1

BHARAT HEAVY ELECTRICALS LIMITED

BHOPAL

A
INDUSTRIAL TRANING REPORT
ON
MDF, SCR, PLC, CNC & TRANSFORMER
Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the Award of degree
of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
(Session 2011-2015)

Dr. RADHAKRISHNAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY JAIPUR




Under The Guidance Of :-
Mr. R.B.KURADKAR
Sr. Engineer
WE & CS Division
BHEL ,BHOPAL
Submitted By :-
EKTA JADON
VT.NO-1595/14
Electronics & Communication
Engg.

2


CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that project report entitled MDF, SCR, PLC, CNC &
transformer is a piece of project work done by EKTA JADON student of
ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING, Dr. RADHA
KRISHNAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, JAIPUR under my guidance &
supervision for partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION
ENGINEERING AT DRIT, JAIPUR.

To the best of my knowledge and belief , the project report:
1) Embodies the work of candidate himself .
2) Has duly been completed.
3) Fulfils the requirement of the ordinance relating to B.Tech degree of the
university.
4) Is up to the standard both in respect of content and language for being referred
to the examiner.


Training Guide :-
Mr. R.B.KURADKAR
Sr. Engineer
WE & CS Division
BHEL , BHOPAL Date:-
3


PREFACE


In the growing age of technology, the extent of correctness is a major point. This
correctness and pin pointed guess is achieved only through hard work, experience and
well guided practice. As a new comer to this field we required to have professional
knowledge that will help in improving our skills and efficiency. Having a training
work on the same topic increased our interest and made the work simpler.

The most vital part is the presence of guide whose knowledge and practical experience
built our self-confidence and helping hand by which we finished this project
successfully. So I indebted to Mr. R.B.KURADKAR acted as burning candle and
enlighten us about this training and Mr. SUBHAM AGRAWAL & Mr. N.K
YADAV who helped us through the training period.

4


AKNOWLEDGEMENT


It is my pleasure to be indebted to various people who directly & indirectly
contributed in the development of this work and who influenced my thinking,
behaviour & acts during the training period.
I express my sincere gratitude to Mr. SURESH NEMA for providing
me an opportunity to undergo Major training at BHEL,BHOPAL.
I am thankful to Mr. R.B. KURADKAR for his support, cooperation and motivation
provided to me during the training for constant inspiration, presence and blessings.
I also extend my sincere appreciation to all staff members of BHEL,
BHOPAL who provided there valuable suggestions and precious time in
accomplishing my project report.
Lastly, I would like thank the almighty and my parents for their moral
support and friends with whom I shared my day-to-day experience and received lots
of suggestions that improved my quality of work.




Ekta jadon

5


DECLARATION


I EKTA JADON student of B.tech. 7
th
semester studying at DR. RADHAKRISNAN
INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, JAIPUR (RAJ.) hereby declare that the Major
training report on MDF, SCR, PLC, CNC & Transformer submitted to BHEL,
BHOPAL in partial fulfilment of Degree of Bachelor of Technology is the original work
conducted by me. The information and data given in the report is authentic to the best
of my knowledge.
This Major training reports is not being submitted to any other University for award of
any other Degree.















6

TRAINING IN BHEL


I was appointed to do 6 weeks training at this esteemed organisation from 09 July
2014 to 16 August 2014. I was assigned to visit various division of plant, which
where:
Block 1 Water Turbine manufacturing (WTM)
Block 2 Industrial motors manufacturing (IMM) &
Traction alternator/generator manufacturing (TAM)
Large electrical motor manufacturing (LEM)
Heavy rotating plant manufacturing
Block 3 Capacitor, Bushing & Transformer manufacturing
Block 4 Switch gear, control gear & Rectifier manufacturing
Block 5 Foundry division
Block 6 Steam turbine manufacturing (STM)
Block 7 BPRV, CIM,TSD & Factory main store
Block8 Coil & Insulation manufacturing (CIM)
Block 9 Traction motor manufacturing (TXM)
Block 10 press shop division
Block 11 Tools & gauge manufacturing

These 6 weeks of training was a very educational adventure for me. It was really
amazing to see the Assembling Main distribution frme, Switchgear, controlgear &
Rectifier, plc, cnc manufacturing of Large Electrical Machine, Industrial Machine,
Steam & Hydro Turbine, Transformer & Traction Motors comprises of huge
component by yourself and learn how massive, an elemental component could be,
and is produced. This report has been made by my experience at BHEL, BHOPAL.
The material in this report has been gathered from my textbook, trainers manual,
internet and journals provided by training department. The specification and
principles are as learned by me from the employees of each department.

7

CONTENT

CHAPTER 1
Introduction to Organisation
1. BHEL an Overview
2. About The Project
3. Manufacturing Unit Of BHEL
4. Customers Of BHEL
5. Product Profile
6. Research & Development

CHAPTER 2
1. Main Distribution Frame
CHAPTER 3
1. Assembly of switch gear
2. Control gear
3. Rectifier

CHAPTER 4
PLC
CHAPTER 5
CNC
CHAPTER 6
Transformer




8




CHAPTER -1

INRODUCTION TO ORGANISATION









9

BHEL An Overview
Bharat Heavy Electricals limited, BHEL, is the largest engineering and manufacturing
enterprise in India with global credentials. Today it ranks among the leading power
Equipment manufacturers in the world. Set up in mid-fifties, BHEL has diversified its
products base over the years and today BHEL caters to the need of all key sectors of
the economy. BHELs products cater to the wide spectrum of customers in various
fields like power generation & transmission, oil exploration & production,
transportation, steel & metals, fertilizers & petrochemicals, refineries, cement plant,
heavy engineering industries, non-conventional energy sources, defence equipments ,
etc. More than 65% of the installed capacity for electrical power in India is
contributed by BHEL.

The wide network of BHELs 14 manufacturing divisions, 8 service centres, 4 power
sector regional centres, 18 regional offices and over 150 sites spread all over India &
abroad enables the company to promptly serve its customers & provide them suitable
products systems and services at competitive rates. BHEL manufactures almost all
high technology products required for power sectors viz. Steam Turbines, Gas
Turbines, Nuclear turbines, Generators, Boilers, Heat Recovery System Generators,
Pump & Compressors, Heat Exchangers, and Control Instrumentation etc. BHEL has
carried out System Engineering and Turnkey Execution of projects involving coal,
liquid & gas based power plants not only in India but also in countries like Malta,
Cyprus, Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, Oman, Libya etc. BHELs technology for
products/systems is at par with the latest/best in the world. BHEL has collaborated
with leading companies in world like M/s Siemens, Germany; M/s General Electric,
USA; M/s Alstom, France etc.
10

Manufacturing & Testing Facilities
BHEL Bhopal plant is equipped with most modern and sophisticated machine tools,
facilities and test equipment to manufacture and test turbo generators up to 1000MW
rating, which includes:
New state-of-the-art total impregnation facility for impregnation wound stators of
TARI/THRI type Turbo generators up to 350MW.
CNC taping machine for insulation of TG winding bars.
Most modern micalastic insulation plant for stator bars.
Over speed and vacuum balancing tunnel.
Wald rich rotor slot milling machine up to maximum barrel length of 7000mm,
barrel diameter of 1400mm and rotor weight of 200 tonnes.
Koellmann rotor slot milling machine up to maximum barrel length of 7000mm,
barrel diameter of 1800mm and rotor weight of 225tonnes.
Two computerised test beds to test large size Turbo generators up to 1000MW.
Wotan CNC horizontal Boring machine.
Centre lathe machine up to maximum length of 16m and dia. of 3
..15m.
Insulation life test assessment facility.

