#
A"ter inde'endence!e""orts %ere rene%ed in Assam to recognise the co-o'erative societies# &he Assam Co-
o'erative A'e( Bank %as set-u' at )hillong in 19>. 5no% trans"erred to 2u%ahati6and %as entrusted %ith the
onerous task o" su''lying credit to the 'rimary co-o'erative credit societies through the district central banks#
&he Assam Co-o'erative )ocieties Act! 19>9 %as 'assed re'ealing the old Act#
&he introducing o" national 'lanning in 19<1 brought about a s'urt in the co-o'erative movement# &he "irst
'lan em'hasis on rehabilitation o" the shattered structure and the second 'lan on systematic develo'ment o" the
co-o'erative sector on the basis o" the recommendation o" the 3ural Credit )urvey committee o" the 3eserve
Bank o" 0ndia and the )tate 'lan 'rogramme on co-o'erative structured on "our distinct "eatures viD#! 516)tate
'artici'ation on di""erent levels! 526 'romotion o" institutional credit! 56 "ormation o" large siDe credit societies!
5>6 integration o" di""erent branches o" co-o'erative
A))A1 )&A&E 2A7E&&EE3 <.
activities through organisation o" multi'ur'ose societies# 0n 'ursuance o" the 'olicy decision o" the :ational
$evelo'ment Council in 19<.! the )tate co-o'erative movement under%ent a "urther and the em'hasis %as
shi"ted "rom viability to close contact! social cohesion and mutual obligation among members# Accordingly!
!81 co-o'eratives 5including those converted "rom 'rimary credit societies6 %ere "ormed during the last 'art o"
the second 'lan# $uring the third 'lan!the scheme "or nationalisation o" credit structure %as taken u' in 198 and
under it %eak and uneconomic units %ere amalgamated and dormant societies %ere liquidated# As a result the
number o" agricultural credit societies came do%n "rom <!22< in 1980-81 to >!0.. in 198<-88# @urther!stress %as
laid on rural credit being made 'roduction oriented instead o" being security and %ith this end in vie%!cro'-loan
system o" credit %as introduced in the areas o" o'eration o" revitalised :agaon! &eD'ur and Cachar Co-o'erative
Banks#
As a result o" 'lan e""orts! the co-o'erative movement in Assam has e(tended to various "ields including
the non-credit as'ect during the 'ast "e% years# But Assam lagged "or behind in this res'ect in com'arison to
other states like 1aharastra and ;arnataka# 0n the credit s'here!the 'rogress %as handica''ed by rough edges
like cons'icuously %eak de'osit base and alarmingly high overdues in relation to outstanding loans# &he
de'osits o" the 'rimary agricultural credit societies constituted only a meagre 8#< 'er cent o" the %orking ca'ital
in 198.-89 %hile overdues at the levels o" central banks and agricultural credit societies mounted to />#1 'er
cent and />#8 'er cent o" the outstanding loans res'ectively# &o tide over these di""iculties!the 3ural credit
)urvey Committee 519896! constituted by the 3eserve Bank o" 0ndia recommended measures like 'utting stress
on the need "or viability o" 'rimary credit societies! rehabilitation o" %eak central banks! and active
administrative and 'olicy measures# 0t "urther suggested to mould the lending 'olicy and 'rocedure so as to
make it small cultivator oriented# &o achieve this ob4ective a number o" measures %ere suggested like 516
granting o" loans to small cultivators equal to "ull entitlement on the basis o" cro'%ise scales o" "inance!to
medium cultivators only to the s'eci"ied 'ro'ortion= 526 higher rates o" interest on large loans= 56 to oblige large
cultivators make 'ro'ortionately large contribution to the share ca'ital o" co-o'eratives %hile allo%ing small
cultivators to contribute in installments#
&he "ollo%ing gives a brie" account o" the %orking o" the credit societies and banks in 19/8-//#
,orking o" Co-o'erative Credit )ocieties in Assam during 19/8-//#
1/

1/# Economic Survey of Assam, 19//-/.! by the $irector o" Economics and )tatistics! 2ovt# o" Assam#
BA:;0:2!&3A$E A:$ C*11E3CE <9
:ame o" Co- :o# o" )ocie- 1ember- ,orking Aoan Adv- Aoanout- Aoan
'erative ties or bank shi' ca'ital ances standing over
)ociety or Bank dues

1 2 > < 8 /
1#)tate Co-o'er-
ative Bank 1 # 9> 1<. 1.>> 10>0
2# Central Co-o'er-
ative / #8 12>< 11 .8< .11
# Primary agricultu-
ral credit socities .9 2199#0 102 1<1 /22 <92
># Primary non-agric-
ultural credit
societies# 99 #9 .8 >. >81 18<
<# Primary Aand
$evelo'ment Bank 18 12#0 1< 28 102 10

2tat$ Co-o/$rati*$ Ba!& : &he Assam Co-o'erative A'e( Bank Atd#%as set u' at )hillong in 19>. and
no% stands trans"erred to 2u%ahati a"ter creation o" 1eghalaya in 19/0# &his Bank has been shouldering the
res'onsibility o" "inancing rural credit though the $istrict Central Co-o'erative Banks# 0ts %orking ca'ital %ent
u' to 3s# 8>#82 million in 1982-8 %ith a total membershi' o" 1.9.# 0ts %orking ca'ital increased to 3s# 110#1
million in 1988-8/! to 3s# 1/8 millions in 198.-89!to 3s# 2<0#2 millions in 19/-/> and then to 3s# 9#>
millions in 19/8-//# &he assets o" the bank at the end o" 198.-89 consisted o" 3s# 22#8 millions in the "orm o"
cash and bank balances! 3s# 1< million in investments!3s 1>1#8 millions as loans outstanding and 3s# 2#/
millions in other assets# &he Bank released 3s# 212#0 millions as credit including cash credit and overdra"ts in
198.-89 as com'ared to an amount "urther increased to 3s# 1<#. millions in 19/8-//# 0t has been 'roviding
"inancial assistance to various organisations such as Assam Co-o'erative A'e( 1arketing )ociety Atd#! Assam
Co-o'erative )ugar 1ills! the Assam Co-o'erative Central 1ortage Bank! the %holesale consumers co-o'erative
stores!etc#!and a number o" tea gardens#
C$!tra( Co-o/$rati*$ Ba!&s :&he number o" central banks stood at 9 in 1982-8 %ith a total %orking
ca'ital o" 3s# 2<#0 millions and a total membershi' o" more or less stable %hile their %orking ca'ital slightly
rose to 3s# 2<#88 millions# &he number o" central banks decreased to . in 198.-89 and %ent do%n "urther to / in
19/<-/8!but their %orking ca'ital gradually increased to 3s# 12>#< million in 19/8-// "rom 3s# >.#. millions in
198/-
A))A1 )&A&E 2A7E&&EE3 <>0
8.# &he loans 5including cash credit and overdra"ts6advanced by these banks amounted 3s# 9#2 millions in
198.-89 !against 3s# 0# millions in 198/-8. and 3s# 2<#. millions in 1988-8/ res'ectively# @ormerly!the
'osition o" loans advanced by these Banks %as not encouraging as the total loans advanced by them stood at 3s#
>#.8 millions in 198>-8< against 3s# 2#./ millions in 198-8># &he 'osition again deteriorated a"ter 19/0 and
loan advances gradually declined to 3s# 18#8 millions in 19/-/> and then to 3s# 11# millions in 19/8-//#
Aoans outstanding and loans overdue in the account o" this bank in 19/8-// %as 3s# .8#< and 3s# .1#1 millions
res'ectively indicating "inancial stringency o" the bank#
A#ri)%(t%ra( Cr$"it 2o)i$ti$s : Be"ore the beginning o" the "irst 'lan the number o" agricultural credit
societies in Assam stood at 8/8 in 19<0-<1 %ith a total membershi' o" 1. thousand and a %orking ca'ital o" 3s#
9 lakhs# &he advance made by these societies stood at 3s# 1 lakh only# At the end o" the "irst 'lan in 19<<-<8
their number rose to 1!9/ and then to <!22< at the end o" the second 'lan in 1980-81 %ith a corres'onding rise
in membershi' "rom >!0./ to 288!.0<# &he total amount o" loans advanced by these societies %ent u' "rom 3s#
>#2 millions during the "irst 'lan 'eriod to 3s# ><#2 millions during the second 'lan 'eriod# &he %orking ca'ital
o" these agricultural credit societies amounted to 3s# 2>#/ millions at the beginning o" the third 'lan in 1982-8#
As a result o" intensive e""orts in the direction o" credit rationalisation during this 'lan the number o" credit
societies sho%ed a declining trend and came to stand at >!0.. in 198<-88 and "urther declined to !/// in 198/-
8. but rose to !/8> in 198.-89# *n the other hand!membershi' %ent u' to . thousand during the 'eriod# &he
total amount o" %orking ca'ital o" the societies also rose to 3s# 8># millions in 198.-89# &he total amount o"
rural credit advanced by these societies had gone do%n to 3s# 1< millions during the third 'lan# &his decline %as
attributed to considerable drying u' o" the channel o" rural credit due to heavy accumulation o" overdues at
'rimary and intermediate levels# 0t %as in 198-8> that rural credit e(tended by the agricultural credit societies
slum'ed to the lo%est level o" 3s# 1#8 millions# )ince then!rural credit began to register a steady recovery during
the succeeding years and reached the level o" 3s# 22# millions in 198/-8. and 3s# 2.#/ millions in 198.-89# &he
"ollo%ing table sho%s the credit e(tended by these societies since 19<0-<1 to 198<-88#
BA:;0:2!&3A$E A:$ C*11E3CE <>1
5in thousand ru'ees6

Hear Credit

19<0-<1 /<
19<<-<8 !0.9
19<8-</ /!<1/
19</-<. 1!108
19<.-<9 1!8<0
19<9-80 8!8..
1980-81 >!190
1981-82 2!9><
1982-8 2!9.
198-8> 1!88
198>-8< !<21
198<-88 !900

