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) where x
) = x.
If X is a nite set, label by integers 1, 2, . . . , n. An element Perm(X) is a mapping k i
k
for
k = 1, 2, . . . , n, where all integers i
k
are distinct (so that the map is bijective).
Denition: The permutation group of n objects is called the symmetric group S
n
.
We can denote elements of S
n
by
_
1 2 n
i
1
i
2
i
n
_
. The product is easy to work out in this
notation.
S
3
has 6 elements: e the identity, a the shift to the right by one, b the inversion
_
1 2 3
3 2 1
_
,
and then the shift to the right by 2 (or equiv. to the left by 1) a
2
, the inversion plus shift to the
right by 1 ab and by 2 a
2
b. It is easy to see
a
3
= e, b
2
= e, ab = ba
2
, a
2
b = ba.
5
Hence, we have S
3
= e, a, a
2
, b, ab, a
2
b subject to these relations. So we can say that S
3
is
generated by a and b, and we write S
3
=< a, b > (with in mind that a and b satisfy the relations
above).
Note: S
3
is nonabelian.
Isomorphisms
Denition: A map f : G
1
G
2
is an isomorphism if it is bijective and if it satises f(gh) =
f(g)f(h) for all g, h G
1
(in other words: f preserves the multiplication rule).
Denition: Two groups G
1
and G
2
are isomorphic if there exists an isomorphism f : G
1
G
2
.
Theorem 3.2
The isomorphic relation is an equivalence relation.
Proof. We need to check that the relation is reective, symmetric and transitive. Reexive: G
1
is isomorphic to G
1
because the identity map id is an isomorphism. Symmetric: if f : G
1
G
2
is an isomorphism, than so is f
1
: G
2
G
1
. Indeed f
1
is a bijection. Further, let g =
f(h), g
= f(h
) G
2
with h, h
G
1
(h and h
) = f
1
(f(h)f(h
)) = f
1
(f(hh
= f
1
(g)f
1
(g
) by denition of f
1
, so f
1
preserves the multiplication law. Finally, transitive: let f
f
is bijective. Also f
f(gg
) = f
(f(gg
)) = f
(f(g)f(g
)) = f
(f(g))f
(f(g
)) = f
f(g) f
f(g
)
so f
_
1 2
2 1
_
= f(1)f(1). Also,
6
f(1) =
_
1 2
1 2
_
hence f maps identity to identity. This is sucient to verify that f is an
isomorphism.
Example
Let G
1
= Z
n
and G
2
= e
2ik/n
: k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1. Consider the map f : G
1
G
2
given
by f(k) = e
2ik/n
, k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n 1. It is well-dened: since we restrict to k between 0 and
n 1, they are all dierent integers when taken mod n. It is surjective: just by denition, we
get all e
2ik/n
: k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1. It is injective: if f(k) = f(k
) then e
2pii(kk
)/n
= 1 hence
kk
= 0 mod n so that k = k
mod n) = e
2i(k+k
mod n)/n
=
e
2i(k+k
)/n
= e
2ik/n
e
2ik
/n
= f(k)f(k
).
Example
Consider S
3
= e, a, a
2
, b, ab, a
2
b with the relations as before. Consider the subgroup H =
e, b =< b >. We have Ha = a, a
2
b, Ha
2
= a
2
, ab. We have 3 cosets, each 2 elements,
total 6 elements.
Example
Take V
4
= e, a, b, ab with the relations shown above. A (cyclic) subgroup is of course H =
e, a =< a >. One coset is H = Ha, the other is Hb = b, ab. They have no element in
10
common, and have the same number of elements. Lagrange thm holds.
Direct products
Let G
1
and G
2
be two groups. Then G = g
1
G
2
= (g
1
, g
2
) : g
1
G
1
, g
2
G
2
is a group,
with the multiplication law (g
1
, g
2
)(g
1
, g
2
) = (g
1
g
1
, g
2
g
2
). The axioms of a group are satised.
Note: if G
1
and G
2
are abelian, then so is G
1
G
2
. Also, G
1
e
2
= (g
1
, e
2
) : g
1
G
1
(where e
2
is the identity in G
2
) is a subgroup of G
1
G
2
, which is isomorphic to G
1
. Likewise,
e
1
G
2
= G
2
.
Theorem 5.2
[G
1
G
2
[ = [G
1
[ [G
2
[
Proof. Trivial.
Consider G
1
= e
1
, a
1
, a
2
1
= e
1
and G
2
= e
2
, a
2
, a
2
2
= e
2
. That is, G
1
= Z
2
and G
2
= Z
2
.
Then G
1
G
2
has order 4. Hence it must be isomorphic to Z
4
or to V
4
. Which one? Since all
elements of G
1
G
2
dierent form (e
1
, e
2
) are of order 2, this cannot be Z
4
, which has element
of order 4. Hence it must be V
4
. That is, we have found
Z
2
Z
2
= V
4
.
Theorem 5.3
(without proof) A group of order 6 is isomorphic either to Z
6
(cyclic group of order 6) or to S
3
.
Consider the group Z
2
Z
3
. This has order 6. Is it isomorphic to Z
6
or to S
3
? We note that
Z
2
Z
3
is abelian. Also, Z
6
is abelian, but S
3
is not. Hence we must have
Z
2
Z
3
= Z
6
.
6 Lecture 6
In which situations do we have Z
p
Z
q
= Z
pq
? The answer is
Theorem 6.1
Z
p
Z
q
= Z
pq
if and only if p and q are relatively prime (i.e. do not have prime factors in
common).
Proof. Let Z
p
=< a > and Z
q
=< b >. That is, a
p
= e and b
q
= e (and there are no smaller
positive integeres such that these are true). Then, consider (a, b) Z
p
Z
q
. We show that if p
and q are relatively prime, then (a, b) has order pq. Indeed, let n > 0 be such that (a, b)
n
= (e, e)
(the identity in Z
p
Z
q
). Then we must have both a
n
= e and b
n
= e. Hence, n = rp = tq where
11
r and t are positive integers. The smallest values for t and r are: t = all prime factors of p not
included in q, and r = all prime factors of q not included in p. If p and q are relatively prime,
then we nd t = p and r = q. Hence, n = pq. That is, the subgroup < (a, b) > of Z
p
Z
q
has
order pq = [Z
p
Z
q
[. Hence we have found Z
p
Z
q
=< (a, b) >: it is cyclic, hence isomorphic
to Z
pq
. For the opposite proposition, we show that if p and q are not relatively prime, then
Z
p
Z
q
is not isomorphic to Z
pq
. In the argument above, in place of (a, b) we take an arbitrary
element of the form c = (a
v
, b
w
) for v, w 0, and look for some n > 0 such that c
n
= e. Clearly,
(a
v
)
p
= e and (a
w
)
q
= e. Hence the argument above with a replaced by a
v
and b replaced by b
w
shows that we can take t < p and r < q, so that n < pq. This means that any element of Z
p
Z
q
has order less than pq. But in Z
pq
there is at least one element that has order pq. Hence, we do
not have an isomorphism.
Matrices, symmetry transformations and dihedral groups
Let us consider the natural transformations of the Euclidean plane: translations, rotations and
reections. Consider the subset of the plane formed by a circle centred at the origin and of
radius 1:
(x, y) : x
2
+y
2
= 1. (1)
What are its symmetries? The only transformations that preserve this circle are the rotations
w.r.t. the origin, and the reections w.r.t. any axis passing by the origin. We can describe these
by matrices, acting on the coordinates
_
x
y
_
simply by matrix multiplication. Rotations are
A
=
_
cos sin
sin cos
_
.
For the reections, one is that through the x axis (i.e. inversing the y coordinate):
B =
_
1 0
0 1
_
.
Reections through any other axis can be obtained from these two transformations: if we want
reection through the axis that is at angle , we just need to construct
B
:= A
BA
: [0, 2)
A
BA
: [0, ) (note that we only need to consider axes of reection of angles between 0
and , because a rotation of an axis gives back the same axis). In general, a multiple rotation
lead to a single rotation with the sum of the angles:
A
= A
+
, B and A
BA
_
R
2
:
_
M
T
_
x
__
T
_
M
T
_
x
__
= 1
_
_
_
=
_
_
_
_
x
_
R
2
:
_
x
_
T
MM
T
_
x
_
= 1
_
_
_
=
_
_
_
_
x
_
R
2
:
_
x
_
T
_
x
_
= 1
_
_
_
=
__
x
_
R
2
: (x
)
2
+ (y
)
2
= 1
_
Hence we get back to the set (1). We will discuss later on what group this form. But for now,
let us consider simpler groups formed by subsets of the transformations discussed here. Let us
consider, instead of the circle, less symmetric objects: polygons.
