A Brief History Overview) of Music by Colin D Goldberg

A Brief History (Overview) of Music, the practice and the philosophy thereof being for
the Dissertation (Thesis) for a Doctor of Arts (AD) (Music and Philosophy) from Belford
University.
By
Colin David Goldberg
Registration number: 2009 1110 RV 446568
Graduate ID: RV446568
(Completed as @ 31st July 2009)

cdgoldberg@landbank.co.za
Contents:
1. Introduction and History of Music

2. Aspects of Style
3. Dance Ethnology
4. Early 20th Century Music
5. Gender and Performance
6. Jazz Studies
7. Jazz, Film and Opera
8. Music Composition
9. Ethnicity in Music
10. Philosophical Skills
The above contents are in accordance with the requirements as laid down by the
University, as to what is to be contained within this dissertation, in addition to Chapters 1
and 9, in order to make the dissertation as comprehensive as possible.
A Brief History of Music, the practice and the philosophy thereof being for the Dissertation (Thesis) for a Doctor of Arts (AD)
(Music and Philosophy) from Belford University.
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Preface
Music is an ever evolving subject and activity that has different genres and types, not to
mention the various applications of music to various situations, such as in enjoyment &
entertainment (recreation), military applications, therapy (Herve comes to mind), and
productivity in the work place.
The purpose of this dissertation is to give the reader a perspective of music found and not
found in the literature and other sources.
I would like to acknowledge and thank all those including Belford University for
assistance in the compilation of this dissertation, it is greatly appreciated.
I dedicate this dissertation to the faculty and personnel of Belford University for
believing in my abilities and affording me the challenge of putting my knowledge,
research and thoughts down onto paper.
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Chapter 1: Introduction and History of Music
Music is the science and art of creating noise to form a pattern that can both be listened to
and identified accordingly. Music can also be defined as the science of harmonically
sounds; instrumental or vocal harmony (2)
The discovery of music is approximately 50 000 years old (1), and early modern humans
have believe it or not, migrated originally from Africa to all habitable continents
throughout the world. It goes without saying that go anywhere in the world, music in
some form or other is played, sung and performed. Meaning that even tribal people have
their own system of music, and it goes with out saying that scientists and anthropologists
have determined that music must have been present in the ancestral population, prior to
the dispersal of the Homo sapiens (humans) throughout the world.
It is interesting to note that even musical instruments especially the stringed instruments
have been invented and constructed in different parts of the world with similar concepts
and principles in design albeit it that the different parts of the world are unrelated to each
other. (However Western influence no doubt changes all of that)!
If Greek Legend is to be believed, it would have been a twang of a bowstring that made
the god Apollo aware of the musical properties of a vibrating string.
It is a man by the name of Jubal in the Holy Scriptures who invented the use of musical
instruments.
The ancient Egyptians and King David played with the harp. The lyre was also played by
King David and his people.
It is interesting that there is an illustration in Wade – Matthews, Max and Thompson,

Wendy, Music an Illustrated Encyclopedia of musical instruments and the great
composers, 2004, Lorenz Books, show an illustration of a Romanian child playing the
gardon a relation of cello.
Which just goes to demonstrate that right throughout the world the people of every
country have designed their own kind of indigenous instruments, being percussion, wood
winds and string instruments.
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With the crossing of the oceans of the world, the colonizing of other lands by
predominantly Western Kingdoms, there has been a transplanting of music into colonies;
slaves developing their own kind of music in new lands, indigenous peoples developed
their own kinds of music and the development of the different genres of music as well.
Below are illustrations taken from Waldo S Pratt’s book on the “History of Music’, 1907
and other sources, which illustrates the types of stringed instruments that have in times
gone by been used, not to mention how they differ.
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Figure 4: Japanese Kotos
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The above illustrations are but an example of stringed instruments that have been
constructed right throughout the world. It is interesting how mankind has developed
instruments unrelated from country to country. Contrasting old instruments with new
instruments!
Music was started with the cavemen who developed hunting instruments, and what any
animal with horns was hunted down, the horns hollowed out by the primitive men, and
made into musical instruments. The Shofar or rams horn, developed by the Jews for
religious service, which is still in use today during the Rosh Hashanah festival in
synagogues right throughout the world.
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The ancient Chinese had their system of music many thousands of years ago, if the above
illustrations stringed and related instruments are anything to go by.
Music is one of the oldest of arts, in which mankind began ato sing as soon as language
was formed and developed, which according to some sources occurred approximately
10,000 BC as hunting tools (mentioned supra) were produced, which led to the
development of musical instruments such as a rams horn.
However according to Britten, B and Holst, “The Wonderful World of Music”, 1958,
Macdonald: London, it has not been established how long ago music was first used or
invented. Also in Russell, J, “A History of Music”, 1957, George G. Harrap & Co. Ltd,
no mention is made as to the origins of music.
In Wise, P and Van der Spuy, M, “Musical History and General Knowledge of Music,
(year of publication unknown), Nassou Beperk, and music were developed by two
ancient civilizations, being the Greeks and the Jews, and crediting Jubal, Miriam,
Deborah and King David (with his harp) and Elijah (with his minstrel). The ancient
Egyptians also long before King David, Jubal, etc. had developed and used harps as being
the instruments of choice.
According to Pratt, W S, “The History of Music”, 1907, New York, G. Schirmer, the
ancient Egyptians are mentioned with the use of musical instrumentation.
See illustrations infra.
However according to Fry, P S, “The Wonderful Story of the Jews”, © 1970, Purnell,
London, credits David as the first person to use musical instrumentation such as the harp,
whilst another source credits Jubal with the first use of musical instrumentation. Harps
and lyres would be the instruments of choice.
The overriding perspective from a Western Judeo – Christian perspective, David must be
regarded as the first person to have made use of musical instrumentation, although others
such as the ancient Chinese and Japanese had developed musical instruments long before
David or his associates such as Jubal did.
The Romans also had their system of music, for example according to Richard Fawkes in
his History of Classical Music, Naxos, makes mention that the Romans used the organ
and played this instrument whilst they were feeding Christians to the lions in the stadiums
of Rome.
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Now to proceed to the start of classical music, for which one must now take a good look
at the Middle Ages right through to the Renaissance in music, and bear in mind that Pope
Gregory in about 660 AD had musicians put down his religious music to paper, round
about the same time he was sending missionaries to England to win the English over to
Christianity. It must not be forgotten that Christianity was adopted as official religion of
the Roman Empire; the Roman Catholic Church is what comes to mind.
The first person to compose classical music was a nun by the name of Hildegard of
Bingen (1098 – 1179), who founded her own convent, wrote scientific and religious
papers and composed plainsong settings to her own poetry, and her major works were
Ordo Virtutum and Symphonia Armonie Celestium Revelationum. A feat for a woman in
a time when women were not permitted in Church, or were not to be seen or heard. If one
listens to her music, it sounds more tuneful then the Gregorian Chants.
Below are lists obtained from the Internet from a website called www.classiccat.net
which will be given by the year (of birth) and name, and are as follows,
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This list supra only goes up to 1975!
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One can clearly see just a list of names, but to classify the genres of music is another
questen, as the name of “Duke” Ellington also appears in this list supra, and he known in
the Jazz fraternity. Also the music of Claude Bolling especially his Jazz sonatas (as
performed by Jean Pierre Ramphal) is also very much in the classical repertoire, but
sounds very much like Jazz music. The music of the Beetles have also been transcribed
into the classical repertoire.
Now to proceed to put this list of composers into the order of the birth of the various
composers
Chapter 2: Aspect of style.
There have through the dawn of ages been different styles and genres of music from time
immemorial to the present day, some worth listening to and some horrible to listen to.
If one looks at the country list of the composers listed supra as obtained from
www.classiccat.net one sees very clearly from what part of the world these composers
have come from, such as:
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Now if one were to look at say Venezuela for example one sees a name missing, namely
Theresa Carenjo a pupil of Louis Morreaux Gottschalk a famous American composer and
one time a wife of a pupil of Liszt, the English German composer by the name of Eugene
D'Albert. Then what about José Serebrier (1938 - ) who himself is a Venezuelan by birth.
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It is interesting to note that a Venezuela has more symphony orchestras in comparison to
other countries, which a fact is not known by many.
The styles in music from a Western Musical Perspective, would have been as follows,
namely
 The Middle Ages to the Renaissance period being from say 600 AD, but officially
from say 1136 right through to say 1597.
 The Baroque Era from 1600 to 1750.
 The Classical Period from 1750 to 1830.
 The Romantic Era from in my opinion from 1790 to about say 1895.
 The Rise of Nationalism during the Romantic Era say from 1848 right through to
the 1940's and beyond.
 The Later Romantics in my opinion from 1890 right throughout the twentieth
century.
 The Early Twentieth Century.
 Music since World War Two.
Popularity of classical composers is a huge problem when putting composers in order of
popularity, if one were to look at the list (infra) from Wise and Van der Spuy, in
“Musical History and General Knowledge of Music”, undated, published by Nassou
Beperk, gives only a small list of popular composers, but only the main composers in
century order is given as follows,
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Then if we were to compare the list infra with the list of classical composers sorted out
by popularity, as sourced from www.classiccat.net one observes that that particular
website lists. Which are as follows?
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One can see from this list infra, how a different grading of popularity of composers is
made, and it is interesting to note from that website Ermanno Wolf-Ferrari, Vangelis
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(who composed the theme music for the film “The Mission”) and Alexander von
Zemlinsky (who was the teacher of Arnold Schoenberg, who invented atonalism). These
three composers ought to be well known, but the website has a peculiar manner of
classifying popularity, which can damage a composer’s reputation in the eyes of the
musical fraternity and also the listener.
All music composed, provided that music is not offensive to race, gender, ethnicity or
religion, needs to be recorded and preserved for generations still to come.
What is popular in one internet web page, academic circle, record (label) companies,
critics, books and text books will differ considerable from each other and discrepancies in
both accuracy and the genuine pursuit of knowledge will be a difficult task. The so called
least popular composers have produced some of the most beautiful and inspiring music,
which is not listened to, or is promoted for that matter.
Chapter 3: Dance Ethnology.

Here is an entry on dancing that is being factored in the dissertation as part of Chapter 3
on Dance Ethnology, as per verbatim save for additions in bold italics by the writer of
this dissertations.
Dance by (Contributor to the 2005 digital version of World Book Encyclopaedia)

William Deresiewicz, Ph D (Dance critic).
“Dance is the movement of the human body in a rhythmic way. Dance serves many
functions in human society. It is an art form, a social activity, a type of communication,
and a form of recreation. People can dance by themselves, in couples, or in large groups.
The dance can be spontaneous or performed in established movements. It can tell a story
such as in a ballet such as say Cinderella by Sergey Prokoviev, explore an emotion, or
serve as a form of self-expression. Many people dance as a career such as ballet dancers,
but anyone can dance simply by moving in rhythm.
Dance is among the oldest human art forms. Dancing extends beyond the human species
itself. It is interesting to note for example, many animals perform complex dances during
courtship. Dancing can be used by men especially in tribal and other ethnicities in
order to prepare for war and for participating in sport, for which take note of the
paragraph infra.
Dance differs from other kinds of rhythmic movement, such as dribbling a basketball,
because in dance the movement itself is the goal of the activity. Music usually
accompanies dance, providing the rhythm, tempo, and mood for the movements.
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In modern societies, many people enjoy dancing simply for entertainment. Each
generation creates new dances as an expression of its own sense of life and fun. For
example, rock dancing arose about 1960 with the popularity of rock music. This type of
dance was created primarily by and for young people. Rock dances such as the twist did
not require partners to touch each other while they danced. The dancing was free-spirited
and individual, allowing each dancer to create his or her own steps spontaneously. Rock
dancing stressed pure emotion underscored by the strong beat of the music.
Why people dance?
Religious reasons
For thousands of years, human beings have danced for religious reasons. Many religions
involve some form of dance. Many religious dances are forms of prayer. Believers dance
as they pray for rain, for the fertility of crops, and for success in war or in hunting. Such
dances often imitate or pantomime some movement. For example, dancers may imitate
the movement of the animal to be hunted, or a hunter's actions in stalking it. They may
wear elaborate costumes and masks or makeup to depict deities or animals.
Religious dance also may attempt to create a state of ecstasy (intense joy) or trance in the
worshiper. Dance may also be used as one part of a religious occasion or ritual. One
example is the dancing of Jews at the festival of Simchat Torah (see my comments infra).
Another example is the dancing and whirling of members of a Muslim religious order
called dervishes. Dancing was a formal element in Christian worship until the A.D.
1100's, when religious leaders began to prohibit it because they believed it was too
worldly an activity. However, spontaneous dance has become a common element of
worship among some Protestant denominations.
Jewish people also have their own type of dancing, but it is mainly for joyous and
ceremonial occasions such as at a wedding (simcha) and in the synagogue during the
Rejoicing of the Law (known as Simchat Torah). This type of dancing is known as the
“hora” and is danced by people preferably of the same sex (gender), by holding hands
around a circle, in line with singing and in some occasions such as in weddings to
klezmer music performed by a klezmer band, or any other band for that purpose, not to
mention recorded music as well.
Social and recreational reasons (see also religious reasons infra)

Dancing plays an important role in social functions. All societies have characteristic
forms of dance. Such dancing may take place at ceremonial occasions or at informal
gatherings. Like traditional foods and costumes, dance helps members of a nation or
ethnic group recognize their connection to one another and to their ancestors. By dancing
together, members of a group express their sense of common identity or belonging.
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Dance can strengthen social connections. By dancing together, people share an intimate
physical experience that is cooperative and harmonious. Social dances tend to form
patterns, such as circles and chains, and to involve the mingling of couples. Examples
include square dancing and line dancing. These patterns tend to reinforce a sense of unity.
Because dancing involves physical contact, it also serves as a symbol of social bonds,
such as when the bride and groom dance the first dance at a wedding reception.
Dance is especially important during courtship, which is one reason it is so popular