$uring 198.-89!the total loans advanced by these societies amounted to 3s# 2.#8 millions and outstanding
loans to 3s# <#> millions!o" %hich 3s# 9#. millions %as overdue# &he total number o" co-o'erative credit
societies stood at .12 during 19/8-// %ith membershi' o" over 2 lakhs o" 'eo'le# $uring the year!an amount
o" 3s# 9 crores %as advanced as loan# &otal credit advanced by these societies increased "rom < lakhs in 19/-
/> to 3s# 1<1 lakhs in 19/8-//# Aoans outstanding and loans overdue sho%ed some im'rovement during 19/8-
//#
Pri3ary No!-a#ri)%(t%ra( Cr$"it 2o)i$ti$s : &hese societies include urban co-o'erative banks salary-
earners+ societies and other non-agricultural credit societies# &he number o" all these societies in Assam stood at
only 182 at the end o" the "irst "ive year 'lan in 19<<-<8!and rose to <9 at the end o" the second 'lan in 1980-
81# &he member increased gradually and it stood at >88 and .9. in Cune 19/-/> and 19/8-// res'ectively#
&he membershi' o" the societies increased "rom 1/ thousands at the end o" the "irst 'lan to 2. thousands at the
end o" the second 'lan and subsequently rose to 0 thousands in 198>-8<# &here %as not much im'rovement in
the number and membershi' o" these societies# 3ather in 198/-8.!their number actually declined to 9 %ith
membershi' o" 29 thousands# 0n 198.-89!their
A))A1 )&A&E 2A7E&&EE3 <>2
number and membershi' increased again to .. thousand res'ectively having a total %orking ca'ital o" 3s#<1#2
millions# &he %orking ca'ital o" 3s# <1#2 millions# &he %orking ca'ital o" the societies %as 3s# 1#8 millions in
1982-8!and increased to 3s# 9 crores in 19/8-// against 3s# 1> crores in 19/-/># &he amount o" advance by
these societies %as 3s# 1/#. millions in the second 'lan against 3s# /# millions in the "irst 'lan# $uring the "irst
"our years o" the third 'lan!the amount o" advance rose u' to 3s# 2<#1 millions and came to stand at 3s# 20
millions in 1988-8/!3s# >2#9 millions in 198/-8. and 3s# .. millions in 198.-89!5including "igures o"
1eghalaya and 1iDoram6# Amounts o" credit advanced by these societies 19<0-<1 u' to 19/8-// are sho%n
belo%#
4$ar Cr$"it i! 5a&- r%/$$s.
19<0-<1 1#<>
19<<-<8 1/#><
19<8-</ 0#18
19</-<. 2>#02
19<.-<9 >>#8
19<9-80 >>#9>
1980-81 >#<1
1981-82 >2#0<
1982-8 81#.>
198-8> /2#1>
198>-8< /<#2/
19/-/> /#01
19/8-// >.#00
5a!" D$*$(o/3$!t Ba!&s : &he Central Aand $evelo'ment Bank %as "unctioning %ith a total %orking
ca'ital o" 3s# 2#< millions and membershi' o" 91< at the end o" 198.-89# &he Bank advanced 3s# thousands
as loans in 198.-89 against 3s# 828 thousands in the 'revious year# &here %ere 18 'rimary land develo'ment
banks all in the 'lain districts o" Assam %ith a total membershi' o" 8!/>2 in 198.-89!in %hich year their
%orking ca'ital stood at 3s# 218 millions and credit e(tended by them about amounted to 3s# /> thousands# 0ts
%orking ca'ital rose "rom /1# lakhs in 19/1-/2 to 3s# .1#1. lakhs in 19/2-/# &he Bank generally advance
long-term credit# Aoans advanced by the Bank amounted to 3s# 1#21 lakhs in 19/2-/ against 3s# 12#11 lakhs
in 19/1-/2 and 3s# 12#<< lakhs in 19/0-/1# a disquieting "eature o" 'er"ormance o" the Bank %as the increasing
trend o" loans overdue# &he outstanding loans increased "rom 3s# >1#0< lakhs in 19/0-/1 to 3s# <1#21 lakhs in
19/1-/2 and 3s# 82#09 lakhs in 19/2#/! the corres'onding "igures o" overdues being 3s# 2#>1 lakhs!3s# #2<
lakhs and 3s# < lakhs res'ectively#
BA:;0:2!&3A$E A:$ C*11E3CE <>
0n 19/2-/! the number o" 'rimary land develo'ment banks in Assam stood at the same level but
membershi' increased to 10!2< and the %orking ca'ital also rose to 3)# /9#10 lakhs "rom 3s# 8#21 lakhs in
19/1-/2# An amount o" 3s# 1<#.< lakhs %as advanced as loans by these banks in 19/2-/ as against during
19/2-/ %ere o" the order o" 3s# 81#/8 lakhs and 3s# 81#/8 lakhs and 3s# 8#>9 lakhs res'ectively at against 3s#
>9#00 lakhs res'ectively in the 'revious year#
Gnder the scheme "or reorganisation o" co-o'erative credit structure in the )tate!the seven central co-
o'erative banks!viD#!the 2oal'ara $istrict Central C-o'erative Bank!the :agaon Central Co-o'erative Bank!the
Cachar Central Co-o'erative Bank! the $ibrugarh Central Co-o'erative Bank!the )ibsagar $istrict Co-o'erative
Bank and the &eD'ur Central Co-o'erative Bank have been marged %ith the Assam Co-o'erative A'e( Bank
Atd#by the end o" Culy!19/8#
0n vie% o" the 20 'oint Economic Programme!the res'onsibilities o" the Co-o'erative societies have gone
u' "urther# &o attain the various ob4ectives o" the ne% economic 'rogrammes!mass involvement is necessary#
&he )tate 2overnment!there"ore!intended to make the Co-o'erative embraced the entire 'o'ulation %ith target
o" 100 'er cent coverage o" about 2< lakh households o" the )tate# 0t %as e('ected to bring each and every
"amily o" the )tate %ithin the "old o" the Co-o'erative movement by the end o" 19/8# ,ithin these ends in
vie%!88> &aon )anchayat level multi'ur'ose co-o'erative societies %ere set u' during 19/-/> to shoulder the
res'onsibility o" channeling rural credit! distribution o" essential commodities to consumers in the rural areas
and rendering hel' in 'rocurement o" 'addy and %heat by agencies o" the )tate 2overnment# &heir share ca'ital
and %orking ca'ital %ere augmented so as enable them to discharge their "unctions e""ectively# Aiquidation o"
rural indebtedness and moratorium on recovery o" debts "rom the landless 'oor and the enactment o" the Assam
3ural 0ndebtedness 3elie" Act! 19/< made the money-lenders reluctant to advance loans to the %eaker sections
o" 'eo'le# 0n vie% o" this! it became more im'erative on the 'art o" )tate 2overnment to streamline in
multi'ur'ose 2#P# Aevel co-o'erative so that they might acce't de'osits and 'rovide loans to the needy 'eo'le#
&he "i"th 'lan laid s'ecial em'hasis on enrollment!consolidation and strengthening o" co-o'eratives at all
levels# 9arious measures %ere taken u' to remove structural and managerial ine""iciencies# &he total e('enditure
under co-o'erative during the "ourth 'lan 'eriod in the )tate %as the order o" 3s# .. lakhs "or general areas and
3s# /< lakhs "or hill areas against 3s# 8/< lakhs and 3s# /< lakhs res'ectively as 'er 'lan 'rovisions during the
"i"th 'lan#
0n 199>! the share ca'ital o" the Assam Co-o'erative A'e( Bank accounted to 3s# 21 lakhs o" this the
)tate government contributed << 'er cent and the
A))A1 )&A&E 2A7E&&EE3 <>>
co-o'erative institutions contributed < 'er cent# &he total de'osits o" the bank stood at 3s# 1.02>#09 lakhs! o"
%hich .2 'er cent %as held by individuals# &he borro%ing o" the bank %as to the tune o" 3s# 21#<2 lakhs#
&he Banks short term advances to 2P))FAA1P) %ent do%n by 2< 'er cent over 19.9-90 level# &he short
term advances to the tea sector registered a rise o" about >0 'er cent# $uring the 'eriod "rom 19.9-90 to 1992-
9!the short term agricultural advances declined by about 80 'er cent# &his %as due to the high overdues at the
'rimary level %hich lo%ered the absor'tion ca'acity o" the 2P))FAA1P)#
&he co-o'eratives are not in a 'osition to cater to the needs o" a larger number o" individuals and "amilies
as the average recovery 'ercentage is very lo%# 0n "our out o" "ive districts %here a survey %as conducted!the
recovery 'ercentage %as bet%een 1 and 1< and in one district it %as >#
G'to 1arch!199>!the loans disbursed by the Assam )tate Co-o'erative Agricultural and 3ural
$evelo'ment Bank 5A)CA3$B6amounted to 3s# 21# crores# 0n 1992-9! A)CA3$B+s loan outstanding %as
3s#1#< crores# Aoan recovery 'osition is discouraging %ith overdues touching 9< 'er cent#
1.
($) G$!$ra( a!" 5i$ I!s%ra!)$ : 2eneral 0nsurance ? Prior to nationalisation o" the general insurance
industry in 0ndia!only a "e% 'rivate com'anies %ere doing general insurance business %ith or %ithout branches
in Assam 2eneral insurance business against risks!the"t!'il"erage!etc#!in res'ect o" tea in transit and all tea
garden "actories and other buildings %ere generally done in Calcutta %ith "oreign concerns# Aocal 'etty cases o"
"ire and motor insurance %ere!ho%ever!acce'ted by 'rivate com'anies like the :e% 0ndia Assurance
Com'any!3uby 2eneral 0nsurance Com'any o" 0ndia!-enover 0nsurance Com'any!-industan 2eneral
0nsurance )ociety Aimited!etc#!%hich had their branch o""ice at 2u%ahati and generally "ield-sta"" in order
district headquarters# &he )cottish Gnion and 2eneral 0nsurance Com'any! a "oreign concern %ith an *""icer-in-
Chie" "or 0ndia! stationed in Calcutta had been doing li"e and general insurance since the end o" the 19
th
century#
&his com'any a''ointed an 0ns'ector at )ibsagar only in 19<> "or mobilisation o" business in Assam and in
1980! o'ened a sub-branch o""ice at Corhat to render e""icient and 'rom't service to tea concerns!Assam *il
Com'any and other 'rivate and semi and semi-government enter'rise# &he total business done by this com'any
in Assam amounted to 3s# 1#<< lakhs 5net 'remium6in 198# *ther com'anies had their branches or divisional
o""ices at 2u%ahati %ith "ieldsta"" in other districts#
A"ter nationalisation! the 2eneral 0nsurance Cor'oration o" 0ndia has been set u'# 0t is an A'e( body under
%hich!2overnment o" 0ndia has set u' > subsidiary unit com'anies "or o'eration all over 0ndia# &he Gnit
com'anies are ?-