Beside these BHEL, Bhopal has also set up a Generator Research Institute with an
objective to develop basic know-how and know-why through experimental studies for
reliable, efficient and optimum design of turbo generators and to improve their
performance in service.

Global Services-Engineering & Commercial
Global services Engineering as well as commercial inclusive of services after sale
are accorded the utmost importance in BHEL. BHEL has a service network with
regional headquarters in the four regions of the country. They are backed by core
Power Sector Technical Services and Field engineering Group. Services are provided
in the following significant areas.

Residual Life assessment (RLA) Due to aging, material grade of sets degrade as a
function of time dependent material damage mechanisms such as creep, fatigue,
corrosion, erosion, wear, embrittlement etc. The residual life of components is
evaluated through sophisticated NDT stress analysis & metallurgical techniques. It
fare warns the impending failure and helps in reducing costly plant breakdowns by
recommending replacement of defective components, retrofits etc.
11

Quality & Reliability
Quality is prime concern for BHEL. Turbo generators manufactured by BHEL are
certified ISO: 9001. The certificate is testimonial of BHELs tryst with quality. It is
endeavour to achieve excellence in all business processes BHEL has adopted and
implemented new concepts to ensure compliance to standards/specifications at various
stages of the project viz. engineering, manufacturing, testing, erection, commissioning
etc.
Quality through Measurement (QTM) provides web based management
information for review, improvement and control of processes by measurement
methodology. Weight age to processes and their attributes are decided on the basis of
the impact of the process non conformity based on the customer needs.

Critical to Quality (CTQ) customers special requirements are scrutinised
vigorously during contact review and parameters critical to quality are identified.

Root Cause Analysis (RCA) product and processes non conformity data is
utilised for improving products, processes and systems.

ABOUT THE PROJECT
The project is mainly concerned with the building of a COMBINED CYCLE POWER
PLANT to generate 1500 MW of electrical power for the national power grid. This
mega project of erection & commissioning of the generation plant, worth up to Rs.
4,500 Crores has been taken up by the leading Public Sector Electrical Company of
India, Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd.(BHEL). The plant is mainly designed to work on
the principle of Combined Cycle generation plant where the gas turbines are the
primary source of generation &work in synchronization with the Steam turbines to
generate power of the rated capacity. The project site is located in the outskirts of the
national capital, Delhi in a place called Bawana. The on-going project will be handed
over by BHEL to the main client of the project, Pragati Power Corporation Ltd.
(PPCL) on completion of work. The Bawana project is an extension in third phase to
the already functional Pragati Power stations that aim at providing quality power to
the national capital. This power station is unique in its own way as it is slated to be the
highest rated Combined cycle power project i.e. of 750 MW (2X750 MW).
The plant mainly comprises of two 750 MW units, where in each unit there are two
gas turbines & one steam turbine having maximum rating of 250 MW each. As of date
the two gas turbines are already functional along with the steam turbine that gives a
total of 750 MW of power with one Gas turbine from the second unit (250 MW). So
12

currently the total capacity of the generation plant stands at 1000 MW. The modern
day generation plant is laced with all the latest power generation techniques that
makes it eligible to meet all the national standards for environment friendly power
generation & is also capable of coping with adverse conditions that may arise due to
the natural hazards.
Combined cycle
In electric power generation a combined cycle is an assembly of heat engines that
work in tandem off the same source of heat, converting it into mechanical energy,
which in turn usually drives electrical generators. The principle is that the exhaust of
one heat engine is used as the heat source for another, thus extracting more useful
energy from the heat, increasing the system's overall efficiency. This works because
heat engines are only able to use a portion of the energy their fuel generates (usually
less than 50%). In an ordinary (non combined cycle) heat engine the remaining heat
(e.g., hot exhaust fumes) from combustion is generally wasted.

Combining two or more thermodynamic cycles results in improved overall
efficiency, reducing fuel costs. In stationary power plants, a widely used combination
is a gas turbine (operating by the Brayton cycle) burning natural gas or synthesis gas
from coal, whose hot exhaust powers a steam power plant (operating by the Rankine
cycle). This is called a Combined Cycle Gas Turbine (CCGT) plant, and can achieve a
thermal efficiency of around 60%, in contrast to a single cycle steam power plant
which is limited to efficiencies of around 35-42%. Many new gas power plants in
North America and Europe are of this type. Such an arrangement is also used for
marine propulsion, and is called a combined gas and steam (COGAS) plant. Multiple
stage turbine or steam cycles are also common. Other historically successful combined
cycles have used hot cycles with mercury vapour turbines.

Design principle
The efficiency of a heat engine, the fraction of input heat energy that
can be converted to useful work, is limited by the temperature
Difference between the heat entering the engine and the exhaust heat
leaving the engine. In a thermal power station, water is the working medium. High
pressure steam requires strong, bulky components. High temperatures
require expensive alloys made from nickel or cobalt, rather than inexpensive steel.
These alloys limit practical steam temperatures to 655 C while the lower temperature
of a steam plant is fixed by the boiling point of water. With these limits, a steam plant
has a fixed upper efficiency of 35 -42%.
13

ABOUT COMBINED CYCLE POWER PLANTS

GAS TURBINES
Working of a gas turbine:-
A gas turbine also called Combustion turbine is a type of internal combustion engine.
It has an upstream rotating compressor coupled to a downstream turbine, and a
combustion chamber is in between. Energy is added to the gas stream in the
combustor where fuel is mixed with air and ignited. In the high pressure environment
of the combustor, combustion of the fuel increases the temperature. The products of
the combustion are forced into the turbine section. There the high velocity & volume
of the gas is directed through a nozzle over the turbine blades, spinning the turbine
which powers the compressor and for some turbines drive their mechanical output.
The energy given up to the turbine comes from the reduction in the temperature &
pressure of the exhaust gas. Energy can be extracted in the form of shaft power,
compressed air or thrust or any combination of these and used to power generators.

GAS TURBINES FOR POWER GENERATION:-
Industrial gas turbines differ from aero derivative. In those the frames bearings and
blading are of heavier construction. Industrial gas turbine range in size from truck
mounted mobile plants to enormous complex system. This can be particularly efficient
up to 60%. When waste heat from gas turbine is recovered by a heat recovery steam
generator (HRSG), it powers a combined cycle configuration. The exhaust is used for
space or water heating or drives an ABSORPTION CHILLER for cooling or
refrigeration. Such engines require a dedicated enclosure both to protect the engines
from foreign elements& the operators from noise.

CONSTRUCTION OF GAS TURBINES:-
The construction of gas turbines can take a little as several weeks to a few months,
compared to years for base load power plants. Their other main advantage is the
ability to be turned on or off within minutes, supplying power during the peak
demands. Since single cycle power plants are less efficient than combined cycle
power plants, they are usually used as peaking power plants, which operate anywhere
from several hours per day to a few dozen hours per year, depending on the electricity
demand to the generating capacity of the region. In area with shortage of base load &
load following power plant capacity or low fuel cost may regularly operate during
most hours of the day. A large single cycle gas turbine typically produces 100-400
MW of power & has 35-40% of efficiency.
14

Manufacturing unit of BHEL
First Generation Unit:-
BHOPAL Heavy Electrical Plant
HYDERABAD Heavy Electrical Equipment Plant
HYDERABAD Heavy Electrical Power Equipment Plant
TIRUCHY High Pressure Boiler Plant


Second Generation Unit:-
JHANSI Transformer & Locomotive Plants
HARIDWAR Central Foundry and Forge Plant
TIRUCHY Seamless Steel Tube Plant

New Generation Unit:-
RANIPAT Boiler Auxiliaries plant
JAGDISHPUR Insulator plant
RUDURPUR Component & Fabrication Plant
BANGLORE Industrial system Group
NATIONAL CUSTOMERS OF BHEL
Punjab Estate Electricity Board(PSEB)
Uttar Pradesh State Electricity Board(UPSEB)
National Thermal Power Corporation(NTPC)
Appolo tyres
Bakco
Sail
Birla tyres & Birla Cement
Grasim industries
IOCL
Essar Oil
ONGC
Larsen & Turbo
JK cement
Kirloskar
Siemens etc.