among young people. Like some animals, people dance as a way of attracting a possible
mate by displaying their beauty, grace, and vitality. This has ramifications in that
people date and go to night clubs or meet one another at night clubs and dance the
night away, which can lead to a successful relationship, an unsuccessful relationship,
possible drug addictions or social pathological conditions.
Many people dance for fun. Dancing allows individuals to feel their body moving freely,
to release energy, and to express exuberance and joy. Dancing is also good exercise. It
allows people to test the limits of what their bodies can do, as they fling their arms out,
kick up their legs, and stretch and twist their bodies.
Artistic reasons
In nearly all societies, dance is an important art form. Its unique powers of self-
expression and representation come from the fact that dance uses the body directly,
without words, images, or sounds. Dance refines and enlarges the natural human
tendency to express feelings physically. The skip of joy becomes a ballerina's leap. A
stomp of rage can develop into complex patterns of stamping and clapping, as in the
flamenco dance of Spain.
When a dance such as a ballet is being performed before an audience, it can serve as a
form of drama, all the more powerful because it is silent. Spoken theatre can better
represent complex social situations, but dance can more directly convey deep emotions
and spiritual states.
Many dances are easy to learn and are designed so that almost anyone can participate in
them. Social dances are common modern forms of such dances, which might be called
participatory, shared, or communal dances. The most basic and widespread forms of
communal dances are ritual ethnic dances and folk dances. These two types often
overlap, but they differ in their appearance and purpose, and in the occasions on which
they are performed.
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Ritual ethnic dances have traditionally been performed by peoples in such places as
Africa and the Pacific Islands and by American Indians. The dances of these groups show
as much variety as their languages. Dances may be performed to mark many different
events, such as initiation rituals, funerals, and certain seasons, such as the harvest. But
some features are commonly found in ritual ethnic dancing.
Most ritual ethnic dance is performed in groups rather than by solo dancers or by male-
female couples. However, some dancers may have a special solo part or act as leader of
the group. Groups of men and women usually dance separately, and different types of
dances are designed for men or women. The movements of the men are often sharp and
vigorous. Those of the women tend to be more subdued or subtle. A group's chiefs and
priests often dance more than other members of the group. A leader may display
authority by performing a certain type of dance.
Costumes or masks are often used for specific purposes and occasions in ritual ethnic
dance. Dancers may also wear tall, spectacular headdresses, or leg rattles that help
establish the rhythm of the dance. Ritual ethnic dances are performed in many
arrangements, the most common being a circle. The use of the drum is another common
feature of ritual ethnic dancing. For many people, a drum is all they need to give a dance
its rhythm. But other instruments, such as flutes, stringed instruments, and horns, are also
used.
In some dances, participants may work themselves into a frenzy or trance during which
they believe a god or spirit takes possession of their body. Such a dance may begin
slowly and build to a hypnotic intensity, ending only when the dancers collapse in
exhaustion.
The movements of ritual ethnic dances are varied. The most common movement is
stamping the foot on the ground. Large groups of dancers can make the ground shake
with this action. Other movements include graceful leaps, swirling motions of the pelvis,
and wavelike movements or vibrations of the entire body.
Ritual ethnic dance has long served to pass along a people's culture and history to its
younger generation. However, some of these dances today are performed only as
entertainment and no longer have significance as rituals.
Folk dances
Folk dance is sometimes defined as a dance that developed among the common people,
without the aid of choreographers or organizers. Folk dance is sometimes called ethnic
dance when it celebrates the traditions of a specific ethnic group. Folk dance and ethnic
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dance are closely related. But some experts consider ethnic dance a type that is always
performed in its original form, while folk dance may be changed or adapted over time.
Most folk dances are simple and easy to learn. They usually involve step patterns only,
with the arms, head, and body held in a set position. Participants generally join hands or
hold each other by the shoulders or around the waist. Most of the dances require only a
modest amount of energy, with movement between a walk and a jog. Folk dancers often
wear traditional clothing, such as boots; embroidered jackets and skirts; and bright hats,
scarves, and leggings.
Folk dance, with its circular formations and linked lines, builds feelings of togetherness.
Some folk dances are earthy and vigorous, such as the Morris dance from England, with
its stamping and high leaps. Other forms are brisk and lively, such as the Italian
tarantella. The jig and the Highland fling of Ireland and Scotland feature rapid footwork.
A folk dance may reflect qualities a group or nation especially admires. For example,
Russian folk dances, especially those for men, seem to explode with energy. In Spain,
such dances as the flamenco, bolero, and fandango express passion, pride, and sexual
desire.
Some folk dances retain elements of their roots in ancient religious observances. The
most familiar example is the Maypole dance, traditionally celebrated on May 1.
Participants in this happy rural dance welcome spring by weaving bright ribbons around a
decorated pole as they dance around it. However, the dance originated as an ancient tree-
worshiping ceremony practiced by the early settlers in the great forests that once covered
Europe.
Many folk dances developed from peasant dances in Europe during the middle Ages.
However, like other aspects of traditional life, folk dance began to disappear in the
change from rural to urban society. Starting in the early 1900's, some people attempted to
preserve and revive the folk dances of their native lands. Today, most folk dances are
performed at festivals and events, where people have a special interest in getting in touch
with their roots.
Some types of folk dance were created in the 1900's as a way to build national identity.
For example, in Israel, which was founded as a nation in 1948, the people have created
new folk dances and adapted old ones, such as the Romanian hora. Other folk dances,
such as the American square dance, are modern developments of older forms.
Social dances
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In addition to developing into today's folk dances, the peasant dances of medieval Europe
also evolved into a third type of participatory dance, called social dance. In social
dancing, people in modern societies dance for personal pleasure. Each generation creates
its own type of social dance to express its own sense of life and fun.
Social dances emerged in the late middle Ages as the European aristocracy began to
modify the dances of the common people to make the dances more suitable for the court.
The traditional circle dances began to acquire more elegance and refinement. Dancers
paid more attention to details of etiquette and technique, such as how to approach one's
partner and how to hold one's head. Soon dancing came to be regarded as the best way to
teach the graceful body movement and gracious behaviour expected of the courtier.
In the late 1600's and early 1700's, King Louis XIV of France brought aristocratic life to
a high state of development. Louis was especially dedicated to the art of the dance.
Courtly dances of his time included the gigue, minuet, and pavane. The French court of
the early 1700's also adapted English country dances into formal dances for groups of
eight. These dances, called cotillion, soon became popular in England and other
European countries. Eventually, these formal dances were carried to the United States,
where their name was changed to cotillion. Today, a formal ball is frequently referred to
as a cotillion.
Until about 1800, court dancing emphasized group participation. Then a new kind of
social dance arose that put the man and woman into a dance world of their own as
partners. These dances became known as ballroom dances because they were performed
in large ballrooms. The first ballroom dance was the waltz, a light and gracious turning
dance that was popularized in Vienna, Austria, and rapidly swept throughout Europe. At
first the waltz caused some controversy. Never before had men and women danced so
closely together.
After the waltz gained widespread acceptance, it was joined by other social dances. Many
Latin American ballroom dances were introduced in the early 1900's, including the tango,
rumba, and samba. Ballroom dancing has now become an international sport, with
competitions held in a number of dance categories.
During the 1960's, another new type of social dance was born that gained popularity
among young people. This type, based on rock music, shifted the emphasis from the
couple to the individual. At concerts and parties, rock dancing meant "doing your own
thing" in the individual's own style and space on the dance floor. With the strong beat of
the music and the desire to be spontaneous and free, dance was returning to its roots in
ecstasy and pure emotion.
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Dances to watch
The world has two great traditions of what is usually called theatrical dance, the Asian
tradition and the European and American tradition. Both traditions employ movements of
great beauty, intricacy, and difficulty to convey emotional states and artistic ideas. Both
require that the performers undergo long and rigorous training to develop the necessary
control of their bodies as well as the necessary expressive qualities. For this reason,
unlike participatory or communal dances, theatrical dances are usually performed by
professional dancers or dedicated amateurs.
Asian theatrical dance is primarily religious in nature. In such Asian religions as

Hinduism and Buddhism, dance remains a strong link between the faithful and their gods.
Asian dance primarily tells stories, acts out prayers, or recounts myths of deities and
heroes. It emphasizes gestures of the head, eyes, and especially the hands and fingers.
Through these gestures, performers express the story's fine points and details. Asian
dance also features elaborate costuming and bodily decoration, such as ankle bells,
shining head pieces, and beautiful robes. Asian dancers also may wear expressive masks
that represent certain types of characters.
The movements of Asian dance are generally harmonious and fluid. The dancer stands
strongly on bent legs, feet flat and solid on the ground. The body is held erect, and the
elbows and wrists are flexible. The changing angles of the elbows and wrists help to
shape poses and gestures. The performer's face is active. The eyes dart, and the mouth
grimaces or smiles. The toes usually point upward, while the heels may stamp out
complex rhythms. The whole effect is one of great poise, even amidst the most vigorous
action.
The Asian theatrical dance tradition originated in India. There are four major forms of
Indian dance: (1) bharata natyam, (2) kathakali, (3) kathak, and (4) manipuri.
The most important form is bharata natyam, a solo dance traditionally performed in
temples by female dancers called devadasis. Bharata natyam, like other forms of Indian
dance, includes a vocabulary of symbolic gestures called mudras or hastas. Each of these
gestures may have a variety of meanings. Bharata natyam is danced to classical Hindu
religious poetry and is accompanied by a drummer, a singer, and sometimes other
musicians as well.
The kathakali presents stories from the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, the great epic
poems of Hinduism. Themes from the Puranas, which are long Hindu stories, told in
verse, May also be used. Kathakali is physically demanding and typically requires
dancers to support their weight on the outside edges of their feet.
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Kathak is a form that mingles Hindu and Muslim influences. It requires great technical
skill and involves speedy footwork and spectacular turns.
Manipuri is more like folk dancing. This form of dance blends solo and group dancing as
it tells stories of the Hindu god Krishna.
Throughout Southeast Asia, classical Indian dance combined with local traditions to
create distinctive national forms. Cambodian dancers train their fingers, elbows, and
other joints to stretch well beyond the natural range. This enables them to perform odd
contortions and movements that display a delicate beauty. Dance in Myanmar (formerly
called Burma) relies less on symbolic gestures and uses more humour and mimicry. On
the island of Java, now part of Indonesia, performances of dance-dramas called wayang
wong exhibit the rigid, jerky quality of puppet theatre, from which they developed.
Traditional dances on the Indonesian island of Bali are both vigorous and elegant.
Balinese dancers perform to the sounds of gongs and flutes.
The dance of China and Japan is less an independent art than part of a total theatrical
form that includes singing and spoken drama. Today, the most highly developed form of
Chinese dance-drama is the Beijing opera, also called the Peking opera, which is famous
especially for its acrobatics. Japanese no theatre is an old, traditional art that emphasizes
exquisitely restrained and refined dance elements. Kabuki, another form of traditional
Japanese dance-drama, is livelier and appeals to a wider audience. For more information
on Chinese and Japanese dance-drama, see DRAMA (Asian drama).
European and American theatrical dance

In contrast to Asian dance, European and American theatrical dance emphasizes the
lower rather than the upper body, and energetic movement rather than precise gesture.
Asian dancers communicate with their hands and face, but European and American
dancers emphasize their legs and feet. European and American dancers perform leaps and
movements in which male dancers lift female partners into the air. In European and
American dance, the body does not tell a detailed story as much as it expresses emotions
through movement, whether slow and tender, sharp and angry, or large and bold.
Unlike Asian dance, European and American dance is secular--that is, it deals primarily
with nonreligious themes. European and American dance explores the earthly rather than
the divine. Its most common theme is romantic love, but it also expresses ideas about the
natural world, family and community life, and social and political issues. During the
1900's, dance became a powerful artistic means for portraying the experiences of the
isolated individual within modern society.
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Ballet is the oldest and most highly developed form of European theatrical dance,
growing out of court dances of the 1400's and 1500's. Ballet dances were later replaced
by ballroom dancing as a form of social dance. In addition to performing ballets
themselves, by the 1600's court aristocracy employed professional dancers to perform the
ballets as staged entertainment. Academies were established to train these professional
performers and encourage the development of their art.
By the late 1800's, ballet had reached a high level of refinement. Ballet companies had
become expensive organizations that produced great spectacles. Ballets used elaborate
scenery and costumes to help tell romantic, fairy-tale stories. For more information on the
techniques and history of ballet, see the BALLET article.
Modern dance arose as a reaction to the ballet of the late 1800's, with its rigid
organization and heavy use of scenic effects. About 1900, a young American woman
named Isadora Duncan became well known for performing a kind of dance that seemed
to reject everything in ballet. Duncan danced barefoot in a loosely flowing tunic. She
usually danced alone, using natural movements rather than the traditional movements of
ballet. Duncan began the modern dance emphasis on individuality and innovation. She
called her style of movement "the dance of the future," but it became best known as
modern dance. Duncan's supporters applauded her work as remarkably fresh and
spontaneous.
Several American women continued Duncan's innovations. These dancer-teacher-

choreographers included Ruth St. Denis, Doris Humphrey, and Martha Graham. Their
revolutionary work was even more impressive because it came during the early 1900's, at
a time when most women had little voice in society. Women artists were scarce in other
art forms, and women dancers in ballet had been limited to performing rather than doing
choreography.
Martha Graham became the central figure in modern dance in the mid-1900's. Through
her artistry, passion, and intensity, Graham brought modern dance to the level of great
art. She developed a method of movement, inspired by the act of breathing, which was
based on the contraction and release of muscles. The method was designed to capture the
rhythm of human emotion. Graham's method became the standard modern dance
technique adopted throughout the world.
Graham created nearly 200 dances, the best revealing tremendous dramatic qualities. She
was unsurpassed at translating psychological conflict and spiritual yearning into
movement of startling directness and power.
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Martha Graham's greatest male dancer was Merce Cunningham, who became her most
important successor. Cunningham was an innovator in his dance creations. His dances
were an element separate from the music that accompanied them. The dances consisted of
sections that were put together in any order.
Modern dance has explored a vast array of creative themes and techniques since the
1950's due to the work of Graham, Cunningham, Doris Humphrey's follower Jose Limon,
and such younger choreographers as Paul Taylor, Twyla Tharp, and Mark Morris.
Taylor's work was noted for its inventiveness and humour. Tharp brought modern dance
into contact with both social dance and ballet. Morris gained praise for his witty and
passionate work distinguished for its musicality, its elegant simplicity, and its warmly
human quality.
African Americans made important contributions to modern dance. Alvin Ailey was a
major figure. In creating his American Dance Theatre, Ailey sought to make modern
dance into a vehicle for expressing the black experience through music and movement.
His company gained praise for its exuberance and energy.
Modern dance flourished not only in the United States but in European countries as well,
especially Germany, Belgium, and the Netherlands. Mary Wigman led the modern dance
movement in Germany during the 1920's and 1930's. The leading modern dance
choreographers at the end of the 1900's included Pina Bausch of Germany and Jiri Kylian
of the Czech Republic, who worked in the Netherlands.
Many younger choreographers of the late 1900's turned away from modern dance as an
art that consisted purely of movement. Their work mixed and often emphasized video,
spoken language, and other nondance elements.
Musical comedy is a primarily American form of theatrical entertainment that typically

tells a story through songs and dialogue as well as dance. Musicals generally feature
athletic, rhythmic dancing, but some also include dance pieces that resemble classical
ballet. Important ballet choreographers who have created dances for musical comedies
include George Balanchine, Agnes de Mille, and Jerome Robbins. Some of the greatest
American musicals are known primarily for their dances, such as Robbins's West Side
Story (1957); A Chorus Line (1975), with choreography by Michael Bennett; Chicago
(1975), with choreography by Bob Fosse; My One and Only (1983), with choreography
by Tommy Tune; and Crazy for You (1992), with choreography by Susan Stroman.
Other forms of theatrical dance include jazz dance and tap dancing. Both are major
elements of dance in musical comedies and in motion pictures.
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Jazz dance, like jazz music, relies strongly on rhythm. It is usually energetic, with
dancers using different parts of the body, such as the shoulders, pelvis, and head, in
isolated movement. Jazz dancing is a personal style that emphasizes individual
expression and often includes humour and improvisation.
Tap dancing combines dance traditions from Britain and Africa. It resembles jazz
dancing in its strong rhythms and frequent displays of improvisation. Tap dancing relies
almost totally on footwork, however. The feet become musical instruments, marking out
complex rhythms with the heel and toe. Tap dancing underwent a revival during the
1990's, largely due to the work of such young dancers and choreographers as Gregory
Hines and Savion Glover”.
Then we have dances originating from Latin America that has a place in ball room
dancing from both a recreational and / or a competition perspective, such as the Cha
cha, Samba, Mamba and then the dance that originated sometimes in the 18th century
in Argentina, such as the Tango. (It must be noted that apart from the polka, that the
type of dancing from a strictly ball room perspective, would be the foxtrot and the
waltz, and also the so call Viennese type waltz).
Here is an extract taken as is, from http://www.kimberlymiguelmullen.com/about.php

which is as follows:
“About Kimberly Miguel Mullen”
“To dance was at once to worship and to pray...the gods themselves danced, as the stars
dance in the sky...To dance is to take part in the cosmic control of the world." --
Havelock Ellis, Dance of Life
About
Kimberly Miguel Mullen brings to the world of dance strength, humility, and natural
grace augmented by extensive training and research in the US, the Caribbean, and Brazil.
With a Master's degree in dance from UCLA and international training experience, she
makes a unique contribution to the field and spirit of dance ethnology. Her style
embraces all genres of dance enabling her to work in both traditional and contemporary
performance realms. Kimberly's performance and choreography credits include concert,
theater, film and television. The Los Angeles Times calls Mullen, "spectacularly supple,"
owing to her comprehensive mastery of the dance discipline.
Artist Statement
to dance is more than executing steps. For me, dance is life. My love for dance is rooted
in the process of training with Master teachers and traveling to the origins of the places
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where cultural dance forms persist. Dance is my vehicle for contributing to the
preservation of culture and for celebrating the similarities and differences of our
humanity. This is important to me because of my own mixed cultural heritage and the
experiences my parents, grandparents, and ancestors endured to give me a better life.
Dance found me as the result of my own longing for a creative and spiritual outlet to
physically express the issues in my life to which I am dedicated. For the past 15 years, I
have humbly immersed myself in the center of many dance communities in the US, the
Caribbean, and Brazil. Transcending issues of race, politics, class, gender, age, language,
etc - I have been witness to the joy, purpose, and abundance dance brings to the lives of
the most modest communities. I am very gracious to my teachers who have gifted me
with the knowledge and acknowledgement to perform and teach. It is through
performance and instruction that I share the profound magic of dance in my life with
others...
Education
Master of Arts in Dance, UCLA Department of World Arts and Culture
Bachelor of Arts in International Studies of Africa, Portland State University
Certificate, Black Studies
University Teaching
UCLA, Department of World Arts and Culture
Occidental College, Department of Theater and Dance
Cal State University Los Angeles, Department of Theater and Dance
Portland State University, Department of Black Studies
Youth Teaching
Los Angeles Public Library Young Adults Program
Segev and Sara’s Super Duper Arts Camp
Focus Fish Youth Outreach Program
Acacia Dance Fitness DVD Titles

