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CT
Ultrasound
Prompt surgical consultation to
confirm diagnosis of NF:
Diagnosis by surgical
debridement, or
'Finger' probe test, or
Frozen-tissue section
Treat as NF:
Wide surgical debridement
Broad spectrum antibiotics,
including clindamycin
Cardiopulmonary stabilization
Blood cultures and blood work
if not already done
Consider IVIg if GAS suspected
or if criteria for streptococcal TSS
are met
Red flags on physical examination:
Edema extending beyond area
of erythema
Absence of lymphangiitis
or lymphadenopathy
Tachycardia
Myalgias
Constitutional symptoms
Altered mental status
Slow/absent response to antibiotics
Positive blood work?
*
:
LRINEC score 6
WBC 15.9 x 10
9
/l
CRP 16mg/l
CK 600U/l
Acute renal insufficiency
Risk factors for NF:
Diabetes mellitus
Alcoholism
Immunosuppression
Peripheral vascular disease
Intravenous drug abuse
Recent surgery
Abdominal or perineal
localization of disease
Figure1. General approach to the patient with possible necrotizing fasciitis.
*
CBC, m etabolic profile, C-reactive protein, creatinine kinase, blood culture.
M RI, if prom ptly available, is preferred m odality due to high sensitivity. CBC: Com plete blood count; CK: Creatinine kinase; CRP: C-reactive protein;
CT: Com puted tom ography; GAS: Group A streptococcus; IVIg: Intravenous im m unoglobulin; LRINEC: Laboratory risk indicator for necrotizing fasciitis;
M RI: M agnetic resonance im aging; NF: Necrotizing fasciitis; TSS: Toxic shock syndrom e; W BC: W hite blood cell.
Necrotizing fasciitis
www.future-drugs.com 287
Surge ry
Definitive therapy of NF includes immediate and extensive
debridement of all necrotic and devitalized or at-risk-appearing
tissue [3,13,14,63,65,66,79,80]. The goal of the clinician should be
surgical intervention within 24 h of presentation, as the mortal-
ity rate significantly increases beyond this period [14]. Not only
does the timeliness of surgical intervention impact mortality,
but the adequacy of the first debridement is also
important [4,63,7981]. Wide resection, not simple incision and
drainage, should be performed of all tissue that can be easily
elevated off deep fascia with gentle finger dissection [15]. Re-
exploration and further debridements should be aggressively
performed as needed to control the necrotizing process [13].
Multiple trips to the operating suite are the rule, and survival
has been reported in patients with up to 45% of their body sur-
face area debrided [82]. In one series, an average of 2.1 debride-
ments were performed within the first 5 days, with an average
of 3.8 debridements per patient per total hospital stay [13].
Once necrosis has been controlled, surgery should be aimed at
optimizing wound care. Diverting colostomies may be needed
to prevent soilage of abdominal and perineal wounds [13]. NF
patients may require surgical wound closure in order to mini-
mize protein, fluid and electrolyte losses [15]. Temporary clo-
sures may be required until definitive debridement is accom-
plished, at which time split-thickness skin grafting, flaps or free
flaps may be required. In one review, the average time to final
wound closure was 26.4 days after initial surgery [13].
Antibiotic s
Parenteral antimicrobial therapy is an important aspect of NF
management and initial empiric antimicrobials must be
broadly active against a wide range of possible pathogens
including: Gram-negative enteric bacteria, anaerobes and
Gram-positive organisms such as staphylococci and strepto-
cocci. A -lactam/-lactamase combination such as ampicil-
lin/sulbactam, piperacillin/tazobactam or ticarcillin/clavulanate
would be reasonable empiric choices, although increasing resist-
ance to ampicillin/sulbactam by enteric pathogens such as
Escherichia coli may limit its future utility in polymicrobial NF.
Alternative combinations include a third- or fourth-generation
cephalosporin along with metronidazole or clindamycin for
anaerobic coverage. For the penicillin-allergic patient, clin-
damycin plus aztreonam is an acceptable choice. Consideration
should be given to Pseudomonasspp. if NF develops in a previ-
ously hospitalized patient or arises in the proximity of a chroni-
cally infected ulcer (e.g., decubitus ulcer). Similarly, extended
coverage for highly resistant Gram-positive bacteria should be
added in nosocomial or surgical wound-associated infections.