Denition: Let n 2 be an integer. The set of rotations and reections that preserve the
regular polygon P
n
formed by successively joining the points
_
_
_
_
cos
_
2k
n
_
sin
_
2k
n
_
_
_
_
_
, k = 0, 1, 2 . . . , n 1
is called the dihedral group D
n
. This is the symmetry group of this polygon.
Note that the case n = 2 does not quite form a polygon - it is rather just a segment, and it is
not actually closed. But it does t well in the considerations below, so it is appropriate to add
it here.
7 Lecture 7
n = 2. From geometric considerations, the symmetries of the segment are the rotations by
angle 0 (the identity) and , as well as the reections w.r.t. axes at angles 0 and /2, i.e.
the x and y axes. These are the matrices, in the notation A
=
_
1 0
0 1
_
To show that, e.g., A
_
x
y
_
R
2
: y = 0, 1 < x < 1
_
=
__
x
y
_
R
2
: y = 0, 1 < x < 1
_
=
__
x
_
R
2
: y
= 0, 1 < x
< 1
_
=
__
x
_
R
2
: y
= 0, 1 < x
< 1
_
where we have made the change of variable x
= x and y
<
1 x
= A
2
= 1
and B
2
= 1. Also, A
B = BA
, B, A
c(g
)
1
(for some g, g
G), hence a = gg
c(g
)
1
g
1
= gg
c(gg
)
1
.
Hence, the group G is divided into disjoint conjugacy classes, [a] = gag
1
: g G. These
classes cover the whole group,
aG
[a] = G, hence form a partition of G. Further remarks:
[e] = e. Hence no other class is a subgroup (i.e. e , [a] for any a ,= e).
All elements of a conjugacy class have the same order. Because (gag
1
)
n
= gag
1
gag
1
gag
1
(n factors) = ga
n
g
1
(using g
1
g = e). Hence if a
n
= e (i.e. a has order n), then
(gag
1
)
n
= geg
1
= e. Hence also gag
1
has order n.
If G is abelian, then [a] = a for all a G.
Denition: A subgroup H is called normal or invariant if gHg
1
H for all g G. (note: as
usual, gHg
1
= ghg
1
: h H). That is, H is normal if for every h H and every g G, we
have ghg
1
H.
Notes:
A simple consequence of normality is that gHg
1
= H. Indeed, we have H gHg
1
: for
every h H, there is a h
= g
1
hg H (by normality) such that ghg
1
= h.
Let H be a normal subgroup. If h H then [h] H. That is, H is composed of entire
conjugacy classes. In fact: a subgroup is normal if and only if the subgroup is the union
of conjugacy classes.
e is a normal subgroup.
Every subgroup of an abelian group is normal.
Denition: A group is simple if it has no proper normal subgroup. A group is semi-simple if
it has no proper abelian normal subgroup.
Denition: The center Z(G) of a group G is the set of all elements which commute with all
elements of G:
Z(G) = a G : ag = ga g G
15
Theorem 7.2
The center Z(G) of a group is a normal subgroup.
Proof. Subgroup: closure: let a, b Z(G) and g G then abg = agb = gab hence ab Z(G).
identity: e Z(G). inverse: let a Z(G) and g G then ag
1
= g
1
a hence ga
1
= a
1
g
hence a
1
Z(G). Normal: let a Z(G) and g G then gag
1
= gg
1
a = a Z(G).
Note: If G is simple, then Z(G) = e or Z(G) = G.
Quotients
Let G be a group and H a subgroup of G.
Denition: A left-coset of G with respect to H is a class [a]
L
= b G : a
1
b H for a G.
That is, [a]
L
= aH. (Compare with right-cosets same principle: a
1
b H is an equivalence
relation between a and b).
Hence we have two types of cosets (right and left), with two types of equivalence relations. We
will denote the equivalence relations respectively by
R
and
L
, and the classes by [a]
R
= Ha
and [a]
L
= aH.
Denition: The quotient G/H = [a]
L
: a G is the set of all left-cosets; that is, the set of
equivalence classes under
L
. The quotient HG = [a]
R
] : a G is the set of all right-cosets;
that is, the set of equivalence classes under
R
.
We only discuss G/H, but a similar discussion hold for HG.
Given two subsets A and B of G, we dene the multiplication law AB = ab : a A, b B.
Theorem 7.3
If H is normal, then the quotient G/H, with the multiplication law on subsets, is a group.
Proof. We need to check 4 things.
Closure: We have [g
1
]
L
[g
2
]
L
= g
1
Hg
2
H = g
1
g
2
g
1
2
Hg
2
H = g
1
g
2
HH where we used H =
g
1
2
Hg
2
(because H is normal). Since e H (because H is a subgroup), we have that
HH H. Clearly HH H by closure. Hence HH = H. Hence we nd [g
1
]
L
[g
2
]
L
=
g
1
g
2
H so that
[g
1
]
L
[g
2
]
L
= [g
1
g
2
]
L
.
Associativity: This follows immediately from associativity of G and the relation found in
the previous point.
Identity: Similarly it follows that [e]
L
is an identity.
Inverse: Similarly it follows that [g
1
]
L
is the inverse of [g]
L
.
16
We call G/H the (left-)quotient group of G with respect to H.
Homomorphisms
Denition: Let G
1
and G
2
be groups. A map : G
1
G
2
is a homomorphism if (gg
) =
(g)(g
) for all g, g
G
1
.
Note:
(e
1
) = e
2
(g
1
) = (g)
1
Example
Homomorphism S
2
S
3
:
_
1 2
1 2
_
_
1 2 3
1 2 3
_
,
_
1 2
2 1
_
_
1 2 3
2 1 3
_
Note: this is not an isomorphism though S
2
and S
3
are not isomorphic (in particular, they
dont even have the same number of elements).
Note: e
1
ker
1
.
Theorem 8.1
The kernel is a normal subgroup.
Proof. Let : G G
= e
hence h
1
h
2
H; 2) (e) = e
hence e H; 3) if h H then (h
1
) =
(h)
1
= e hence h
1
H. Hence H is a subgroup. Also: if h G and g G then
(ghg
1
) = (g)(h)(g
1
) = (gg
1
) = (e) = e hence ghg
1
H. Hence H is normal.
Theorem 8.2
The image of a homomorphism : G
1
G
2
is a subgroup of G
2
.
17
Proof. Let g
2
, g
2
Im G
2
. Closure: g
2
= (g
1
), g
2
= (g
1
) with g
1
, g
1
G
1
. So g
2
g
2
=
(g
1
)(g
1
) = (g
1
g
1
) Im. Identity: we know that (e
1
) = e
2
, hence e
2
Im. Inverse: we
know that (g
1
)
1
= (g
1
1
). We have g
2
= (g
1
) so g
1
2
= (g
1
)
1
= (g
1
1
) Im.
Note: Im in general is not normal.
The homomorphism theorem
Theorem 8.3
(Homomorphism theorem) Let : G G
, i.e. im = G
.
Dene
(gH) = (g). This is well dened because if g
1
H = g
2
H (recall, g
1
H and g
2
H are
either equal or disjoint) then g
1
L
g
2
hence g
1
= g
2
h for some h H hence (g
1
) = (g
2
h) =
(g
2
)(h) = (g
2
) because H is the kernel of . Also,
is a homomorphism:
(gHg
H) =
(gg
H) = (gg
) = (g)(g
) =
(gH)
(g
H).
to be continued...
9 Lecture 9
...continuation
Second, we show that
is bijective. It is clearly surjective (onto G
), because is onto G
:
the set of all left-cosets is the set of all gH for all g G, and
(gH : g G) = (G) = G
.
Hence we only need to show injectivity. Suppose
(gH) =
(g
). Hence
(g)
1
(g
) = e hence (g)
1
(g
) = e hence (g
1
g
) = e hence g
1
g
H hence g
= gh for
some h H, hence g
L
g
, so that gH = g
H.