15

INTERNATIONAL CUSTOMERS OF BHEL
M/S ESBARA CORPORATION, JAPAN
M/S ZEECO IN CORPORATION, USA
SIMMCO INTERNATIONAL
SIEMENS, GERMANY
SIEMENS, SINGAPORE
BIEJI PROJECT, IRAQ
LMZ, RUSSIA etc

PRODUCT PROFILE OF BHEL, BHOPAL
1. Ac motors & Alternators
2. Hydro turbines
3. Hydro Generators
4. Heat Exchangers
5. Excitation Control Equipment
6. Steam Turbines
7. Transformer
8. Switch Gear
9. OLTC
10. Large Current Rectifiers
11. Control and Relay Panels

TECHNOLOGY UPGRADATION AND RESERCH & DEVLOPMENT:
To remain competitive & meet customers expectations, BHEL lays great emphasis on
the continuous up gradation of product and related technologies & development of
new products. BHEL commitment to advancement of technology is reflected in its
involvement in the development of futuristic technologies like fuels cells &
superconducting generators. BHEL investment in R&D is amongst largest in the
corporate sector in INDIA during the 2010-11,BHEL invested Rs10,050 million on
R&D efforts 21% higher than the previous year.
BHEL,BHOPALcertified to ISO:9001,ISO:14001 and OHSAS 18001, is moving
towards excellence by adopting TQM as per EFQM/CII model of Business Excellence
Heat Exchanger division is accredited with ASME U stamp with the slogan of
KadamKadamMillanaHai, GrahakSafal Banana Hai it is committed to the
customers.
16






CHAPTER 2
MAIN DISTRUBITION FRAME







17


INTRODUCTION
In telephony, a main distribution frame (MDF or main frame) is a signal distribution frame
for connecting equipment (inside plant) to cables and subscriber carrier equipment (outside
plant). The MDF is a termination point within the local telephone exchange where exchange
equipment and terminations of local loops are connected by jumper wires at the MDF. All
cable copper pairs supplying services through user telephone lines are terminated at the MDF
and distributed through the MDF to equipment within the local exchange e.g. repeaters and
DSLAM. Cables to intermediate distribution frames (IDF) terminate at the MDF. Trunk
cables may terminate on the same MDF or on a separate trunk main distribution frame
(TMDF).
Like other distribution frames the MDF provides flexibility in assigning facilities, at lower
cost and higher capacity than a patch panel.
The most common kind of large MDF is a long steel rack accessible from both sides. On one
side, termination blocks are arranged horizontally at the front of rack shelves. Jumpers lie on
the shelves and go through an insulated steel hoop to run vertically to other termination
blocks that are arranged vertically. There is a hoop or ring at the intersection of each level
and each vertical. Installing a jumper requires two workers, one on each side. The shelves are
shallow enough to allow the rings to be within arm's reach, but the workers prefer to hang the
jumper on a hook on a pole so their partner can pull it through the ring. A fanning strip at the
back of each termination block prevents the wires from covering each other's terminals. With
disciplined administration the MDF can hold over a hundred thousand jumpers, with dozens
changed every day, for decades without tangling.
Before 1960, MDF jumpers were generally soldered. This was reliable but slow and
expensive. Wire wrap was introduced in the 1960s, and punch blocks in the 1970s.
Each jumper is a twisted pair. Middle 20th century jumper wires in the USA were 24 AWG
single strand copper, with a soft polyethylene inner jacket and a cotton wrapper, impregnated
to make it slightly brittle and easy to remove neatly. Late 20th century ones had a single,
thicker coating of polyethylene cross-linked to provide a suitable degree of brittleness.
Some urban telephone exchange MDFs are two stories high so they don't have to be more
than a city block long. A few are three stories. Access to the upper levels can be either by a
travelling ladder attached to the MDF, or by mezzanine walkways at a suitable height. By
British custom the cables to the outside world are terminated on the horizontal side, and the
indoors equipment on the vertical side. American usage is the opposite.




18





Smaller MDFs, and some modern large ones, are single sided so one worker can install,
remove or change a jumper. COSMOS and other computerized Operations Support Systems
help by assigning terminals close to one another, so most jumpers need not be long and
shelves on either type of MDF do not become congested. This database keeps track of all
terminals and jumpers. In the early and middle 20th century these records were kept as pencil
entries in ledger books. The later database method saves much labor by permitting old
jumpers to be reused for new lines.
The adoption of distributed switching in the late 20th century diminished the need for large,
active, central MDFs.
The MDF usually holds telephone exchange protective devices including heat coils, and
functions as a test point between a line and the exchange equipment.
Sometimes the MDF is combined with other kinds of distribution frame in a CDF
The MDF in a private branch exchange performs functions similar to those performed by the
MDF in a central office.
19

In order to automate the manual jumpering the Automated Main Distribution Frame (AMDF)
becomes an important role.








20





CHAPTER 3
SWITCHGEAR, CONTROLGEAR &
RECTIFIER




21


SWITCHGEAR
In an electric power system, switchgear is the combination of electrical disconnect switches,
fuses or circuit breakers used to control, protect and isolate electrical equipment. Switchgear
is used both to de-energize equipment to allow work to be done and to clear faults
downstream. This type of equipment is directly linked to the reliability of the electricity
supply.
The very earliest central power stations used simple open knife switches, mounted on
insulating panels of marble or asbestos. Power levels and voltages rapidly escalated, making
opening manually operated switches too dangerous for anything other than isolation of a de-
energized circuit. Oil-filled equipment allowed arc energy to be contained and safely
controlled. By the early 20th century, a switchgear line-up would be a metal-enclosed
structure with electrically operated switching elements, using oil circuit breakers. Today, oil-
filled equipment has largely been replaced by air-blast, vacuum, or SF
6
equipment, allowing
large currents and power levels to be safely controlled by automatic equipment incorporating
digital controls, protection, metering and communications.
The high-voltage switchgear was invented at the end of the 19th century for operating motors
and other electric machines.
[1]
The technology has been improved over time and can now be
used with voltages up to 1,100 kV.
Typically, switchgears in substations are located on both the high-voltage and low-voltage
side of large power transformers. The switchgear on the low-voltage side of the transformers
may be located in a building, with medium-voltage circuit breakers for distribution circuits,
along with metering, control, and protection equipment. For industrial applications, a
transformer and switchgear line-up may be combined in one housing, called a unitized
substation or USS.