Vancomycin remains the drug of choice in such settings,
although both linezolid and daptomycin are alternatives for
patients unable to receive vancomycin. A recently observed
increase in community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphy-
lococcus aureus (MRSA) infections raises the question of
whether or not such extended Gram-positive coverage should
be included empirically for all cases of NF. However, most
community-acquired MRSA strains remain susceptible to
numerous antibiotics, including clindamycin, as in a recent
cluster of MRSA-associated NF cases in California [83].
The authors advocate adding clindamycin to the above
empiric regimens until the presence of GAS can be confirmed
or excluded. This recommendation is based upon both animal
studies and human epidemiologic investigations demonstrating
beneficial effects of clindamycin on mortality in GAS NF
(reviewed extensively in [84]). This mollifying effect on GAS NF
may result from the ability of clindamycin to inhibit protein
synthesis, to suppress production of GAS exotoxins and/or vir-
ulence factors [8590] and to enhance the phagocytosis of GAS
by inhibiting M-protein synthesis [84]. Interestingly, clinda-
mycin has been shown to reduce the expression of virulence
proteins in bacterial species against which it has poor antibacte-
rial activity (e.g., Gram-negative bacteria), suggesting it may be
useful in cases of non-GAS NF, although clinical evidence is
lacking [85,87,88,9195]. The host inflammatory response to GAS
infection may be beneficially altered by clindamycin as well.
Unlike -lactam antibiotics, clindamycin doesnot appear to pro-
mote the release of proinflammatory cell wall componentsfrom
dying bacteria [96], and proinflammatory cytokine expression
may be directly downregulated by the drug [90,97,98]. Additionally,
as opposed to -lactams, the potency of clindamycin against GAS
is not reduced by a high microbial burden. This inoculum size
effect (also called the Eagle effect) describes the observed
decreased susceptibility of GASto penicillin when organismsare
present in high density [99]. Thisphenomenon may result from
reduced expression of penicillin-binding proteins in the station-
ary phase of growth [100]. Consequently, in a mouse model of
streptococcal myositis, animals receiving clindamycin survived
better than those treated with penicillin [101]. Although evi-
dence from prospective, randomized trials is lacking, analysis of
available retrospective data suggests a benefit for clindamycin in
invasive GAS disease, including NF [84].
Supportive c a re
Patients with NF are often critically ill and usually require
metabolic and hemodynamic support. Hypotension, respira-
tory distress and shock should be aggressively managed, as
should analgesia. Nutritional support is also
important [12,13,15], especially considering the extensive loss
of fluids, proteins and electrolytes from large surgical
wounds that mimic losses observed in burn victims. Aggres-
sive nutritional support has been shown to improve survival
[12,13,15] and some authors have suggested that patients
receive twice their basal caloric requirement in the acute
phase of management [12,13].
Expert opinion
Our perspectives on the diagnosis and therapy of NF are
summarized in FI GURE 1. The elements of the therapeutic
standard of care are summarized below:
Prompt and aggressive surgical debridement of devitalized
tissue with drainage of any purulent material
Young, Aronoff & Engleberg
288 Expert Rev. Anti Infect. Ther. 3(2), (2005)
Empiric broad-spectrum antibiotics with activity against
community-acquired Gram-positive and -negative patho-
gens as well as obligate anaerobes. Options include:
-lactam/-lactamase combinations, such as ampicillin/sul-
bactam, piperacillin/tazobactam or carbenicillin/clavu-
lanic acid, carbepenems, third- or fourth-generation
cephalosporins plus clindamycin or metronidazole
Focused antimicrobial therapy for Type II NF due to GASwith
high-dose penicillin G or ampicillin and clindamycin, immedi-
ately and until all infected tissueshave been debrided or drained
Hemodynamic and aggressive nutritional support
Additional treatment optionsare available, but they are expen-
sive, and their effectiveness is unclear. These options may be
considered on a case-by-case basis, in extremely ill patients, if
resourcesare available and if there isno contraindication
Hype rba ric oxyge n
While the use of hyperbaric oxygen (HBO) in anaerobic
infections such as clostridial gangrene is supported by experi-
mental data [102], only anecdotal and/or retrospective data are
available in NF. It has been demonstrated that HBO may aug-
ment neutrophil microbicidal activity, impair the virulence of
(or kill) certain bacterial pathogens, promote angiogenesis and
wound healing, increase red blood cell pliability, terminate
lipid peroxidation and reduce local vasoconstriction and
edema [4,103,201]. Retrospective analyses suggest both mortality
and morbidity benefits for HBO in the setting of NF, with
perhaps the most consistent improvement being accelerated
wound healing [4,12,13,15,67,103,104,201]. However, these observa-
tions have not been prospectively validated. Additionally,
HBO is not readily available at most institutions, and there are
the practical difficulties of monitoring and managing a criti-
cally ill patient isolated in a pressurization chamber. Complica-
tions of HBO are common, and include reversible myopia (up
to 20%) that may last for months, otobarotrauma (320%),
pneumothorax, pulmonary oxygen toxicity and CNS oxygen
toxicity with seizures (1:10,000) [201]. Therefore, consider
HBO an adjunctive therapy that should not precede definitive
surgical intervention.
