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CHAPTER - 13
Boiler Safety

A. Introduction
Boiler and pressure vessels have many potential hazards in common, as well as hazards
unique to their specific operations. These vessels hold gases, vapors, liquids, and solids
at various temperatures and pressures, ranging from almost a full vacuum to pressures of
thousands of pounds per square inch. In some applications, extreme pressure and
temperature changes may occur in a system in rapid succession, imposing special strains.
Major boilers and pressure vessels explosions occur, because of their spectacular nature.
The problem is to ensure the integrity reliability throughout the working lives of all
boilers and pressure vessels and, in the event of any defect occurring, to limit its
damaging effects.
In the interest of safety, rules for boiler operation and maintenance have been set forth
by manufacturers, engineering societies, and most importantly, governmental
jurisdictions (IBR). The engineer and boiler operator should be familiar with those rules
specifically applying to the local situation.


Causes of accidents:

Accident causes fall of broadly into two groups.

1. Personal - involving the human element of care:-

Persons falling short distances
Lifting and handling
Stepping on objects
Hand tools
Objects falling
Falls from a height

2. Technical involving the collective element of planning and control, and the
impersonal aspect of physical protection:-

Machinery
Hot substances
Electricity
Transport
Poisonous Substances
Explosions

The Technical accidents are usually serious and although as a percentage of the total number of
accidents they are of low incidence, their prevention requires considerable foresight in planning
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and control and in provision of adequate physical protection. The potentially serious accident is
covered by the requirements of the Factories Act.

What now follows is primarily concerned with the prevention of accident producing situations
resulting from technical causes. The emphasis is on safety in plant operation and it should be
remembered that with the larger units ad advanced operating conditions there is greater
possibility of technical trouble

Design and control systems:
All plant is designed for a certain conditions. Although operators have no control over design,
they must be aware of any limiting features in the design. For example, the limiting design
features of a boiler include:-

1. Maximum permissible steam pressure.
2. Maximum superheater metal temperature.
3. Minimum air heater temperature.

Plant must be operated to ensure that it is kept within the design working limits. To this end all
items of plant should have operating instructions and these should be explained, if necessary, to
the personnel who are responsible for their operation. Some items require very simple
instructions. Others may require very complex instructions.
Many items of plant have automatic controls. There is nothing new about this; float switches on
tanks have existed for many years, and in fact boiler control systems have been in existence for
over thirty-five years. The only difference is that todays control systems are more complex.
Modern units have whole sequences of operation that can be performed automatically.
However, it must be remembered that although a correctly working automatic system has no
human weaknesses, neither has it human intelligence. A computer will only do what it has been
programmed to do.
Automation takes care of many routine operations such as steam/load output variations and
logging, and this reduces the tedium of the work. On the other hand, the operator has greater
responsibility in abnormal conditions for ensuring that the plant is kept within its design limits
and it is essential the emergency drills for abnormal conditions are included in the operating
instructions. These emergency drills require practice to ensure that the operator not only knows
what to do, but has practical experience.
The majority of control systems have built-in safety features known as fail-safe systems. for
example, if the control system of oil fired burners is actuated by compressed air then thee fuel
valve is pneumatically operated, and if the air fails the fuel valve will shut.
It also ensures that the fuel valve cannot open unless the control air is available. Many examples
of the fail-safe system are found in power stations and operators should be able to list some
examples in their own particular plant.
Although equipment may be designed to fail-safe an operator is subject to human errors, such as
operating the wrong valve or pushing the wrong control button. This is rarely the result of lack
of knowledge, but is more often of forgetfulness, so that the problem becomes one of reminding
the operator where he is and the function of the control he is about to operate. In short, adequate
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identification and labeling of plant, equipment and controls is the first essential for correct
operation, and it is of utmost importance during the commissioning period of new plant.
It is proposed to highlight certain aspects of plant operation where hazards can arise.


Boilers:

Over Pressure:
Each boiler has a maximum permissible working pressure and to prevent the pressure rising
above this level, safety valves are fitted. The superheater safety valves are set lower then the
steam drum safety valves in order to ensure a flow of steam through the superheater.
To lift these safety valves unnecessarily, involves a loss of water and heat, but they have to be
floated after each statutory inspection. (Floating is the term used for controlled lifting of safety
valves to ensure lift at the correct over-pressure).