Dance and Be Fit: Brazilian Body (Creator and Star)
Dance and Be Fit: Lower Body Burn (Creator and Star)
Dance and Be Fit: Abs Burn (Creator and Star)
Dance and Be Fit: Latin Groove (Choreographer and Talent)
Himalaya: Bollywood Dance Workout (Choreographer and Talent)
Himalaya: Bollywood Burn (Choreographer and Talent)
Himalaya: Beautiful Belly (Choreographer and Talent)
Himalaya: Bollywood Booty (Choreographer)
Dance Companies
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Francisco Aguabella
The ABC Project
Viver Brazil Dance Company
El Grupo Folklorico Omo Ache Folkloric Dance Company
El Grupo Folklorico Olorun Folkloric Dance Company
Milagro Bailadores”
Further from looking at dance ethnology infra, another perspective can be given as
follows:
Therefore ethnology could be defined as the study of contemporary peoples,
concentrating on their geography and culture, as distinct from their social systems.
Ethnologists make a comparative analysis of data from different cultures to understand
how cultures work and why they change, with a view to deriving general principles about
human society, or the science dealing with the major cultural groups of humans, their
descent, relationship, etc.
There are different types and genres of dancing both professional and recreational,
including religious and cultural as well. Dancing can be done by the same sex together
such as the Dervishes in Sufi Dancing which is done by males in Islamic Mysticism, a
woman in Arab Culture doing belly dancing to entice her husband, ballet done by both
male and female either together, solo or separate parts that are sex (gender specific) such
as the sailors' dance in the ballet “The Red Poppy” by Reinhold Moresewitz Glierre, Gum
boot dancing done by same sex in South Africa, Spanish Flamenco Dancing done by
women with castanets (which is different to what a percussionist uses in a symphony
orchestra), waltzes, mazurkas, polonaises, ecossaise (Scottish Dancing), polkas, fox trots,
tango (invented in Argentina), Latin American Dancing, and others which men and
women do together.
There are other ethnic dancing as well, which includes Cuban dancing, Israeli Hora
dancing, and Indian Dancing which can be divided into traditional and Bollywood
dancing. Not to mention African Tribal Dancing and other forms dancing right
throughout the world.
Ball Room dancing has within itself different types of dances that have been formulated
right throughout the world, such as the foxtrot, quicksep, waltz, samba, mamba, tcha tcha
and the tango (a dance developed in Argentina in the 1700’s.
Ball Room dancing has not only become a source of recreation, but has also become a
sort of a sport with contestants winning prizes and trophies.
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French, Russian and English composers have composed music with Spannish themes,
although some of the composers have not been to Spain ever in their life, yet their music
sounds very much Spannish, which includes the use of castanets in the percussion section
of the orchestra.
Then what about the polkas danced in Germany and the flamencos in Spain!
Then we come to a country such as South Africa, which is very diverse by its nature, and
one would se boere dancing amongst Caucasians and Gumboot dancing by Blacks.
Then there is Indian Dancing and Bollywood Dancing.
Ballet scores have been composed by composers of mainly classical music since the 17th /
18th Centuries still to the present and beyond, with the sole purpose of telling a story
through dance to music which is choreographed by choreographers such as the famous
Frenchman by the name of Marius Petipa for the Russian Ballet in ballets for example
“Don Quixote by Ludwig (Leon) Minkus.
Ballet can also be added to operas, operettas and musicals. It is interesting to note that in
operas composed by both Italian and French composers for performances in France had
ballet scenes added as required from a performance and marketing perspective.
Then there is also modern dancing, rock and roll, country dancing, jigs and can can type
dancing found in night clubs in the 19th and 20th centuries in France.
Therefore man has had different types and genres of dancing to choose from and no
doubt new types of dancing will be discovered and formed in the future and in time to
come.
Chapter 4: Early 20th Century Music.
“Musical innovation is full of danger to the state, for when modes of music change, the
laws of the state always change with them”. (Plato, c, 428 BC to 347 BC)
“It's music on the points of needles”. (Cesar Frank, 1822 to 1890)
With the end of the 19th Century drawing to an end, it has become apparent that
Romanticism has run its course and has now come to an end.
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Figure 11: Unknown Composers and Well Known performers of the late 19th and early
20th Century.
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Below is a list taken as verbatim off the Internet, regarding research done on early 20th
Century composers many of whom are unknown and unheard of? These details infra
cover many genres of music composed by the different composers.
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NB! Take a good look at the 1914 to 1918 spread sheet of songs composed during the
First World War and take note that virtually all of the songs composed were in the
English and American Stable, what is interesting that even German / Austrian born song
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writers and composers are featured in the spread sheet supra, who have emigrated to the
English Speaking world from both Germany and Austria, composing music and writing
songs that have had a patriotic element therein.
One must ask the question as why these songs are not readily available on disc, wma or
mp3, hence the need for a paradigm shift in the concept of copyright, so as to make these
works available, or they will be lost forever, for preservation is of paramount importance
in this regard.
A song composed in the early 20th Century would look something like this, namely,
Deep River Song composed by an anonymous person being and Old Negro Melody;
Arranged by Harry Thacker Burleigh, 1866-1949
“Deep river, my home is over Jordan,

Deep river, Lord, I want to cross over into campground.
Deep river, my home is over Jordan.
Deep river, Lord, I want to cross over into campground.
Oh don’t you want to go to that gospel feast,
That promis’d land where all is peace?
Oh deep river, Lord, I want to cross over into campground”.
The above example illustrates what could have been composed in that era.
Then what about a popular hit song between 1900 to 1910 “Boiled Beef and Cabbage”,
according to an old SABC Springbok Radio Program called “Call Back the Past”, 1910,
present by Percy Zieff.
Then what a musical that sounded similar to a Gilbert and Sullivan Opera (operetta) such
as “The Geisha Girl” composed by Sidney Jones, which was to be his master piece.
Arnold Schoenberg who was born in 1874 and a pupil of Alexander von Zemlinsky was
interested in the impressionist paintings of Monet, Renoir, Van Gogh, etc. and although
was himself a late romantic composer, with Verklarte Nacht as one of his most important
of works, however looking at impressionist art works, not to mention the expressionist
styles of painting by associated with the works of Franz Marc, Emil Nolde and Vasily
Kandinsky of the Blaue Raiter movement (to which Schoenberg, as a Sunday painter,
was also affiliated), decided to change his style of writing music from tonal (where the
tune can clearly be made out to a system of atonalism wherein each note on the music
script is given an equal weight. The music was to sound a lot more different and “scary”
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to say the very least, and not easy to listen to, for which a new taste was to be acquired in
the process with audiences, musicians and critics having to adapt to this new style of
music. Furocio Busoni (a pupil of Liszt), was also to make use of this style of writing
music.
Hans Pfitzner who was born in Moscow, whilst his parents were working there, then
arrived in Germany with His Parents at a young age, who composed his operas in the late
Romantic Period, wrote a pamphlet publicly criticizing both Schoenberg and Busoni for
the kind of music that they have composed, that was from Pfitzner's perspective to be
difficult to listen to and difficult to interpret as well.
With the early 20th Century, whilst not all music was difficult to listen to, there were
some very nice songs, musicals and operettas to choose from, not to mention some rag
time music and believe it or not some (late) romantic music to choose from.
Franz Schmidt born in 1874 a contemporary of Gustav Mahler, who was born in 1869,
who were rivals of each other, was to compose some very beautiful works, in the
romantic tradition, such as his opera “Notre Dame” and his symphony no.2, however
Schmidt’s 4th Symphony (Hussar)is more heavy to listen to than his 2nd Symphony, which
is highly melodic.
Gustav Mahler and Faruccio Busoni (like Anton Bruckner) and also Harvagal Brian and
Furtwangler were notorious for composing long works, which some included extremely
large orchestras and choirs.
Busoni’s Piano concerto has five movements, which is a long piece of over 1 and a half
hour in length with believe it or not, an offstage male choir in the last (finale) movement.
Mahler 8th Symphony requires a large concert auditorium for performances.
Then we come to ballets composed by Sergey Prokofiev (Cinderella and Romeo and
Juliet, Maurice Ravel (Daphnis and Chloe), Igor Stravinsky (The Firebird & Petruska),
Albert Roussel (Paellas et Mellisande), etc, who composed ballets for (Sergey) Diagelev's
Ballet Company in Paris, France.
A lot of the ballets of the early 20th Century were short pieces with the noticeable
exception of the ballets of Sergey Prokofiev.
Songs for the mass market especially rag time songs, songs from the musicals and
operettas were easy to listen to and easy to play and perform. Most certainly music that
the masses could relate to!
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Such as the “Geisha Girl” a master piece by Sidney Jones (very similar in style to the 19 th
century operas by Gilbert and Sullivan), the “Merry Widow” by Franz Lehar, “Cho Cho
Chan”, “Show Boat” by Jerome Kern and believe it or not the opera “Porgy and Bess” by
George Gershwin in the 1930's. Also the rag time songs of Scott Joplin come to mind.
Naturally the First World War and its aftermath were to change the landscape of music
for ever.
Chapter 5: Gender and Performance (including ethnology).
The first performers since time immemorial were mainly men especially in Biblical times
but whilst the men were mainly composers and performers, women were on the main
only performers and rarely composers.
The first person to compose the first known piece of classical music according to Richard
Fawkes in his four audio compact disc audio book, “The History of Classical Music,
Naxos, credits Hildegard of Bingen as being the first composer of classical music, who as
an abbess composed music for her nuns to sing. It is interesting to note that it was a
woman not a man who composed the first piece of classical music. Other famous women
who themselves were to compose classical music would have been between 18th, 19th and
20th centuries, such as Maria von Paridis (Siccilienne), Clara Schumann (1819 to 1896)
(who composed a piano concerto and some chamber music), Cecille Chamenade (who
composed Autimme and other piano pieces) and Nadia Boulonger (who composed songs,
etc.).
Up to the renaissance and baroque periods, men were the dramatists, performers,
composers and artists. Men dressed up as women or in singing boys were castrated to
enable them when as adult men to keep their voices at a high pitch. (Albert Morreche was
to be the last known castrate for which early recordings of his voice was to be made.
Women were unlike the men to be increasingly taking on both singing and performing
roles in music, drama, singing, opera, ballet and in art as well, but unfortunately few in
numbers to compose music, and many women were so called amateur singers in their
own homes as well.
Here is a list of the bulk of the women composers as shown infra, as follows:
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In this list, the following don’t appear,
namely
• Joan Tower (1938 -)
• Alla Pavlova (1952-)
• The Boulonger sisters
• Theresa Carenjo
• Elizabeth Jacquet de la Guerre
(1665 – 1729)
• Marina Dranikova (1914 – 2001)
• Ruth Crawford Seeger (1901 – 1953)
• Rebeccca Clarke (1886 – 1979)
• Elisabetta Brusa (1954 -)
• Margaret Brouwer (1940 -)
• Judith Bingham (1952 -)
• Marion Bauer (1882 – 1955)
• Then there are other women
composers also.
Maud Powell a very famous American Violinist did arrangements and transcribing music
to do with her instrument and was herself actively involved in the suffragette movement.
When looking at disabilities and minorities then there are lesser known composers as
listed infra, namely
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Enoch Sontonga (South African), who composed the hymn “N’kosi Sikelela I’Afrika (G-
d bless Africa)
Hugh Mashikela, also a South African, who composed songs such as “Dobshire”,
“Dobsonville” and “Johannesburg”
Women were to enter the performance and entertainment fields along with the male
performers in the different fields of art, performance, opera, ballet, church and other art
and performance modalities.
Marin Alsop is a famous woman conductor, Lucia Popp, Maria Callas, Jenny Lind,
Geodetta Pasta, the Grissi sisters, Dame Kirry te Kanawa, Adelina Patti were famous
opera and operetta singers, Julie Andrews famous in film musicals, and the list can go on
and on.
A stop quite recently was put to the use of castrate in the performing arts, so therefor the
arts have been opened up to both sexes on an equal footing.
Many of Ameria's leading composers were students (pupils) of Nadia Boulanger, namely,
Aaron Copeland, Walter Piston and Virgil Thompson, as mentioned in Mann, W, James
Galway's Music in Time, (c.1980's) Mitchell Beazley.
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Chapter 6: Jazz Studies.
According Wikki Pedia Jazz can be described as the following as quoted as verbatim,
namely:
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Jazz can be classified into different genres as well, like as in classical music, as seen from
the above article supra.
Jazz is an oxymoron in music at the best of times and makes the classification of music
that much more difficult and it would not be uncommon to find jazz type pieces in a
symphony concert.
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Composers like Claude Bolling, Dave Bruebeck, Pavel Haas, Hans Krasa, Victor
Ullmann, George Gerswin, Ernst Krenek and others have very clear cut jazz rhythms and
themes in their music wich forms part of the symphony concert pieces.
Then what about one of the world’s greatest of pianists by the name of Vladimir
Horowitz, himself was a composer of music, being piano pieces, which are fully
obtainable from Naxos Historical, which has recordings of his performances, which also
includes some of his compositions that have been performed by Horowitz himself. Now
if the listner were to listen to these pieces, then the listner would think that he or she was
listening to Jazz type music, but in reality this is classical music and not Jazz. Bear in
mind that classical music was Horowitz’s main interest, since being a concert pianist of
note.
Jazz has been composed and performed right throughout the world, for example, Duke
Ellington, Louis Armstrong, Glenn Miller and Bennie Goodman, in America, Hugh
Maskikela and the Soweto String Quartet in South Africa, and the Dutch Swing College
Band in the Netherlands, who were a product of resistance in Nazi (German) occupation
of the Netherlands during World War Two.
Jazz is sung, performed and is also danced to, and there are still concerts and radio
programs broadcasting Jazz music.
Chapter 7: Jazz, Film and Opera.
Jazz has been and was originally established by American Negro Slaves as a form of
musical entertainment, progressed from Rag Time (Scott Joplin) right through to the
present form as it is in use today.
Another perspective on the history of Jazz has been taken verbatim from
http://m.bobhuang.com/essays/jazz.htm which is as follows,
“History of Jazz
The JAZZ Story
An Outline History of Jazz
In the span of less than a century, the remarkable native American music called Jazz has
risen from obscure folk origins to become this country's most significant original art
form, loved and played in nearly every land on earth.
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Today, Jazz flourishes in many styles, from basic blues and ragtime through New
Orleans and Dixieland, swing and mainstream, bebop and modern to free form and
electronic. What is extraordinary is not that Jazz has taken so many forms, but that each
form has been vital enough to survive and to retain its own character and special appeal.
It takes only open ears and an open mind to appreciate all the many and wide-raging
delights jazz has to offer.
THE ROOTS
Jazz developed from folk sources. Its origins are shrouded in obscurity, but the slaves
brought here from Africa, torn from their own ancestral culture, developed it as a new
form of communication in song and story.
Black music in America retained much of Africa in its distinctive rhythmic elements and
also in its tradition of collective improvisation. This heritage, blended with the music of
the new land, much of it vocal, produced more than just a new sound. It generated an
entire new mode of musical expression.
The most famous form of early Afro-American music is the spiritual. These beautiful and
moving religious songs were most often heard by white audiences in more genteel
versions than those performed in rural black churches. What is known as gospel music
today, more accurately reflects the emotional power and rhythmic drive of early Afro-
American music than a recording of a spiritual by the famous Fisk Jubilee Singers from
the first decade of this century.
Other early musical forms dating from the slavery years include work songs, children's
songs, and dances, adding up to a remarkable legacy, especially since musical activity
was considerable restricted under that system.
BIRTH OF THE BLUES
After the slaves were freed, Afro-American music grew rapidly. The availability of
musical instruments, including military band discards, and the new-found mobility gave
birth to the basic roots of Jazz: brass and dance band music and the blues.
The blues, a seemingly simple form of music that nevertheless lends itself to almost
infinite variation, has been a significant part of every Jazz style, and has also survived in
its own right. Today's rock and soul music would be impossible without the blues. Simply
explained, it is and eight (or twelve) bar strain with lyrics in which the first stanza is
repeated. It gets its characteristic "blue" quality from a flattening of the third and
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seventh notes of the tempered scale. In effect, the blues is the secular counterpart of the
spirituals.
BRASS BANDS AND RAGTIME
By the late 1880's, there were black brass, dance and concert bands in most southern
cities. (At the same time, black music in the north was generally more European-
oriented.) Around this era, ragtime began to emerge. Though primarily piano music,
bands also began to pick it up and perform it. Ragtime's golden age was roughly from
1898 to 1908, but its total span began earlier and lingered much later. Recently, it has
been rediscovered. A music of great melodic charm, its rhythms are heavily syncopated,
but it has almost no blues elements. Ragtime and early Jazz are closely related, but
ragtime certainly was more sedate.
Greatest of the ragtime composers was Scott Joplin (1868-1917). Other masters of the
form include James Scott, Louis Chauvink Eubie Blake (1883-1983) and Joseph Lamb, a
white man who absorbed the idiom completely.
ENTER JASS
Ragtime, especially in its watered-down popular versions, was entertainment designed