Example
Take S
3
= e, a, a
2
, b, ab, a
2
b (with the usual relations). Choose H = e, a, a
2
. Check that
it is a normal subgroup. Clearly it is a subgroup, as it is H =< a >. We need to check that
gHg
1
H; it is sucient to check for g = b, ab, a
2
b (i.e. g , H). We have bab
1
= bab =
a
2
bb = a
2
H, and ab a (ab)
1
= abab
1
a
1
= ababa
2
= aa
2
bba
2
= a
3
a
2
= a
2
H and
a
2
b a (a
2
b)
1
= a
2
bab
1
(a
2
)
1
= a
2
baba = a
2
a
2
bba = a
4
a = a
5
= a
2
H. Using these results,
the rest follows: ba
2
b
1
= (bab
1
)
2
= a
4
= a H, etc. Hence H is normal. Interestingly,
we also obtain from these calculations the conjugacy classes of a and a
2
(because the other
things to calculate are trivial since H is abelian: aaa
1
= a, etc.): we have [a]
C
= a, a
2
and
[a
2
]
C
= a, a
2
. Along with [e]
C
= e, we see indeed that H = [e]
C
[a]
C
so it contains whole
conjugacy classes.
We have two left-cosets: H = [e]
L
and bH = [b]
L
= b, ab, a
2
b. Hence, S
3
/H has two elements,
18
[e]
L
and [b]
L
. Explicitly multiplying these subsets we nd:
[e]
L
[e]
L
= [e]
L
, [e]
L
[b]
L
= [b]
L
, [b]
L
[b]
L
= [e]
L
Indeed, this forms a group, and is in agreement with the relation found (using b
2
= e). We
have [e]
L
= [a]
L
= [a
2
]
L
and [b]
L
= [ab]
L
= [a
2
b]
L
. The multiplication law is also in agreement
with other choices of representatives, because e.g. [a]
L
[ab]
L
= [a
2
b]
L
and [ab]
L
[ab]
L
= [abab]
L
=
[a
3
b
2
]
L
= [e]
L
, etc. In the end, we nd that the multiplication law is that of Z
2
, i.e.
S
3
/H
= Z
2
Example
Consider the above example again. We have the following homomorphism: : S
3
= e, a, a
2
, b, ab, a
2
b
Z
2
= e, b given by (a
n
) = e and (a
n
b) = b. This is a homomorphism: (a
n
a
m
) = e =
(a
n
)(a
m
), (a
n
ba
m
b) = (a
nm
b
2
) = (a
nm
) = e = b
2
= (a
n
b)(a
m
b), (a
n
ba
m
) =
(a
nm
b) = b = be = (a
n
b)(a
m
) and likewise (a
n
a
m
b) = b = (a
n
)(a
m
b). We see the
following: given the group H, we have found a homomorphism : S
3
S
3
/H (onto) such that
ker = H. (And put dierently, we also see that, as in the previous example, S
3
/ker = im.)
Example
Let R
R
+
(onto) by (x) = [x[. This is a homomorphism: (xx
) = [xx
[ = [x[ [x
[ = (x)(x
). Its kernel
is ker = x R
: [x[ = 1 = 1, 1 = Z
2
. Hence Z
2
is a normal subgroup of R
. Further,
let us calculate R
/Z
2
. This is the set xZ
2
: x R
= x, x : x R
= x, x :
x R
+
. That is, it is the set of pairs of number and its negative, and each pair can be
completely characterised by a positive real number. These pairs form a group (the quotient
group): x, x x
, x
= xx
, xx
.
We note that there is an isomorphism between R
/Z
2
and R
+
. Indeed, dene : R
/Z
2
R
+
as the bijective map (x, x) = [x[ (for x R
, x
) = (xx
, xx
) = [xx
[ = [x[ [x
[ = (x, x x
, x
). Hence, we have
found that R
/Z
2
= R
+
, that is,
R
/ker
= im
(where im = (G) is the image of ).
19
Example
not done in class
Consider the group
K
2
=
__
1
0
_
: C, C
_
L
2
=
__
1 0
1
_
: C
_
We can check that K
2
is a group, and that L
2
is a normal subgroup of K
2
.
K
2
is a group: 1) closure:
_
1
0
__
1
0
_
=
_
(
)
1
0
1
+
_
2) associativity: immediate from matrix multiplication;
3) identity: choose = 1 and = 0;
4) inverse:
_
1
0
_
1
=
_
0
1
_
(just check from the multiplication law above).
L
2
is a subgroup: just choose = 1, this is a subset that is preserve under multiplication (check
multiplication law above), that contains the identity ( = 0) and that contain inverse of every
element (check form of inverse above).
L
2
is a normal subgroup: the argument is simple: under the multiplication rule, elements of
the diagonal get multiplied directly. Hence, with element g =
_
1
0
_
K
2
and h =
_
1 0
1
_
L
2
, we have that ghg
1
is a matrix with on the diagonal 1
1
= 1 and
1
1 = 1, hence matrix of the form
_
1 0
1
_
L
2
.
So, we can form the quotient group K
2
/L
2
: this is the group of left-cosets, under element-wise
20
multiplication of left-cosets. The set of left cosets is
gL
2
: g K
2
=
__
1
0
___
1 0
1
_
: C
_
: , C; ,= 0
_
=
___
1
0
+
_
: C
_
: , C; ,= 0
_
=
___
1
0
_
: C
_
: , C; ,= 0
_
=
__
1
0
C
_
: , C; ,= 0
_
(2)
where in the third step, we changed variable to
to ) which
preserves C, i.e. + : C = C, because ,= 0. That is, a left-coset is a subset
_
1
0
C
_
.
The multiplication law is
_
1
0
C
__
1
0
C
_
=
_
(
)
1
0
C
1
+C
_
=
_
(
)
1
0
C
_
hence clearly the identity in the quotient group is
_
1 0
C 1
_
= L
2
There exists a bijective map : K
2
/L
2
C
= C : ,= 0, given by
__
1
0
C
__
=
This is bijective. Indeed, it is surjective: given C
1
=
2
= , hence
_
1
1
0
C
1
_
=
_
1
2
0
C
2
_
.
The map is also a homomorphism, hence it is an isomorphism. Indeed, using the multiplication
law of the quotient group above, we see that
(
_
1
0
C
__
1
0
C
_
) = (
_
(
)
1
0
C
_
) =
= (
_
1
0
C
_
)(
_
1
0
C
_
).
21
Hence, we have shown that K
2
/L
2
= C
).
Let us now consider the homomorphism : K
2
C
given by
(
_
1
0
_
) =
This is onto C
, C : (
_
1
0
_
) = 1
_
=
__
1
0
_
: = 1, C
_
=
__
1 0
1
_
: C
_
= L
2
(3)
Hence by the homomorphism theorem we have that K
2
/L
2
= C
Additional theorems
Theorem 9.1
A homomorphism : G G
and (e) = e
hence (g
1
)(g
1
2
) = e
hence (g
1
g
1
2
) = e
hence
g
1
g
1
2
= e by using ker = e. Hence g
1
= g
2
and we have injectivity.
Theorem 9.2
Given a group G and a normal subgroup H, there exists a homomorphism : G G/H (onto)
such that ker = H.
Proof. If g G, let (g) = gH. This is a homomorphism: (gg
) = gg
H = gHg
H = (g)(g
).
Its kernel is ker = g G : gH = H = g G : g
L
e = H.
Automorphisms
Denition: An automorphism is an isomorphism of G onto itself.
22
Example
Let a G. Dene
a
: G G by
a
(g) = aga
1
. Then
a
is an automorphism:
Homomorphism:
a
(g
1
g
2
) = ag
1
g
2
a
1
= ag
1
a
1
ag
2
a
1
=
a
(g
1
)
a
(g
2
).
Onto: given g G, there exists g
G such that
a
(g
= a
1
ga.
ker
a
= e: indeed if
a
(g) = e then aga
1
= e then g = a
1
ea = e.
10 Lecture 10
Example
Consider G = Z
2
Z
2
, with Z
2
= e, a, a
2
= e. Dene : G G by ((g
1
, g
2
)) = (g
2
, g
1
).