22


Switchgear
CONTROL GEAR
An electric switchboard is a device that directs electricity from one or more sources of supply
to several smaller regions of usage. It is an assembly of one or more panels, each of which
contains switches that allow electricity to be redirected. The U.S. National Electrical Code
(NEC) defines a switchboard as "a large single panel, frame, or assembly of panels on which
are mounted, on the face, back, or both, switches, over-current and other protective devices,
buses, and usually instruments". The role of a switchboard is to allow the division of the
current supplied to the switchboard into smaller currents for further distribution and to
provide switching, current protection and (possibly) metering for those various currents. In
general, switchboards may distribute power to transformers, panelboards, control equipment,
and, ultimately, to individual system loads.
Inside a switchboard there will be one or more busbars. These are flat strips of copper or
aluminum, to which the switchgear is connected. Busbars carry large currents through the
switchboard, and are supported by insulators. Bare busbars are common, but many types are
now manufactured with an insulating cover on the bars, leaving only connection points
exposed.
The operator is protected from electrocution by safety switches and fuses. There may also be
controls for the supply of electricity to the switchboard, coming from a generator or bank of
electrical generators, especially frequency control of AC power and load sharing controls,
plus gauges showing frequency and perhaps a synchroscope. The amount of power going into
a switchboard must always equal to the power going out to the loads.
Modern industrial switchboards are metal enclosed and of "dead front" construction; no
energized parts are accessible when the covers and panels are closed. Previously, open
switchboards were made with switches and other devices were mounted on panels made of
slate, granite, or ebony asbestos board. The metal enclosure of the switchboard is bonded to
earth ground for protection of personnel. Large switchboards may be free-standing floor-
23

mounted enclosures with provision for incoming connections at either the top or bottom of
the enclosure. A switchboard may have incoming bus bars or bus duct for the source
connection, and also for large circuits fed from the board. A switchboard may include a
metering or control compartment separated from the power distribution conductors.

Controlgear
RECTIFIER:
A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which periodically
reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only one direction. The process is
known as rectification.
Physically, rectifiers take a number of forms, including vacuum tube diodes, mercury-arc
valves, copper and selenium oxide rectifiers, semiconductor diodes, silicon-controlled
rectifiers and other silicon-based semiconductor switches. Historically, even synchronous
electromechanical switches and motors have been used. Early radio receivers, called crystal
radios, used a "cat's whisker" of fine wire pressing on a crystal of galena (lead sulfide) to
serve as a point-contact rectifier or "crystal detector".
Rectifiers have many uses, but are often found serving as components of DC power supplies
and high-voltage direct current power transmission systems. Rectification may serve in roles
other than to generate direct current for use as a source of power. As noted, detectors of radio
signals serve as rectifiers. In gas heating systems flame rectification is used to detect presence
of flame.
Because of the alternating nature of the input AC sine wave, the process of rectification alone
produces a DC current that, though unidirectional, consists of pulses of current. Many
applications of rectifiers, such as power supplies for radio, television and computer
equipment, require a steady constant DC current (as would be produced by a battery). In
these applications the output of the rectifier is smoothed by an electronic filter to produce a
steady current.
A more complex circuitry device that performs the opposite function, converting DC to AC,
is called an inverter.
24

Rectifier devices
Before the development of silicon semiconductor rectifiers, vacuum tube thermionic diodes
and copper oxide- or selenium-based metal rectifier stacks were used.
[1]
With the introduction
of semiconductor electronics, vacuum tube rectifiers became obsolete, except for some
enthusiasts of vacuum tube audio equipment. For power rectification from very low to very
high current, semiconductor diodes of various types (junction diodes, Schottky diodes, etc.)
are widely used.
Other devices that have control electrodes as well as acting as unidirectional current valves
are used where more than simple rectification is requirede.g., where variable output
voltage is needed. High-power rectifiers, such as those used in high-voltage direct current
power transmission, employ silicon semiconductor devices of various types. These are
thyristors or other controlled switching solid-state switches, which effectively function as
diodes to pass current in only one direction.

Rectifier circuits
Rectifier circuits may be single-phase or multi-phase (three being the most common number
of phases). Most low power rectifiers for domestic equipment are single-phase, but three-
phase rectification is very important for industrial applications and for the transmission of
energy as DC (HVDC).
Single-phase rectifiers
Half-wave rectification
In half wave rectification of a single-phase supply, either the positive or negative half of the
AC wave is passed, while the other half is blocked. Because only one half of the input
waveform reaches the output, mean voltage is lower. Half-wave rectification requires a single
diode in a single-phase supply, or three in a three-phase supply. Rectifiers yield a
unidirectional but pulsating direct current; half-wave rectifiers produce far more ripple than
full-wave rectifiers, and much more filtering is needed to eliminate harmonics of the AC
frequency from the output.

Half-wave rectifier
The no-load output DC voltage of an ideal half wave rectifier for a sinusoidal input voltage
is:
25


Where:
V
dc
, V
av
- the DC or average output voltage,
V
peak
, the peak value of the phase input voltages,
V
rms
, the root-mean-square value of output voltage.
Full-wave rectification
A full-wave rectifier converts the whole of the input waveform to one of constant polarity
(positive or negative) at its output. Full-wave rectification converts both polarities of the
input waveform to pulsating DC (direct current), and yields a higher average output voltage.
Two diodes and a center tapped transformer, or four diodes in a bridge configuration and any
AC source (including a transformer without center tap), are needed.
[3]
Single semiconductor
diodes, double diodes with common cathode or common anode, and four-diode bridges, are
manufactured as single components.

Graetz bridge rectifier: a full-wave rectifier using 4 diodes.
For single-phase AC, if the transformer is center-tapped, then two diodes back-to-back
(cathode-to-cathode or anode-to-anode, depending upon output polarity required) can form a
full-wave rectifier. Twice as many turns are required on the transformer secondary to obtain
the same output voltage than for a bridge rectifier, but the power rating is unchanged.

Full-wave rectifier using a center tap transformer and 2 diodes.
26


Full-wave rectifier, with vacuum tube having two anodes.
The average and root-mean-square no-load output voltages of an ideal single-phase full-wave
rectifier are:

Very common double-diode rectifier vacuum tubes contained a single common cathode and
two anodes inside a single envelope, achieving full-wave rectification with positive output.
The 5U4 and 5Y3 were popular examples of this configuration.
Three-phase rectifiers

3-phase AC input, half and full-wave rectified DC output waveforms
Single-phase rectifiers are commonly used for power supplies for domestic equipment.
However, for most industrial and high-power applications, three-phase rectifier circuits are
27

the norm. As with single-phase rectifiers, three-phase rectifiers can take the form of a half-
wave circuit, a full-wave circuit using a center-tapped transformer, or a full-wave bridge
circuit.
Thyristors are commonly used in place of diodes to create a circuit that can regulate the
output voltage. Many devices that provide direct current actually generate three-phase AC.
For example, an automobile alternator contains six diodes, which function as a full-wave
rectifier for battery charging.
Three-phase, half-wave circuit
An uncontrolled three-phase, half-wave circuit requires three diodes, one connected to each
phase. This is the simplest type of three-phase rectifier but suffers from relatively high
harmonic distortion on both the AC and DC connections. This type of rectifier is said to have
a pulse-number of three, since the output voltage on the DC side contains three distinct pulses
per cycle of the grid frequency.
Three-phase, full-wave circuit using center-tapped transformer
If the AC supply is fed via a transformer with a center tap, a rectifier circuit with improved
harmonic performance can be obtained. This rectifier now requires six diodes, one connected
to each end of each transformer secondary winding. This circuit has a pulse-number of six,
and in effect, can be thought of as a six-phase, half-wave circuit.
Before solid state devices became available, the half-wave circuit, and the full-wave circuit
using a center-tapped transformer, were very commonly used in industrial rectifiers using
mercury-arc valves. This was because the three or six AC supply inputs could be fed to a
corresponding number of anode electrodes on a single tank, sharing a common cathode.
With the advent of diodes and thyristors, these circuits have become less popular and the
three-phase bridge circuit has become the most common circuit.
28