for the middle class and was frowned on by the musical establishment. The music not yet
called Jazz (in its earliest usage it was spelled "jass"), came into being during the last
decade of the 19th century, rising out of the black working-class districts of southern
cities. Like ragtime, it was a music meant for dancing.
The city that has become synonymous with early Jazz is New Orleans. There is reality as
well as myth behind this notion.
New Orleans: Cradle of Jazz
New Orleans played a key role in the birth and growth of Jazz, and the music's early
history has been more thoroughly researched and documented there than anywhere else.
But, while the city may have had more and better Jazz than any other from about 1895 to
1917, New Orleans was by no means the only place where the sounds were incubating.
Every southern city with a sizable black population had music that must be considered
early Jazz. It came out of St. Louis, which grew to be the center of ragtime; Memphis,
which was the birthplace of W.C. Handy (1873-1958), the famed composer and collector
of blues; Atlanta, Baltimore, and other such cities.
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What was unique to New Orleans at the time was a very open and free social
atmosphere. People of different ethnic and racial backgrounds could establish contact,
and out of this easy communication came a rich musical tradition involving French,
Spanish, German, Irish and African elements. It was no wonder that this cosmopolitan
and lively city was a fertile breeding ground for Jazz.
If New Orleans was the birthplace of Jazz in truth as well as in legend, the tale that the
music was born in its red light district is purest nonsense. New Orleans did have
legalized prostitution and featured some of the most elaborate and elegant "sporting
houses" in the nation. But the music, if any, that was heard in these establishments was
made by solo pianists.
Actually, Jazz was first heard in quite different settings. New Orleans was noted for its
many social and fraternal organizations, most of which sponsored or hired bands for a
variety of occasions -- indoor and outdoor dances, picnics, store openings, birthday or
anniversary parties. And, of course, Jazz was the feature of the famous funeral parades,
which survive even today. Traditionally, a band assembles in front of the church and
leads a slow procession to the cemetery, playing solemn marches and mournful hymns.
On the way back to town, the pace quickens and fast, peppy marches and rags replace
the dirges. These parades, always great crowd attractions, were important to the growth
of Jazz. It was here that trumpeters and clarinetists would display their inventiveness and
the drummers work out the rhythmic patterns that became the foundation for "swinging"
the beat.
THE EARLY MUSICIANS - Buddy, Bunk, Freddie and The King
The players in these early bands were mostly artisans (carpenters, bricklayers, tailors,
etc.) or laborers who took time out on weekends and holidays to make music along with a
little extra cash.
The first famous New Orleans musician, and the archetypal jazzman, was Buddy Bolden
(1877-1931). A barber by trade, he played cornet and began to lead a band in the late
1890's. Quite probably, he was the first to mix the basic, rough blues with more
conventional band music. It was a significant step in the evolution of Jazz.
Bolden suffered a seizure during a 1907 Mardi Gras parade and spent the rest of his life
in an institution for the incurably insane. Rumor that he made records have never been
substantiated, and all we know of his music comes from the recollection of other
musicians who heard him when they were young.
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Bunk Johnson (1989- 1949), who played second cornet in one of Bolden's last bands,
contributed greatly to the revival of interest in classic New Orleans jazz that took place
during the last decade of his life. A great storyteller and colorful personality, Johnson is
responsible for much of the New Orleans legend. But much of what he had to say was
more fantasy than fact.
Many people, including serious fans, believe that the early jazz musicians were self-
taught geniuses who didn't read music and never took a formal lesson. A romantic
notion, but entirely untrue. Almost every major figure in early jazz had at least a solid
grasp of legitimate musical fundamentals, and often much more.
Still, they developed wholly original approaches to their instruments. A prime example is
Joseph (King) Oliver (1885-1938), a cornetist and bandleader who used all sorts of
found objects, including drinking glasses, a sand pail, and a rubber bathroom plunger to
coax a variety of sounds from his horn. Freddie Keppard (1889-1933), Oliver's chief
rival, didn't use mutes, perhaps because he took pride in being the loudest cornet in
town. Keppard, the first New Orleans great to take the music to the rest of the country,
played in New York vaudeville with the Original Creole Orchestra in 1915.
JAZZ COMES NORTH
By the early years of the second decade, the instrumentation of the typical Jazz band had
become cornet (or trumpet), trombone, clarinet, guitar, string bass and drums. (Piano
rarely made it since most jobs were on location and pianos were hard to transport.) The
banjo and tuba, so closely identified now with early Jazz, actually came in a few years
later because early recording techniques couldn't pick up the softer guitar and string
bass sounds.
The cornet played the lead, the trombone filled out the bass harmony part in a sliding
style, and the clarinet embellished between these two brass poles. The first real jazz
improvisers were the clarinetists, among them Sidney Bechet (1897-1959). An
accomplished musician before he was 10, Bechet moved from clarinet to playing mainly
soprano saxophone. He was to become one of the most famous early jazzmen abroad,
visiting England and France in 1919 and Moscow in 1927.
Most veteran jazz musicians state that their music had no specific name at first, other
than ragtime or syncopated sounds. The first band to use the term Jazz was that of
trombonist Tom Brown, a white New Orleanian who introduced it in Chicago in 1915.
The origin of the word is cloudy and its initial meaning has been the subject of much
debate.
By 97

The band that made the word stick was also white and also from New Orleans, the
Original Dixieland Jass Band. This group had a huge success in New York in 1917-18
and was the first more or less authentic Jazz band to make records. Most of its members
were graduates of the bands of Papa Jack Laine (1873-1966), a drummer who organized
his first band in 1888 and is thought to have been the first white Jazz musician. In any
case, there was much musical integration in New Orleans, and a number of light skinned
Afro-Americans "passed" in white bands.
By 1917, many key Jazz players, white and black, had left New Orleans and other
southern cities to come north. The reason was not the notorious 1917 closing of the New
Orleans red light district, but simple economics. The great war in Europe had created an
industrial boom, and the musicians merely followed in the wake of millions of workers
moving north to the promise of better jobs.
LITTLE LOUIS & THE KING
King Oliver moved to Chicago in 1918. As his replacement in the best band in his
hometown, he recommended an 18-year-old, Louis Armstrong. Little Louis, as his elders
called him, had been born on August 4, 1901, in poverty that was extreme even for New
Orleans' black population. His earliest musical activity was singing in the streets for
pennies with a boy's quartet he had organized. Later he sold coal and worked on the
levee.
Louis received his first musical instruction at reform school, where he spent eighteen
months for shooting off an old pistol loaded with blanks on the street on New Year's Eve
of 1913. He came out with enough musical savvy to take jobs with various bands in town.
The first established musician to sense the youngster's great talent was King Oliver, who
tutored Louis and became his idol.
THE CREOLE JAZZ BAND
When Oliver sent for Louis to join him in Chicago, that city had become the world's new
Jazz center. Even though New York was where the Original Dixieland Jass Band had
scored its big success, followed by the spawning of the first dance craze associated with
the music, the New York bands seemed to take on the vaudeville aspects of the ODJB's
style without grasping the real nature of the music. Theirs was an imitation Dixieland (of
which Ted Lewis was the first and most successful practitioner), but there were few
southern musicians in New York to lend the music a New Orleans authenticity.
Chicago, on the other hand, was teeming with New Orleans musicmakers, and the city's
nightlife was booming in the wake of prohibition. By all odds, the best band in town was
By 98

Oliver's Creole Jazz Band, especially after Louis joined in late 1922. The band
represented the final great flowering of classic New Orleans ensemble style and was also
the harbinger of something new. Aside from the two cornetists, its stars were the Dodds
Brothers, clarinetists Johnny (1892-1940) and drummer Baby (1898-1959). Baby Dodds
brought a new level of rhythmic subtlety and drive to jazz drumming. Along with another
New Orleans-bred musician, Zutty Singleton (1897-1975), he introduced the concept of
swinging to the Jazz drums. But the leading missionary of swinging was, unquestionably,
Louis Armstrong.
FIRST JAZZ ON RECORDS
The Creole Jazz Band began to record in 1923 and while not the first black New Orleans
band to make records, it was the best. The records were quite widely distributed and the
band's impact on musicians was great. Two years earlier, trombonist Kid Ory (1886-
1973) and his Sunshine Orchestra captured the honor of being the first recorded artists
in this category. However, they recorded for an obscure California company which soon
went out of business and their records were heard by very few.
Also in 1923, the New Orleans Rhythm Kings, a white group active in Chicago, began to
make records. This was a much more sophisticated group than the old Dixieland Jass
Band, and on one of its recording dates, it used the great New Orleans pianist-composer
Ferdinand (Jelly Roll) Morton (1890-1941). The same year, Jelly Roll also made his own
initial records.
JELLY ROLL MORTON
Morton, whose fabulous series of 1938 recordings for the Library of Congress are a
goldmine of information about early Jazz, was a complex man. Vain, ambitious, and
given to exaggeration, he was a pool shark, hustler and gambler a well as a brilliant
pianist and composer. His greatest talent, perhaps was for organizing and arranging.
The series of records he made with his Red Hot Peppers between 1926 and 1928 stands,
alongside Oliver's as the crowning glory of the New Orleans tradition and one of the
great achievements in Jazz.
LOUIS IN NEW YORK AND BIG BANDS ARE BORN
That tradition, however, was too restricting for a creative genius like Louis Armstrong.
He left Oliver in late 1924, accepting an offer from New York's most prestigious black
bandleader, Fletcher Henderson (1897-1952). Henderson's band played at Roseland
Ballroom on Broadway and was the first significant big band in Jazz history.
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Evolved from the standard dance band of the era, the first big Jazz bands consisted of
three trumpets, one trombone, three saxophones (doubling all kinds of reed instruments),
and rhythm section of piano, banjo, bass (string or brass) and drums. These bands
played from written scores (arrangements or "charts"), but allowed freedom of invention
for the featured soloists and often took liberties in departing from the written notes.
Though it was the best of the day, Henderson's band lacked rhythmic smoothness and
flexibility when Louis joined up. The flow and grace of his short solos on records with
the band make them stand out like diamonds in a tin setting.
The elements of Louis' style, already then in perfect balance, included a sound that was
the most musical and appealing yet heard from a trumpet; a gift for melodic invention
that was as logical as it was new and startling, and a rhythmic poise (jazzmen called it
"time") that made other players sound stiff and clumsy in comparison.
His impact on musicians was tremendous. Nevertheless, Henderson didn't feature him
regularly, perhaps because he felt that the white dancers for whom his band performed
were not ready for Louis' innovations. During his year with the band, however, Louis
caused a transformation in its style and, eventually, in the whole big band field.
Henderson's chief arranger, Don Redman, (1900-1964) grasped what Louis was doing
and got some of it on paper. After working with Louis, tenor saxophonist Coleman
Hawkins (1904-1969) developed a style for his instrument that became the guidepost for
the next decade.
While in New York, Louis also made records with Sidney Bechet, and with Bessie Smith
(1894-1937), the greatest of all blues singers. In 1925, he returned to Chicago and began
to make records under his own name with a small group, the Hot Five. Included were his
wife Lil Hardin Armstrong (1899-1971) on piano, Kid Ory, Johnny Dodds, and guitarist
Johnny St. Cyr. The records, first to feature Louis extensively, became a sensation among
musicians, first all over the United States and later all over the world. The dissemination
of jazz, and in a very real sense its whole development, would have been impossible
without the phonograph.
KING LOUIS
The Hot Five was strictly a recording band. For everyday work, Louis played in a variety
of situations, including theater pit bands. He continued to grow and develop, and in 1927
switched from cornet to the more brilliant trumpet. He had occasionally featured his
unique gravel voiced singing, but only as a novelty. Its popular potential became
apparent in 1929, when, back in New York, he starred in a musical show in which he
introduced the famous Ain't Misbehavin' singing as well as playing the great tune written
By 100

by pianist Thomas (Fats) Waller (1904-1943), himself one of the greatest
instrumentalists-singers-showmen in Jazz.
It was during his last year in Chicago while working with another pianist, Earl (Fatha)
Hines (1903-1983), that Louis reached his first artistic peak. Hines was the first real
peer to work with Louis. Inspired by him, he was in turn able to inspire. Some of the true
masterpieces of Jazz, among them West End Blues and the duet Weatherbird, resulted
from the Armstrong-Hines union.
THE JAZZ AGE
Louis Armstrong dominated the musical landscape of the 20's and, in fact, shaped the
Jazz language of the decade to come as well. But the Jazz of the Jazz Age was more often
than not just peppy dance music made by young men playing their banjos and
saxophones who had little understanding of (or interest in) what the blues and/or Louis
Armstrong were about. Still, a surprising amount of music produced by this dance-happy
period contained genuine Jazz elements.
PAUL WHITEMAN - King of Jazz?
The most popular bandleader of the decade was Paul Whiteman (1890-1967), who
ironically became known as the King of Jazz, although his first successful bands played
no Jazz at all and his later ones precious little. These later bands, however, did play
superb dance music, expertly scored and performed by the best white musicians the
extravagant Whiteman paychecks could attract. From 1926 on, Whiteman gave
occasional solo spots to such Jazz-influenced players as cornetist Red Nichols, violinist
Joe Venuti, guitarist Eddie Lang (1904-1933), and the Dorsey Brothers' trombonist-
trumpeter Tommy (1905-1956) and clarinetist-saxophonist Jimmy (1904-1957), all of
whom later became bandleaders in their own right.
In 1927, Whiteman took over the key personnel of Jean Goldkette's Jazz-oriented band,
which included a young cornetist and sometime pianist and composer of rare talent, Bix
Beiderbecke (1903-1931). Bix's very lyrical, personal music and early death combined to
make him the first (and most durable) jazz legend. His romanticized life story became the
inspiration for a novel and a film, neither of them close to the truth.
Bix's closest personal and musical friend during the most creative period of his life was
saxophonist Frank Trumbauer (1901-1956). Fondly known as Bix and Tram, the team
enhanced many an otherwise dull Whiteman record with their brilliant interplay or their
individual efforts.
By 101