Intra ve nous immunoglobulin & group A stre ptoc oc c us
ne c rotizing fa sc iitis
The role of intravenous immunoglobulins (I VIg) in the
treatment of invasive GAS disease also remains the subject
of debate. Although primarily given as therapy for strepto-
coccal TSS, IVIg has also been used as an adjunctive treat-
ment in GAS NF. Retrospective reviews suggest a mortality
benefit [61,105107]. There are several proposed mechanisms of
action for I VIg. IVIg may directly opsonize GAS and pro-
mote its clearance by the immune system, although a
murine model failed to demonstrate improved bacterial
clearance [108]. It has also been postulated that IVIg may
directly antagonize streptococcal SAgs. The ability of IVIg to
inhibit bacterial SAgs and the immune response to SAgs has
been demonstrated with staphylococcal and streptococcal
SAgs[47,107,109111]. It may also directly modulate immune
cytokine responses through unidentified pathways, includ-
ing interactions with soluble immune components or
cytokines themselves, blockade of Fc receptors, induction of
counter-regulatory cytokines and interruption of the bind-
ing of SAgs to the major histocompatibility complex
(MHC)-II or T-cell receptors [107,112114]. Pooled IVIg has
been shown to contain neutralizing antibodies to several
streptococcal SAgs [47,54,59,109,110,115] and acute plasma taken
from patients treated with IVIg for severe invasive GAS dis-
ease demonstrated significantly increased ability to neutral-
ize streptococcal SAgs [45,47]. One small, retrospective review
by Kaul and colleagues suggested a reduction in overall mor-
tality [17]; however, this study used historic controls, and a
subsequent analysis did not find IVIg to be an independent
predictor of death. Recently, a small randomized, controlled
study of 21 patients given IVIg as treatment for streptococcal
TSS showed decreased mortality at 28 days (10%) compared
with patients not receiving IVIg (36%) [45]. While specifically
investigating streptococcal TSS, over half of patients had
deep-tissue infection, likely including cases of GAS NF.
However, the study size was small and did not reach statisti-
cal significance [45]. Experimentally, an animal model
showed no additional benefit of I VIg compared with anti-
biotics alone [108]. The lack of consensus on the optimal dose
and therapeutic window further complicates the use of IVIg.
IVIg is also expensive, often difficult to obtain, and not
without risks, including anaphylaxis (in individuals with
IgA deficiency) and renal failure. Finally, titers of strepto-
coccal SAg-neutralizing antibodies vary in different prepara-
tions of I VIg [116,117]. This variability confounds studies of
IVIg and has obvious clinical implications.
Ac tiva te d prote in C
Although not specifically targeted against GAS, nor intended
for NF infections, activated Protein C (drotrecogin-; Xigris
)
is a commercially available agent that modifies the course of
sepsis and the response of the contact system [118], a collection
of plasma proteins that have anticoagulant, profibrinolytic,
antiadhesive and proinflammatory functions and serve as
physiologic mediators of vascular biology and inflammatory
reactions [119]. Its potential in NF is theoretic, as microvascular
thrombosis is an important component of such infections, and
sepsis and uncontrolled inflammatory responses often accom-
pany NF. However, there has only been a single case report of
its use in NF with no clear indication of benefit [120].