This is an nontrivial (i.e. dierent from identity map) automorphism. Indeed: 1) it is bi-
jective, 2) it is nontrivial: ((e, a)) = (a, e) ,= (e, a), 3) it is a homomorphism: (g)(g
) =
((g
1
, g
2
))((g
1
, g
2
)) = (g
2
, g
1
)(g
2
, g
1
) = (g
2
g
2
, g
1
g
1
) = ((g
1
g
1
, g
2
g
2
)) = (gg
). But there is no
g Z
2
Z
2
such that =
g
. Indeed, we would have
g
((e, a)) = (g
1
, g
2
)(e, a)(g
1
1
, g
1
2
) =
(e, g
2
ag
1
2
) ,= (a, e) for any g
2
.
Denition: An inner automorphism is an automorphism such that =
a
for some a G.
If is not inner, it is called outer. The set of inner automorphisms of a group G is denoted
Inn(G).
Denition: the set of all automorphisms of a group G is denoted Aut(H).
Note: If G is abelian, then every inner automorphism is the identity map.
Theorem 10.1
The set of all autmomorphisms Aut(G) is a group under composition. The subset Inn(G) is a
normal subgroup.
Proof. First, we know that composing bijective maps we get a bijective map, that composition
is associative, and that there is an identity and an inverse which are also bijective. Hence
we need to check 3 things: composition is homomorphism, identity is homomorphism, and
inverse is homomorphism. Let
1
,
2
Aut(G). Closure: (
1
2
)(gg
) =
1
(
2
(gg
)) =
1
(
2
(g)
2
(g
)) =
1
(
2
(g))
1
(
2
(g
)) = (
1
2
)(g)(
1
2
)(g
1
, then g
1
is the unique one such that
this is true, and the inverse map is dened by
1
(g
1
) = g
1
. Let also (g
2
) = g
2
. Then,
1
(g
1
g
2
) =
1
((g
1
)(g
2
)) =
1
((g
1
g
2
)) = g
1
g
2
=
1
(g
1
)
1
(g
2
) so that indeed
1
is
homomorphism (hence, again, automorphism).
23
Second, the subset of inner automorphisms is a subgroup. Indeed,
a
b
=
ab
because
a
(
b
(g)) = abgb
1
a
1
= (ab)g(ab)
1
. Also, the identity automorphism is
e
and the inverse of
a
is
a
1.
Third, the subset of inner automorphisms is normal. Let be any automorphism. Then
a
1
=
(a)
, so it is indeed an inner automorphism. This is shown as follows:
a
1
(g) =
(
a
(
1
(g))) = (a
1
(g)a
1
) = (a)g(a
1
) = (a)g(a)
1
.
Note on notation: be careful of the meaning of where we put the 1 in the exponent: (g
1
) =
(g)
1
on the r.h.s. we take the inverse of the element (g). But in
a
1(g) =
1
a
(g), on the
r.h.s. we take the inverse
1
of the map , and then apply it to g.
Note the important formulae:
a
1
=
(a)
,
a
b
=
ab
,
11 Lecture 11
Theorem 11.1
G/Z(G)
= Inn(G).
Proof. We only have to realise that the map : G Aut(G) given by (g) =
g
is a homomor-
phism. Indeed, the calculation above have showed that (g
1
g
2
) =
g
1
g
2
=
g
1
g
2
= (g
1
)(g
2
).
Hence, we can use the homomorphism theorem, G/ker
= im. Clearly, by denition, im =
Inn(G). Let us calculate the kernel. We look for all g G such that (g) = id. That is, all g
such that
g
(h) = h h G. That is, ghg
1
= h h G so that gh = hg h G. Hence,
g Z(G), so that indeed ker = Z(G).
Basics of matrices
We denote by M
N
(C) and M
N
(R) the set of all N N matrices with elements in C and R resp.
We may:
add matrices C = A+B
multiply matrices by scalars C = A, C or R,
multiply matrices C = AB
The identity matrix is I with elements I
jk
=
jk
= 1(j = k), 0(j ,= k). Note: 1) IA = AI; 2)
matrix multiplication is associative.
Given any matrix A, we may
24
Take its complex conjugate
A : (
A)
jk
= A
jk
Take its transpose A
T
: (A
T
)
jk
= A
kj
Take its adjoint A
=
A
T
= A
T
.
Denition: A matrix A is
self-adjoint if A
= A
symmetric if A
T
= A
unitary if A
= A
1
diagonal if A
jk
= 0 for j ,= k
Denition: The trace of a matrix is Tr(A) =
N
j=1
A
jj
.
Note: Tr(A
1
A
2
A
k
) = Tr(A
k
A
1
A
k1
), Tr(I) = N (simple proofs omitted).
Denition: A matrix A is invertible if there exists a matrix A
1
such that AA
1
= A
1
A = I.
Denition: The determinant of a matrix is det(A) =
N
j
1
=1
N
j
N
=1
j
1
j
N
A
1j
1
A
Nj
N
where
123N
= 1 and
j
1
j
N
is completely anti-symmetric: it changes its sign if two indices are
interchanged. Example:
12
= 1,
21
= 1,
11
=
22
= 0.
Properties:
det(AB) = det(A) det(B) (hence, in particular, if A
1
exists, then det(A
1
) = 1/ det(A))
det(A) ,= 0 if and only if A is invertible (recall Kramers rule for evaluating the inverse of
a matrix)
det(I) = 1
det(
A) = det(A)
det(A
T
) = det(A)
det(A) =
N
det(A)
if A is diagonal, then det(A) =
N
j=1
A
jj
.
Note: det(SAS
1
) = det(A), and also Tr(SAS
1
) = Tr(A), by the properties above.
Note: the determinant can also be written as det(A) =
S
N
par()
N
k=1
A
k,(k)
. Here, par()
is the parity of a permutation element. The parity of a permutation is dened as the number
25
of times one needs to exchange two elements in order to obtain the result of the permutation.
More precisely, let A
N
be the set of two- element exchanges, i.e. permutations of the form
_
1 j k . . . N
1 k j N
_
for some 1 j < k N. We can always write S
N
as a
product =
1
with
j
A
N
j. This is easy to see by induction. Further, although
there are many ways of writing as such products, it turns out that if =
1
then =
mod 2. Hence, the parity of is only a function of , and this is what we dene
as par(). It is important that the parity be only a function of for the symbol
j
1
j
N
to be
nonzero if its indices are all dierent otherwise, we could exchange indices an odd number of
times and get back to the same set of indices, getting the negative of what we had, concluding
that the value must be 0.
The classical groups: the matrix groups
These are groups where the group elements are matrices, and the multiplication law is the usual
matrix multiplication.
Below we see C
and R
is a homomorphism onto C
is a
homomorphism onto R
.
Proof. It is onto because for any C
.
2. Special linear group
SL(N, C) = A M
N
(C) : det(A) = 1
26
Theorem 11.3
SL(N, C) is a normal subgroup of GL(N, C).
Proof. By denition, we have SL(N, C) = ker det, where by det we mean the map det :
GL(N, C) C
.
Proof. Again, consider the homomorphism det : GL(N, C) C
= A
1
= A
1
automatically implies that A
1
exists, because of course
A
exists for any matrix A; hence it implies that det(A) ,= 0. The condition can also be
written A
A = AA
= I.
Group: 1) closure: if A
1
, A
2
U(N) then (A
1
A
2
)
= A
2
A
1
= A
1
2
A
1
1
= (A
1
A
2
)
1
hence
A
1
A
2
U(N). 2) associativity: from matrix multiplication. 3) identity: I
= I = I
1
hence I U(N). 4) inverse: if A
= A
1
then using (A
= A we nd (A
1
)
= A =
(A
1
)
1
, hence that A
1
U(N).
12 Lecture 12
Note: U(1) = z C : z z = 1. Writing z = e
i
we see that the condition z z implies
R; we may restrict to [0, 2). In terms of , the group is addition modulo 2.
Theorem 12.1
The map det : U(N) U(1) is onto and is a group homomorphism.
Proof. Onto: for z C with [z[ = 1, we can construct A diagonal with A
11
= z and
A
jj
= 1 for j > 1. Homomorphism: because of property of det as before.
4. Special unitary group
SU(N) = A U(N) : det(A) = 1
Clearly SU(N) is a subgroup of U(N). It is SU(N) = ker det, hence it is a normal
subgroup. Since det : U(N) U(1) maps onto U(1), we nd that
U(N)/SU(N)
= U(1)
27
5. Orthogonal group
O(N) = A M
N
(R) : A
T
= A
1
This is the group of orthogonal matrices. Note: O(N) U(N). If A O(N) then
det(A) = 1. Hence, here det : O(N) Z
2
is onto.