THE BEIDERBECKE LEGACY
Bix's bittersweet lyricism influenced many aspiring jazzmen, among them the so-called
Austin High Gang, made up of gifted Chicago youngsters only a few of whom ever
actually attended Austin High School. Among them were such later sparkplugs of the
Swing Era as drummers Gene Krupa (1909-1973) and Dave Tough (1908-1948);
clarinetist Frank Teschemacher (1905-1932); saxophonist Bud Freeman (1906-1991);
pianists Joe Sullivan (1906-1971) and Jess Stacy (b. 1904); and guitarist-entrepreneur
Eddie Condon (1905-1973). Their contemporaries and occasional comrades-in-arms
included a clarinet prodigy named Benny Goodman (1905-1986); and somewhat older
reedman and character, Mezz Mezzrow (1899-1972), whose 1946 autobiography, Really
the Blues, remains, despite inaccuracies, one of the best Jazz books.
Trumbauer, though not a legend like Bix, influenced perhaps as many musicians. Among
them were two of the greatest saxophonist in Jazz history, Benny Carter (b.1907) and
Lester (Prez) Young (1909-1959).
BLACK & WHITE
A great influence on young Goodman was the New Orleans clarinetist Jimmie Noone
(1995-1944), an exceptional technician with a beautiful tone. Chicago was an inspiring
environment for a young musician. There was plenty of music and there were plenty of
masters to learn from. Cornetist Muggsy Spanier (1906-1967) took his early cues from
King Oliver. In New York, there was less contact between black and white players,
though white jazzmen often made the trek to Harlem or worked opposite Fletcher
Henderson at the Roseland. When a young Texas trombonist, Jack Teagarden (1905-
1964), came to town in 1928, he startled everyone with his blues-based playing (and
singing), very close in concept to that of Henderson's trombone star, Jimmy Harrison
(1900-1931). These two set the pace for all comers.
Teagarden, alongside Benny Goodman, worked in Ben Pollack's band. Pollack, who'd
played drums with the New Orleans Rhythm Kings, was quite a talent spotter and always
had good bands. When Henderson arranger Don Redman took over McKinney's Cotton
Pickers in 1929 and made it one of the bands of the `20s, his replacement was Benny
Carter. Carter could (and still can) write arrangements and play trumpet and clarinet as
well as alto sax. For many years, he was primarily active as a composer for films and
TV; but in the late 1970's, Carter resumed his playing career with renewed vigor.
(Editor's Note-Carter just turned eighty and is still playing and recording.)
THE UNIQUE DUKE
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Another artist whose career spanned more than fifty years is Duke Ellington (1899-
1974). By 1972, he was one of New York's most successful bandleaders, resident at
Harlem's Cotton Club--a nightspot catering to whites only but featuring the best in black
talent.
Ellington's unique gifts as composer-arranger-pianist were coupled with equally

outstanding leadership abilities. From 1927 to 1941, with very few exceptions and
occasional additions, his personnel remained unchanged--a record no other bandleader
(except Guy Lombardo, of all people) ever matched.
Great musicians passed through the Ellington ranks between 1924 and 1974. Among the
standouts: great baritone saxist Harry Carney (1907-1974), who joined in 1927; Johnny
Hodges (1906-1970), whose alto sax sound was one of the glories of jazz; Joe (Tricky
Sam) Nanton (1904-1946), master of the "talking" trombone; Barney Bigard (1906-
1980); whose pure-toned clarinet brought a touch of New Orleans to the band; Ben
Webster (1909-1973), one of Coleman Hawkins' greatest disciples; drummer Sonny
Greer (1903-1982), and Rex Stewart (1907-1967) and Cootie Williams (1910-1985), an
incomparable trumpet team. Among the later stars were trumpeter Clark Terry (b. 1920)
and tenor saxist Paul Gonsalves (1920-1974).
Ellington's music constitutes a world within the world of Jazz. One of the century's
outstanding composers, he wrote over 1,000 short pieces, plus many suites, music for
films, the theater and television, religious works and more. He must be ranked one of the
century's foremost musicians, regardless of labels. His uninterrupted activity as a
bandleader since 1924 has earned him a high place in each successive decade, and his
achievement is a history of Jazz in itself.
Three outstanding contributors to Ellingtonia must be mentioned. They are trumpeter-

composer Bubber Miley (1903-1932), the co-creator of the first significant style for the
band and, like his exact contemporary Bix Beiderbecke, a victim of too much, too soon;
bassist Jimmy Blanton (1918-1942), who in his two years with Ellington shaped a whole
new role for his instrument in Jazz, both as a solo and ensemble voice; and Billy
Strayhorn (1915-1967), composer-arranger and Ellington alter ego who contributed
much to the band from 1939 until his death.
STRIDE & BOOGIE WOOGIE
Aside from the band, for which he wrote with such splendid skill, Ellington's instrument
was the piano. When he came to New York as a young man, his idols were James P.
Johnson (1894-1955), a brilliant instrumentalist and gifted composer, and Johnson's
closest rival, Willie (The Lion) Smith (1898-1973). Both were masters of the "stride"
By 103

school of Jazz piano, marked by an exceptionally strong, pumping line in the left hand.
James P.'s prize student was Fats Waller. New York pianists often met in friendly but
fierce contests--the beginnings of what would later be known as jam sessions.
In Chicago, a very different piano style came into the picture in the late `20s, dubbed
boogie-woogie after the most famous composition by its first significant exponent,
Pinetop Smith (1904-1929). This rolling, eight-to-the-bar bass style was popular at
house parties in the Windy City and became a national craze in 1939, after three of its
best practitioners, Albert Ammons, Pete Johnson and Meade Lux Lewis, had been
presented in concert at Carnegie Hall.
KANSAS CITY SOUNDS
Johnson was from Kansas City, where boogie-woogie was also popular. The midwestern
center was a haven for Jazz musicians through-out the rule of Boss Pendergast, when the
city was wide open and music could be heard around the clock.
The earliest and one of the best of the K.C. bands was led by Bennie Moten (1894-1935).
By 1930 it had in its ranks pianist Count Basie (1905-1984) who'd learned from Fats
Waller; trumpeter-singer Oran (Hot Lips) Page (1908-1954), one of Louis Armstrong's
greatest disciples; and an outstanding singer, Jimmy Rushing (1903-1972). The city was
to put its imprint on Jazz during the `30s and early `40s.
DEPRESSION DAYS
The great Depression had its impact on Jazz as it did on virtually all other facets of
American life. The record business reached its lowest ebb in 1931. By that year, many
musicians who had been able to make a living playing Jazz had been forced to either take
commercial music jobs or leave the field entirely.
But the music survived. Again, Louis Armstrong set a pattern. At the helm of a big band
with his increasingly popular singing as a feature, he recast the pop hits of the day in his
unique Jazz mold, as such artists as Fats Waller and Billie Holiday (1915-1959),
perhaps the most gifted of female Jazz singers would do a few years later.
Thus, while sentimental music and romantic "crooners" were the rage (among them Bing
Crosby who had worked with Paul Whiteman and learned more than a little from Jazz), a
new kind of "hot" dance music began to take hold. It wasn't really new, but rather a
streamlining of the Henderson style, introduced by the Casa Loma Orchestra which
featured the arrangements of Georgia-born guitarist Gene Gifford (1908-1970). Almost
forgotten today, this band paved the way for the Swing Era.
By 104

THE COMING OF SWING
As we've seen, big bands were a feature of the Jazz landscape from the first. Though the
Swing Era didn't come into full flower until 1935, most up-and-coming young jazzmen
from 1930 found themselves working in big bands.
Among these were two pacesetters of the decade, trumpeter Roy (Little Jazz) Eldridge
(1911-1989) and tenorist Leon (Chu) Berry (1908-1941). Eldridge, the most influential
trumpeter after Louis, has a fiery mercurial style and great range and swing. Among the
bands he sparked were Fletcher Henderson's and Teddy Hill's. The latter group also
included Berry, the most gifted follower of Coleman Hawkins, and the brilliant
trombonist Dicky Wells (1909-1985).
Another trend setting band was that of tiny, hunchbacked drummer Chick Webb (1909-
1939), who by dint of almost superhuman energy overcame his physical handicap and
made himself into perhaps the greatest of all Jazz drummers. His band really got under
way when he heard and hired a young girl singer in 1935. Her name was Ella Fitzgerald
(b. 1917).
THE KING OF SWING
But it was Benny Goodman who became the standard-bearer of swing. In 1934, he gave
up a lucrative career as a studio musician to form a big band with a commitment to good
music. His Jazz-oriented style met with little enthusiasm at first. He was almost ready to
give it up near the end of a disastrous cross-country tour in the summer of `35 when
suddenly his fortunes shifted. His band was received with tremendous acclaim at the
Palomar Ballroom in Los Angeles.
It seems that the band's broadcasts had been especially well timed for California
listeners. Whatever the reason, the band, which included such Jazz stars as the
marvelous trumpeter Bunny Berigan (1908-1942) and drummer Gene Krupa, not to
mention Benny himself, now scored success after success. Some of the band's best
material was contributed by arrangers Fletcher Henderson and his gifted younger
brother Horace.
As the bands grew in popularity, a new breed of fan began to appear. This fan wanted to
listen as much as he wanted to dance. (In fact, some disdained dancing altogether.) He
knew each man in each band and read the new swing magazines that were springing up--
Metronome, Down Beat, Orchestra World. He collected records and listened to the
growing number of band broadcasts on radio. Band leaders were becoming national
figures on a scale with Hollywood stars.
By 105

OTHER GREAT BIG BANDS
Benny's arch rival in the popularity sweepstakes was fellow clarinetist Artie Shaw
(b.1910), who was an on-again-off-again leader. Other very successful bands included
those of Jimmy Dorsey and Tommy Dorsey, whose co-led Dorsey Brothers Band split up
after one of their celebrated fights.
First among black bandleaders were Duke Ellington and Jimmie Lunceford (1902-1947).
The latter led a highly disciplined and showmanship-oriented band which nevertheless
spotlighted brilliant jazz soloists, among them saxophonists Willie Smith and Joe Thomas
and trombonist Trummy Young (1912-1984). The man who set the band's style,
trumpeter-arranger Sy Oliver (1910-1988), later went with Tommy Dorsey.
A newcomer on the national scene was Count Basie's crew from Kansas City, with key
soloists Lester Young and Herschel Evans (1909-1939) on tenors, Buck Clayton (1912-
1992) and Harry Edison (b.1915) on trumpets, and Jimmy Rushing and Billie Holiday
(later Helen Humes) on vocals.
But important as these were (Lester in particular created a whole new style for his
instrument), it was the rhythm section of Basie that gave the band its unique, smooth and
rock-steady drive--the incarnation of swing, Freddie Green (1911-1987) on guitar,
Walter Page (1900-1957) on bass, and Jo Jones (1911-1985) on drums and the Count on
piano made the rhythm section what it was. Basie, of course, continued to lead excellent
bands, but the greatest years were 1936-42.
TALENT SCOUT NUMBER 1 - John Hammond
The Basie band was brought east through the efforts of John Hammond, a young Jazz
enthusiast who had discovered Billie Holiday and boogie woogie music and who also
happened to be Benny Goodman's brother-in-law. It was Hammond who persuaded
Benny to form a trio composed of himself, black pianist Teddy Wilson (1912-1986), and
drummer Gene Krupa.
Not long after the Goodman Trio was launched, it became a quartet with the addition of
vibraphonist (and sometime, drummer and pianist) Lionel Hampton (b.1909), a veritable
dynamo of musical wit and energy. It was the first interracial group to perform regularly
in public. Both Hampton and Wilson later formed big bands of their own with Benny's
help and blessing. Hampton's was a long-lived venture (Editor's note: in his late 80s,
Hampton still performs with a big band). Other Goodman sidemen who launched
successful bandleading careers were Gene Krupa and trumpeter Harry James (1916-
1983). The James band became the most successful of the `40s.
By 106

STILL MORE BIG BANDS...
Other great swing bands included Andy Kirk's, with pianist-arranger Mary Lou Williams
(1910-1981) as the guiding spirit; Earl Hines'; Cab Calloway's with Chu Berry and a
young trumpeter named Dizzy Gillespie (1917-1993); trumpeter Erskine Hawkins';
tenorist Charlie Barnet's; trombonist Glenn Miller's, and the Mills Blue Rhythm Band
with New Orleans trumpeter Henry (Red) Allen (1907-1967) and trombonist J.C.
Higginbotham (1906-1973) as key soloists.
A big band that didn't hit the big time until the mid-40's but had been around since 1936
was one led by clarinetist-singer Woody Herman (1913-1987). A unique unit was "the
biggest little band in the land," a sextet led by bassist John Kirby (1908-1952) featuring
the superb arrangements and trumpeting of Charlie Shavers (1915-1971).
The Swing Era, naturally, was not only a time of big bands, or small groups emulating
their sound. All kinds of music was being played, including that being made by solo
pianists.
ART TATUM
Outstanding among pianists was Art Tatum (1909-1956), whose accomplishment

impressed even classicist Vladimir Horowitz. Perhaps the most gifted technician of all
jazzmen, Tatum had other assets as well, among them an harmonic sense so acute as to
make him an almost infallible improviser. This aspect of his style, as well as his great
rhythmic freedom, influenced the young players who became the founders of a new style
called bebop.
Other unique musical figures of the `30s were violinist Stuff Smith (1909-1967), one of
the first to play an electrically amplified instrument, and guitarist Django Reinhardt
(1910-1953) a Belgian-born gypsy who was the first non-American jazzman of
significance. (Among those who did missionary work in Europe in the `30s were
Coleman Hawkins and Benny Carter; the number of U.S. jazzmen living abroad
increased greatly after the second World War.)
EXIT THE BIG BANDS
The war years took a heavy toll of big bands. Restrictions made travel more difficult and
the best talent was being siphoned off by the draft. But more importantly, public tastes
were changing.
By 107

Ironically, the bands were in the end devoured by a monster they had given birth to: the
singers. Typified by Tommy Dorsey's Frank Sinatra, the vocalist, made popular by a
band affiliation, went out on his own; and the public seemed to want romantic ballads
more than swinging dance music.
The big bands that survived the war soon found another form of competition cutting into
their following--television. The tube kept people home more and more, and inevitably
many ballrooms shut their doors for good in the years between 1947 and 1955. By then it
had also become too expensive a proposition to keep 16 men traveling on the road in the
big bands' itinerant tradition. The leaders who didn't give up (Ellington, Basie, Woody
Herman, Harry James) had something special in the way of talent and dedication that
gave them durability in spite of changing tastes and lifestyles.
The only new bands to come along in the post-war decades and make it were those of
pianist-composer Stan Kenton (1912-1979), who started his band in 1940 but didn't hit
until `45; drummer Buddy Rich (1917-1987), a veteran of many famous swing era bands
and one of jazzdom's most phenomenal musicians, and co-leaders Thad Jones (1923-
1990), and Mel Lewis (1929-1990), a drummer once with Kenton. Another Kenton
alumnus, high-note trumpeter Maynard Ferguson (b. 1928), has led successful big bands
on and off.
BIRD
Bird, as Parker was called by his fans, was a fantastic improviser whose imagination
was matched by his technique. His way of playing (though influenced by Lester Young
and guitarist Charlie Christian (1916-1942), a remarkable musician who was featured
with Benny Goodman's sextet between 1939-41), was something new in the world of Jazz.
His influence on musicians can be compared in scope only to that of Louis Armstrong.
Parker's principal early companions were Dizzy Gillespie, a trumpeter of abilities that
almost matched Bird's, and drummer Kenny Clarke (1914-1985). Dizzy and Bird worked
together in Hines' band and then in the one formed by Hines vocalist Billy Eckstine
(1914-1993), the key developer of bop talent. Among those who passed through the
Eckstine ranks were trumpeters Miles Davis (1927-1991), Fats Navarro (1923-1950),
and Kenny Dorham (1924-1972); saxophonists Sonny Stitt (1924-1982), Dexter Gordon
(1923-1990), and Gene Ammons (1925-1974); and pianist-arranger-bandleader Tadd
Dameron (1917-1965).
Bop, of course, was basically small-group music, meant for listening, not dancing. Still,
there were big bands featuring bop--among them those led by Dizzy Gillespie, who had
several good crews in the late `40s and early to mid-50's; and Woody Herman's so-called
By 108