1.# Study of $o*operative $redit Structure in Assam, Agricultural @inance Cor'oration Atd#! Bombay! 199>#
BA:;0:2!&3A$E A:$ C*11E3CE <><
516 &he *riental @ire and 2eneral 0nsurance Com'any Atd#
526 &he :e% 0ndia Assurance Com'any Atd#
56 &he Gnit 0ndia @ire and 2eneral 0nsurance Com'any Atd#
5>6 &he :ational 0nsurance Com'any Atd#
5i$ I!s%ra!)$ : Be"ore 0nde'endence!there %as no 'ro'er organisation o" any com'any in Assam to take
u' li"e insurance business# *nly a "e% agents o" 'rivate com'anies incor'orated outside Assam carried out li"e
insurance business in Assam# 1ention may be made about the Bombay 1utual Ai"e 0nsurance )ociety! *riental
li"e Assurance Com'any! Em'ire o" 0ndia! :ational 0ndian!:ational Bra%bans Ai"e and some others %hich %ere
doing li"e insurance business in Assam through agents or "ield sta""# Even a"ter inde'endence!li"e insurance
business remained sluggish in this )tate and the masses in the vast rural areas %ere quite ignorant about business
covering the risk o" li"e# *n 1
st
August! 19<8! li"e insurance %as nationalised in 0ndia and the 2overnment o"
0ndia set u' the li"e 0nsurance Cor'oration#
&herea"ter! "or organising li"e insurance in the north-eastern region! a divisional o""ice %as established at
2u%ahati and under it branches o""ices %ere set u' at every district headquarters and in some cases at
subdivisional headquarters %hich are generally served by sub-o""ices# 3equisite number o" $evelo'ment
*""icers! 0ns'ectors and other "ieldsta"" %ere recruited in every district "or mobilising the li"e insurance business#
A number o" agents on commission basis have no% been engaged all over the )tate to s'read the message and
'ersuade 'eo'le to make li"e insurance 'olicies#
At Present! li"e insurance business is making satis"actory 'rogress in the )tate under the 2u%ahati %hich
covers all the seven states in :orth Eastern 3egion# &he 'er"ormance o" the li"e insurance business in the state o"
Assam in res'ect o" business introduced and business com'leted over the 'ast "e% years may be seen in the table
belo%#
Hear Business introduced Business com'leted
:o#o" Policies )um assured
53s# Aakh6
:o#o" Policies )um assured
53s# Aakh6
19/2-/ >090 0. >1.80 29<9
19/-/> ><1< ><9 >>>.1 9<
19/>-/< ><21 81 >>>9> <<
19/<-/8 <8<2 >>. <<>1/ ><0
19/8-// 8>80< <99 8<0> <2.
19//-/. <<92/ <08 <>9/1 >.9<

A))A1 )&A&E 2A7E&&EE3 <>8
&he 'er"ormance o" the cor'oration in res'ect o" investment and credit is also note%orthy# &he total
investment o" the cor'oration in Assam during 19/8-// %as 3s# >#<0 crores %hich %as! ho%ever! lo%er than the
'revious year+s 3s# 9#9/ crores# &he "ollo%ing table sho%s the item-%ise investment o" the cor'oration in Assam
"or the 'ast "e% years#

-ead 19/2-/ 19/-/> 19/>-/< 19/<-/8 19/8-// 19//-/.
1 2 > < 8 /
1#)tate 2ovt# )ecurities 1#// 2#. 2#9/ 2#<2 1#>9 2#29
2#$ebt o" Aand $eve-
lo'ment Banks 0#01 B B B B #1>
#Bonds o" )tate Elec-
tricity Board 1#0 1#>9 1#2< 2#9/ 1#9. #0/
>#Aoans to )tate Elec-
tricity Board 1#/0 1#<0 B #>< B 1#.0
<#Bonds and shares o"
)tate @inancial
Cor'oration B 0#10 0#20 0#22 0#>9 B
8#Aoans to )tate 2ovts#
@or housing scheme 0#2< B 1#80 0#1. 0#20 B
/#Private )ector 5)hares!
debentures and loans
to com'rises6 B 1#01 5:6 0#8 0#> 0#1

&otal <#0 8#9 <#92 9#9/ >#<0 /#81
:#B# 5:6 L :egligible#
23a(( 2a*i!#s : )ince launching o" the "irst "ive year 'lan!collection o" small savings schemes has been in
o'eration throughout 0ndia# &his scheme aims at including the habit o" savings amongst the 'eo'le 'articularly
in the rural sector and mobilising dormant ca'ital "or utilisation in 'lanning and develo'ment# @or success"ul
o'eration o" the scheme $istrict *rganisers %ith other sta"" have been 'osted in every district o" Assam# Assam
has achieved in res'ect o" net collections more than the 'lan-%ise targets "i(ed "or the )tate# &he "ollo%ing table
sho%s the 'lan-%ise targets and achievements o" small savings in Assam#
Collection o" )mall )avings in Assam#
BA:;0:2!&3A$E A:$ C*11E3CE <>/
53s# in crores6
Plan &arget Achievement
5:et Collection6
Assam All 0ndia Assam All 0ndia
1 2 > <
@irst < 22< < 2>2
)econd 10 <00 1 >02
&hird 1. 800 22 </>
@ourth 2< 1000 < 1<0
@i"th 8< 2022 <0 1<82

5@our Hears6
&he "ollo%ing table sho%s the collection o" small savings by ty'e in Assam during 19/>-/< to
19//-/.#
53s# in crores6
&y'e o" savings

1
19/>-/< 19/<-/8 19/8-// 19//-/.
2ross :et 2ross :et 2ross :et 2ross :et
2 > < 8 / . 9
1#Post *""ice
)avings Bank 2#>. 0#/1 20#1/ 2#9 19>0 0#1 2>#/ 2#/1
2#Commulative
&ime $e'osits 1#28 0#82 1#2< 0#< 1#>. 0#<1 1#8/ 0#81
#Post *""ice
3ecurring
$e'osits 0#/ 0# 0#< 0#9 0#.. 0#<. 1#28 0#/
>#Post *""ice
&ime de'osits 1#.2 1#< #18 2#1/ 10#>2 /#9/ 1.#12 1<#..
<#:ational )avings
Certi"icate 5/ years
11!111!09!9 issue6 /#0 /#0 8#08 <#/0 2#>9 0#9 2#005-6 2#0
8#P*)$ 0nterest
on standing
balance 1#80 1#80 1#9/ 1#9/ :#A# :#A# :#A# :#A#

(B)C,RRENC4 AND COINAGE :
Assam is 'roud o" her ancient treasures# )he is rich in old scul'ture! architecture and stone and co''er-
'late inscri'tions# But it is un"ortunate that no concrete numismatic evidence o" our ancient kings!'rior to the
Ahom to the Ahom king )uklenmung 51<9-1<<2 A#$#6 has yet come to light# &his does not mean that ancient
kings did not have their o%n coins# &he art o" melting metals and im'ressing seals on clay or melted metals %as
kno%n at least during the time o" Bhaskarvarman o" the seventh century A#$#as evidenced by the :alanda seal
A))A1 )&A&E 2A7E&&EE3 <>.
and co''er-'late inscri'tion# 2old and co''er could be obtained %ithin the kingdom# )o this mighty king must
have struck coins o" his o%n#
But that medium o" e(change at the time o" Bhaskarvarman %as cowries is evident "rom Harsacharia
%hich mentions the hea's o" %hite and black cowries 'resented to -arsa by Bhaskara# &he earlier re"erence to
silver coins re'orted to be used by the 'eo'le o" Assam is "ound in Arthasastra# &here silver coins %ere kno%n
as &auli"en# &he gold coins Kaltis %ere 'robably minted by the ;alitas o" Assam#
19
0n the )ilim'ur stone slab
inscri'tion o" the time o" Caya'ala 5111<-112< A#$#6#!the last king o" the Brahma'utra dynasty o" Assam! it is
mentioned that the king 5Caya'ala6o""ered to make a large gi"t o" gold equal to his o%n %eight %tulapurusa(to a
learned Brahmin! Prahasa by name! over and above 900 gold coins# &his 'roves that this ;amaru'a king minted
coins o" gold i" not o" silver and co''er! though un"ortunately no such coins have yet been discovered# &he
inscri'tion o" 3atna'ala mentions the e(istence o" co''er mine %ithin the kingdom %hich the king %orked %ith
'ro"it# 3atna'ala might have issued co''er coins#
A-o3 Coi!s :Although coins o" Ahom kings 'rior to )uklenmung! as started above! have not been
discovered as yet!historical evidence are there that as early as the "ourteenth century A#$# )udang'ha alias
Bamuni ;on%ar 519.-1>0/6 A#$# struck coins in his o%n name on his accession to the throne# )ince then! the
'ractice has gro%n %ith the subsequent monarch o" issuing coins %hile ascending the coronation building
kno%n as the Sin+ari+har %hich contained a throne o" gold "or ne% monarch to occu'y# )o the credit o" mining
the "irst Ahom coins goes to )udang'ha and not to )uklenmung as o'ined by A#,# Botham %ho might have
based his o'inion on the vie% o" )ir Ed%ard 2ait# 0n his connection!it is %orth mentioning that in England
too!the "irst gold coin!the 2old :eble! %as initiated by Ed%ard 1 in 1>> A#$# %hich %as only earlier by "i"ty
three years than )udanghu'a+s coinage o" gold# 0t is interesting to note that the Ahom coins! unlike other
coins!have the 'articularly o" being octagonal in > sha'e# &here are di""erent inter'retations as to the octagonal
sha'e o" the Ahom coins #*ne inter'retation is that the ancient Assam %as octagonal is sha'e as narrated in
,o+ini Tantra and hence the Ahom kings ado'ted octagonal sha'e in their coins# But the Ahom kingdom %as
not octagonal and as such this geogra'hical inter'retation is unconvincing# &here is a re"erence in Ahom 'urani
that Prata' )ingha alias )usenghu'a 51819-18>9A#$#6conquered eight kingdoms and accordingly struck
octagonal coins# But this inter'retation also does hold good because such coins %ere struck "rom the time o"
)uklenmung!i" not earlier# &he earliest Ahom coins so "ar discovered are those o" )ukelnmung issued in 1<>#
-e %as contem'orary o" :aranarayana! the ;och