6. Special orthogonal group
SO(N) = A O(N) : det(A) = 1
As before, SO(N) = ker det for det : O(N) Z
2
. Hence as we have again
O(N)/SO(N)
= Z
2
Centers of general linear and special linear groups
Theorem 12.2
Z(GL(N, C))
= C
.
Proof. Suppose AB = BA for all B GL(N, C). That is,
k
A
jk
B
kl
=
k
B
jk
A
kl
.
Since this holds for all B, choose B diagonal with diagonal entries all dierent from each other.
Then we have
A
jl
B
ll
= B
jj
A
jl
(B
ll
B
jj
)A
jl
= 0
hence A
jl
= 0 for j ,= l. Hence, we nd that A must be diagonal. Further, consider
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 0 1
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
Check that det(B) = 1, so B GL(N, C). The equation with j = 1 and l = 2 then gives us
A
11
B
12
= B
12
A
22
hence A
11
= A
22
. Similarly, A
jj
= A
11
for all j. So A = I for C
. The
group of such diagonal matrices is obviously isomorphic to C
, h
) = (gg
, hh
, h
) = (gg
, h
g
(h
)).
14 Lecture 14
To check that this denes a group, we must check associativity,
(g, h)((g
, h
)(g
, h
)) = (g, h)(g
, h
g
(h
)) = (gg
, h
g
(h
g
(h
)))
where the second member in the last term can be written h
g
(h
)
g
(
g
(h
)) = h
g
(h
)
gg
(h
).
On the other hand,
((g, h)(g
, h
))(g
, h
) = (gg
, h
g
(h
))(g
, h
) = (gg
, h
g
(h
)
gg
(h
)
which is in agreement with the previous result. We must also check the presence of an iden-
tity, id = (id, id) (obvious using
id
= id and
g
(id) = id, recall the general properties of
homomorphisms). Finally, we must check that an inverse exists. It is given by
(g, h)
1
= (g
1
,
g
1(h
1
))
because we have
(g, h)
1
(g, h) = (id,
g
1(h
1
)
g
1(h)) = (id, id)
and
(g, h)(g, h)
1
= (id, h
g
(
g
1(h
1
))) = (id, h
id
(h
1
)) = (id, id).
15 Lecture 15
Theorem 15.1
Consider Z
2
= +1, 1 and the isomorphism : Z
2
I, R, R = diag(1, 1, 1, . . . , 1), given
by (1) = I and (1) = R. If N is even, then
O(N)
= Z
2
SO(N),
where (s) =
s
is given by
s
(g) = (s)g(s) for s Z
2
and g SO(N).
Proof. 1) (done in Lecture 14) We rst check that : Z
2
Aut(SO(N)) is a homomorphism.
30
a) We check that
s
is an automorphism of SO(N) for any s. This is clear, using (s)
2
= I:
we have
s
(gg
) = (s)gg
(s) = (s)g(s)(s)g
(s) =
s
(g)
s
(g
) =
s
s
which acts as
(
s
s
)(g) = (s)(s
)g(s
)(s) = (ss
)g(s
s) = (ss
)g(ss
) =
ss
(g).
2) Second, we construct an isomorphism that maps O(N) onto Z
2
SO(N). We dene it as
: O(N) Z
2
SO(N)
A (A) = (det(A), A(det(A)))
Again all we have to show is that this maps into the right space as specied (because this is not
immediately obvious), and then that it is indeed an isomorphism.
First: that it maps into Z
2
SO(N) is shown as follows. a) Clearly det(A) Z
2
. b) Also
((det(A))A)
T
= A
T
(det(A))
T
= A
1
(det(A)) and ((det(A))A)
1
= A
1
(det(A))
1
=
A
1
(det(A)
1
) = A
1
(det(A)). Hence indeed A(det(A)) O(N). c) Further, det(A(det(A))) =
det(A) det((det(A))) = det(A)
2
= 1. Hence indeedA(det(A)) SO(N).
Second: that it is a homomorphism:
(AB) = (det(AB), AB(det(AB)))
= (det(A) det(B), AB(det(A) det(B)))
= (det(A) det(B), AB(det(A))(det(B)))
= (det(A) det(B), A(det(A))(det(A))B(det(A))(det(B)))
= (det(A) det(B), A(det(A))(det(A))B(det(B))(det(A)))
=
_
det(A) det(B), A(det(A))
det(A)
(B(det(B)))
_
= (det(A), A(det(A))) (det(B), B(det(B)))
= (A)(B)
Third: that it is bijective. Injectivity: if (A
1
) = (A
2
) then det(A
1
) = det(A
2
) and A
1
(det(A
1
)) =
A
2
(det(A
2
)) hence A
1
= A
2
so indeed it is injective. Surjectivity: take s Z
2
and B SO(N).
We can always nd a matrix A O(N) such that (A) = (s, B). Indeed, just take A = B(s).
This has determinant det(A) = s det(B) = s (since B SO(N)). Further, A(s) = B(s)
2
=
B. Hence, (A) = (det(A), A(s)) = (s, B) as it should.
The semi-direct product decomposition makes very clear the structures involved in the quotient,
e.g. O(N)/SO(N)
= Z
2
; see below.
Theorem 15.2
31
The subset (e, h) : h H GH is a subgroup of G
H that is isomorphic to G.
Proof. For the rst statement: it is a subgroup because it contains the identity, it is closed
(e, h)(e, h
) = (e, h
e
(h
)) = (e, hh
)(g, h) = (g
1
,
g
1(h
1
h
))(g, h) = (id,
g
1(h
1
h
h)).
For the second statement, the subset contains the identity, is closed (g, e)(g
, e) = (gg
,
g
(e)) =
(gg
, e), and by this multiplication law, it contains the inverse. Clearly again, it is isomorphic
to G.
A special case of the semi-direct product is the direct product, where
g
= id for all g G (that
is, : G Aut(H) is trivial, (g) = id). In this case, both G and H are normal subgroups.
Note: we usually denote simply by G and H the subgroups (g, e) : g G and (e, h) : h H
of GH (as we did for the direct product).
Theorem 15.3
The left cosets of GH with respect to the normal subgroup H are the subsets (g, h) : h H
for all g G. Also, (GH)/H
= G.
Proof. For the rst statement: the left cosets are (g, h)(e, H) = (g, h
g
(H)) = (g, hH) = (g, H)
since
g
is an automorphism. For the second statement: the isomorphism is (g, H) g. This is
clearly bijective, and it is a homomorphism, because (g, H)(g
, H) = (gg
, H
g
(H)) = (gg
, H).
16 Lecture 16
In general, if H is a normal subgroup of a group J, it is not necessarily true that J is isomorphic
to a semi-direct product G H with G
= J/H. But this is true in the case where 1) H
is the kernel of some homomorphism (actually this is always true, but the inverse of the
homomorphism theorem, Theorem 10.3), and 2) there is a subgroup G in J on which is an
isomorphism.
Coming back to our example: SO(N) is indeed a normal subgroup of O(N)
= Z
2
SO(N),
but the Z
2
of this decomposition, although it is a subgroup, is not normal. The Z
2
of this
decomposition can be obtained as an explicit subgroup of O(N) by the inverse map
1
of
Theorem 15.1:
1
((s, I)) = (s) for s = 1. Hence the subgroup is I, diag(1, 1, . . . , 1).
Here, we indeed have that SO(N) is the kernel of det, and that I, R is a subgroup on which
det is an isomorphism.
32
Note: Clearly, there are many Z
2
subgroups, for instance I, I; this one is normal. But it
does not take part into any decomposition of O(N) into Z
2
and SO(N).
Extra material
Continuous groups
S
N
: nite number of elements. Z: innite number of elements, but countable. But other groups have
innitely many elements forming a continuum. Ex: C
: 2 dimensions.
GL(N, R): N
2
dimensions.
SL(N, R): N
2
1 dimensions due to the one condition det(A) = 1.
SO(N): N(N1)/2 dimensions. Indeed: there are NN real matrices so there are N
2
parameters.