Second Herd, which included the cream of white bop--trumpeter Red Rodney (b. 1927),
and saxophonists Stan Getz (1927-1993), Al Cohn (1925-1988) and Zoot Sims (1925-
1985), and Serge Chaloff (1923-1957).
In any case, a new style, not necessarily inimical to the big bands yet very different in
spirit form earlier Jazz modes, had sprung up during the war. Bebop, as it came to be
called, was initially a musician's music, born in the experimentation of informal jam
sessions.
Characterized by harmonic sophistication, rhythmic complexity, and few concessions to

public taste, bop was spearheaded by Charlie Parker (1920-1955), an alto saxophonist
born and reared in Kansas City.
After apprenticeship with big bands (including Earl Hines'), Parker settled in New York.
From 1944 on, he began to attract attention on Manhattan's 52nd Street, a midtown
block known as "Swing Street" which featured a concentration of Jazz clubs and Jazz
talent not equaled before or since.
BOP VS. NEW ORLEANS
Ironically, the coming of bop coincided with a revival of interest in New Orleans and
other traditional Jazz. This served to polarize audiences and musicians and point up
differences rather than common ground. The needless harm done by partisan journalists
and critics on both sides lingered on for years.
Parker's greatest disciples were not alto saxophonists, except for Sonny Stitt. Parker
dominated on that instrument. Pianist Bud Powell (1924-1966) translated Bird's mode to
the keyboard; drummers Max Roach and Art Blakey (1919-1990) adapted it to the
percussion instruments. A unique figure was pianist-composer Thelonious Monk, (1917-
1982). With roots in the stride piano tradition, Monk was a forerunner of bop--in it but
not of it.
AFTER PARKER
When Parker died in 1955, the bop era had almost ended, though his influence was still
vividly felt. So-called cool Jazz, spearheaded by a Miles Davis record date involving
such important players as Roach, trombonist J.J. Johnson (b.1924), pianist-composer
John Lewis (b.1920), baritone saxist-arranger Gerry Mulligan (b.1927), and alto
saxophonist Lee Konitz (b. 1927) came into being. Featured were arrangements by
Mulligan, Lewis and the very gifted Gil Evans (1912-1988). The proponents of cool Jazz
(a musical label which, like most others, wasn't very accurate or useful) included Stan
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Getz, Mulligan (notably his quartet with trumpeter Chet Baker [1929-1988]), and John
Lewis' very successful and long-lived Modern Jazz Quartet with Milt Jackson (b. 1923)
on vibraphone. These musicians have in common a strong feeling for melodic
improvisation and a rather gentle tonal palette.
Even vaguer than cool was the once-popular designation West Coast, applied to Jazz
emanating from California. Much more significant and stylistically definable trend was
so-called "hard bop," a mid-50's development. Tenorist Sonny Rollins (b. 1929) is a key
figure here. He played with the Clifford Brown-Max Roach Quintent, perhaps the last
great bop band. In 1956, Brown was killed in a car crash at the age of 25. He was a
remarkably talented trumpeter whose influence prevails today in Freddie Hubbard (b.
1938).
Rollins, who developed into one of the most interesting and imaginative improvisers in
jazz, also worked with Miles Davis. But a more regular member of the trumpeter's group
was John Coltrane (1926-1967), a tenor and soprano saxophonist who was probably the
most influential post-Parker musician aside from Davis himself.
MODAL JAZZ
The Davis group of 1958 with Coltrane altoist Cannonball Adderley (1928-1975), and
pianist Bill Evans (1929-1980), introduced the concept of scalar improvisation (based on
scales and modes rather than chords). It extended further by Coltrane's own quartet with
drummer Elvin Jones (b. 1929) and pianist McCoy Tyner (b. 1938). Davis himself has
moved in other directions. After featuring some of the most gifted young jazzmen of the
`60s, among them tenorist Wayne Shorter (b. 1933), pianist Herbie Hancock (b. 1940),
and drummer Tony Williams (b. 1945), he began to amplify his trumpet electrically and
lead percussive group blending free improvisation with rock rhythms.
A unique musician with roots in Parker, Ellington and Tatum is Charlie Mingus (1920-
1979), bassist and composer and creator of an impressive body of music. Among his
associates have been pianist Jaki Byard (b. 1922), altoist Charles McPherson (b. 1939),
and tenorist Booker Ervin (1930-1970).
Also unclassifiable is pianist-teacher Lennie Tristano (1919-1978). who in late `40s, led
a very distinctive group including Lee Konitz and tenorist Warne Marsh (1927-1987).
Konitz has extended some of Tristano's ideas of pure improvisation.
JAZZ-ROCK FUSION
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In the wake of Miles Davis' successful experiments, rock had an increasing impact on
Jazz. The notable Davis alumni Herbie Hancock (b. 1940) and Chick Corea (b. 1941)
explored what soon became known as fusion style in various ways, though neither cut
himself off from the jazz tradition. Thus Hancock's V.S.O.P., made up of `60s Davis
alumni plus trumpeter Freddie Hubbard, pursued Miles' pre-electronic style, while
Corea continued to play acoustic jazz in various settings. Keith Jarrett(b. 1945), who
also briefly played with Davis, never adopted the electronic keyboards but flirted with
rock rhythms before embarking on lengthy, spontaneously conceived piano recitals.
The most successful fusion band was Weather Report, co-founded in 1970 by the
Austrian-born pianist Joe Zawinul (b. 1932) and Wayne Shorter; the partnership lasted
until 1986. The commercial orientation of much fusion Jazz offers little incentive to
creative players, but it has served to introduce new young listeners to Jazz, and
electronic instruments have been absorbed into the Jazz mainstream.
JAZZ TODAY
Diversity is the word for today's Jazz. Various aspects of freedom have been pursued by
the many gifted musicians connected with the AACM (American Association for Creative
Musicians), a collective formed in 1965 under the guidance of the pianist-composer
Richard Muhal Abrams (b. 1930). Among the groups that have emerged, directly and
indirectly, from the AACM are the Art Ensemble of Chicago and The World Saxophone
Quartet, and notable musicians of this lineage include trumpeter Lester Bowie (b. 1941),
reedmen Anthony Braxton (b.1945), Joseph Jarman, Julius Hemphill, Roscoe Mitchell
and David Murray, and violinist Leroy Jenkins, Ornette Coleman has continued to go his
own way, introducing a unique fusion band, Prime Time, collaborating with guitarist Pat
Metheny (b. 1954), and celebrating occasional reunions with his original quartet.
Quite unexpectedly, but with neat historical symmetry, a new wave of gifted young jazz
players has emerged from New Orleans, spearheaded by the brilliant trumpeter Wynton
Marsalis (b. 1961), who joined Art Blakey's Jazz Messengers--a bastion of the bebop
tradition--in 1979. Also an accomplished classical virtuoso, Marsalis was soon signed by
Columbia Records and became the most visible new Jazz artist in many years. Articulate
and outspoken, he has rejected fusion and stressed the continuity of the Jazz tradition.
His slightly older brother, Branford Marsalis (b. 1960), who plays tenor and soprano
sax, was a member of Wynton's quintet until he joined with rock icon Sting's band for a
year. He has since led his own straight-ahead jazz quartet. As his replacement with
Blakey, Wynton recommended fellow New Orleanian Terence Blanchard (b. 1962), who
later formed a group with altoist Donald Harrison also from New Orleans, as co-leader.
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Many other gifted players have emerged during the present decade -- too many to list
here. Many have affirmed their roots in bebop, and some have reached even further back
to mainstream swing (such as tenorist Scott Hamilton (b. 1954), and trumpeter Warren
Vache, Jr. [b. 1951]), but almost all, even when choosing experimentation and
innovation, operate within the established language of jazz. As in the other arts, Jazz
seems to have arrived at a postmodern stage.
We ought not to overlook the increasingly important role being played by women
instrumentalists, among them Carla Bley, JoAnne Brackeen, Jane Ira Bloom, Amina
Claudine Myers, Emely Remler and Janice Robinson.
The durability of the Jazz tradition has been symbolically affirmed by two events: the
Academy Award nomination of Dexter Gordon, the seminal bebop tenor saxophonist, for
his leading role in the film Round Midnight, and the widely acclaimed appearances of
Benny Carter, approaching his 90th birthday, at the helm of the American Jazz
Orchestra (an ensemble formed in 1986 to perform the best in Jazz, past and present)
both as a player and composer.
And one may also take heart at the qualitative as well as quantitative growth of Jazz
education in this country, and the active involvement of so many fine performing artist in
this process.
SUMMING UP
No one can presume to guess what form the next development in Jazz will take. What we
do know is that the music today presents a rich panorama of sounds and styles.
Thelonious Monk, that uncompromising original who went from the obscurity of the pre-
bop jam sessions in Harlem to the cover of TIME and worldwide acclaim without ever
diluting his music, once defined jazz in his unique way:
"Jazz and freedom," Monk said, "go hand in hand. That explains it. There isn't anymore
to add to it. If I do add to it, it gets complicated. That's something for you to think about.
You think about it and dig it. You dig it."
Jazz, a music born in slavery, has become the universal song of freedom. Think about
that...and dig it”.
The first talking picture staring Al Jolson was the “the Jazz Singer” which tells the story a
man who as a boy was forced by his father to become a cantor, whose father was himself
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a cantor, and runs away from home, because he wanted to become a public performer,
and does extremely well for himself, eventually he goes back to his father's line of work,
in the end of the film during the last moments of his father's life, the same may be said of
the second version of the Jazz singer staring Dustin Hoffman but no last dying moments
of his father. “The Jazz Singer” also relates to the Al Jolson's Story, for which a film was
made thereof also.
The early films were silent pictures as recorded sound was not as yet developed in films.
Subtitles were displayed to replace human voice, although the actors did dramatize the
words displayed, and either a piano or a type of an organ known as the Wurlitzer was
performed during the showing of the film, playing anything from classical, light music of
the time, rag time and jazz.
When films had sound added then composers were commissioned to compose music for
their films, known as soundtracks, for the films that were being made. Some of these
soundtracks form part of the pieces performed by symphony orchestras on an on going
basis.
Franz Waxmann (Rebecca Vaughn Williams (Captain Scott), Rudolf Steiner, Nino Rota,
Eric Wolfgang Korngold, Morricone, Jarre, and many others, for movies especially
feature firms such as Dr ZivaZZhivagon Hur, Ten Commandments with Charleston, to
name but a few.
Even operas, operettas, and musicals have been put onto film, and even some musicals
have been especially written for films as opposed to stage production, such as The
Wizard of Oz, The King and I, and the musicals such as Jerome Kern's Showboat,
Rodgers and Hammerstein productions of The Sound of Music and South Pacific,
Learner and Loewe in My Fair Lady, Brigadoon and Camelot, name but a few, then what
about Grease and Saturday Night Fever staring John Travolta, Andrew Lloyd Webber in
The Phantom of the Opera, Joseph and his Amazing Technicolor Dream Coat, Jesus
Christ Super Star, and other musicals such as Oliver and Annie. Then what about
Oklahoma, Chi tty Chi tty Bang Bang, Meet me in St. Louis, Kismet (based on the music
of Borodin), Victor Victoria and others. Hans Zimmer for instance composed the film
music the the film “Thunderbirds” and that film was marketed for juveniles (children).
Now to the subject of opera, a group of men including the father of Galileo (Galilei) who
was a singer and lutenist, met at the Medici house hold in Florence to discuss the notion
of having a singing drama, since it was the Ancient Greeks, who discovered that drama
goes further if it was sung.
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The opera that was composed was Daphne by Jacopo Peri (1561 to 1633), but the score
of Daphne was lost. Peri composed a second opera called Euridice with a text by
(libretto) by Rinuccini and choruses by Caccini so as to honor the wedding of Maria de
Medici and King Henry 6th of France, which is still performed today.
The greatest of operatic composers was according to Mann, W supra, was Claudio
Monteverdi who composed the opera Le Orpheo, which is also performed today.
Opera is known in Latin as “the works”.
It must be noted that opera had it's beginnings in Florence and then subsequent
performances were to be held in Venice.
It is interesting that Mann regards the daughter of the singer / composer Guilio Caccini,
by the name of Francesca to be the first woman composer, which just goes to show that
different sources mention different things, and makes accuracy quite a difficult exercise
indeed.
Opera is generally at the time was always sung in Italian until composers like Gluck and
Mozart decided that it was time to compose operas in the vernacular such as in German
for such operas as the Magic Flute, whilst in England, John Gay composed the Beggar's
Opera which was sung in English and was the first musical ever to be composed in c.
1728, and it is according to Richard Fawkes, the History of the Musicals, Naxos, that the
Beggar's Opera was the first ever musical to be composed.
Opera is generally divided into opera seria or opera buffo, but there can be a combination
of the two, such as in the Little Cunning Vixen by Leos Janecheck, where a fox (vixen)
get's up to mischief and is eventually shot by a drunken hunter.
Operettas and musicals also comes to mind, and these also includes spoken dialogue as
well, not just singing,
There have also been different schools of opera, not to mention different styles of opera
as well. Ranging from, baroque, classical, romantic, late romantic and modern 20th
Century styles, however with Rugierro Leoncavallo and Giocommo Puccini and some
others, the verismo (meaning truth) school of opera was formed. Examples of verismo
operas are Caveliara Rusticana by Mascagne and Ill Pagliacci by Leoncavallo.
The musicals have themselves proved to more popular then what the operas have been
running in hundreds of performances.
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Chapter 8: Musical Composition.
The periods that classical music has been composed can be listed as shown infra, namely,
• Medieval Era (Hildagard of Bingen and Johannes Ockagem)