19# P#C# Choudhury ? The History of $ivili-ation of the )eople of Assam to the Twelfth $entury A#D#, '# /.-.9#
BA:;0:2!&3A$E A:$ C*11E3CE <>9
king %ho also struck coins in his name# &he coins o" )uklenmung bear inscri'tions in the &ai language and
character# &he earlier coins %ith e(ce'tion to those o" )uklenmung bear the dates o" accession to the throne o"
the kings %ho minted them# 0t is interesting to note that Cayadh%a4 )ingha and his successor Chakradh%a4
)ingha used )anskrit inscri'tion in 'lace o" Ahom inscri'tion! %hile 2aradhar )ingha again reintroduced &ai
characters in his coins# &he reason is not "ar to seek# A mere 'ee' into the history o" the Ahom kings %ill sho%
that )utamla %as the "irst Ahom king to become a convert to -induism and assume the -indu name Cayadh%a4
)ingha!but 2adadhar )ingha %as not converted to -induism# 3udra )ingha 51989-1/1>A#$#6 introduced a
annual issue "rom 1898 A#$# 0n Assamese scri'ts! and )anskrit language# &his %as "ollo%ed nearly every year
until the end o" the Ahom rule# All the coins are on the same lines the obverse containing the name o" the king
and the date o" the coin %hile the reverse contains an im'ression o" the king devoted to 'articular deity#
&he most interesting coins o" the series are those minted during the region o" )iva )ingha and 3a4es%ar
)ingha# Mueen Pramathesvari! %i"e o" )iva )ingha! "or the "irst time broke a%ay the tradition by striking at
2argaon in 18<1! a square coin %ith Persian scri't# 3a4es%ar )ingha again issued di""erent "orms o" coins almost
throughout his reign# 0n addition to the ordinary octagonal coins in Assamese scri't "rom 3ang'ur! he also issued
square coins in Assamese scri't# Besides these!he issued octagonal coins in $evangiri characters in Sa"a
18/<!and one octagonal series %ith Persian scri't %as issued in Sa"a 18.< "rom 3ang'ur#
$uring the reign o" 2aurinath )ingha!the 1oamarias became rebellious and they succeeded in 'lacing
di""erent !aas in di""erent 'arts o" the kingdom# 0t is said that t%o o" these 1oamaria insurgents!Bharat )inha
and )arbananda o'ened mints# Coins o" the "ormer dated A#$#1/98!1/9/!and o" the latter dated A#$#1/9> and
1/9< are still e(tant# Bharat )inha described himsel" in his coins as a descendant o" Bhagadutta! %hile
)arbananda used the Ahom style Swar+adeva# &he last dated available coin in hal" ru'ee o" Coges%ar )ingha
minted in Sa"a 1/> 51.21 A#$#6# &he Burmese during their last invasion bet%een 51.19-1.286are said to have
struck t%o very rough coins# &hey are locally kno%n as &ahori Muhur 5big coins6#
&he ru'ees and gold muhars o" the Ahom kings %ere struck to the 0ndian standard o" about 1/0
grains!3udra )ingha to have introduced hal" and )iva )ingha quarter ru'ees# An eight and si(teenth!both o" the
ru'ee and o" the muhar introduced by 3aies%ar )ingha and a thirty-second by 2aurinath )ingha# &here %as no
co''er currency!its 'lace being taken by cowries#
Barring a "e%! generally there is no mention o" mint 'lace on the body
A))A1 )&A&AE 2A7E&&EE3 <<0
o" the Ahom coins# &here is! ho%ever! a mention o" mint 'lace in some Persian coins issued by Pramathesvari
and 3a4es%ar )ingha! the 'laces being 2argaon and 3ang'ur res'ectively# Again the name o" mint 'lace $isai is
"ound in the coins issued by 2aurinath )ingha# &hus! it may be concluded that the Ahom coins %ere minted in
modern )ibsagar district#
Ko)- )oi!s : &he ;och ru'ees are "ound in "orm# &he inscri'tions in )anskrit! in archaic Assamese scri't!
and are on similar lines to those o" the Ahom coins# &he hal" ru'ees are struck "rom dies much larger than the
coins! and the inscri'tions are! there"ore! incom'lete# &he "irst ;ock king to strike coins in his name %as
:aranarayan %hose conquests are said to have e(tended over the %hole o" Assam 9alley! the ;hasi and Caintia
-ills! 1ani'ur! &ri'ura and 'art o" )ylhet 5no% in Bangaladesh6# :aranarayan allo%ed 3aghudeva! son o"
Chilarai! in 1<.1! to set u' a subordinate kingdom in the area east o" the river )onkosh! %ith an understanding
that he might strike coins only in his uncle+s 5:aranarayan6 name# )oon a"ter the death o" :aranarayan!
3aghudeva declared his inde'endence and struck coins in his o%n name in 1<..#
)ince Aakshminarayana! son o" :aranarayan!become vassal o" the 1ughal em'ire right o" minting "ull
ru'ees %as denied to them and hence"orth! their coinage consisted only o" the hal" ru'ees %ith incom'lete
inscri'tions %hich are kno%n as ++:arayani 3u'ee++# But there are t%o or three "ull coins o" Prannarayan no%
'reserved in the British 1useum!dated Sa"a 1<<8 518 A#$#6# &hese might have been struck bet%een 18<. and
1882 %hen Prannarayan tried to assert his inde'endence# &he coins in question! issued 'robably on his
accession! may be ragarded as his claim to inde'endent status %ith retros'ective e""ect# &he ;och kings o" the
%estern kingdom struck coins in their o%n name right u' to the last 'art o" the 19
th
century# 0n the o'inion o" 1r#
Botham! the only kno%n issues o" the eastern ;och kingdom included a "e% ru'ee coins o" 3aghudeva and a
single ru'ee o" Pariksit :arayan#
T-$ Ka)-ari Coi!s : &he ;achari are the earliest kno%n inhabitants o" Assam# 0n their coins!they traced
their origin to -arhengsa# ,e have coins o" Hasonarayan $eva and a )atrudaman alias Prata'narayana# *ne o"
the coins o" Hasonarayan contains the date 1<0< Sa"a 51<. A#$#6sho%ing that the occu'ied the throne about 2/
years be"ore )atrudaman# &he e(istence o" a coin o" &amradhva4 %hose date is 1/08 A#$# )ho%s that this series
o" coins continued "or at least 20 years# Coins o" more modern ty'e %ere issued by the last ;achari king
2ovinda Chandra 51.1-1.0 A#$#6#
1ai!tia Coi!s :9ery little is kno%n about the earlier rulers o" Caintia'ur e(ce't the occasional records in
the ;och and Ahom o" their con"licts %ith ;oches! Ahoms and ;acharis# &he records o" the ;och kings state
that in the middle o" the si(teenth century )ilarai 5Chilarai6 brother o" ;och king
BA:;0:2!&3A$E A:$ C*11E3CE <<1
:aranarayan!de"eated and sle% the 3a4a o" Caintia and im'osed on his son the condition that he should not issue
coins in his o%n name# &his sho%s that the Caintia kings struck coins in their o%n names# &hey maintained their
inde'endence until 1.< %hen their territory %as anne(ed by the British 2overnment#
&he ru'ee coins o" the Caintia kings bear in observe the inscri'tion!++Cayantia'ura Purandara++! %ithout their
names# &he coins also bear Sa"a era 1<91!1<92!180!18<!189<!1/0/ and 1//2# :o% it can be assumed that as
in the case o" earlier Ahom coins these date re'resent the dates o" accession or those o" the installation o" the
kings %ho issued coins#
T-$ Britis- C%rr$!)y syst$3 : &he British currency system came into circulation "irst in 2oal'ara
district %hich 'assed to them in 1/8< and gradually in the %hole o" Assam a"ter 1.28 re'lacing the old currency
and coinage systems as have been already discussed# &he 'rocess o" re'lacement!ho%ever!took some years %hen
the huge amount o" the cowries 'osed 'roblems "or the administration# &he cowries %ere collection in the
treasuries and then e('orted to Bengal to be dis'osed o" by auction#
Mo"$r! )oi!s : :ot only in Assam but also in the %hole o" British 0ndia di""erent ty'es o" ru'ee coins
%ere 'revalent as medium o" e(change and %ere "ound to vary in %eight and value# ,ith a vie% to introducing
uni"orm legal tender money the British introduced one ru'ee silver coins o" 1.0 grams in 1adras in 1.1.# &his
%as made the sole legal tender throughout the country in 1.<# 0n 1.9!mints %ere closed to "ree coinage o"
silver and the ru'ee became a token coin divorced "rom "ull value o" silver# &he e(change ratio o" the 0ndian
ru'ee %ith British 'ound sterling %hich %as "luctuating at the time %as "i(ed at 1s #>d 'er ru'ee in 1.9.# $uring
191>-19!2old e(change standard %as introduced and the value o" the 0ndia ru'ee %as retained at 1s#>d in terms
o" 'ound!sterling# :ickel coins o" 1 anna, 2 annas, > annas and . annas %ere also in circulation in addition to 1
paisa co'er coins!since 199! the ru'ee lost its "ormer "ineness "rom 180 grams o" silver to 90 grams o" silver
and even such coins %ere driven out o" circulation by nickel ru'ee coins#
)ide by side! 'a'er currency %as introduced since 1.81 and notes o" various denominations such
3s#1!2!<!10!20!<0!100!<00!1000!10!000 came into vague# 0n 19>8! 2overnment demonetised the 'a'er notes o"
3s# <00 and above# Gnder this system!the lo%est unit %as the co''er coins o" 1 paisa denomination and > paisas
made 1 anna and 18 annas one ru'ee# &his British system o" currency %as re'laced by the decimal system since
19</# Gnder the 'resent system!the lo%est unit is the one 'aisa co''er coin %hich is o" course!much smaller
than the "ormer one 'aisa co''er coin# :ickel coins o" 2!!<!10!2<!<0 and one ru'ee are no% in circulation along
%ith 'a'er currency notes o" 1!2!<!10!20!<0!100 and <00 ru'ees# )ubsequent 1000 ru'ee currency notes %ere
%ithdra%n "rom circulation#
A))A1 )&A&AE 2A7E&&EE3 <<2
(B)Tra"$ a!" Co33$r)$:
(a)Co%rs$ o tra"$ :0m'orts and e('orts! 9olume! 9alue! etc#?Presently! the inter-state trade o" Assam is
mainly con"ined to neighbouring 0ndian states by road and rail trans'ort# Prior to 0ndo-Pak con"lict in
198<!considerable 'art o" Assam+s e(ternal %as %ith East Pakistan 5no% kno%n as Bangladesh6# 1oreover! trade
%ith ,est Bengal %as mostly carried on %ith river routes %hich lay through East Pakistan# But the con"lict o"
198< led to the sto''age o" trade %ith Pakistan and closure o" river route causing deadlock to the navigation
service and trade# ,ith the "ormation o" Bangladesh in 19/1! the river route has been o'ened u' again and
navigation service are under the management o" the Central 0nland ,ater &rans'ort Cor'oration# )ome trades
%ith Bangladesh have also been resumed#
&he articles e('orted "rom the )tate though "e% in numbers are o" considerable value# &hey consist
mainly o" tea! 'etroleum and 'etroleum 'roducts! coal! timber 'roducts! cane 'roducts! tea chests! 4ute! maiDe!
cotton! bamboo! medicinal herbs and other miscellaneous 'roducts o" small scale industries established in recent
years in the )tate# &he 'rinci'al item o" e('ort is tea %hich is considerable economic interest to this )tate# *ut
o" country+s total 'roduction o" about 00 million kgs# o" tea!Assam 'roducts more than hal" o" it# 0t is
interesting to note that e(ce't "or a small quantity o" tea sold in the local markets!the entire out'ut dis'osed o" in
the tea auction centres at 2u%ahati and Calcuta %here "rom tea "inds 'lace in the international markets# 0n
"act!tea industry is de'endent on the e('ort# &he 2ovt#o" 0ndia and &ea Board have taken various ste's to
im'rove the sale o" tea in "oreign countries#
Another 'rinci'al item o" e('ort "rom the )tate is 'etroleum its 'roducts# &he "irst oil re"inery in 0ndia
%as established in the )tate at $igboi in the &insukia district and since its ince'tion in 1.99! this re"inery is