Loss of water:
The water level indicator is one of the essential fittings that have to be fitted on all boilers.
Another is the pressure gauge. Although various indirect indicators are fitted, these must be
considered as aids to the operator and in the event of trouble with the water level in the boiler
drum the local gauge is the absolute gauge to be relied on. The Safety Rules require the water
level gauge to be tested daily and the mode of testing and blowing down should be clearly laid
down in the operating instructions.
The loss of water on a boiler is a most serious condition. It can arise from any of the following:-

1. The failure of the feed pumps

2. Incorrect operation of feed check valves and/or feed regulators

3. Sudden demand of steam lifting of safety valves

4. A failure of pressure parts within the boiler (burst tubes)

5. Inadvertent operation of blow down and/or drain valves

The ratio between the water content of a modern boiler and its rated output is approximately one
third. With this small quantity of water it is essential that any loss be attended to within seconds
by the operator.
It must be remembered that although the fuel supply may be turned off immediately on a
pulverized fuel or oil-fired boiler, there is still residual heat within the boiler. Thus, in the case
of boiler wall tube failure, the water level must if possible be maintained until the heat in the
boiler has been dissipated. What action is taken depends upon many factors, some of which can
only be decided in the light of prevailing conditions of the plant at the time.

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Loss of ignition:
Loss of ignition or instability of the furnace flames is a condition that can lead to dangerous
situations, particularly if the unburnt fuel continues to flow into furnace. All fuels should be shut
off as soon as loss of ignition occurs and the boiler purged with air before re-ignition.
When conditions exist that could lead to furnace instability, such as soot blowing, ashing, etc.
then the ignition equipment such as oil burners, should be placed in service to assist in
maintaining combustion. A case occurred of a serious explosion in the combustion chamber of a
184,000 Kg/h boiler. The boiler was steaming at light load with one p.f. mill in service and four
auxiliary oil burners. Trouble had been experienced with one of the auxiliary oil burners with
lighting up. Additional load was called for and the operator brought the second mill into
operation, still keeping the auxiliary oil burners in service. The operator then noticed that the
F.D. fan pressure had dropped and that it failed to respond to the adjustment of the controls.
Also the evaporation had not increased since the two mills had been brought in. the A.P.A.
reported that the furnace looked dark and the operator sent for the foreman. However, before the
foreman arrived a severe explosion occurred in the combustion chamber.
The cause of the explosion was that the p.f. from the second mill had not been satisfactorily
lightened, probably due to the unsuspected failure of the auxiliary oil burner which had given
trouble previously.
The operator had failed to act on thee standing instructions that when these conditions occur the
boiler should be shut down immediately.

Automatically Controlled Boilers:
The function of automatic control equipment is to provide precise control over combustion and
feed-water requirements in order to meet output fluctuations. The
Ordinance requires a steaming boiler being always attended by a "Competent Person" in
possession of a Certificate of Competency awarded for the type of boiler. It is essential, in the
interest of safety of the boiler plant that the operators are competent to carry out the normal
duties in connection with such plants and it is the responsibility of the owners to ensure that
operators employed by them are properly trained.
The automatic controls failure is the most frequent cause of boiler failure than other damages.
The automatic controls failure sometimes result in boiler overheating due to low water level,
boiler explosion due to low water level, boiler explosion due to unburned oil vaporize to
hydrocarbon gases inside the furnace and fusing of heating element of the electrically heated
boilers.
Many cases of damage arising from failure of automatic controls have been caused by lack of
knowledge of controls on the part of the boiler attendants. Attendants with experience limited to
manually controlled boilers may be unfamiliar with modern automatic boiler controls. Before
they take charge of such boilers it is essential that they should be properly trained in the safe
operation of such plant the action to be taken in emergencies and to carry out the tests set out.

Explosions due to coal dust in mills and p.f. pipework:
If any combustible dust in suspension, whether it be flour, coal, cork, etc. is ignited, an
explosion will occur. Coal mills and p.f. lines contain dust at all times, and if this dust is
disturbed and a source of ignition is present an explosion will follow, often resulting in damage
to the paint and injury to personnel. The most likely cause of p.f. mill explosion is blowback
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from the furnace along the pulverized fuel pipe work to the mill and there is a hot spot in the
mill due to excess hot air being supplied.