There is the condition A
T
A = I. This is a condition on the matrix A
T
A, which contains N
2
elements. But this matrix is symmetric no matter what A is, because (A
T
A)
T
= A
T
A. Hence, the
constraint A
T
A = I in fact has 1 + 2 + ... + N constraints only (looking at the top row with N
33
elements, then the second row with N 1 elements, etc.). That is, N(N +1)/2 constraints. These
are independent constraints. Hence, the dimension is N
2
N(N + 1)/2 = N(N 1)/2.
Euclidean group
We now describe the Euclidean group E
N
. We start with a formal denition, then a geometric
interpretation.
Formal denition
Consider the groups O(N) and R
N
. The former is the orthogonal group of N by N matrices.
The latter is the (abelian) group of real vectors in R
N
under addition. The Euclidean group is
E
N
= O(N)
R
N
where : O(N) Aut(R
N
), (A) =
A
is a homomorphism, with
A
dened by
A
(b) = Ab.
To make sure this is a good denition: we must show that is a homomorphism and that that
is an automorphism. First the latter.
A
is clearly bijective because the matrix A is invertible
(work out injectivity and surjectivity from this). Further, it is a homomorphism because
A
(x+
y) = A(x+y) = Ax+Ay =
A
(x) +
A
(y). Second, is a homomorphism because
AA
(b) =
AA
b = A(A
b) =
A
(
A
(b)) = (
A
A
)(b) so that (AA
) = (A)(A
) (the multiplication
in automorphisms is the composition of maps). Hence, this is a good denition of semidirect
product.
Explicitly, the multiplication law is
(A, b)(A
, b
) = (AA
, b +Ab
).
Geometric meaning
Consider the space of all translations in R
N
. This is the space of all maps x x+b for b R
N
:
maps that take each point x to x+b in R
N
. Denote a translation by T
b
, so that T
b
(x) = x+b.
The composition law is obtained from
(T
b
T
b
)(x) = T
b
(T
b
(x)) = T
b
(x +b
) = x +b +b
= T
b+b
(x).
Hence, T
b
T
b
= T
b+b
, so that compositions of translations are translations. Further, there is
a translation that does nothing (choosing b = 0), one can always undo a translation, T
b
T
b
=
T
0
= id. Hence, the set of all translations, with multiplication law the composition, is a group
34
T
N
. Note also that T
b
,= T
b
if b ,= b
, T
b
))(x) = A(A
x +b
) +b = AA
x +Ab
+b = (AA
, T
Ab
+b
)(x).
That is, we obtain a transformation that can be described by rst an orthogonal transformation
AA
,= T
b
T
b
AA
. We rather have T
b
AT
b
A
= T
b
AT
b
A
1
AA
,
and we nd the conjugation law
A T
b
A
1
(x) = A(A
1
x +b
) = x +Ab
= T
Ab
(x)
That is: the conjugation of a translation by a rotation is again a translation, but by the rotated
vector, and this is what gives rise to the semi-direct product law. This is true generally: if two
type of transformations dont commute, but the conjugation of one by another is again of the
rst type, then we have a semi-direct product. Recall also examples of SO(2) and Z
2
in their
geometric interpretation as rotations and reections.
There is more. We could decide to try to do translations and rotations in any order that is,
we can look at all transformations of R
N
that are obtained by doing rotations and translations
in any order and of any kind. A general transformation will look like A
1
A
2
T
b
1
T
b
2
35
A
1
A
2
etc. But since orthogonal transformations and translations independently form
groups, we can multiply successive orthogonal transformations to get a single one, and like wise
for translations, so we get something of the form AT
b
A
, T
b
) .
Hence, we recover a Euclidean transformation. Hence, the Euclidean group is the one generated
by translations and orthogonal transformations. We have proved:
Theorem 16.1
The Euclidean group E
N
is the group generated by translations and orthogonal transformations
of R
N
.
Euclidean symmetries of subsets
Consider a subset of R
2
. In order to nd the Euclidean transformations of R
2
that preserve
it, follow these steps. 1) Try to see if translations are symmetries. 2) Then, try to see if there
is one or many points about which rotations are symmetries, whether by all possible angles or
by some discrete set of angles. 3)Then, try to see if there are one or many axes about which
reection is a symmetry.
Translations form the group R or R
2
(depending in how many directions you can translate -
here, for simplicity, were in 2-d only). Rotations about one given x point (any point) and by
all possible angles form the group SO(2); if its not all possible angles that we have, but just n
of them (including the 0 angle), then this is the group Z
n
. Reections about any given x axis
form the group Z
2
(including the identity transformation).
When we put things together: if the group actions commute, then its a direct product. If
not, its a semi-direct product. In semi-direct products, we always have the order reections
to the left of rotations to the left of translations. Remember that Z
2
SO(2)
= O(2), that
O(n) R
n
= E(n), that Z
2
Z
n
= D
n
(in the latter one the case n = 2 is Z
2
Z
2
= Z
2
Z
2
:
the semi-direct product becomes a direct product). If there is translation, then there is a factor
R
n
. If there is rotation as well, then pick one center, this corresponds to the factor SO(n) in
the semi-direct product. If there is reection as well, then pick one axis, this corresponds to the
factor Z
2
in the semi-direct product.
(Examples...)
17 Lecture 17
The group SO(2)
36
Let us explicitly construct the group SO(2).
A =
_
a b
c d
_
, A
T
A = I, det(A) = 1.
We have 4 conditions:
A
T
A = I a
2
+c
2
= 1, b
2
+d
2
= 1, ac +bd = 0.
The rst two conditions imply that a = cos , c = sin (here we put a minus sign for convenience)
and b = cos , d = sin for some , in [0, 2) (or , R mod 2). The second condition then
is cos( ) = 0. Hence, = /2 mod 2. This gives b = sin , d = cos or b = sin ,
d = cos . The last condition
det(A) = 1 ad bc = 1
then implies that the rst choice must hold:
A = A() :=
_
cos sin
sin cos
_
, [0, 2)
This clearly is of dimension 1 (there is one real parameter remaining) as it should.
Explicit multiplications of matrices give
A()A(
) = A( +
), A()
1
= A()
In particular, SO(2) is abelian.
Here, the group manifold is the circle S
1
. Indeed, we have one parameter , and the matrix elements vary
continuously for [0, 2) and also going back to 0 instead of 2. Every point on S
1
corresponds to a
unique group element A(), and all group elements are covered in this way. Note: geometrically,
the manifold is indeed S
1
rather than the interval [0, 2) (which strictly speaking wouldnt be a manifold
anyway) because of periodicity, i.e. continuity from the endpoint 2 back to the starting point 0.
The interpretation of SO(2) is that of rotations about the origin: we act with SO(2) on the
plane R
2
by
v
= Av, A SO(2), v =
_
x
y
_
, (x, y) R
2
.
This gives
x
= xcos y sin , y
= xsin +y cos
All this makes it clear that SO(2)
= U(1). Indeed, just put the points x, y into the complex
plane via x +iy, and consider action of U(1) as e
i
. Hence the isomorphism is
SO(2) U(1) : A() e
i
37
The group O(2)
Two disconnected sets: O(2) = SO(2) C where C = orthogonal matrices with determinant -1.
Note: C is not a group. The condition of det = -1 implies from the previous analysis that
C =
_
B() :=
_
cos sin
sin cos
_
, [0, 2)
_
Note that, with R =
_
1 0
0 1
_
, we have
A()R = B()
for all . Note also that R O(2), in fact R C. The group element R is the reection w.r.t.
the y axis, and we have
O(2) = group generated by rotations about origin and reections about y axis
O(2) is not abelian, in particular A()R ,= RA() in general.
Clearly, then, O(2) cannot be isomorphic to Z
2
SO(2) because both Z
2
and SO(2) are abelian.
The semi-direct product Z
2
SO(2), however, is not abelian. We see that the subgroup Z
2
in
Z
2
SO(2) corresponds to the group composed of the identity and the reection, I, R. We
see also that det is the isomorphism of this subgroup onto Z
2
.
The geometric interpretation of the semi-direct product structure is as follows: we can always
represent an element of O(2) AB where A is a rotation and B is the reection w.r.t. y axis (for
instance). Indeed, if C O(2) then C = C(det C)(det C) and we can take A = C(det C)
and B = (det C). Then let us perform in succession C
2
then C
1
on the vector v. The
result is C
1
C
2
v. The transformation C
3
= C
1
C
2
can also be written as C
3
= A
3
B
3
. We have
C
1
C
2
= A
1
B
1
A
2
B
2
= A
1
(B
1
A
2
B
1
1
)B
1
B
2
and we can identify A
3
= A
1
B
1
A
2
B
1
1
and B
3
= B
1
B
2
.