Three-phase half-wave rectifier circuit using
thyristors as the switching elements, ignoring
supply inductance

Three-phase full-wave rectifier circuit using
thyristors as the switching elements, with a center-
tapped transformer, ignoring supply inductance








29





CHAPTER-4
INTRIDUCTION OF PLC









30

INTRODUCTION
WHAT IS PLC ?
A programmable logic controller, PLC, or programmable controller is a small
computer used for automation of real-world processes, such as control of machinery
on factory assembly lines CNC machines . The PLC usually uses a microprocessor.
The program is usually created by an engineers at an industrial site, rather than a
professional computer programmer. The program is stored in battery-backed memory.
PLC is actually an industrial microcontroller system (in more recent times we meet
processors instead of microcontrollers) where you have hardware and software
specifically adapted to industrial environment. Block schema with typical components
which PLC consists of is found in the following picture. Special attention needs to be
given to input and output, because in these blocks you find protection needed in
isolating a CPU blocks from damaging influences that industrial environment can
bring to a CPU via input lines. Program unit is usually a computer used for writing a
program (often in ladder diagram).
The main difference from other computers are the special input/output arrangements.
These connect the PLC to a process's sensors and actuators. PLCs read limit switches,
dual-level devices, temperature indicators and the positions of complex positioning
systems. Some even use machine vision. On the actuator side, PLCs drive any kind of
electric motor, pneumatic or hydraulic cylinders or diaphragms, magnetic relays or
solenoids. The input/output arrangements may be built into a simple PLC, or the PLC
may have external I/O modules attached to a proprietary computer network that plugs
into the PLC.
PLCs were invented as less-expensive replacements for older automated systems that
would use hundreds or thousands of relays and cam timers. Often, a single PLC can
be programmed to replace thousands of relays. Programmable controllers were
initially adopted by the automotive manufacturing industry, where software revision
replaced the re-wiring of hard-wired control panels.
A digitally operating electronic apparatus which uses a programming memory for the
internal storage of instructions for implementing specific functions such as logic,
sequencing, timing, counting and arithmetic to control through digital or analog
modules, various types of machines or process.





31

Leading Brands Of PLC
AMERICAN 1. Allen Bradley
2. Gould Modicon
3. Texas Instruments
4. General Electric
5. Westinghouse
6. Cutter Hammer
7. Square D
EUROPEAN 1. Siemens
2. Klockner & Mouller
3. Festo
4. Telemechanique

JAPANESE 1. Toshiba
2. Omron
3. Fanuc
4. Mitsubishi

Areas of Application
Manufacturing / Machining
Food / Beverage
Metals
Power
Mining
Petrochemical / Chemical


32

PLC Size
1. SMALL - it covers units with up to 128 I/Os and memories up to 2 Kbytes.
- these PLCs are capable of providing simple to advance levels or machine
controls.
2. MEDIUM - have up to 2048 I/Os and memories up to 32 Kbytes.
3. LARGE - the most sophisticated units of the PLC family. They have up to 8192 I/Os
and memories up to 750 Kbytes.
- can control individual production processes or entir

Basic PLC
19
Major Components of a Common PLC
PROCESSOR
POWER
SUPPLY
I M
N O
P D
U U
T L
E
O M
U O
T D
P U
U L
T E
PROGRAMMING
DEVICE
From
SENSORS
Pushbuttons,
contacts,
limit switches,
etc.
To
OUTPUT
Solenoids,
contactors,
alarms
etc.


33





CHAPTER 5
INTRODUCTION OF CNC









34

INTRODUCTION
The first CNC Machine was built in 1949 at MIT ,USA for manufacturing of the Air Craft
components having intricate profiles using electron tubes & core memory.
The technology advancement from the Tube technology to the open architecture system has
enabled to revolutionize the manufacturing processes.
CNC stands for Computer Numerical Control and has been around since the early 1970's.
Prior to this, it was called NC, for Numerical Control .CNC controller are able to execute
binary coded commands. The control code for a machine contains positioning as well as
switching information. Positioning information is intended to position the workpiece or else
the tool .Switching information controls the machines servo components. The coded
instructions are entered manually at the control as well as DNC (Distributed Network
Controller).
Measuring system record when the position of the workpiece or tool indicated on the part
program has been reached. Function such as lubrication , coolant on/ off and workpiece
clamping are activated using PLC (Programmable Logic Controller ) through relays &
contactor at electrical panel.
CNC controllers have several choices for operation. These include polar coordinate
command, cutter compensation, linear and circular interpolation, stored pitch error, helical
interpolation, canned cycles, rigid tapping, and auto-scaling. Polar coordinate command is a
numerical control system in which all the coordinates are referred to a certain pole. The
position is defined by the polar radius and polar angle. Cutter compensation is the distance
you want the CNC control to offset for the tool radius away from the programmed path.
Linear and circular interpolation is the programmed path of the machine, which appears to be
straight or curved, but is actually a series of very small steps along that path. Machine
precision can be remarkably improved through such features as stored pitch error
compensation, which corrects for lead screw pitch error and other mechanical positioning
errors. Helical interpolation is a technique used to make large diameter holes in workpieces.
It allows for high metal removal rates with a minimum of tool wear. There are machine
routines like drilling, deep drilling, reaming, tapping, boring, etc. that involve a series of
machine operations but are specified by a single G-code with appropriate parameters. Rigid
tapping is a CNC tapping feature where the tap is fed into the work piece at the precise rate
needed for a perfect tapped hole. It also needs to retract at the same precise rate otherwise it
will shave the hole and create an out of spec tapped hole. Auto scaling translates the
parameters of the CNC program to fit the work piece.

35



BENEFITS OF CNC SYSTEM
INCREASED FLEXIBILITY.
IMPROVED QUALITY.
REDUCED LEAD-TIME.
HIGHER PRODUCTIVITY.
ECONOMICAL BATCH PRODUCTION.
REDUCED CYCLE-TIME.
REDUCED SCRAP GENERATION












36














CHAPTER -6
INTRODUCTION OF TRANSFORMER



















37

INTRODUCTION


A transformer is a device that transfers energy from one circuit to another through inductively
coupled conductorsthe transformer's coils. A varying current in the first or primary
winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core and thus a varying magnetic
field through the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field induces a varying
electromotive force (EMF), or "voltage", in the secondary winding. This effect is called
inductive coupling.











Transformer

If a load is connected to the secondary, current will flow in the secondary winding, and
electrical energy will be transferred from the primary circuit through the transformer to the
load. In an ideal transformer, the induced voltage in the secondary winding (Vs) is in
proportion to the primary voltage (Vp) and is given by the ratio of the number of turns in the
secondary (Ns) to the number of turns in the primary (Np) as follows:

By appropriate selection of the ratio of turns, a transformer thus enables an alternating current
(AC) voltage to be "stepped up" by making Ns greater than Np, or "stepped down" by making
Ns less than Np. The windings are coils wound around a ferromagnetic core, air-core
transformers being a notable exception.
38

Transformers range in size from a thumbnail-sized coupling transformer hidden inside a stage
microphone to huge units weighing hundreds of tons used to interconnect portions of power
grids. All operate on the same basic principles, although the range of designs is wide. While
new technologies have eliminated the need for transformers in some electronic circuits,
transformers are still found in nearly all electronic devices designed for household ("mains")
voltage. Transformers are essential for high-voltage electric power transmission, which
makes long-distance transmission economically practical.
39

BASIC PRINCIPLES














AN IDEAL TRANSFORMER

The secondary current arises from the action of the secondary EMF on the (not shown) load
impedance. The transformer is based on two principles that
an electric current can produce a magnetic field(electromagnetism)
second that a changing magnetic field within a coil of wire induces a voltage across
the ends of the coil (electromagnetic induction). Changing the current in the primary
coil changes the magnetic flux that is developed. The changing magnetic flux induces
a voltage in the secondary coil.