catering to the 'etroleum requirements o" the country# &he recent discovery o" ne% oil-"ields at :aharkatia!
-ugri4an! 1oran! 2eleki! :aDira and at other 'laces in the )tate! has given the )tate a 'rominent 'lace in the oil
ma' o" 0ndia# &he discovery is claimed to be o" such im'ortance that more than <0 'er cent o" 0ndia+s 'resent
requirement o" 'etroleum may eventually come "rom the ne% oil-"ields# &o re"ine the ne%ly "ound crude oil!t%o
re"ineries under the 'ublic sector %ere established!one at Barauni in the )tate o" Bihar %ith a re"ining ca'acity o"
three million tones 'er annum and another at 2u%ahati in ;amru' district %ith a re"ining ca'acity o" 0#/<
million tonne 'er annum# &he ne% oil-"ields at 'resent are 'roducing about #01 million tonnes o" crude and this
crude is re"ined in three re"ineries o" $igboi!2u%ahati and Barauni# &he crude oil is trans'orted to the re"ineries
o" 2u%ahati and Barauni through a 'i'eline# Another re"inery cum'etro chemical com'le( has been established
at Bongaigaon in Bongaigaondistrict to 'roduce o(ylene! 'olyster "ibre! aromatic e(tract! etc#! by using the
%astes o" the crude oil "rom the oil-"ields o" G''er Assam# &he 'etroleum and
BA:;0:2!&3A$E A:$ C*11E3CE <<
other 'roducts o" $igboi and 2u%ahati re"ineries are e('orted outside the )tate e(ce't the quantity required
%ithin the )tate# &hus! the oil resources o" this region have hel'ed the country a great deal in saving
considerable "oreign e(change# A ne% re"inery is coming u' at :umaligarh in 2olaghati district#
Coal is another im'ortant item o" e('ort "rom the )tate# Assam 'roduces about 1#E o" 0ndia+s total out'ut
o" coal# About .0E to .<E o" coal in Assam comes "rom the 1akum coal "ields# 0ts quality is described as
in"erior though among the various coal "ields in Assam!coal o" 1akum "ields is the best# Because o" high
sul'hur content!this coal is said to be not suitable "or metal-lurgical 'ur'oses# 0t is mostly consumed by tea
gardens!rail%ays and brick "ields# Coal is also im'orted in su""icient quantity "rom 1eghalaya# @ormerly!market
"or Assam coal %as only con"ined to the neighbouring states# But in recent years coal "rom Assam is being
e('orted even to the "ar distant areas like -aryana! Pun4ab and 3a4asthan mainly by road trans'ort#
Another im'ortant item o" e('ort o" the )tate is timber and its 'roducts# 0t is e('orted in the "orm o" logs!
slee'ers and even timbers# Products o" 'ly%ood and hard board "actories are also e('orted outside the )tate#
)u""icient quantity o" bamboos are e('orted to the &itaghar Pa'er 1ill in ,est Bengal# )hool ,haru 5Brooms6o"
Assam has a market throughout the country# *ther items o" e('ort "rom "orests are cane and its 'roducts!
medicinal herbs like Sarpa+andha, 'anslochan, A+or,etc# Precious items o" e('ort are horn o" rhinoceros and
ivory %hich are e('orted to Cai'ur in 3a4asthan and such other 'laces#
1aiDe is e('orted mainly to Bihar and G#P# Cotton 'roduced in the hill areas o" the )tate has a very good
"oreign demand not "or its s'inning value but "or its coarseness and lo% %aste content o" the "ibre# &his is not
good to s'in to thread but ideally suited "or mi(ing %ith %ool# As such nearly %hole o" the 'roduct is e('orted
to "oreign countries# Products o" eri and mu+a also has a very good market outside the )tate# &he 'roducts o"
Assam )'un )ilk 1ill! Cagiroad commands good market in the "oreign countries# 3ecently! a gro%ing e('ort de-
mand "or the 'roducts o" the te(tile and other cottage and other cottage industries o" Assam has been noticed#
&hough the 'roducts o" these industries are "acing some com'etition! yet they are develo'ing their "ootholds in
markets outside the )tate#
&he main items o" im'ort o" the )tate are various ra% materials and machineries required "or ma4or and
small scale industries! %heat and its 'roducts! 'ulses! gram! 'eas! onions! ground nuts! vegetables! s'ices o" all
kinds! oils! sugar! salt! chemical "ertiliDers! cement! C#0#sheets! iron materials! hard%ares! 'aints and varnishes!
tube-%ells! 'um's and 'i'es! cycles! motors! cars! trucks and tractors! clothes and garments! stationery articles
and all other kinds o" consumer goods# 0m'orted articles like machineries! ra% materials and manu"actured arti-
cles are required to meet the local demands mainly "rom the tea gardens as also "rom the oil and other industries
and the demand is increasing %ith the
A))A1 )&A&E 2A7E&&EE3 <<>
develo'ment o" medium and small scale industries# Commodities like onions! garlics! s'ices! 'ulses and sugar
are im'orted "rom Bihar and Gttar Pradesh# 1ustard oil is im'orted "rom G#P# and salt "rom 3a4asthan and ,est
coast# 9egetables mainly come "rom 1eghalaya and Bihar#
As Assam is the gate%ay o" north-eastern 0ndia! the trade links o" all the )tates like 1eghalaya! 1ani'ur !
:agaland! Arunachal Pradesh! 1iDoram and &ri'ura %ith the rest o" the countries are though Assam# &heir trade
is mostly conducted through the markets o" Assam# )o out o" all the commodities %hich Assam im'orts!some
'ortions are again e('orted to these states like%ise their e('orts are also channelised through Assam#
&he border trade o" :orth East 0ndia has immense 'ossibilities# ,ith a <211 kms international border %ith
Bangladesh!1yanmar!China and Bhutan!the volume o" uno""icial trade is estimated to be much more than that o"
o""icial trade# &hus!%hile the 0ndo-1yanmer o""icial trade %as 3s# >>< million in 199-9>!the volume o"
uno""icial trade %as about "ive times more than that#
(')Tra"$ C$!tr$s :
R$#%(at$" Mar&$ts : &he )tate 2ovt# has created > 3egulated 1arkets in the )tate under the Assam
Agricultural Produce 1arket Act#!19/2# &he markets are located at -o%ly in Bar'eta district!2auri'ur in $hubri
district!$hing in :agaon district and ;haru'etia in $arrang district# &he 'ur'ose "or "orming the regulated
market is to 'rovide storage "acilities!auction 'lat"orms!trades sho's!retail sho's!cattle sheds and %eighing and
grading "acilities "or the agricultural 'roduces such as 4ute!rice!'ulse!oil seeds!etc#!brought by the "armers "or
sale!so that they may not be de'rived o" their reasonable 'rices "or the 'roduce# Adequate utility services such as
%ater su''ly!electricity!se%age dis'osal!etc#!are to be 'rovided in the markets!to the e(tent 'ossible#
C$!tr$s .-o($ sa($ '%si!$ss : 2u%ahati! the 'remier city is the most im'ortant centre o" %holesale trade in the
)tate# @rom ancient time!it has been a "amous commercial centre# 0n the recent years!it has acquired a ne%
dimension and serves not only vast areas o" neighbouring districts but also o" the %hole :orth East 0ndia# *ne o"
the main "actor that can be attributed to this gro%ing im'ortance o" 2u%ahati as commercial centre is its unique
location %ith regard to "acilities o" roads! rail%ays! %ater%ays and air%ays# &hus! having direct link %ith
Calcutta and the outside %orld! 2auhati! kno%n as the 2ate%ay o" Assam!has come to occu'y a vital 'lace not
only in the economy o" the )tate but also o" the north eastern 0ndia# &he river 'ort at Pandu 'rovides e(cellent
"acilities "or e('ort and im'ort o" goods through the river Brahma'utra# Considering its im'ortance as an
eminent trade centre and river 'ort!'ro'osals have been made to the 2ovt# o" 0ndia to o'en one o""ice o" e('ort
and im'ort at 2u%ahati# &he recent o'ening o" the &ea Auction Centre at 2ua%ahati has given a ne% boost to its
im'ortance as a commercial centre o" the )tate# 0n the conte(t!it may be mentioned that
BA:;0:2!&3A$E A:$ C*11E3CE <<<
loading and unloading o" most o" the e('orted and im'orted goods %hich are carried on rail%ays are done in the
ne% 2ua%ahati 3ail%ay station near :oonmati# @ancy BaDar is the main sho''ing centre at 2u%ahati# Besides
retail sale! almost %hole o" the %holesale business o" the city is conducted "rom this 'lace# PanbaDar is the
em'oria o" books and magaDines# 0t is also sho''ing centre o" Assam silk and handloom te(tiles#
&insukia is another im'ortant centre o" %holesale business o" the )tate# 0t is a distributing centre o" all
%holesale commodities to neighbouring 'laces around# 0t %as originally a small village# )everal "actors such as
the o'ening o" direct rail communication!gro%th o" tea!oil and coal industry in the surrounding areas have
hel'ed &insukia to attain its 'resent 'osition# &he discovery o" oil %ells has increase the im'ortance o" &insukia
as this is the only distributing centre o" 'etroleum 'roducts 'roduced at $igboi# &his is also an im'ortant "ood
gains market o" u''er Assam and a''ro(imately 10 to 12 %agons o" "ood-sta""s are distributed daily to di""erent
'arts o" the locality "rom &insukia# ,holesale business in all im'ortant commodities such as "ood-
sta""!cloth!etc#!are carried on "rom this centre on a large scale# &he goods tra""ic o" &insukia 3ail%ay )tation is
e('anding "rom year to year# &he tea and 'etroleum 'roducts are the ma4or items o" goods tra""ic#
0n recent years! the im'ortance o" &insukia has increased considerably because o" establishment and
e('ansion o" steel 'rocessing and light engineer-ing industries and various "abrication %orksho's# @rom a centre
o" trade! &insukia has no% achieved 'rominence as an industrial to%n in the north-eastern region o" 0ndia#
Among other im'ortant centres o" %holesale business in the )tate mention may be made o"
$ibrugarh! Corhat! &eD'ur! :agaon! )ilchar! :orth Aakhim'ur! 2olaghat! 1angaldoi! Bar'eta! )ibsagar!
-ailakandi! ;arimgan4! -o4ai! etc# Along %ith the %holesale business a great deal o" retail business is
also transacted in these centres#
-o%ever!the main centres o" retail trade are %eekly local markets or hats in the small to%ns and semi-
urban areas# ,eekly hats are held on a 'articular day o" the %eek "or the conveniences both buyers and sellers#
0n tea gardens! these hats are usually held on 'ay-days# E(ce't the urban 'eo'le %ho visit daily ba-ars in to%ns
both the villagers and the tea garden labourers are de'endent on these hats "or their daily necessities# -ere the
villagers sell their vegetables!rice! betel-nut and lea"!etc# 0n tea garden hats,the most im'ortant buyers are the
labourers#
Fairs a!" melas : 1any "airs are held in di""erent 'arts o" the )tate!most o" %hich go on "or some days are
attended by a large concourse o" 'eo'le# &hese "airs are seasonal and held on 'articular religious occasions such
as Sivaratri,Dolyatra,Asho"astami,!ash*pua,Dashami,'hathele, Diwali,etc# A'art "rom the merriment %hich
marks these "airs!a good deal o" buying and
A))A1 )&A&E 2A7E&&EE3 <<8
selling is also carried on# &he congregation is generally com'rised o" villagers! a section o" %hom bring these
'roducts "or sale# Petty traders "rom to%ns and other trading centres es'ecially s%eet-meat sellers! dealers o"
toys and balloon! ha%kers! etc#! visit the "airs %ith their %ares#
&he number o" 'laces %here "airs and melas are held are as "ollo%s ?-
:ame o" the *ccasion on %hich :ame o" the 'laces at %hich
$istrict "airs are held "airs are held