So if we use the notation in paris C = (B, A), we obtain (B
1
, A
1
)(B
2
, A
2
) = (B
1
B
2
, A
1
B
1
A
2
B
1
1
),
which is exactly the semi-direct product structure with
B
(A) = BAB
1
, as we had done (here
we dont use explicitly the , as we use directly the matrices B, which are I or R; we could set
B
i
= (g
i
) and use the pairs C = (g, A) instead).
Note: we have the following relation:
RA()R = A()
But then,
A()RA() = A()RA()RR = A()
2
R = A(2)R = B(2)
The quantity A()RA() has a nice geometric meaning: reection w.r.t. axis rotated by angle
from y axis. In order to cover all B() for [0, 2), we only need A()RA() for [0, ).
This indeed gives all possible axes passing by the origin. Hence:
O(2)
= group of all rotations about origin and all reections about all dierent axes passing by the origin.
38
The group SU(2)
Let us look at SU(2). We will use the Pauli matrices: along with the identity I, the Pauli
matrices form a basis (over C) for the linear space M
2
(C).
1
=
x
:=
_
0 1
1 0
_
,
2
=
y
:=
_
0 i
i 0
_
,
3
=
z
:=
_
1 0
0 1
_
.
We will denote a general complex 2 by 2 matrix by
A = aI +b
where we understand as a vector of Pauli matrices, so that b = b
x
x
+b
y
y
+b
z
z
.
Some properties:
2
i
= I,
i
j
=
j
i
(i ,= j),
x
y
= i
z
,
y
z
= i
x
,
z
x
= i
y
,
i
=
i
, det(A) = a
2
[[b[[
2
.
From these, we nd:
x y = (x y)I +i(x y)
where x y is the vector product. We also nd
(aI +b )(aI b ) = a
2
I (b b)I i(b b) = (a
2
[[b[[
2
)I = det(A)I.
Hence,
(aI +b )
1
=
aI b
det(A)
All these properties point to a nice analogy with complex numbers. Dene, instead of one, three imaginary
numbers, = i
x
, = i
y
,
k = i
z
. They satisfy
2
=
2
=
k
2
= 1.
Denition: The division algebra H of quaternions is the non-commutative eld of all real linear combi-
nations z = a + b
x
+ b
y
+ b
z
k (a, b
x
, b
y
, b
z
R), with the relations
2
=
2
=
k
2
= 1 and = =
k
and cyclic permutations. It is associative.
We dene the quaternion conjugate by z = ab
x
b
y
b
z
), and we have z z = zz = a
2
+[[b[[
2
0, with equality i z = 0. Hence we can dene [z[ =
z z.
We also have z
1
= z/[z[
2
, as for complex numbers. An important identity is [z
1
z
2
[ = [z
1
[ [z
2
[ for any
z
1
, z
2
H, which follows from [z
1
z
2
[
2
= z
1
z
2
z
2
z
1
= z
2
z
2
z
1
z
1
where we used the fact that z
2
z
2
R H
hence commutes with everything. Any quaternion z has a unique inverse, except for 0. This is what makes
the quaternions a division algebra: we have the addition and the multiplication, with distributivity and
with two particular numbers, 0 and 1, having the usual properties, and we have that only 0 doesnt have
a multiplicative inverse. Note that there are no other division algebras that satisfy associativity, besides
the real numbers, the complex numbers and the quaternions. There is one more division algebra, which
is not associative in addition to not being commutative: the octonions, with 7 imaginary numbers.
Group SU(2): with A = aI +x , we require det(A) = 1 hence a
2
[[x[[
2
= 1, and A
= A
1
hence a
I + x
= aI x , so that a R and x
= x. Writing x = ib we have b R
3
.
That is,
SU(2) = A = aI +ib : a R, b R
3
, a
2
+[[b[[
2
= 1
39
Note that, in terms of quaternions, this is:
SU(2) = z H : [z[ = 1.
Note the similarity with
U(1) = z C : [z[ = 1
Note that in both cases we have a group because in both cases [z
1
z
2
[ = [z
1
[ [z
2
[, so the condition [z[ = 1 is
preserved under multiplication.
Geometrically, the condition [z[ = 1 for quaternions is the condition for a 3-sphere in R
4
. This is the
manifold of SU(2).
18 Lecture 18
Invariance of physical laws: scalars and vectors
Invariance of mathematical objects under transformations is the main concept that leads to the
study of groups. A proper denition of an invariance requires us to say three things: 1) what
is the family of mathematical objects that we consider, 2) what is the family of transformations
that we admit, and 3) what particular object do we claim to be invariant. We have seen the
examples of subsets in the plane, and briey of vector elds.
We now consider other examples. First, the equations of motion of physics. Suppose the
3-dimensional vectors x(t) and y(t), as functions of time t, satisfy the following equations (New-
tons equations):
m
d
2
x(t)
dt
2
= GmM
x(t) y(t)
[[x(t) y(t)[[
3
, M
d
2
y(t)
dt
2
= GmM
y(t) x(t)
[[x(t) y(t)[[
3
. (4)
Then clearly the new vectors x
(t)
dt
2
+GmM
x
(t) y
(t)
[[x
(t) y
(t)[[
3
= A
_
d
2
dt
2
x(t) +GmM
x(t) y(t)
[[x(t) y(t)[[
3
_
= 0
The transformations (x, y) (Ax+b, Ay +b) satisfy the rules of the Euclidean group: hence,
Newtonss equations are invariant under the Euclidean group.
Let us concentrate on the O(3) transformations for a while, forgetting about the translations.
40
Denition: An object V that transforms like V
1
= Ax
1
, x
2
= Ax
2
, . . ., where A O(3) (resp.
SO(3)). Then, we say that f(x
1
, x
2
, . . .) is a vector under O(3) (resp. SO(3)) if f(x
1
, x
2
, . . .) =
Af(x
1
, x
2
, . . .) for all A O(3) (resp. SO(3)). If there is just one variable x
1
, then we can see
this variable as a position variable in R
3
; then a vector according to this denition is just a O(3)
(or SO(3)) invariant vector eld.
More complicated example (which doesnt quite fall into the more precise denition above, but
which follows the general principle): The 3-component dierential operator
_
_
_
/x
1
/x
2
/x
3
_
_
_
is also a vector. This is because by the chain rule,
x
i
=
j
x
j
x
i
j
=
j,k
A
jk
x
k
x
i
j
=
j
A
ji
j
so that (using the vector notation)
x
= A
T
x
= A
x
where we used A
T
= A
1
.
41
19 Lecture 19
Inner product
Let V be a nite-dimensional vector space over C. A map V V C, x, y (x, y) is an inner
product if it has the properties:
(x, y)
= z is the complex conjugate). This makes V into a Hilbert space. Note that the rst and
second property imply
(ay +bz, x) = a
(y, x) +b
(z, x).
This along with the second property is called sesquilinearity. The restriction over the real-vector
space (real restriction: C
N
becomes R
N
; same basis, but only consider real coecients) then
gives
(x, y) = (y, x), (ay +bz, x) = a(y, x) +b(z, x).
This restriction is bilinear and symmetric. The only example we will use is:
(x, y) =
i
x
i
y
i
.
In particular, using matrix and column vector notation, this is
(x, y) = x
y.
This implies that if A is a linear operator, then
(x, Ay) = (A
x, y).
The norm of a vector is dened by
[[x[[ =
_
(x, x)
(positive square-root).
Structure of O(N)
Theorem 19.1
A real-linear transformation A of R
N
is such that [[Ax[[ = [[x[[ for all x R
N
i A O(N).
Proof. If A O(N), then A
T
= A
1
so that
[[Ax[[
2
= (Ax, Ax)
= (Ax)
T
Ax
= x
T
A
T
Ax
= x
T
x
= [[x[[
2
(5)
42
where in the 2nd step we use reality, so that
=
T
. Also: if [[Ax[[ = [[x[[, then replace x by
x +y and use bilinearity and symmetry:
(A(x+y), A(x+y)) = (x+y, x+y) (Ax, Ax)+(Ay, Ay)+2(Ax, Ay) = (x, x)+(y, y)+2(x, y).