Five-year view
The basic approach to clinical management outlined above is
unlikely to change over the next 5 years. Promising new diag-
nostic approaches, for example, transcutaneous oximetry, if it
can be validated on a larger scale, might significantly advance
our ability to provide prompt therapy, whereas a more rigorous
evaluation of the efficacy of clindamycin, HBO and IVIg will
Necrotizing fasciitis
www.future-drugs.com 289
allow treatment of NF, in particular GAS NF, to be optimized.
Additionally, a more robust understanding of the pathogenesis
of both GAS and non-GASNF would facilitate the identification
of new targetsfor therapy. In thissection, we will addressseveral
new developments regarding potential therapies for GASNF in
particular. GAS vaccines and novel antimicrobials may provide
potent alternatives to current regimens, and several develop-
ing therapies show promise in controlling the toxin-induced
manifestations of infection.
GAS va c c ine s
Several effortsto produce an effective streptococcal vaccine are in
progress. A multivalent M protein vaccine has been effective in
protecting mice against intranasal challenge with GAS[121], and a
comparable vaccine appearsto be safe and immunogenic in adult
humans [122]. Similarly, a vaccine consisting of a streptococcal
fibronectin-binding protein wasshown to provide protection in a
murine intranasal model [123]. Additionally, a vaccine against the
tissue-destructive toxin, streptolysin S, wasshown to neutralize the
toxin invivo[124], and immunization against both SpeA and C tox-
oidswasfound to be protective for streptococcal TSSin a rabbit
model [125,126]. It is not clear whether such vaccines might offer
protection against NF and further studiesare required.
Nove l a ntibiotic s
GAScontinue to be among the few bacterial speciesthat remain
highly susceptible to penicillin, and consequently penicillins are
likely to remain the drugsof choice in the future. In contrast, mac-
rolide resistance appearsto be an emerging problem in the USA,
and many resistant strains are also resistant to clindamycin [127].
One possibleresponse to thisemerging resistance problem will be
to find alternative antimicrobialsthat offer the same advantagesof
clindamycin in necrotizing infections. Initial studies suggest that
the protein-synthesisinhibitor, linezolid, providesthe same toxin-
inhibiting benefits of clindamycin [85,86]. Alternatively, dapto-
mycin, a pore-forming antibiotic that broadly inhibits metabolic
activity in Gram-positive bacteria, may have a similar benefit in
reducing streptococcal toxin production and limiting tissue
damage, but this remains speculative.
Supe ra ntige n- dire c te d the ra pie s
Other innovative treatments to control the toxic effects of
streptococci involve the inhibition of SAg-mediated
immune dysregulation. These treatments can be divided
into three categories:
Inhibition of SAg production by GAS
SAg neutralization
Suppression of the SAg-induced proinflammatory
cytokine cascade
Inhibition of supe ra ntige n produc tion by GAS
As previously discussed, the ability of clindamycin to inhibit
protein synthesis and reduce expression of streptococcal
SAgs and virulence factors justify its inclusion in antibiotic
regimens for GAS NF. There are newer experimental data
demonstrating that the oxazolidinone antibiotic linezolid
also decreases expression of streptococcal SAgs [85,86]. It has
also been suggested that antisense DNA or small interfering
RNA may be used to downregulate specific virulence
genes[128]. This approach is still highly theoretic, and it
remains to be seen whether this will be clinically applicable.
Also lacking is knowledge regarding the timing of SAg
expression invivo, and therefore the optimum time to
administer such therapy. Interference with quorum sensing
to decrease SAg expression in Gram-positive organisms has
been shown experimentally in staphylococci, offering
another novel strategy, but this modality is also still in its
infancy and not completely understood [128]. Finally, it has
recently been shown that GAS may secrete a pheromone pep-
tide that degrades IL-8, preventing neutrophil influx, which
may represent another potential target for future therapies [129].