Following a series of p.f. explosions in 1950/55 a Committee drew up a Code of Practice for the
Safe Operation of P.F. Plant. Included among the recommendations were the following:-

1. The training of operators

2. Cleanliness and care of operation

3. The temperature of standing mills

4. Automatic means of isolating standing mill fuel lines

5. Indication of loss of coal feed

6. Need of ignition equipment to be available and used if unstable furnace conditions
prevailed

7. Mill air scrolls to be kept clean

8. Need for air flow to be maintained through a tube mill when it is running light

Similar dangers exist when unburnt p.f. is carried through the furnace and deposited in hoppers
or heaters etc. Explosions have occurred when hopper doors have been opened and air has come
into contact with hot unburnt fuel. To prevent this, care must be taken when operating boiler
plant under light load conditions to ensure that the level of dust in hoppers is kept to a
minimum. Oil fuel deposits can also lignite under similar conditions.

During pre-commissioning safety valve tests in a large unit, an explosion occurred in a pressure
type mill as a result of overheating of the mill casing.

An inspection showed that:-

1. There was no control of tempering air to the individual mills. (Tempering air is cold
air).

2. The temperature indication was faulty.

3. The alarm system has not been connected.

This incident is typical in that there were several factors which combined to lead to this
situation, and the absence of any of them could well have prevented the actual accident.


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Air Heater Fires:
Air heater fires in pulverized fuel fired systems are generally associated with the frequent and
prolonged use of lighting-up oil burners for pre-commissioning steam raising and low load
operation. Both in these and in oil-fired boilers the contributory causes can be summarized as:-

1. The carry over of unburnt oil due to delayed ignition or leakage

2. Inefficient combustion resulting in incomplete burning of oil which leads to the carry
over of oil vapour, coke and/or soot which collects in the cooler parts of the flue gas
system; the air heater is particularly vulnerable to these deposits.

In order to reduce air heater damage the following measures should be adopted.

1. Adequate instrumentation and equipment for the satisfactory control and operation of
both oil burners and air heaters must be available.

2. All air heaters should be provided with adequate inspection and cleaning access and a
high level of cleanliness should be maintained.

3. Fuel oil should be burnt with the highest efficiency. This may entail an adjustment of
burners, the use of low viscosity oil during commissioning, gas tight furnaces, and the
cleanliness of the air heater, gas side. When the unit is shut-down the furnace should be
purged and the fuel dampers closed. The air heater temperature should be observed at
frequent intervals during banked conditions.

Air receiver:
Compressed air is widely used in all industrial undertakings, e.g. pneumatic control systems and
for various pneumatic tools and cleaning equipment etc. Compressed air are either arranged to
run continuously since they are fitted with unloading devices to allow running light when
desired supply line pressure is reached, or have pre-set cut in and cut out pressure switches.
Supply of clean, dry compressed air is required from the well-designed, correctly installed and
maintained air receivers. Any air receiver shall be examined by an appointed examiner within
26 months after the date of fitness issued.
Also it is contravention of the Boiler and Pressure Vessels Ordinance to "alter" the safety valve
pressure set by the appointed examiners.
Air pressure vessels inside buildings should not be located near sources of heat, such as
radiators, boilers, or furnaces.

Dynamic Pressure Hazards:
The pressures in cylinders of compressed air, oxygen, or carbon dioxide are over 2000 psig
when the cylinders are full. A large cylinder, such as that used for oxygen for oxyacetylene
welding, will weigh slightly more than 200 pounds. The force or thrust generated by gas flowing
through the opening left when a valve breaks off a cylinder can be 50 to 20 times greater than
the cylinder weight. This can be compared to the propulsion system of a rocket or guided
missile. Spectacular accidents have occurred when such charged cylinders were dropped or
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struck so the valve broke off. The cylinder would then take off, in some cases smashing through
buildings, rows of vehicles, and creating the tremendous havoc that a heavy steel projectile
traveling at high speeds can generate.

Excessive pressures from non-thermal sources:
A vessel or container can be over pressurized so it fails. The simplest example is the bursting of
a childs balloon. Practically all pressure vessel failures occur at flaws in the material where
stresses are concentrated. If the flaw is serious enough, failure may occur at or below the normal
operating pressure. If the vessel is over pressurized, it will fail at a weak point, where a flaw
exists.