Using [[Ax[[ = [[x[[ and [[Ay[[ = [[y[[, the rst and last terms cancel out, so
(Ax, Ay) = (x, y).
Hence (A
T
Ax, y) = (x, y) so that (A
T
Ax x, y) = 0. This holds for all y, hence it must be
that A
T
Ax x = 0 (obtained by choosing y = A
T
Ax x, so that A
T
Ax = x. This holds for
all x, hence A
T
A = I. Hence A O(N).
Note: the same hold if we say A R
N
and ask for [[Ax[[ = [[x[[ for all x C
N
. Indeed,
this includes x R
N
, so in one direction this is obvious; in the other direction we use again
(Ax, Ax) = (A
T
Ax, x) which holds for x C
N
as well.
Theorem 19.2
If x C
N
is an eigenvector of A O(N) with eigenvalue , then [[ = 1.
Proof. Ax = x with x ,= 0, hence (Ax, Ax) = (x, x) hence (x, x) = [[
2
(x, x) hence [[
2
= 1
since x ,= 0.
Theorem 19.3
If A SO(3) then there exists a vector n R
3
such that An = n (i.e. with eigenvalue 1).
20 Lecture 20
Proof. Consider P() = det(A I). We know that P(0) = 1 because A SO(3). Also,
P() =
3
+ . . . + 1 because the only order-3 term is from the I part. Hence, P() =
(
1
)(
2
)(
3
) with
1
3
= 1.
There are 2 possibilities: First, at least one of these, say
1
, is complex. It must be a pure
phase:
1
= e
i
for (0, 2) . If x is the associated eigenvector, then Ax = e
i
x hence
A
= e
i
x
so that x
3
= 1, it must be that
3
= 1.
Second, all
i
are real, so are 1. Since
1
3
= 1, not the three are 1, hence at least one is
1.
Finally, if An = n, and if n is not real, then n
Ax = x
x = (x, x) = [[x[[
2
hence
[[Ax[[ = [[x[[.
2) Consider x = y + az. We have [[Ax[[
2
= (Ay + aAz, Ay + aAz) = [[Ay[[
2
+ [a[
2
[[Az[[
2
+
a(Ay, Az) + a
(z, y).
Choosing a = 1 this is (Ay, Az)+(Az, Ay) = (y, z)+(z, y) and choosing a = i this is (Ay, Az)
(Az, Ay) = (y, z) (z, y). Combining these two equations, we nd (Ay, Az) = (y, z), for all
y, z C
N
. Then we can use similar techniques as before: using (Ay, Az) = (A
Ay, z) we get
((A
A = I.
A 3-sphere in R
4
can be imagined by enumerating its slices, starting from a pole (a point on the
3-sphere. The slices are 2-spheres, much like the slices of a 2-sphere are 1-sphere (i.e. circles).
45
Starting from a point on the 3-sphere, we enumerate growing 2-spheres until we reach the single
one with the maximal radius (this is the radius of the 3-sphere, i.e. 1 in our case), then we
enumerate shortening 2-spheres back to a point. Putting all these objects together, we see that
the set is a double-cover of an open unit ball in R
3
plus a single unit 2-sphere. This looks very
similar to the manifold of SO(3), but there we had exactly half of that (an open ball plus half
of a 2-sphere). There is a group structure behind this:
A nice theorem
Theorem 21.2
SU(2)/Z
2
= SO(3)
Proof. This proof is not complete, but the main ingredients are there. The idea of the proof is
to use the homomorphism theorem, with a homomorphism : SU(2) SO(3) that is onto,
such that ker
= Z
2
.
Proposition: There exists a linear bijective map : R
3
between the real-linear space of
self-adjoint traceless 2 by 2 matrices, and the real-linear space R
3
.
Proof. Note that the Pauli matrices are self-adjoint traceless 2 by 2 matrices. Take a general 2
by 2 matrix A = aI + b for a, b
x
, b
y
, b
z
C. The condition of tracelessness imposes a = 0.
The condition of self-adjointness imposes b
= b hence b R
3
. Hence, the real-linear space
of self-adjoint traceless 2 by 2 matrices is the space of real linear combinations A = b . Given
A such a matrix, we have a unique (A) = b R
3
, hence we have injectivity. On the other
hand, given any b R
3
, we can form A = b , hence we have surjectivity. Finally, it is clear
that given A, A
) = (b + b
) =
((b +b
) ) = b +b
= (A) + (A
), so is linear.
Given any U SU(2), we can form a linear bijective map
U
: as follows:
U
(A) = UAU
.
This maps into because if A , then 1) Tr(
U
(A)) = Tr(UAU
) = Tr(U
UA) = Tr(A) = 0,
and 2) (UAU
= UA
= UAU
. Hence,
U
(A) . Moreover, it is bijective because 1)
injectivity: if UAU
= UA
then U
UAU
U = U
UA
U hence A = A
, and 2) surjectivity:
for any B , we have that U
U
(U
BU) = UU
BU
U = B so we have found a A = U
) = det(
1
(b)) = [[b[[
2
.
That is, R
U
is a real-linear map on R
3
that preserves lengths of vectors. By the previous
theorems, it must be that R
U
O(3).
2) Further, the map g : SU(2) R given by g(U) = det(R
U
) (where we see the linear map R
U
as a 3 by 3 real orthogonal matrix). This is continuous as a function of the matrix elements
of U. Indeed, we can calculate any matrix element of R
U
by choosing two basis vectors x and
y in R
3
and by computing x R
U
(y). This is x (U
1
(y)U
). The operation U U
and the operations of matrix multiplications are continuous in the matrix elements, hence the
map U U
1
(y)U
1
(R
U
1
U
2
(b)) =
U
1
U
2
(
1
(b)) = U
1
U
2
1
(b)U
2
U
1
=
U
1
(
U
2
(
1
(b)))
hence
(U
1
U
2
) = R
U
1
U
2
=
1
R
U
1
U
2
=
U
1
U
2
1
=
U
1
U
2
1
= R
U
1
R
U
2
which is the homomorphism property.
Then, we would have to prove that is onto this requires more precise calculation of what
is as function of the matrix elements of U. We will omit this step.
Finally, we can use the homomorphism theorem. We must calculate ker . The identity in O(3)
is the identity matrix. We have (U) = I O(3) i (
U
(
1
(b))) = b for all b R
3
, which
47
is true i
U
(b ) = b for all b R
3
, which is true i Ub U
= b Ub =
b U U
i
=
i
U
:= UAU
i
X, i = 1, 2, 3.
How does this vector transform? We have
x
= (X
= XU
UX.
But, for any xed vector y, we found y U
U = R
U
(y) . Since R
U
is an O(3) transformation,
we may write R
U
(y) = A
T
y (we use A
T
instead of A for convenience) for A O(3). Then
y x
= X(A
T
y) X = (A
T
y) x
or in other word,
(Ay) x
= y x.
Since this must hold for all y, we nd that x
= T
b
Q. Hence, we have Q
preserves lengths
of vectors: [[Q
(x)[[ = [[Q
(x) Q
also preserves
the inner product:
(Q
(x), Q
(y)) =
1
2
(Q
(x), Q
(x)) +
1
2
(Q
(y), Q
(y))
1
2
(Q
(x) Q
(y), Q
(x) Q
(y))
=
1
2
[[Q
(x)[[
2
+
1
2
[[Q
(y)[[
2
1
2
[[Q
(x) Q
(y)[[
2
=
1
2
[[x[[
2
+
1
2
[[y[[
2
1
2
[[x y[[
2
= (x, y)
Now we show that Q
is linear. Consider e
i
, i = 1, 2, . . . , N the unit vectors in orthogonal
directions (standard basis for R
N
as a vector space). Let e
i
:= Q
(e
i
). Then, (e
i
, e
j
) = (e
i
, e
j
) =
i,j
. Hence e
i
, i = 1, 2, . . . , N also form an orthonormal basis. Now let x =
i
x
i
e
i
for x
i
R,
and write Q
(x) =
i
x
i
e
i
(this can be done because e
i
form a basis). We can nd x
i
by taking
inner products with e
i
: x
i
= (Q
(x), e
i
). But then x
i
= (Q
(x), e
i
) = (Q
(x), Q
(e
i
)) = (x, e
i
) =
x
i
. Hence, Q
(x) =
i
x
i
e
i
, which means that Q