An ideal transformer is shown in the adjacent figure. Current passing through the primary
coil creates a magnetic field. The primary and secondary coils are wrapped around a core of
very high magnetic permeability, such as iron, so that most of the magnetic flux passes
through both the primary and secondary coils. If a load is connected to the secondary
winding, the load current and voltage will be in the directions indicated, given the primary
current and voltage in the directions indicated (each will be alternating current in practice).

INDUCTION LAW

The voltage induced across the secondary coil may be calculated from Faraday's law of
induction, which states that:



where Vs is the instantaneous voltage, Ns is the number of turns in the secondary coil and
is the magnetic flux through one turn of the coil. If the turns of the coil are oriented
40

perpendicularly to the magnetic field lines, the flux is the product of the magnetic flux
density B and the area A through which it cuts. The area is constant, being equal to the cross-
sectional area of the transformer core, whereas the magnetic field varies with time according
to the excitation of the primary. Since the same magnetic flux passes through both the
primary and secondary coils in an ideal transformer, the instantaneous voltage across the
primary winding equals



Taking the ratio of the two equations for Vs and Vp gives the basic equation for stepping up
or stepping down the voltage


Np/Ns is known as the turns ratio, and is the primary functional characteristic of any
transformer.
In the case of step-up transformers, this may sometimes be stated as the reciprocal, Ns/Np.

Turns ratio is commonly expressed as an irreducible fraction or ratio: for example, a
transformer with primary and secondary windings of, respectively, 100 and 150 turns is said
to have a turns ratio of 2:3 rather than 0.667 or 100:150.


PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS



Leakage flux of a transformer
41



The ideal transformer model assumes that all flux generated by the primary winding links all
the turns of every winding, including itself. In practice, some flux traverses paths that take it
outside the windings. Such flux is termed leakage flux, and results in leakage inductance in
series with the mutually coupled transformer windings. Leakage results in energy being
alternately stored in and discharged from the magnetic fields with each cycle of the power
supply. It is not directly a power loss (see "Stray losses" below), but results in inferior voltage
regulation, causing the secondary voltage to not be directly proportional to the primary
voltage, particularly under heavy load. Transformers are therefore normally designed to have
very low leakage inductance. Nevertheless, it is impossible to eliminate all leakage flux
because it plays an essential part in the operation of the transformer. The combined effect of
the leakage flux and the electric field around the windings is what transfers energy from the
primary to the secondary.
In some applications increased leakage is desired, and long magnetic paths, air gaps, or
magnetic bypass shunts may deliberately be introduced in a transformer design to limit the
short-circuit current it will supply. Leaky transformers may be used to supply loads that
exhibit negative resistance, such as electric arcs, mercury vapor lamps, and neon signs or for
safely handling loads that become periodically short-circuited such as electric arc welders.
Air gaps are also used to keep a transformer from saturating, especially audio-frequency
transformers in circuits that have a direct current component flowing through the windings.
Leakage inductance is also helpful when transformers are operated in parallel. It can be
shown that if the "per-unit" inductance of two transformers is the same (a typical value is
5%), they will automatically split power "correctly" (e.g. 500 kVA unit in parallel with 1,000
kVA unit, the larger one will carry twice the current)

ENERGY LOSSES

An ideal transformer would have no energy losses, and would be 100% efficient. In practical
transformers, energy is dissipated in the windings, core, and surrounding structures. Larger
transformers are generally more efficient, and those rated for electricity distribution usually
perform better than 98%.

Experimental transformers using superconducting windings achieve efficiencies of 99.85%.
The increase in efficiency can save considerable energy, and hence money, in a large heavily
loaded transformer; the trade-off is in the additional initial and running cost of the
superconducting design.

Losses in transformers (excluding associated circuitry) vary with load current, and may be
expressed as "no-load" or "full-load" loss. Winding resistance dominates load losses, whereas
42

hysteresis and eddy currents losses contribute to over 99% of the no-load loss. The no-load
loss can be significant, so that even an idle transformer constitutes a drain on the electrical
supply and a running cost. Designing transformers for lower loss requires a larger core, good-
quality silicon steel, or even amorphous steel for the core and thicker wire, increasing initial
cost so that there is a trade-off between initial cost and running cost (also see energy efficient
transformer).

Transformer losses are divided into losses in the windings, termed copper loss, and those in
the magnetic circuit, termed iron loss. Losses in the transformer arise from:

Winding resistance

Current flowing through the windings causes resistive heating of the conductors. At higher
frequencies, skin effect and proximity effect create additional winding resistance and losses.

Hysteresis losses

Each time the magnetic field is reversed, a small amount of energy is lost due to hysteresis
within the core. For a given core material, the loss is proportional to the frequency, and is a
function of the peak flux density to which it is subjected.

Eddy currents

Ferromagnetic materials are also good conductors and a core made from such a material also
constitutes a single short-circuited turn throughout its entire length. Eddy currents therefore
circulate within the core in a plane normal to the flux, and are responsible for resistive
heating of the core material. The eddy current loss is a complex function of the square of
supply frequency and inverse square of the material thickness. Eddy current losses can be
reduced by making the core of a stack of plates electrically insulated from each other, rather
than a solid block; all transformers operating at low frequencies use laminated or similar
cores.

Magnetostriction

Magnetic flux in a ferromagnetic material, such as the core, causes it to physically expand
and contract slightly with each cycle of the magnetic field, an effect known as
magnetostriction. This produces the buzzing sound commonly associated with transformers
that can cause losses due to frictional heating. This buzzing is particularly familiar from low-
frequency (50 Hz or 60 Hz) mains hum, and high-frequency (15,734 Hz (NTSC) or 15,625
Hz (PAL)) CRT noise.
Mechanical losses
43


In addition to magnetostriction, the alternating magnetic field causes fluctuating forces
between the primary and secondary windings. These incite vibrations within nearby
metalwork, adding to the buzzing noise and consuming a small amount of power.

Stray losses

Leakage inductance is by itself largely lossless, since energy supplied to its magnetic fields is
returned to the supply with the next half-cycle. However, any leakage flux that intercepts
nearby conductive materials such as the transformer's support structure will give rise to eddy
currents and be converted to heat. There are also radiative losses due to the oscillating
magnetic field but these are usually small.

CORE FORM AND SHELL FORM
TRANSFORMERS



Core form = core type;
Shell form = shell type

As first mentioned in regard to earliest ZBD closed-core transformers, transformers are
generally considered to be either core form or shell form in design depending on the type of
magnetic circuit used in winding construction (see image). That is, when winding coils are
wound around the core, transformers are termed as being of core form design; when winding
coils are surrounded by the core, transformers are termed as being of shell form design. Shell
form design may be more prevalent than core form design for distribution transformer
applications due to the relative ease in stacking the core around winding coils Core form
design tends to, as a general rule, be more economical, and therefore more prevalent, than
shell form design for high voltage power transformer applications at the lower end of their
voltage and power rating ranges (less than or equal to, nominally, 230 kV or 75 MVA). At
higher voltage and power ratings, shell form transformers tend to be more prevalent. Shell
form design tends to be preferred for extra high voltage and higher MVA applications
because, though more labor intensive to manufacture, shell form transformers are
44

characterized as having inherently better kVA-to-weight ratio, better short-circuit strength
characteristics and higher immunity to transit damage.