Safeguards against air receiver explosion:
The safeguards are:
Adequate cooling by provision of intercooler and aftercooler to restrict the operating
temperature.
Plant should be kept in good order; clean internally and externally and supplied with specially
compounded compressor oil of the correct characteristics for the job.
A suitable temperature fusible plug could be incorporated, designed to melt and blow at a
temperature a little lower than the closed flash point of the lubrication oil
Regular inspection will help to minimize the risk of a failure by detecting the symptoms at an
early stage.

Whipping of Hoses and Lines
Whipping of flexible hoses can also generate injury and damage. In one instance, the end fitting
of a compressed air line was not tightened adequately when the line was connected. The line
separated when it was pressurized. It then began whipping about until it hit and killed a worker
by crushing his skull.

Water Hammer
Water hammer is caused by a sudden stoppage of liquid flow so a shock effect occurs which can
cause the rupture of a line. The mass of liquid has momentum. If the flow is terminated abruptly
by closing a valve at the downstream end of a line, the momentum of the liquid is transformed
into a shock wave (water hammer) which is transmitted back upstream. The shock is transmitted
back through the liquid because liquids are practically incompressible. The energy shock
involved may be adequate to break fittings and lines, especially if they are made of brittle
materials which do not stand shock well. To avoid damage to liquid lines, the use of quick-
closing valves should be avoided. If they must be used, the shock can be alleviated by a suitable
air chamber or accumulator connected to the lines slightly upstream of the valve.

Testing of Pressure System
Each pressure system should be tested prior to use, and pressure vessels should be tested
periodically after that to determine their adequacy for continued service. Wherever possible,
hydrostatic testing, using water and not a gas such as steam or compressed air, should be used.
If the vessel being tested fails suddenly, the rapid expansion of gas might cause the rupture to be
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violent, possibly generating a blast wave with injury or damage. Hydrostatic testing, using water
as a fluid, has two major advantages. Leaks created by pressurization of a vessel can be detected
easily. The test can then be interrupted or continued with increased care. Because fluids expand
little, in case of a vessels rupture, no shock wave will be generated.


Chlorine
Chlorine is used to prevent the growth of algae in C.W. systems in river water stations and to
control the mussel growth in sea-water stations. Chlorine is well known as a poisonous gas and
one part per million is the maximum permissible concentration. A rule of thumb is that if you
smell chlorine it is time to evacuate from the area.
Operators concerned with chlorine plant should be conversant with and practiced in the use of
compressed air breathing apparatus which should be readily available.
Chlorine is supplied in liquid form either in bulk or in drums. The liquid chlorine passes through
a vaporizer and the gas is dissolved in water before it is added to the C.W. system. The major
hazard occurs when changing over the connections on the drums, since an ill fitting connection
or a leaking valve can result in the discharge of the chlorine gas.

Liquid chemicals:
The demineralization method of water treatment is in common use and the regeneration of the
various units associated with this type of plant involves the use of sulphuric acid and caustic
sods. These are both very corrosive liquids and can burn the skin. They should never be mixed
together and neither should water be added to them; the dilution of acid/alkali must always be
made by adding the liquid to the water. They are supplied in road or rail bulk tankers and care
must be taken that the connections are made to the appropriate tank. Any spillage should be
washed away with copious supplies of water and a douching shower should be available to
douche any person contaminated with these liquids. In addition eye wash bottles should be
readily available.
Other chemicals used are hydrazine, compounds of ammonia and potassium, and certain volatile
alkaline.
No chemicals should be used in power stations until the precautions for its storage and handling
have been laid down by the Station Chemist. It is particularly important to protect the face, eyes
and hands when handling these types of chemicals.