1#$arrang Sivaratri )ingri &em'le!1ahabhairab &em'le
and 5&eD'ur6!9ish%anath &em'le!
)onit'ur :i4hale%ar &em'le!Coges%ar
&em'le!)i'a4har!;hatura!
1angaldai and 1ahagosain Than,
)ingri Mela lasts "or several days#
!ash )ua &eD'ur!Basudev Than and $ighi
)u"huri#
Dolyatra @airs are hold at 3udres%ar tem-
'le 5$ihila Mau-a6and 2hora-
bandha 5near )i'a4har in
1angaldai6#
)acheti Mela &his "estival is observed in con-
nection %ith the birth aniversary
o" lord Krishna# A Mela is held in
this connection on the San"ranti
day in the months o" 'hada or
Ahin#
San"ranti *n the San"ranti day o" the months
o" Ahin and Kati,a "estival kno%n
as Manthaniutsav is observed at
$evananda Satra to celebrate the
a''earance o" goddess .a"shmi
%hen ocean %as churned by gods
and demons# A "air is held in this
connection# 0t lasts "or t%o days
and its attended by large number
o" 'eo'le#
BA:;0:2!&3A$E A:$ C*11E3CE <</


'oha+i Mela &here are small "airs held throughout
1angaldai subdivision on di""erent
dates in the month o" 'oha+#
/dal+uri Mela &his %as originally held %hen the
Bhutias came to collect tributes#:o%
it is observed "or one day only#
Aso"astomi *n this occasion a mela is held in
&eD'ur to%n on the bank o" the
Brahma'utra#
:agaon I Aso"astomi At )ilghat#
1origaon
Dolyatra At Bardo%a#
Sivaratri &he Sivaratri melas are held in many
'laces %here Siva tem'les are
situated# Aarge number i" visitors
attend the Sivaratri melas at
Sivathan in Barabhagaia
Mau-a,'ura+ohain Than near about
-atigaon!Siva mandir at
Cogi4an!&ekeli'otagaon in 3anga-
garah mau-a,Barangabari in 1ikir
Bheta mau-a,Aaharighat!etc#
!ashtsava 3ashotsava and San"ar utsav are
San"ar /tsav no% being %idely observed all
over the district %ith t%o to three
days 'rogramme#
,onbeel Mela At 1ikirbari in 2obha Mau-a#
&osain Mela At Phulguri and )aragaon#
A))A1 )&A&E 2A7E&&EE3 <<.