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

Transformer equivalent circuit, with secondary impedances referred to the primary side.
The parameters of equivalent circuit of a transformer can be calculated from the results of
two transformer tests: open-circuit test and short-circuit test.

TRANSFORMER RATINGS

Transformers are rated at their kilovolt-ampere (kVA) outputs. If the load to be supplied by a
transformer is at 100 percent power factor (pf), the kilowatt (kW) output will be the same as
the kilovolt-ampere (kVA) output. If the load has a lesser power factor, the kW output will be
less than the kVA output proportionally as the load power factor is less than 100 percent.

CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSFORMERS

According to method of cooling
1. Self-aircooled (dry type)
2. Air-blastcooled (dry type)
3. Liquid-immersed, self-cooled
4. Oil-immersed, combination self-cooled and air-blast
5. Oil-immersed, water-cooled
6. Oil-immersed, forced-oilcooled
7. Oil-immersed, combination self-cooled and water-cooled

According to insulation between windings
1. Windings insulated from each other
2. Autotransformers

According to number of phases
1. Single-phase
2. Poly phase

According to method of mounting
1. Pole and platform
45

2. Subway
3. Vault
4. Special

According to purpose
1. Constant-voltage
2. Variable-voltage
3. Current
4. Constant-current

According to service
1. Large power
2. Distribution
3. Small power
4. Sign lighting
5. Control and signaling


TRANSFORMER CORES

Until recently, all transformer cores were made up of stacks of sheet-steel punching firmly
clamped together. Sometimes the laminations are coated with a thin varnish to reduce eddy-
current losses. When the laminations are not coated with varnish, a sheet of insulating paper
is inserted between laminations at regular intervals.

A new type of core construction consists of a continuous strip of silicon steel which is wound
in a tight spiral around the insulated coils and firmly held by spot welding at the end. This
type of construction reduces the cost of manufacture and reduces the power loss in the core
due to eddy currents.

OIL USED IN TRANSFORMERS

It performs two important functions. It serves to insulate the various coils from each other
and from the core, and it conducts the heat from the coils and core to some cooler surfaces,
where it is either dissipated in the surrounding air or transferred to some cooling medium. It
is evident that the oil should be free from any conducting material, it should be sufficiently
thin to circulate rapidly when subjected to differences of temperatures at different places, and
it should not be ignitable until its temperature has been raised to a very high value. Although
numerous kinds of oils have been tried in transformers, at the present time mineral oil is used
almost exclusively. This oil is obtained by fractional distillation of petroleum unmixed with
any other substances and without subsequent chemical treatment. A good grade of
transformer oil should show very little evaporation at 100
o
C, and it should not give off gases
at such a rate as to produce an explosive mixture with the surrounding air at a temperature
below 180
o
C. It should not contain moisture, acid, alkali, or sulfur compounds.
46


It has been shown that the deteriorating effect of moisture on the insulating qualities of an oil
is very marked; moisture to the extent of 0.06 percent reduces the dielectric strength of the oil
to about 50 percent of the value when it is free from moisture, but there is very little further
decrease in the dielectric strength with an increase in the amount of moisture in the oil.

Dry oil will stand an emf of 25,000 V between two 0.5-in (12.7-mm) knobs separated by 0.15
in (3.8 mm). The presence of moisture can be detected by thrusting a red-hot nail in the oil; if
the oil crackles, water is present. Moisture can be removed by raising the temperature
slightly above the boiling point of water, but the time consumed (several days) is excessive.
The oil is subsequently passed through a dry-sand filter to remove any traces of lime or other
foreign materials.

COOLING OF TRANSFORMERS

The effectiveness of cooling ensures the life span and that reliability of the transformer
operation.

Cooling Methods

ONAN (Oil Natural and Air Natural Cooling)
Oil is kept in circulation by the gravitational buoyancy in the closed loop cooling system.


ONAF (Oil Natural and Air Forced Cooling)
Fans are used to blow the air on the cooling surfaces of the radiators. The heat transfer
coefficient is increased according to ONAN cooling method.

OFAF (Oil Forced and Air Forced Cooling)
In this type of cooling an external pump is used to circulate the oil and also fans are used.

OFWF (Oil Forced and Water Forced Cooling)
Oil/water coolers are used for cooling the transformer oil. Depending on the type of oil
circulation. The transformer cooling system is termed as ODWF (Oil Directed and Water
Forced)

METHODS OF MOUNTING

Transformers are constructed with different types of metal enclosing structures to meet the
requirements of different conditions of installation. One type of enclosure is designed for
mounting on poles, either directly or with hanger irons, for use in overhead distribution work.
Another type of enclosure, called the platform type, is suitable for installations in which the
transformer stands upon its own base. It can be mounted on any flat horizontal surface having
sufficient mechanical strength, such as a floor or a platform between poles. Subway
47

transformers have watertight tanks which are designed primarily for underground
installations when the transformer may be completely submerged in water. Vault
transformers also have watertight enclosures so that they will not be injured by total
submersion, but they are not designed to operate satisfactorily under such conditions. The
vault transformers are intended for operation in underground vaults in which the transformer
would not be required to operate for any considerable length of time while submerged. Small
transform-ers for power and special application are designed with special types of mounting
to meet the requirements of installation for these types of service.

APPLICATIONS


Electrical substation showing 220kV/66kV transformers, each with a capacity of
185MVA
A major application of transformers is to increase voltage before transmitting electrical
energy over long distances through wires. Wires have resistance and so dissipate electrical
energy at a rate proportional to the square of the current through the wire. By transforming
electrical power to a high-voltage (and therefore low-current) form for transmission and back
again afterward, transformers enable economical transmission of power over long distances.
Consequently, transformers have shaped the electricity supply industry, permitting generation
to be located remotely from points of demand. All but a tiny fraction of the world's electrical
power has passed through a series of transformers by the time it reaches the consumer.
Transformers are also used extensively in electronic products to step down the supply voltage
to a level suitable for the low voltage circuits they contain. The transformer also electrically
isolates the end user from contact with the supply voltage.
Signal and audio transformers are used to couple stages of amplifiers and to match devices
such as microphones and record players to the input of amplifiers. Audio transformers
allowed telephone circuits to carry on a two-way conversation over a single pair of wires. A
balun transformer converts a signal that is referenced to ground to a signal that has balanced
voltages to ground, such as between external cables and internal circuits.

48

The principle of open-circuit (unloaded) transformer is widely used for characterisation of
soft magnetic materials, for example in the internationally standardized Epstein frame
method.



MANUFACTURING PROCESS

CORE ASSEMBLY



Power Systems transformers are of the Core Form design. All cores are stacked,
using high-quality grain-oriented silicon steel laminations, purchased slit-to-width
and coated with carlite to increase the interlamination resistance and to reduce eddy
current losses. Where loss evaluations justify its use, laser or mechanically scribed or
plasma treated silicon steel will be used.

All cores utilize the step lap principle in the corner joints to reduce losses,
magnetizing current and sound level. The cores are fully-mitered on all joints in order
to improve the flux distribution.

Ultra modern computerized core shears supply fully-mitered, high-efficiency cores.
These machines are able to shear the maximum width of core steel currently
available.