Supe ra ntige n ne utra liza tion
Drawing from the observation that I VIg appears to bind and
neutralize streptococcal SAgs, investigators have explored
alternative modalities to inactivate SAgs. As mentioned pre-
viously, specific SAg toxoid vaccines have been shown to
generate protective responses invivo against streptococcal
TSS [125,126]. Another promising approach is treatment with
a peptide SAg antagonist. Arad and colleagues developed a
dodecapeptide based on a -strand-hinge--helix domain
within staphylococcal enterotoxin (SE) B that is conserved
among other Gram-positive SAgs. They demonstrated that
the peptide inhibited SEB-induced expression of Th1
cytokines and protected and rescued mice from SEB-
induced lethal shock [130132]. This peptide was also found to
be protective against lethal shock in mice to SpeA and sta-
phylococcal SAg SEA, both of which have little homology to
SEB [132]. Surviving mice treated with this antagonist also
developed broad immunity to rechallenge to SEB or SpeA
[130132]. It has been speculated that this peptide interferes
with the usual Th1 cytokine response induced by SAgs and
allows a vigorous Th2 response to develop protective anti-
bodies to SAgs [130133]. Interestingly, mice treated with the
peptide and challenged with SEB developed protective cros-
simmunity to staphylococcal TSST-1 and streptococcal
SpeA despite being naive to these SAgs [130132].
Modula tion of supe ra ntige n- induc e d
proinfla mma tory c a sc a de
Some authorshave suggested aphereisor hemadsorption asuseful
adjunctive therapies in the treatment of septic shock, including
GAS-induced shock [134138]. It has been proposed that such
blood purification allows the removal of larger bacterial sub-
stances such as SAgs (>40 kDa) as well as immune complexes,
cytokines and coagulation factors [138]. In small human studies,
survival rates of 50 to 80% in patients suffering from severe
sepsis, septic shock or multiple organ system dysfunction have
been reported using apheresis or plasma exchange [138].
Young, Aronoff & Engleberg
290 Expert Rev. Anti Infect. Ther. 3(2), (2005)
Other novel therapies for invasive GAS infections may arise
from studies focused upon modulating the sepsis response with
designer peptides. Activated protein C (drotrecogin-; Xigris
)
is a commercially available example of such rationally
designed therapies. However, other potential targets exist.
GAS interacts with numerous components of the contact
system and can thus directly promote proinflammatory
responses and alter vascular stability [119,139141]. SpeB has
been shown to cleave high molecular weight kininogen
invivo in a mouse model, and it has been shown that
designer peptides can block this activity [141,142]. Similarly,
M protein has also been shown to induce vascular leak and
treatment with a 2-integrin antagonist prevented this effect
in a murine model [140].
Key issues
Necrotizing fasciitis (NF) is a rapidly progressive, life-threatening infection that affects certain risk groups disproportionately, but
can also occur in healthy individuals of any age.
Early diagnosis is critical, since the ability to intervene and to spare life and lim b depends on prom pt recognition and treatm ent. NF
rarely presents w ith obvious signs and sym ptom s, and delays in recognition and diagnosis contribute to the staggering m orbidity
and m ortality.
A suggested clinical approach to diagnosis and treatm ent in algorithm ic form at is show n in FIGURE 1; how ever, no form alized system
can substitute for an experienced physicians clinical judgm ent in cases such as these.
New diagnostic m odalities, such as transcutaneous oxygen saturation testing, m ay revolutionize our ability in the next few years to
avoid disastrous therapeutic delays.
Surgical debridem ent of devitalized tissues w ithin 24 h w ill rem ain a prim ary goal of therapy.
Clindam ycin added to standard antistreptococcal antim icrobials in order to suppress bacterial toxin production has becom e a
standard of care. New er antistreptococcal drugs, such as linezolid and daptom ycin, m ay replace clindam ycin in this role as
clindam ycin resistance becom es m ore com m on. Intravenous im m unoglobulin, hyperbaric oxygen and activated protein C are still of
uncertain value; their effectiveness in reducing m ortality or m orbidity rem ains to be rigorously established.
Current evidence suggests that a com bination of host im m unogenetic factors and m icrobial toxins converge to produce group A
streptococcus NF. Basic research into the m echanism of superantigen-m ediated disease has already provided prom ising new targets
for rationally designed therapies, and studies of streptococcal virulence factors m ay identify novel targets for vaccine developm ent.
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UpToDate Online 12.2.
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Affiliations
Michael H Young, PhD
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