)aruni Mela At Cogi4an#
2oal'ara Mohamaya Mela Mohamaya Mela on 'isoma or
$hubri!;okra4har 'isuba San"ranti is held at
and Bongaigaon Bagiribari and lasts "or seven days#
Me+hi )urnima Mela is held in the month o" Ma+h
or Canuary at $algoma and )ri
Surya )ahar#
Aso"astami Mela Mela is held in the month o"
$hoitra or mid-A'ril at $hubri#
Dol )urnima Mela -eld in the month o" 0a+un or
middle o" 1arch at )atrasali#
.a"shmi )ua Mela is held in the month o" Ahin
or *ctober at Bi4ni and Bakhalgaon#
&osala Mela Mela is held at 2auri'ur in the month
o" )ooh or $ecember#
1iaya Dashami Mela Mela is held at $hubri in the month
o" Ahin or *ctober#
)ibsagar Sivaratri A big mela is held at )ibsagar on
Sivaratri#
$ibrugarh Diwali on this occasion a mela is held at
2aneshbari &#;#
Aso"astami Mela is held near the 1unici'al
'ark at $ibrugarh#
Aakhim'ur and *n @estival days!melas are also held
$hema4i in some o" the tem'les o" Aakhim'ur
and $hema4i districts#
BA:;0:2!&3A$E A:$ C*11E3CE <<9


;amru'!:albari !ashpurnima *n this occasion t%o big melas are
and Bar'eta held at :albari and -o%li#
Ambubachi A mela is held on this occasion at
Kama"hya tem'le in 2u%ahati#
Sivaratri A big mela is held at Gmananda
tem'le on Sivaratri# Besides!melas
are also held at Bar'eta!Calah!
Pathsala!&amul'ur!3angia
2ores%ar!Palasbari!Boko!
Cahigaon and )ona'ur#
'hatali mela A / days mela held in 'oha+ at
1akhibaha near &ihu#
Cachar! 'aruni Tithi Melas on this occasion are held in
;arimgan4 the month o" 1arch at )idhes%ar
and )iva &em'les at Bhuban -ills and
-ailakandi 1alugram# &hese are bathing "es-
tivals kno%n as 'aruni melas and
last "or 1< days#
Sivaratri or Siva Melas are held at Bhuban -ill Siva
$haturatithi Tilla,1alugram and at the tem'le
o" $adhimata#
Ananda mayee Mela is held at Arunachal Kalibari
mela or )ausha on /ttaravan San"ranti %hich gen-
San"ranti Mela erally "alls in the month o" Canuary#
!ashpurnima and Melas are also held on !ashpurnima
San"ranti Ma+hi and Ma+hi )urnima at Bharambar
)urnima M tem'le#
&andhi Mela A Mela kno%n as &andhi Mela is
held at )ilchar during Canuary and
attended by a large number o"
'eo'le#

A))A1 )&A&E 2A7E&EE3 <80
())Co-o/$ratio! i! .-o($sa($ a!" r$tai( tra"$ :0t has been already 'ointed out that co-o'erative consumers
stores and marketing societies %ere "unctioning during the second %orld %ar or distribution o" scare
commodities# )uch societies %ent on liquidation during the 'ost-%ar 'eriod# *n Canuary 2
rd
19</! the Assam
Co-o'erative A'e( 1arketing )ociety %as registered# Primary co-o'erative marketing societies %ere organised
in each district to carry on the retail trade! the %holesale district co-o'erative societies %ere also organised in
some 'addy gro%ing districts# 0n 1988-8/! there %ere 1>1 general 'rimary marketing societies in the )tates-1
in $arrang district! 2 in ;amru' district! 1. in :agaon district! 1. in )ibsagar district!1< in 2oal'ara district!1
in Cachar district! . in $ibrugarh district! . in Aakhim'ur district! in ;arbi Anglong and 2 in :orth Cachar
-ills district# &he total membershi' o" these societies %as 28!>>> and their total 'aid-u' ca'ital stood at 3s#
/0!82!989F-# &heir total assets and liabilities amounted to 3s# 2!20!/!.1>F- and 3s# 2!9!12!0.1F- res'ectively#
$uring that year!there %ere / %holesale consumers stores having /!<2 members 5individuals6%ith total 'aid-u'
ca'ital o" 3s# 8!<!910F-# &heir total assets and liabilities amounted to 3s# 2!>2!82/F- and 3s# 9!29!88.F-
res'ectively# &hese %holesale consumers stores and trading co-o'eratives had 2 branches %ith 118 institutional
and /!<2 individual members# Besides the A'e( 1arketing )ociety!there %ere $istrict 1arketing )ocieties in
the )tate# &he Assam Co-o'erative A'e( 1arketing )ociety had 202 members %ith a 'aid-u' ca'ital o" 3s#
21!09!000F-! total liabilities and assets amounted to 3s# 1!><!/2!000F- and 3s# 1!>>!<0!000F-res'ectively#
0t %as reorganised on 8
th
August!19/< and renamed as the Assam )tate Co-o'erative and Consumers
@ederation Atd# 5)tate"ed6# 0t has t%o ty'es o" member-shi'! the "irst category is o'en to all 2aon Panchayat
Aevel Co-o'erative )ocieties! %hole-sale consumers stores! 'rimary marketing co-o'erative societies! 'rocessing
co-o'erative and the second category is con"ined to traders! commission agents! merchants and 'ersons having
business deals %ith the @ederation in additional to the )tate 2ovt# &he )tate"ed had >.0 "irst category members
and 22 second category members on 0
th
Cune!19//# 0t has an authorised ca'ital o" 3s# crores divided into
lakhs share o" 3s# 1000F- each# 0t has so "ar dealt in 2 commodities and its business turn over has increased
"rom 3s# 12#2 crores in 19/-/> to 3s# <#9 crores in 19/<-/8# A loss o" 3s# <9 lakhs %as incurred in 19/>-/<
and the same! ho%ever! had been reduced to 3s# . lakhs in 19/<-/8# 0n the ne(t year! it earned a 'ro"it o" 3s# 1<
lakhs#
&he three $istrict 1arketing )ocieties had 12 members %ith 'aid-u' share ca'ital o" 3s# 10/!000F-# 0ts
liabilities and assets amounted to 3s#.!/1!000F- res'ectively# &here %ere also >1< Primary &rading and Consum-
ers+ stores %ith a membershi' o" /.!>8<# &hese societies had total liabilities o" 3s#0!0/!110F- %ith an assets o"
3s# 0!.!/.>F-#
(") 2tat$ Tra"i!# : @air 'rice sho's! etc# ? ,ith a vie% to create a bu""er stock o" 'addy "or distribution at
controlled 'rice in times o" emergency and "ood
BA:;0:2!&3A$E A:$ C*11E3CE <81
shortage! the 2ovt# o" Assam undertook 'addy 'rocurement at the district level through the )u''ly de'artment
in 19<8# 0n that year! the state trading in "ood grains %as introduced "or 'rocuring at controlled 'rice!"i(ed at a
reasonable level to give the 'roduces bene"it o" increased 'rice o" 'addy# &he scheme %as entrusted to the Co-
o'erative $e'artment# &he A'e( Co-o'erative 1arketing )ociety %as required on 2
rd
Canuary 19</ to shoulder
u'on the res'onsibility# &he state trading in "ood grains %as introduced in the district o" :agaon! $arrang!
;amru'! Cachar and the )ub-division o" :orth Aakhim'ur 5:o% Aakhim'ur district6! 1ikir -ills 5:o% ;arbi
Anglong district6 and 2oal'ara and subsequently e(tended to other areas# &he A'e( 1arketing )ociety took u'
the mono'oly o" 'addy 'rocurement at "i(ed 'rice %ith the hel' o" Primary 1arketing )ocieties as agents and
the village Co-o'eratives as sub-agents# 0n 198>!2overnment allo%ed millers to 'rocure 'addy side by side %ith
the A'e( 1arketing# &he mono'oly %as restored again to the A'e( 1arketing )ociety in 198<# 0n 1988-8/!the
@ood Cor'oration o" 0ndia obtained the mono'oly in 'rocurement o" 'addy and since then the t%o organisations
deal in trade side by side in some districts# &he Assam )tate Co-o'erative and Consumers "ederation Atd#
5)tate"ed6came into being on August!19/< on reorganisation o" erst%hile Assam Co-o'erative A'e( 1arketing
)ociety# $uring 19/8-// Kharif )eason!the )tate"ed 'rocured 1>#0> lakh quintals as against the target o" 19#<
lakh quintals# $uring the same 'eriod @#C#0# 'rocured .#12 lakhs qtls#o" 'addy# 0n 19//-/.!the 'rocurement
'olicy o" 'addy %as revised# &he 3ice 1illers and other licence holders %ere allo%ed to 'rocure 'addy but a
levy %as im'osed on them# &he )tate 2overnment in order to ensure regular "lo% o" essential commodities to
the 'ublic in general has utilised the services @ood Cor'oration o" 0ndia and the Assam )tate Co-o'erative
1arketing and Consumers @ederation# 3ecently!Cute Cor'oration o" 0ndia has also established its branches in the
)tate 'rocure 4ute#
&he "ollo%ing "igures sho%s the 'rocurement o" 'addy 5both seasons6in the )tate since 19/0-/1#
Khariff year &arget Procurement 5in lakh qtls#6
19/0-/1
19/1-/2
19/2-/
19/-/>
19/>-/<
19/<-/8
19/8-//
19//-/.
19/.-/9
2>#00
2>#00
18#00
20#00
21#00
<#00
1#00
-
-
12#>/
12#9.
1#1.
18#>.
19#29
.#<2
2#21
#00
<#00
A))A1 )&A&E 2A7E&&EE3 <82
1any "air 'rice sho's %ere established during the second %orld %ar to curb the 'rice rise and to distribute
essential articles among the consumers at a reasonable 'rice# &hough many o" these sho's ceased to "unction
%ith virtual abolitions o" control during the 'ost-%ar 'eriod! they received a "irst s'urt during the "i"ties %hen
distribution o" essential articles %as channelised these sho's# ,ith the beginning o" the state trading
'rogramme!the "air 'rice sho's have been o'ened throughout the )tate# &he number o" "air 'rice sho's in the
)tate has been increased in order to cover each village by at least one such sho'# 0n the urban areas!their number
has also been increased greatly so that 'eo'le can easily collect their necessaries# Controlled commodities such
as rice!sugar!atta,"lour!etc#!are sold at "i(ed 'rice in these sho's to holders o" "amily identity cards issued by the
)u''ly $e'artment# &he $e'artment also "i(es the 'rices o" commodities and a''oints the "air 'rice dealers#
&hese "air sho's have been very use"ul in checking the rise o" 'rices o" essential commodities# &he "ollo%ing
table sho%s the district %ise allotment o" rice!%heat!and sugar "or "air 'rice sho's "or 19/8-// and 19//-/.#