• Renaissance Era (Palestrina and Claudio Montiverdi)
• Renaissance / Baroque Era (Henry Purcell)
• Baroque Era (Johan Sebastian Bach, George Frederik Handel, and Antonio
Vivaldi)
• Baroque / Classical Era
• Classical / Romantic Era (Luigi Cherubini, Franz Schubert, Ignace Mosceles and
Ludwig van Beethoven)
• Romantic Era (Johannes Brahms, Pitor Illich Tchaikovksy, Ignace Brül, Karl
Goldmark, Theodore Kullak, the Zwarwenka brothers, Robert Fuchs and
Friederich Gersheim.
• Romantic / 20th Century Era (Gustav Mahler and Arnold Schoenberg)
• 20th Century Era (Benjamin Britten, Avo Part, John Williams, Witold
Lutoslawsky and Leroy Anderson
The twentieth century is in itself an oxyiomoron at the best of times, one has the
atonalism of Arnold Schoenberg right through to the romantic and late romantic styles of
Nino Rota and John Williams.
There has been according to the Wikipedia article on the “History of Classical Music
Traditions” 7th October 2009, there has been the following musical eras, namely,
• Prehistoric
• Ancient (before AD 500)
• Early (500 to 1760)
• Common Practice (1600 to 1900)
• Modern and Comtempory (1900 to present)
Composition is to be defined as the act by a person known as a composer, of writing

down music originated by his or her own imagination.
A composer is the creative musical artist, who expresses himself through the medium of
music, invented, constructed and written down by the composer.
The following infra are the time lines of music, which are set out infra, namely,
• Pope Gregory in about 597 AD instructed his musicians (mainly monks) to put
down his plain songs onto script, which are known as Gregorian Chants, whilst at
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the same time, Pope Gregory sends St. Augustine to Enland to convert the English
to the Christianity, namely to the Roman Catholic Church.
• Prior to Pope Gregory, music was sung and hummed, and passed orally
throughout generations.
• From the Gregorian chant we migrate to the Plain Song and the Ambrosian Chant,
the Dorian, Phrygian and Lydian Modes.
• The earliest pieces of classical music to be composed, as we know classical music

should be, was O virga ac diadema, compossed by an Abbess by the name of
Hildegard of Bingen (1098 to 1179), Hildegard composed music for her nuns to
sing, and if one was to listen to her music, one would notice how easy her music
is to listen to compared with say the Gregorian Chant or the Ambrosian Chant.
• Hildegard of Bingen was also highly learned on scientific and theological matters,
and founded her very own convent. It must be remembered that there was a time
when women not to be seen or heard, or be seen and not heard, and it is fitting to
note that although unfortunately the majority of composers are men, that it was a
woman who composed the very first pieces of classical music. It must also be
remembered for the sake of confusing the reader that both the Gregorian and
Ambrosian Chants still form part of the classical music scene, still to this day, and
even as a matter of interest some pop music say the Beetles music has been
transcribed into Gregorian Chants and the same may be said of some comedy type
music as well.
• We now move to the Gothic Age, with music such as Presul nostril temporis
composed by Pérotin (Perotinus Magnus) (fl. C. 1180 to 1236).
• The Motet comes into play, such as Jen e puis, which was composed by an
anonymous composer.
• We now visit the bands of musicians who perform music especially music in
public, such as the trouveres in Northern France, the troubadours in Southern
France and the minisingers in Germany, to name but a few, and no such musicians
and singers were to be found in all parts of the world. Examples of such music
would be A Virgen, que de Deus madre composed by Alfonso X, ‘El sabio’ (1221
to 1284), Saltarello No. 1 by an anonymous composer, and La Nesse de Nostre
Dame (Gloria) by Guillaume de Machaut (1300 to 1377).
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• The Madricals, for example Per seguir la speranca by Francesco Landini (1325 to
1397)
• Opera was for the first time composed by Jacopo Peri in 1597, called Dapné, but
the score was lost, whereas the second opera Euridice also by Peri still existes to
this day, however, the greatest operatic composer was Claudio Montiverdi, who
composed the opera Le Orpheo, which is also in the repature of today.
• The first Symphony was composed not by Franz Haydn but Giovanni Batista
Sammartini (c. 1693 in Milan to c. 1750 in London), was the first person to write
a symphony, although Haydn is regarded as the greatest of symphonic composers.
• Whilst the majority of operas were composed in Italian, composers like Wolfgang
Armideus Mozart, Henry Purcell and Christoph Willibald Gluck composed operas
in the language of their own countries, so that opera could be made more
excessable to mass audiences. And the first music the Beggar’s Opera by John
Gay (sung in English) (opera buffo) is another example.
• The first musical “The Beggar’s Opera” composed by John Gay (1685 to 1732),
which was composed, in 1728. Like Mozart’s Magic Flute, it was composed for
the masses, not just for the culturally elite.
• John Field is to be credited with composing of the first Nocturne.
• Antonio Vivaldi was one of the originators of concerti, using solo instruments
with orchestra.
• Jazz and Ragtime music started in the 19th Century and is still being composed
today even.
• Ballet scores together choreographing was composed in France for the first time
in the 16th Century, c. 1581) Ballet is genuarally dancing to music so as to create a
type of a story. Hence French terminology is used.
• In the early 19th Century and onwards, saw the development of the operetta and
also the pioneering work in music therapy by Hervé (Floremond Ronger), who
worked at an asylum, who formed an orchestra and singers from the patients
there, for which scientific papers were written in that regard. Music Therapy was
developed as a university degree course in America in c. 1943.
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• Arnold Schoenberg was responsible to atonalism by giving notes a equal weight
in performance.
• Jazz music composed by and developed by free slaves in the late 19th Century,
and Adolph Saxe invented the Saxaphone a woodwind instrument and John Philip
Sousa developed the Sousaphone a large brass instrument for use in military
bands.
• Musicals have taken off big time in the 20th Century and are as popular as ever.
• John Cage and Karl Heinz Stockhausen were originators of electronic music and
of using other sounds.
• Country and western music, rock and roll and pop music is with us as well.
• And it is interesting to note that the muisic of the Beetles has been transcribed
into baroque and classical modes.
• The list of music timelines and development goes on and on, and music is every
changing.
Figure 12: Early types of musical notation.
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Figure 13: An Early Medieval Script
Composition of music has various styles and modes and the composer has at all times
determined for who the composition is intended for.
Composers when composing need to be able to sight read the music that they compose, or
say be able to read music as well.
There is also system of music terminology in Italian, as there is ballet terminology in

French.
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Figure 14: Example of a printed music sheet.
Figure 15: Example of a musical note.
The recorder (Figure 16 – 18) infra, believe it or not is in some instances and in some
schools and kindergartens as the first port of entry into the musical world, for which
children and adults can learn music. The recorder is known as the “blokfluit” in
Afrikaans.
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Figure 16 – 17: The recorder.
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Figure 18: An example of a Jazz composition.
Composers also have to know harmony and counterpoint and know what they are
composing about.
Composing music is not only just for the concert halls, but also for the films,
documentaries and in military applications, such as in marching.
Music has numerous applications and is also a very good entertainment tool that helps to
sooth and inspires the mind of man.
One can thank Franz Schubert and composers like him for brining music making into the
homes of ordinary people.
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Figure 19: Franz Schubert.
Then one has composers changing the way music is to be sounded, which is much to
displeasure of conservative minded composers, musicians, critics and the audience out
there, such an example is Arnold Schoenberg (1874 – 1951) who invented atonalism by
giving each note an equal weight.
Here as one will see infra is a document sourced from www.scibd.com that will give one
an idea of what is needed for the purpose of composition, namely,
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Musical terminology is vital in writing down and composing music, as musicians have to
know at what tempo, speed, and manner a piece of composition (work) needs to be and
how it is to be performed.
Generally Italian terms are used in music, such as allegro, adagio, andante, largo,
cadenza, celsta, presto, and to name many more, and the list goes on and on.
It is interesting that in England, America, Germany and Austria, musicial terminology

has been listed in the vernacular of those countries, by composers such as Anton
Bruckner, Gustave Mahler, and other composers as well. It is also possible that even
French composers have made use of French music terminology.
Attached as per verbatim a glossery of music terminology compiled by Darren Hendley

from his work “The Story of Classical Music, published by Naxos Audio Books, from the
cd Rom cd Rom part, as displayed infra, namely,
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Now we look at just the musical terminology names as sourced from www.classiccat.net
and we will notice infra how that organization looks at terminology and classicafication,
genres in music and a comparison between the pieces available for the flute as compared
to the pieces (compositions) available for the piano. One can clearly see how popular the
piano will be, or will ever be for that matter.
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Here is an article taken as per verbatim from an entry on the Orchestra by the 2005 World
Book Encyclopedia digital edition by the contributor: John H. Baron, Ph.D., Professor of
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Musicology, Tulane University which includes any comments made in bold italics, for
factoring into chapter 8: Music Composition.
“An orchestra is a group of musicians who play together on various instruments. Some
African and Asian orchestras consist entirely of percussion instruments, such as drums,
gongs, and xylophones. But in most Western nations, a musical group is considered an
orchestra only if it includes violins and other stringed instruments. An orchestra differs
from a band, which consists chiefly of wind and percussion instruments.
Some orchestras, called string orchestras, have only stringed instruments. On the other
hand, dance orchestras resemble bands in most ways but may include a small string
section. The word orchestra generally refers to a symphony orchestra, which consists
mainly of stringed instruments. Symphony orchestras also have woodwind, brass, and
percussion instruments, which enable them to produce a full range of musical sounds.
Symphony orchestras play all types of music, but most of them specialize in classical
works. An orchestra may perform alone, or it may accompany one or more instrumental
or vocal soloists or a chorus. Orchestras also accompany ballets and operas and provide
background music for motion pictures and television productions.
Some symphony orchestras are made up entirely of professional musicians. Most of the
world's major cities have a professional symphony, and some cities have several. They
include such large, well-known orchestras as the Berlin Philharmonic, Boston Symphony,
Chicago Symphony, and London Symphony orchestras; the New York Philharmonic; the
Philadelphia Orchestra; and the Vienna Philharmonic. Many smaller communities,
especially in Western countries, also have a symphony orchestra. These orchestras
consist chiefly of amateur musicians. Many schools in Western countries have student
orchestras.
The structure of a symphony orchestra
Orchestral music is written in the form of a score, which shows the notes to be played by
each instrument. Most scores call for about the same kinds of instruments, and so most
orchestras have a similar structure. A typical orchestra has about 20 kinds of instruments,
but the number of each varies among different groups. A large orchestra may have more
than 100 musicians, and small orchestras have from about 15 to 40 players. The small
groups are often called chamber orchestras. During a performance, only the conductor
follows the complete score. The printed music used by the musicians shows only their
individual parts.
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The musicians are divided into four main groups called sections: (1) the string section,
(2) the woodwind section, (3) the brass section, and (4) the percussion section. The
various instruments in the string, woodwind, and brass sections are pitched in different
ranges, like the voices in a chorus. In the following discussion, the instruments in each of
these sections are listed in order from those of the highest range to those of the lowest.
Some percussion instruments are also tuned to definite pitches, but most of them have an
indefinite pitch.
The string section is the heart of a symphony orchestra. It has more than half the
musicians and consists of from 20 to 32 violins, 8 to 10 violas, 8 to 10 cellos, and 6 to 10
string basses. The violinists are divided into two groups of equal size. The first violins
play the highest-pitched part in the string section, and the second violins play the next
highest part. The leading first violinist serves as concertmaster of the orchestra. The
concertmaster directs the other musicians in tuning their instruments and may also be the
orchestra's assistant conductor.
The woodwind section consists chiefly of flutes, oboes, clarinets, and bassoons. An
orchestra has from 2 to 4 of each of these instruments. The musicians in the section also
play various other woodwind instruments when a score requires them to do so. For
example, a flutist may switch to the piccolo, and an oboe player may double on the
English horn.
The brass section consists of 2 to 5 trumpets, 2 to 8 French horns, 2 to 4 trombones, and 1

tuba.
The percussion section includes two or more timpani, or kettle drums; bells and cymbals;
wood blocks; and a bass drum, gong, snare drum, triangle, tambourine, and xylophone.
Other instruments are added to an orchestra if a score calls for them. They include such
instruments as the harp, harpsichord, organ, piano, synthesizer, and various saxophones.
The conductor directs the musicians by keeping time with the baton or with his or her
hands, and by means of gestures and facial expressions. However, conductors do their
most important work before a performance-and even before rehearsing a composition. In
most cases, the conductor selects the music to be played at a concert. After selecting a
work, the conductor's first job is to interpret the music by deciding exactly how it should
be played. Interpretation of a work includes such elements as tempo, tonal quality, and
phrasing. After determining these features of the score, the conductor rehearses the music
with the players.
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During a rehearsal, the conductor asks individual musicians or sections to play various
parts of the score again and again until the desired effect has been achieved. He or she
strives for the correct balance among the many instruments playing at the same time and
adjusts the sound to suit the acoustics of the performance hall. The finest conductors are
respected not only for their musical skill but also for their ability to inspire both
musicians and audiences.
Most conductors also help audition musicians who apply for positions in an orchestra. A
conductor listens to the applicants perform and then recommends who should be invited
to join.
Orchestra management
Most major orchestras in the United States are operated by private, non profit
corporations called symphony societies. The chief concern of a symphony society is to
raise funds to help support the orchestra. The board of directors of the society also acts on
the conductor's recommendations regarding musicians to be offered positions in the
orchestra.
Most professional orchestras have a business manager to handle most of the

administrative work. The business manager works out the orchestra's budget; prepares
employment contracts; plans rehearsal, concert, and recording schedules; and organizes
ticket sales and publicity.
History
The term orchestra was first used by the ancient Greeks for the front area of a stage.
During the Middle Ages, orchestra came to mean the musicians on that part of the stage.
In modern times, orchestra has come to mean both the musicians on stage and the seats
directly in front of the stage.
Beginnings
The first orchestras were organized at the royal court of France and in Italian churches
and palaces during the late 1500's and the 1600's. At first, the orchestras served chiefly to
accompany social dances, ballets, religious vocal music such as requiems, masses,
oratorios and recently Gospel music musicals, and operas. Most of these orchestras
consisted mainly of string instruments. In Germany, wind instruments were also popular.
Except in France, these orchestras had no standard structure. String, wind, and percussion
instruments were often mixed. The orchestra of King Louis XIII of France was the first
standardized orchestra. It had 24 instruments of the violin family, divided into five
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sections, and 12 wind instruments. Beginning in the 1600's, most orchestras also played a
bass line called a basso continuo, usually with a lute, harp, organ, or harpsichord.
The 1700's and 1800's
By the early 1700's, some European composers also began to write music for orchestra in
its own right. These composers included Johann Sebastian Bach, Arcangelo Corelli,
George Frederic Handel, and Antonio Vivaldi. Their compositions were called concerti,
concerti grossi, overtures, and suites.
Orchestral works called symphonies first appeared as overtures or small instrumental

interludes in operas about 1600. By the 1720's and 1730's Giovanni Battista Sammartini
began to write independent string symphonies in Italy. In the late 1700's, Joseph Haydn
and Wolfgang Mozart perfected the classical symphony. The clarinet became standard in
the symphony orchestra in the 1790's. In the early 1800's, Ludwig van Beethoven
composed the first symphonies that included trombones and voices.
During the 1800's, cities began to take over patronage of orchestras. Many orchestras
were regularly engaged in accompanying operas in municipal opera houses and also
played concerts on the side. A few, however, were established independently of the
opera. The Gewandhaus Orchestra of Leipzig, Germany, is the oldest orchestra still
playing. It was founded in 1781. The Paris Conservatory Orchestra was established in
1800, and what is now the Royal Philharmonic Society was founded in 1813.
Until the early 1800's, orchestras were small enough to perform without a conductor. The
concertmaster or a keyboard player in the basso continuo served as the leader. By 1830,
orchestras had grown so large that nearly all were led by a conductor. Composers Hector
Berlioz and Felix Mendelssohn were among the earliest conductors. Berlioz was one of
the first to conduct with a baton.
Popular types of orchestral music in the 1800's included symphonies, overtures,