Entry into confined spaces:
Entry into confined spaces, such as oil tanks, is forbidden unless the space has been certified
safe for entry without breathing apparatus or under conditions laid down. Where the person
enters a confined space wearing an approved breathing apparatus, he must be attached by a life
line that is being held by another person outside.
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FOLLOW THESE SAFETY RULES
A better accident history can only result from the combined efforts of all. Carelessness accounts
for the majority of accidents. Go over this list and see how many apply to your job.
1. Never wear frayed clothing which might catch in machinery or cause tripping.
2. Never wear shoes that could cause slipping, or with worn soles that permit easy
puncture.
3. Never fail to wear a helmet-type hat where there is danger of head injury from electric
wiring or falling objects.
4. Never expose your eyes to flying particles or the extended ray of a welding machine.
5. Never leave your hands unprotected from burning, slivers, or abrasions.
6. Never use a flashlight unless it gives suitable light and is dependable, so as not to leave
you in the dark in some remote area of a large vessel or boiler.
7. Never use an extension light with a weak or frayed cord, or without a cage around the
bulb.
8. Never experiment with electrical hook-ups beyond your knowledge.
9. Never take a step in a dark area if you cant see where you are putting your foot down.
10. Never enter the furnace of an automatically-fired boiler without making sure that the
firing mechanism is in the locked out position and is tagged to this effect. Never enter
the furnace of a water-tube boiler without watching for falling slag.
11. Never enter a boiler installed in battery without making sure that all stop valves in the
connecting pressure lines are securely closed and tagged. If there are bleed-off
connections between the stop valves, open them.
12. Never drain a vessel or boiler without opening a suitable vent. This will prevent
collapse and permit complete drainage.
13. Never remove a handhole or manhole cover plate from a vessel or boiler unless you are
sure that it is empty.
14. Never enter a boiler or pressure vessel unless a reliable person is stationed nearby to
note any personal mishap or weakness.
15. Never use a ladder without checking for worn rungs and loose side rails.
16. Never use a ladder that is too short. In trying to reach up, the angle of the ladder and
user becomes such as to cause falling backward. When trying to enter an inspection
opening, the ladder should extend to or above it. Climbing from the uppermost rung can
cause the ladder to tip out at the top or kick out at the bottom. In placement watch out
for electric wiring.
17. Never use a ladder not properly adapted to the job. The bottom ends of the rails should
be fitted with spikes or cleats to prevent slipping. If a ladder is not so equipped, or is
placed on a metal floor, secure the bottom to some fixed object. Do not rely on someone
to hold the ladder, as he may be called away on another mission or emergency.
18. Never risk your life by removing fuses from high-voltage electrical circuits with your
bare hands. Use tongs or fuse pullers.
19. Never use ladders as bridges.
20. Never enter a pressure vessel that contained a toxic agent or may contain dead air
without thorough purging. If necessary, wash and clean the surfaces.
21. Never use a rope ladder or bosuns chair without first inspecting the rope. Also, be sure
that you are physically able to make an inspection from such flexible equipment.
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22. Never inspect a boiler or pressure vessel while it is under hydrostatic pressure test
without using due care. Always make sure a vessel is completely vented of air before a
hydrostatic test is applied.
23. Never operate soot blowers unless the burners are operating at a high firing rate. Air
flow should be adjusted to insure a high carbon dioxide but low oxygen content in the
flue gases.
24. Never enter a building or other enclosure in the presence of ammonia fumes, sewer gas,
natural gas or any other toxic gas without proper clothing and respiratory equipment
and then only with extreme caution.
25. Never at any time stand in front of the discharge opening of a relief valve particularly
attempting to test it.
26. Never blow down an appliance on a boiler without first observing the point of discharge
your foot may be under it.
27. Never blow down a boiler under pressure by opening the slow-opening valve first.
Always open the cock first and then the slow-opening valve. After blowdown close the
slow-opening valve first. This prevents a sudden back pressure wave on the connecting
piping.
28. Never shut a valve off suddenly in a pressure line except under extreme emergency. The
sudden change in flow may result in rupture at some weakened location. Also, never
open a valve suddenly (particularly in a steam line) where water hammer might result.
29. Never operate a pressure vessel with only part of the head or cover plates, lugs or
clamps in place.
30. Never continue to use any bolt, pin, lug, or clamp after it becomes worn, sprung,
stripped or otherwise weakened.
31. Never release the holding mechanism of any quick-opening door or end closure until
sure that the chamber is void of pressure.
32. Never depend on automatic controls as safety devices unless they are kept clean and are
checked, tested and otherwise regularly maintained.
33. Never operate boilers, pressure vessels or machines at pressures or speeds above rated.
34. Never take someone elses word for something you should have checked yourself.
35. Never resort to horse-play.
36. Never neglect your fire protection. Check fire buckets and extinguishers regularly, and
never leave a water line valve shut off to a sprinkler system through lack of
maintenance. Red tag it and stay with it until corrections or alterations have been
completed; and then return all valves to their proper positions for service.