$istrict 3ice ,heat )ugar
19/8-// 19//-/. 19/8-// 19//-/. 19/8-// 19//-/.
2oal'ara >1#< <#9 <#9 2#0 .#. .#9
;amru' .0#< 0#9 <#1 2#. 1#. 1<#>
$arrang 9#8 10#2 #0 <#9 8#8 .#1
:agaon 9#1 9#1 <#1 2#/ 8#1 .#1
)ibsagar 1/#> 21#8 8#> 9# .# .#1
$ibrugarh 2#2 8#9 <#/ 11#> 8#> /#2
Aakhim'ur 1#8 <#8 0#> 2#0 2#. #8
Cachar ><#0 2#0 18#< 1# .#0 .#.
;arbi Anglong >#0 #2 0#> 1#1 1#2 1#/
:#C#-ills .#. /#. 0# :#A# 0#> 0#>
&otal 2>9# 1.># >.#9 119#< 82#> /0#0

Besides!attem'ts also being made to sale coarse cloths!salt and cement through the state"ed#

($)M$r)-a!ts6 a!" Co!s%3$rs6 Asso)iatio! a!" 5a'o%r Or#a!isatio! : &here are chambers or associations
o" other nomenclature in almost all the to%ns o" the )tate# &o mention a "e%!these are ;amru' Chamber o"
Commerce! 2u%ahati= :albari Kapada and Suta 1yapari San+ha,:albari 1yavasayee Sanstha,:albari ? Assam
)ilver 1erchants +Association!:albari = 2oal'ara 1erchants+ Association! 2oal'ara = ;haru'etia
1erchants+Association! ;haru'etia= Chamber o" Commerce! :orth Aakhim'ur = 2oal'ara Chamber o"
Commerce and 0ndustry! $hubri = Cachar 1erchants+ Association! )ilchar = -o4ai Chamber o" Commerce!
BA:;0:2!&3A$E A:$ C*11E3CE <8
-o4ai! Gnited Chamber o" Commerce! 2olaghat= $arrang Chamber o" Commerce! &eD'ur = :agaon Chamber o"
Commerce! :agaon! G''er Assam Chamber o" Commerce! Corhat = )ibsagar Chamber o" Commerce! )ibsagar=
Eastern Assam Chamber o" Commerce and 0ndustry!$ibrugarh= Bongaigaon 1erchant Committee! Bongaigaon=
1angaldai Chamber o" Commerce! 1angaldai ? :ational Chamber o" Commerce!&insukia!etc# 1ost o" these are
registered bodies under the )ocieties 3egistration Act are inde'endent o" each other# &here is no state level
chamber o" commerce# )ome o" them are a""iliated to all 0ndia bodies# &he ob4ect o" these Chamber is to
'romote the interest o" the business community in res'ect o" inland and "oreign trade!manu"acture!agri-
culture!shi''ing!trans'ort!banking!insurance!industry and ta(ation#
;amru' Chamber o" Commerce! 2u%ahati! being the chamber o" commerce o" the 'remier city in this
:orth eastern region!is the most active one# @rom the name it a''ears to be a district level body but actually its
membershi' is mainly con"ined to 2u%ahati# 0t %as established in 19< and has gro%n in the eastern o" the
'eo'le o" Assam as the re'resentative body o" trade and commerce in the )tate# 0t is a""iliated to the @ederation
o" 0ndian Chamber o" Commerce and 0ndustry %hich is the highest body in the country re'resenting the interests
o" trade and industry#
At the initial stage the membershi' o" the Chamber %as con"ined to the &alla*Kirana 5@ood grains and
s'ices6dealers only# &oday its membershi' is very %ide and dra%n "rom almost every im'ortant trade such as
hard%are!'etroleum 'roducts!'rinting and stationery!chemicals and 'harmaceutical! timber! trans'ort! te(tile! oil
mills!hotel and restaurant! machinerydealers! insurance com'anies! banks! "ilm distributers and e(hibitors!etc#
&here is a subcommittee o" each trade %ith a chairman or a convenor dra%n "rom that trade# &hey can discuss
their o%n 'roblems and other relevant matters concerning their and can "or%ard their suggestion to the necessary
o" the Chamber "or taking u' the matter %ith a''ro'riate authorities#
&he Chamber is also 'ublishing one %eekly bulletin giving in"ormation to its members on various to'ics
such as ta(ation and com'any la%! 2overnment noti"ications and circulars!tender and auction sale notices! and
other im'ortant sub4ects# Bulletin is 'ublished in English and -indi simultaneously#
&his chamber is duly recognised by the 2ovt# o" 0ndia and )tate 2ovt# in 19/1!its re'resentatives %ere
members o" the many o""icial councils and committees
#
&here is no trade union o" em'loys in trade and commerce %ith %orth mentioning activities! though there
are such as Du"an Karmachari San+ha,&ailors+ Gnion!etc#
()7$i#-t a!" M$as%r$s : *ld Gnit and ado'tion o" the 1etric )ystem ?
As regards the units o" %eights 'revailing in the )tate in the later 'art o" the 19
th
century!,#,#-unter in
his Statistical Account of Assam has stated
A))A1 )&A&E 2A7E&&EE3 <8>
that no regular %eights %ere in use and nearly everything %as sold by measurement generally according to the
"ollo%ing standard ? ;athaL1 don, don23 )ura# &he )ura %as su''osed to be equal to the thirty 'ounds %eight
but the %eight actually varied# 0n case o" 'addy!t%enty 'ounds o" 'addy constituted one pura#
&he use o" don as a unit o" %eight had almost declined though in some remote villages!it may still e(ist#
&he don %hich is a bamboo stri's %as used "or measuring rice and 'addy!0ts holding ca'acity varies "rom 2
seers to N seers "rom 'lace to 'lace# A ring is attached at the bottom to enable it to stand on the ground# &he
dhol looks like don but is much o" much bigger siDe and contains a''ro(imately 20 seers 'addy# 0t %as used "or
measuring 'addy only# Aiquid molasses locally!called +ur %as measured in terms o" "alah is a bid earthen 4ar#
Prior to 1.<2!land in Assam %as measured by a tar, a mauring rod o" . hats 5cubits6in length equal to nearly 11N
English "eet# 0n that year!the standard Bengal Bigha o" 1>>00 sq# "eet %as introduced in Assam and since then all
measurements are 're'ared according to it# &he equivalents o" land and other measures are given belo% ?-
%3hat L1. inches!1 acreL>!.>0 sq#yards(
> s4uare hats L1 )quare yard or 1 "ari
> Karis 21 )owa
> )owa 21 .echa
20 .echas 21 Katha
< Kathas 21 'i+ha
> 'i+has 21 )ura
.inear measures#
12 inches L1 "oot
@eet L1 Hard
2< Ainks L1Pol50 J )quare Hards6
> Pols or 88 @eet L1 Chain#
10 Chains L1@urlong
. @urlongs L1 1ile
.0 Chains L1 1ile
1easures used "or measuring tiny 'ieces o" cloth or like#
5abs 21 An+uli
An+ulis 21 &ira
> An+ulis 21 Muthi
Muthis or 6 &iras L1 Begets
2> An+ulis or 7 'e+ets 21 Hat
2 Hats 21 &o- 5Hard6or 8 0nches#
&he measures mentioned above %ere gradually re'laced by the English measures or standardised
according to English measures# -o%ever!land is still measured in terms o" bi+ha,lecha,etc#!not%ithstanding the
introduction o"
BA:;0:2!&3A$E A:$ C*11E3CE <8<
the metric system o" measures# 2old is measured till today in terms o" rati, anna and tola# )i( raties
make one anna!"our annas make one si"i and "our si"is make one tola %hich is one-eightieth o" one
seer#
&ill the introduction o" the metric system o" %eights in A'ril!1980! the measures o" ca'acity to
%eigh everyday goods %ere as "ollo%s ?-
< tolas 2one chata"
> chata"s Lone powa
< seers Lone palla
. pallas or >0 seers Lone maund 5/#2 kilograms6
Tulasoni %as the %eighing scale commonly used in the village hats# &his is o" t%o circular bamboo trays
are sus'ended %ith strings "rom both the ends o" a round %ooden 'ole# Bamboo chun+as %ere used measuring
ca'acity o" liquids# *n the basis o" the recommendation o" the ,eights and 1easures Committee 51.1-1>6the
uni"ormity o" %eights and measures %as brought into "orce# -o%ever!accuracy o" the indigenous %eights and
measures including some o" those mentioned above %as al%ays doubt"ul# ,ith enactment o" the )tandards o"
,eights and 1easures Act!19<8! and the Assam ,eights and 1easures 5En"orcement6Act! 19<.! the metric
system o" %eights and measures %as introduced in Assam# Although the $irectorate o" ,eights and 1easures
has been en"orcing the metric system o" %eights and measures by launching 'rosecution as %ell as by assisting
in su''ly o" acce'ted %eights and measures to the needy traders!yet the traditional measures have not altogether
"allen into disuse# &he "ollo%ing table gives the coversion "actors o" the basic units o" measurement#
1#Ca'acity?- 1 'int L0#<8.2> litre
1 quart L1#18>9 litres
1 gallon L>#<><98 litres
1 litre L0#./990 quarts
1 litre L0#2199/8 gallon#
2#Aength ?- 1 inch L2<#> millimetres#
1 "eet L0#>. centimetres
1 yard L0#91>> metre
1 mile L1#809>> kilometres
1 centimetre L0#9/01 inch
1 metre L1#0981 yards
1 kilometre L0#821/ mile
#Area ?- 1 sq#inch L8#><18 sq#centimetres#
1 sq#"oot L9#280 sq#decimetres#
1 sq#yard L0#.81 sq#metre
1 acre L0#>08>.8 hectare
1 sq#mile L2#<.999 sq# kilometres#
1 hectare L2#>/10< acres
>#,eight ?- 1 ounce L2.#>9< grams
1 'ound L0#><<92> kilogram
1 ton L1#0180< metric tonnes
1 kilogram L2#20>82 'ound
1 metric ton -0#9.>20 ton

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