symphonic poems, and concertos. Orchestras also continued to accompany opera, ballet,
and religious music. In the late 1800's and early 1900's, such composers as Richard
Wagner, Anton Bruckner, Gustav Mahler, and Richard Strauss wrote works for
orchestras of 100 or more musicians.
Modern orchestras
Since the early 1900's, there has been renewed interest in works for smaller orchestras.
Some composers have added electronic instruments or reorganized the orchestra into
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groups to create new kinds of musical sounds. Today, most large orchestras have several
conductors on their staffs.
The symphony orchestra originated in Europe, but its form has been copied throughout
the world. There are now many symphony orchestras in non-European countries
including Argentina, Australia, Brazil, China, Israel, Japan, and Mexico. The first
orchestras in the United States were formed in the late 1700's. The oldest American
orchestra still performing is the student orchestra at Harvard University, formed in 1808.
Important American orchestras include the New York Philharmonic (1842), the Boston
Symphony (1881), the Chicago Symphony (1891), and the Philadelphia Orchestra
(1900).
Figure 19 (b): An example of a South African styled symphony orchestra layout!
The cost of maintaining an orchestra has increased dramatically since the mid-1900's.
The income from ticket sales pays only a fraction of an orchestra's expenses. Many
European orchestras rely heavily on funds from government sources. In the United States,
many orchestras receive additional funds from both private and public sources and from
recording royalties. Organizations such as the National Endowment for the Arts, an
independent federal agency, distribute funds to symphony societies. Some orchestras
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have sought other sources of funding in new types of programming. For example, they
have provided background music for movies, radio, and videos”
Chapter 9: Ethnicity in Music.
There has been other groups of people who have composed music, such as negro slaves
and those free in America, as there has been caucasion musicians and composers using
Afro – American (Negro) themes in their music, and also impersonating Negros such as
in Al Jolson in the film called the Jazz Singer.
There have been people from all over the world of all racial, religious and ethnic groups
that have composed music, which makes it extremely difficult for a seasoned
musicologist to identify the nationality of ethnicity, related that particular piece of music.
Negroes (Afro Americans, blacks, Bantu or Africans), people of mixed races and
euraisions, the Khoisan, the Amirican Red Indian and the Australian Aborigine have
particular style of music, as to Chinese and Japanese. What is interesting is that if the
musicians from these groups were Western Trained and schooled, then the music will
sound like that particular Western Country where the training was done.
Here is a list of Japanese composers for example, as taken from www.classiccat.net such
as
Then we have a list of Black composers for example, as taken from www.classiccat.net
such as
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Bear in mind that the lists of both Japanese and Black Composers for example are by no
means complete, as there are other names as well.
The world is a big place and it would (had it not been for the mentality of copyright on
the one hand and lack of accessibility to such music) be interesting as to how the various
types of music sound, hence the need for open sourcing.
Anton Rubinstein’s music sounds from a Russian perspective to be German, and Russian
by the Germans, Tchaikovsky’s music is not considered to be Russian from the “Mighty
Handful” a group of nationalist composers, represented and founded by Mily
Alexeyevich Balakirev (1837 to 1910), The music of Anton Arensky, Alexander
Glazanov, Peter Tchaikovsky, Anton Rubinstein, and Sergey Tanaiev (and his uncle of 5
years older than him), all have believe it or not have Russian Themes to their music, and
many of their pieces sound Russian as well, although not all of their music sounds
Russian.
Portugese composers such as Joao Domingos Boitempo (1775 to 1842) and Vianna de la
Motte (one of the last group of pupils that Liszt taught), do not even sound Portugese
either. Boitempo’s music could easily be mistaken for that of Beethoven, and De la Motte
(a pupil of Lizst, being part of the last group of pupils), whose music sounds Romantic to
Late Romantic.
The music of different countries have had nationalistic and domestic sounds pertinent to
that country or region, and a musicologist can easily identify the tunes of that particular
area.
Then we come to the Jews who are regarded by some as a kith, a race and / or a religion,
who have faced brutality at the hands of gentiles and have at times been forced to take
baptism. Some Jews took baptism out of choice and also some did so to further their
careers in the music, technical and business fields.
Jews have composed music in all different genres like there Christian and Muslim
counterparts, including masses and oretorios, not to mention music for use in their
synagogues and temples.
For example there has been composers such as Louis Lewendowsky, Salman Sulzer
(knighted by the Austrian Monarch (Austrian Hungarian Empire), Isaack and his son
Jacques Offenbach, Mombach, some Dutch composers and in Cape Town, the English
born cantor, who is the cantor of the Cape Town Hebrew Congregations, not to mention
other composers from other parts of world who themselves have composed music for use
in the synagogues and temples.
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Even Jews that were baptized composed music with Jewish themes as well.
Even non Jewish composers have composed music with Jewish themes as well, such as
an overture of Jewish Themes by Sergey Prokoviev and in the Musical Oliver there is
some element of Jewish sounding music as well.
Jewish indigenous music has been the klezmer music, which was composed in the
ghettos, and is still performed and composed, still today in a free society.
In synagogues there has been legendary cantors whose singing during the early days of
recording have been put on disc, such as Gidion Sirota, David Roitman and Berele Chagy
It is interesting that in the State of Isreal and the Palestinian Authority, that the music of
the Jews and Arabs will sound very much different, like one finds in the Western Cape in
South Africa, between the different race and ethinic groups.
People of different ethnic and religious groups who live side by side as neighbors can
have music sounding very different that is pertinent to their particular ethnic grouping,
this is especially true in Cape Town and it’s suburbs where there is a collection of ethnic
groups of different races, religions and ethnicities and foreign nationals.
For purposes of defining who is a Jew the same classification as used by the Nazis in
Germany from 1933 to 1945 and before, is what being used, further quoted verbatim infra
is Singer’s “classification” which is as follows,
“ ”
Hereunder is a list of Jewish Composers, which are as follows,
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Jews like their Christian counterparts have had their fair share of child prodgedies, Joseph
Hoffmann was performing at the piano at an early age, Broneslaw Huberman (also
known as the Wunderkind) (who founded the Israeli Philharmonic Orchestra and Erich
Wolfgang Korngold who composed at an early age, and the list can go on and on. Jews
by their very nature encourage their children to excel in what ever they do.
Other composers are Rami Bar – niv, who himself composed rag time music and classical
music, a certain Tobias of Estonia, Robert Rollin (an American) in Cape Town and
Thomas Rajna who was born in Hungry and is living in South Africa, and same can be
said for Peter Klatzow who has composed ballet music for the Shakespeare Play Hamlet
and the Ballet Die Drie Diere.
There has been Music by Jewish composers that have been declared entarte (banned)
music, such as Korngold, Pavel Haas (a pupil of Leos Janacek), Hans Krasa, Viktor
Ullman, and Ernst Krenek (a gentile). Some composers were murdered in Auschwitz,
round about 1944 and 1945.
Jews have composed in all genres of music like their Christian counterparts, both secular
and religious. It must also be remembered that Jews are not a homogenous group that say
Islam might be, for that matter, even the Muslims themselves are also not homogenous
either. Jehovah’s Witnesses are the only people together with the B”hai people can claim
homogeneity, but were they to compose secular music as individuals, and then no doubt,
the music would invariably be identified with that geographical region or place.
What about the Muslims! They too have composed music which includes liturgical,
classical and pop music, and have themselves been involved in the performing arts, such
as,
• The Malay Choirs in the Western Cape

• Being part of the minsteral troups, along side their Christian counterparts.
• Singing Opera with the Eon Group, especially in the past in the Western Cape.
• Ibrahim (Dollar) Brand, involved with Jazz.
• Johaar Moseval involved with ballet and the teaching thereof.
• Kamel Khan, an American working in the UCT School of Music and is also a
conductor of note.
• What is sounded like in Arab and Middle Eastern countries do not sound the same
as in the Western Cape such as Bo-Kaap, the Cape Flats and in Cape Town, will
sound more Western in mode, however the chanting, reciting of the Koran and
liturgical practice remains the same throughout world where Muslims reside
(irrespective).
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• Then we have the so called “Gospel Music” as opposed to masses and hymns,
which are popular by an income compromised sociological grouping, and the
composers and performers of such music are Michael W Smith (American),
Jonathan Butler (South African), C C Wilans (American), Don Moen, Bella,
Sakkie Viljoen (South African), and many others. This genre of music is played,
sung and performed as part of worship in a Charismatic “Happy Clapping” type
of congregation or at concerts and at church fundraisings. Recently in America
“Gospel Music” was performed with a symphony orchestra, and if one was to
listen to the overture, then there would be themes to the repertoire of this type of
music, and would have a classical music “feel” to it.
• Jade Chime was used by the Jews of Kaifeng in China, to call worshippers to
pray, which is unusual in Western societies. Christians use the ringing of the bell
for that purpose and Messuzin chants in a particular to summon worshippers for
prayer at a mosque, right throughout the world.
• It is interesting to note that in the Caucasus from Baku to Nalchik, it was
customary for Muslims to engage musicians from the “Mountain Jews to perform
(play) at their musical festivities.
Chapter 10: Philosophical Skills
“Say what you say, and I will defend your right to say what you are saying”,
Voltaire
“Be close to your friends, but be closest to your enemies”, Sun - u
Man has always been seeking freedom of thought and of expression, and philosophy
dates way back to ancient times, Middle Ages, the reformation and to the present time.
In Ancient Greece, one had Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, not to mention that there have
also been Roman and Chinese philosophers.
In Europe during reformation, there was Voltaire, Jean Jacques Rousseau, Goethe,
Heinrich Heine, Schiller and others, and also Baruch Spinoza.
It is interesting to note that the philosopher, Jean Jacques Rousseau was also himself a
musician and composer.
Heinrich Heine said that if books were burned, then lives would be burned as well.
The book burnings in 1933 in Nazi Germany by some of the most cultured, educated and
intelligent people in the world, who also murdered (brutally) 6 000 000 Jews and over 4
000 000 Gentiles.
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Music has evolved through the dawn of time and has interspersed with culture and
philosophy and there has been cross culturing as well, not withstanding the different
genres of music, not to mention music accompanying the poetry of some of the greatest
philosophers such as Goethe, Schiller and Heine, and that of other poets as well.
What about ballets by composers on Shakespearean Themes, such as Romeo and Juliet
by Sergey Prokofiev, Hamlet by Dimity Shostokowitz in Russia and Peter Klatzou in
South Africa, to name but a few.
Operas such as Falstaff, Macbeth and Othello by Giuseppe Verdi, also based on
Shakespearian themes.
Then there is by the very nature of mankind to be prejudiced against other nationalities,
religious minorities, gender such as females, sexual orientation, and political orientation,
the so called “entarte music” comes to mind. What about dictators like Adolph Hitler and
Josef Stalin telling performers and composers what they may do and compose, and also
the banning of composers whose music is contrary to their policies and / or ideology, and
wanting to put such composers and performers into labor and concentration camps,
torture and murder these people as well and ban their music. It may be of interest that
Viktor Ullmann who was murdered in Auschwitz in 1944, who composed the opera “Der
Kaiser von Atlantis” whilst incarcerated in the Theresenstadt Ghetto, attracted the
irritation of the German (Nazi) authorities because of that opera.
As a consequent of the wearing of the “Yellow Star of David” by Jews on the instructions
of the German (Nazi) authorities and the persecution, starvation, torture and deliberate
murder of well over 6 000 000 Jews by the Germans and some of her allies, the chief
executive officer (a Jewess who survived the Holocaust) who was in charge of Deutche
Grammophon, insisted that that Yellow Color be displayed on the logo of that record
company’s album cover.
Composers such as Rachmaniov have been criticized for the music they have composed,
such as the first symphony by composed by Rachmaniov, which was conducted by
Alexander Glazunov who was drunk at the time. Caesar Cui a member of Balakirev’s
Mighty Handful of Russian Nationalist composers said that if there was ever a symphony
composed in hell, and then it was the first symphony of Rachmaniov.
Rachmaniov destroyed the manuscript that he had in his possession, and instructed no
one to ever play this symphony ever again. Luckily it survived and from scores
reconstructed and is played today and recordings can be purchased as well.
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Rachmaniov saw a Dr. Dahl, who used hypnosis on Rachmaniov, managed to get
Rachmaniov to compose again, in that Rachmaniov’s 2nd piano concerto was a great
master piece of music ever to be composed and is the popular of all Rachmaniov’s work.
Alexander Scriabin a pupil of Anton Arensky, for which in the opinion of Arensky would
never amount to much and has proved that his music was more popular than that of
Arensky.
Alexander Scriabin and Sergey Rachmaniov were pupils of Nikolai Zverev, who was a
strict disciplinarian where as far as piano playing was concerned, who also had Sunday
sessions, where no playing or performing was done and he got his pupils to engage in
conversation with the leading composers of the time, and also attend performances at
concerts and theatres so as to see how productions were done.
It is interesting that Scriabin was interested in philosophy and in the works of Madame
Blavatsky and this was to have an influence on his music, where Scriabin tired to display
color to his music.
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Figure 20: Nikolai Zverev and students, with Scriabin seated on his right hand side and
Rachmaniov standing on his left hand side.
There is a critical and essential need to encourage freedom of creativity and of expression
provided it does not compromise, cultures, beliefs, groups or individuals.
An example of this comes is a Czech composer by the name of Bohuslav Martinu (1890 –
1959) who was expelled from a Czech music conservatory because he refused to comply
with there musical methods in c. 1912. Martinu studied old manuscripts and adapted his
music accordingly which was in contrary to the musical styles of the day and in terms of
the compliance requirements of that particular conservatory. Martinu’s music is very
much part of the classical music repertoire, but never get’s heard often enough. It is
interesting that Martinu went to Paris to study with Albert Roussel, (who himself
composed symphonies and other pieces later in life), and left Paris for America, the
moment the Germans where invading France in World War Two, Martinu composed his
first symphony in 1942 in America.
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Like in popular music and music that mankind listens to over and over again, especially
from a broad casting perspective, and likely to be in time immemorial to be played and
broadcasted over and over again, will be the top 100 composers obtained from
www.classiccat.net which will be as follows,
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Much is needed to bridge the cultural divide and bring mankind closer together, coupled
with the interaction of the different types of music.
Not all music is good, there is some that contributes to a dysfunctional society, and can
result in hearing loss.
I have now finally come to the end of this dissertation, and presented the research from a
macro perspective, and have not dwelled in the area of the well known composers such as
Bach, Handel, Beethoven, etc. as there are many books and literature available on these
composers and their music is freely available.
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Bibliography:
In putting together this dissertation (Thesis), I have drawn much of my research from the
Internet, from talking to associates, and consulting the following sources, both hard copy
and digital PDF copies.
• Naxos Catalog 2007

• www.naxos.com
• www.chandos.net
• www.google.co.za
• www.classiccat.net
• The Bruckner Society
• The Medtner Society
• The Piano Society
• Google Books
• Various Translations of the Holy Bible, both Old and New Translations
• www.scribd.com
• Project Gutenberg
• Planet PDF
• “encore” EMI Classics Catalogue 2005/6
• 2009 Naxos Catalogue
• Penguin Music Dictionary
• Jewish Encyclopedia,1938, Shapiro Valentine
• Literature that accompanies the various audio compact discs in my possession and
also what is on the covers of original DVD’s.
• Wikki Pedia
• 2005 World Book Encyclopedia (both hard copy and digital) (some of the
references are obtained from the 2005 digital edition of World Book
Encyclopedia).
• 2005 Compton’s Encyclopedia
• Everyman’s Dictionary of Music, compiled by Eric Blom and revised by Sir Jack
Westrup, 1975, J M Dent & Sons Limited London
• Musical History and General Knowledge of Music (An Outline for Scholars and
other Music-lovers), Wise, Dr. Patrick and Van der Spuy, Melville, (year not
mentioned) Nasou Beperk (Nasionale Opvoedkundige Uitgewery Bpk, Cape
Town, Bloemfontein, Johannesburg, Port Elizabeth and Pietermaritzburg (South
Africa)
• A History of Music for Young People, Russel, John, 2nd Edition, 1965, reprinted
in 1966, George G. Harrap & Co Ltd, London Toronto Wellington Sidney
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• The Wonderful World of Music, Britten, Benjamin and Holst, Imogen, 1958,
Macdonald, London
• James Galway’s Music in Time, Mann, William, 1982, Mitchell Beezley, London
• Wade – Matthews, Max and Thompson, Wendy, Music an Illustrated
Encyclopedia of musical instruments and the great composers, 2004, Lorenz
Books
• Fry, P S, “The Wonderful Story of the Jews”, © 1970, Purnell, London
• Henley, Darren, The Story of Classical Music (Classic fm), Naxos Audio Books
• Chandos Records
• Sony Classics
• Claremont Records
• BIS (a part of the Naxos stable, and is also a Swedish Lable.
• Hyperion Records
•
• Singer, Fay (a respected and learned musicologist in Cape Town @ UCT),
Research paper which is a commentary on Lyman, D, “Great Jews in Music”,
1986
• Salersky, Gidal, “Music of a Wandering Race”, somewhere before World War
Two, US Publication
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A Brief History Overview) of Music by Colin D Goldberg

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A Brief History (Overview) of Music, the practice and the philosophy thereof being for

Colin David Goldberg

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(Completed as @ 31st July 2009)

1. Introduction and History of Music

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It is interesting that there is an illustration in Wade – Matthews, Max and Thompson,

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See illustrations infra.

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Chapter 2: Aspect of style.

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