Some machines automatically stack the legs and yokes to minimize steel handling
and mechanical stresses, helping to guarantee the designed loss level

The laminations are stacked in steps, resulting in a circular core shape which gives
the windings optimum radial support, especially during short-circuit conditions.

The exposed edges of all finished cores are bonded with low viscosity, high-strength
epoxy resin on the legs and bottom yoke to help lower the sound level. The
temperature rise of the core is designed to be low and is controlled, if necessary, by
careful placement of vertical oil ducts within the core packets.

The core is clamped using structural steel clamps which provide high strength under
49

both static (lifting and clamping) and dynamic (shortcircuit) mechanical loads. The
clamps are very lightweight for their strength and provide a smooth surface facing the
winding ends, eliminating regions of high local electrical stress.

Under this process bonded core design is used to eliminate hold notching clamp and to
minimize fixed losses and magnetizing current. The clamping frames for top and bottom
yokes are incorporated into the still age but this must also provide support rigidity for the
limbs until the core has been lifted in the vertical positions for assembling of the winding.

COIL WINDINGS AND INSULATION ASSEMBLY

Coil windings are of two Types:

The precise details of the winding arrangements will be varied according to the rating of the
transformers. The general principles remain the same throughout most the range of
transformer. The copper or Aluminium strips/wires used in winding are meticulously selected
for its quality to give the best output.
1. Low Voltage Coil (L.V. Coil)
2. High Voltage Coil (H.V. Coil)

1. L. V. COIL WINDING:

The Low Voltage coil is designed to approximately match the current rating of the available
low-voltage (LV). The L.V. coil is normally wound on robust tube of insulation material and
this is almost invariably of synthetic resin-bonded paper. This material has high mechanical
strength and is capable of withstanding the high loading. Electrically it will probably have
sufficient dielectric strength to withstand the relatively modest test voltage applied to the
L.V. winding during the repairing without any additional insulation.

2. H. V. COIL WINDING:

The second process is H.V. Coil Winding, which are wound with strip conductor and it
usually consists of continuous disc type. The coils are usually created in layers and ideally all
the joints are extremely well brazen and insulated in order to withstand difficult service
conditions and tests.
The LV windings are made from Paper covered Copper Strip and placed nearest to the core.
The HV winding are wound with Super Enamelled Copper Wire or Alluminium wire or
Paper covered Round wire or paper covered Strip depending upon the reting of the
transformers. The cross section of the conductor is also chosen to keep the thermal gradiet in
the winding to a minium and thus increase the life of transformer.
The coils are assembled with the best insulating material avail and they are adequately
clamped by the use of permawood rings where necessary to give required mechanical
strength.
50

The tappings are provided o the external HV windings. The off circuit tapping swich is gang
operated type and good contact is maintained by means of floating spring pressure. Teh
tapping swich can be looked in ay desired position. The transformer preferably off capacity
2000 KVA and above can be supplied with on load tap changer alongwith the desired
controls as per the requirement.


CORE AND COIL ASSEMBLY

A part of the transformer manufacturing process, the core and coil assembly aspect plays a
significant role where the core assembly is vertically placed where the foot plate touches the
ground and the top yoke is removed. The limbs of the core are tightly wrapped with cotton
tape and then varnished during the manufacturing and even repairing process.
First, the individual windings are assembled one over the other to form the entire
phase assembly.
The radial gaps between the windings are subdivided by means of solid transformer
board barriers.
Stress rings and angle rings are placed on top and bottom of the windings to achieve a
contoured end insulation design for optimal control of the oil gaps and creepage
stresses.
The complete phase assemblies are then carefully lowered over the separate core legs
and solidly packed towards the core to assure optimal short circuit capability.
The top core yoke is then repacked and the complete core and coil assembly is
clamped.
The lead exits (if applicable) and the lead supports and beams are installed. All
winding connections and tap lead connections to the tap changer(s) are made before
drying the complete core and coil assembly in the vapor phase oven.


TESTING


The testing room is climatically controlled and is fully equipped with facilities for conducting
all routine tests and temperature-rise tests. The transformers are tested at various stages of
51

manufacture and various rating transformers are tested at independent institution to establish
short circuit and insulating capacity of the transformers and also the impulse withstanding
capacity.

Prior to shipment, all transformers manufactured BHEL are tested in accordance with the
latest applicable standards according to customer specifications. All industry standard and
optional tests with the exception of short-circuit tests, can be performed in-house by trained
personnel using accurate and modern test equipment.

Impulse Testing

A state-of-the-art digital impulse recording system, the Haefely HIAS system, provides the
most accurate analysis of impulse results available today. Electronic recording of the impulse
current and voltage waveforms allows quick mathematical comparisons to be made, including
the difference between the two waveforms under scrutiny. Accurate printed and plotted final
results are quickly available. If required, photographic transparencies from the impulse
oscilloscope can be supplied.

The construction of the test area incorporates a complete copper mesh ground mat system,
with extensive grounding points provided. This eliminates high impedance grounds and
provides exceptionally clean test records. The impulse generator is rated at 200 kV per stage
for a total of 2.8 MV, with 210 kJ total stored energy. For precise triggering, this generator is
equipped with a pressurized polytrigatron gap in each stage. For chopped wave tests, a
haefely multiple chopping gap is used. Our plants are fully capable of performing lightning
impulse, switching impulse and front of wave tests as required.

Induced Testing

For induced testing, a variable voltage alternator, rated 1500/1000 kVA, 3/1-phase, 170/240
Hz, is used. Voltage control is by solid state automatic voltage regulator, and solid state speed
control of the 1000 kW DC driving motor. During the induced test, partial discharge
measurements both in pC and V are taken and equipment is available to locate internal
partial discharges by the triangulation method.


Loss Measurement

Power is provided to the loss measuring system by a 5/10 MVA regulating transformer
feeding three single-phase 10 MVA variable ratio transformers and a 110 MVAR capacitor
bank. Losses are measured by an automated system using CTs for current and gas capacitors
for voltage. This system has a fully automated digital readout and printer.
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AC Testing

A test supply with an output voltage infinitely adjustable from 3-350 kV is available for high
voltage AC testing. To measure the applied voltage level, a digital peak-responding RMS
calibrated voltmeter capable of measuring up to 1600 kV is used.

Short-circuit testing

The main purpose of this test is to compute the following:

Equivalent impedance of the transformer referred to primary and secondary.
Cu loss of the transformer at any desired load.
Total voltage drop of the transformer referred to primary and secondary.

For the short circuit test of a transformer the low-voltage winding is short-circuited. During
the short circuit test, we apply 510 per cent of the rated voltage to high-voltage side so that
the full-load current flow both in primary and secondary. Voltage is slowly increased from
zero to a value to get full-load current to flow. Since 510 per cent of rated voltage at the
primary is easier to achieve smoothly and read by a voltmeter, instruments are always placed
on the high-voltage side. A voltmeter, an ammeter and a wattmeter are placed on the high-
voltage side. The low-voltage side is directly short-circuited by a thick conductor or by an
ammeter.

Open-circuit testing

From this test, we can determine core loss and no-load current (I0) of the transformer. Figure
1.35 shows the schematic diagram of the transformer. The high-voltage side is generally kept
open because the current in high-voltage winding is less compared to that on low-voltage
winding. In low-voltage side, a voltmeter, an ammeter and a wattmeter are connected to
measure the input voltage, no-load current and the core loss of the transformer. Since no-load
current is generally small, the copper loss at no-load condition is negligible. The wattmeter
reading practically gives the iron loss of the transformer.

To measure the induced emf in secondary winding, a high-resistance voltmeter is connected
across the secondary to calculate the turns ratio.