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Prepared By: Er.

Tol Man Shrestha


1
X-Rays
X-RAY Machine
In this section the basic construction of X-ray equipment and some different types of X-ray systems
will be introduced. Most standard X-ray systems have three main components which are a X-ray tube,
a high voltage power supply, and a control unit. Working together, these components are common to
all standard systems.

From our introductory discussion on the generation of X-rays you may recall that there were three
principle requirements to generate X-radiation. These three requirements include a source of
electrons, a means of acceleration, and a target for interaction. You should recognize that electrical
power is necessary for X-ray generation.
Where do the electrons come from?
You already know that matter is made up of atoms, and atoms have electrons that orbit around the
nucleus in shells. All we need to do is get the electron free of their orbit. If we take a piece of
conductive wire and pass a current through it, the wire will heat up due to the resistance in the wire.
The heat of the wire excites the electrons and they will break away (boil off) from the wire to expend
the energy picked up from the heat of the current. When the energy of the electron is expended, it will
return to the wire to become heated again. So this heated wire serves as our source of electrons.
Why do the electrons need to be accelerated and how is it done?
Our second requirement is to get the electrons traveling at high speeds. The reason we need to propel
the electrons at high speeds is because the energy that the electron possesses and can transfer is
dependent on its velocity. The higher the velocity of the electron when it interacts with an atom, the
greater the energy of the radiation that will be produced. Propelling the electron is fairly simple.
Prepared By: Er. Tol Man Shrestha
2
X-Rays
Since unlike charges (positive and negative) attract, and electrons posses a negative charge, all we
need is a positive charge nearby to attract the electron. We can accomplish this by placing a piece of
metal (anode) a short distance away from the wire filament (cathode).
When we apply a voltage to this anode, we place a high positive charge on it. This high positive
charge acts much like a magnet, only it is attracting free electrons. The positive charge will possess a
strong attractive force to the negative charge of the electrons that are boiling off of the filament. This
attractive force pulls the electrons towards the anode at high speeds. By increasing the voltage applied
to the anode we can increase the speed of the electrons.
What does the target material do?
The third and final requirement is to have a target material for the electrons to interact with. By
placing some sort of matter between the electrons (filament) and the positive charge (anode) we meet
our need. Also, the anode itself can be used as the target. In high voltage X-ray generators a special
target material (tungsten) is usually embedded into the anode. This gives the electrons a suitable
material to interact with and produce x-rays. When the electron hits the target material, several things
can happen. The electron can be absorbed by an atom and its energy transferred to the atom, the
energy of the electron can cause another electron to be knocked out of its energy shell, or the electron
may just slightly interact with other atomic particles. Radiation will be produced in all of these cases,
but the energy of the radiation will be different.
Modern X-ray tubes come in many shapes and sizes, normally they are of the glass or metal-ceramic
tube (envelope) style. As compared to early gas filled X-ray tubes, modern tubes are of the high
vacuum style. The modern techniques of tube design have allowed for smaller tubes, extended tube
life, and more efficient and stable operation.
The means of acceleration of the electrons is provided by applying a potential difference (voltage)
across the tube anode and cathode and is independent of the voltage and current across the filament.

The x-ray tube is technically referred to as an envelope. Typical construction may be from blown
glass or metal-ceramic styles. Glass envelope tubes are still common today, although they have
definite disadvantages to the newer metal-ceramic designs. Due to the tremendous amount of heat
generated during X-ray production, glass suffers from thermal and mechanical shock. Metal-ceramic
materials do not suffer damage from the excessive heat to the degree that glass does and are rapidly
replacing the glass style tube.

Prepared By: Er. Tol Man Shrestha
3
X-Rays
The Cathode
From the above illustration let's look at each of the components separately beginning with the
cathode. Thecathode is the negative terminal of the tube assembly and includes the filament, which
is a small-coiled wire that is commonly made from tungsten. The filament provides the electrons for
acceleration to the target (anode). Tungsten is metal with the desired properties for filaments, you
have probably seen a tungsten filament in a light bulb before. The filament is normally powered by an
alternating current that is supplied to it by a separate transformer.
In many of the X-ray tubes, the current supplied to the filament ranges from a few hundred micro-
amperes to several milli-amperes (mA). Filament current may be varied or fixed to maintain a
constant tube current. Remember from our earlier discussion that the filament supplies the electrons.
Adjustments in current to the filament varies the number of electrons that will boil off the filament.
This in turn controls the number of X-rays that the tube is generating. Filament current controls the
X-ray intensity.
The Anode
The positive terminal of an x-ray tube is called the anode, it serves three important functions, (1) it
provides a complete circuit for purposes of accelerating the electrons, (2) it houses the target material,
and (3) it helps to cool the tube. We already mentioned before that the generation of X-rays generates
a tremendous amount of heat. If the heat in a tube was ignored, the target material that is embedded in
the anode would be destroyed in a short period of time. The anode is typically made from materials
with good thermal properties to dissipate heat. Copper and tungsten are common anode materials. In
addition to using thermally conductive materials for the anode, alternate means of cooling that may
be employed are gas, oil, water, or air.
Does the density of the target material matter?
As previously mentioned, the anode also houses the target material. As an integral part of the tube,
the target requires special consideration. The target provides the means for electron interaction
(bombardment). The target is commonly made from tungsten and other materials like cobalt, iron, or
copper. Another important characteristic of the target material is its density. The material must be of
high atomic mass for electron interaction. Remember that when the electron interacts with the target
atoms the result is the generation of X-rays. Low density materials do not provide sufficient density
for interaction.
The High Voltage Power Supply
A high voltage power supply is an important component of an X-ray generation system. When we say
high voltage supply, we need to differentiate from that of commercial electricity. Keep in mind that
the filament uses a relatively small voltage supply to cause small currents (mA) in the filament, while
the anode of the tube requires a large voltage supply to maintain a high positive charge for
acceleration of the electrons. Commercial power is commonly available as 110 volts, 220, or 440
volts. X-ray systems require very high voltages commonly in the range from 5 kilovolts (kV) to as
much as 400 kV or more. So how can we supply low voltage to the filament, and high voltage to the
anode? This is accomplished by using a transformer. A transformer will allow us to supply the proper
voltages to the filament and anode.
Prepared By: Er. Tol Man Shrestha
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X-Rays
What are transformers?
Transformers are electromagnetic devices that allow a voltage of alternating current to be changed;
the voltage may be increased or decreased. Two common types of transformers which are of
importance to X-ray generation are step-up and step-down. Transformers are comprised of two sets of
windings (coiled conductors) that are electrically isolated from each other. One set of windings is
connected to a power supply and is known as the primaries. The other set of windings is connected to
a load (in this case the X-ray tube) and is referred to as the secondary windings.
The Control Unit
The third essential component to a standard X-ray system is the control unit controls the energy and
intensity of the radiation being generated. There are three principle controls to a standard X-ray
system, which are the current (mA) control, the voltage (kV) control, and a timer. The first two are
the most important in terms of the radiation characteristics. The controls for the system are usually
housed in a panel.
Current Control
The current control on an X-ray system commonly includes some type of a panel meter or digital
display with units of miliampers (mA). The control is a rheostat connected to the circuit that allows
adjustment of the current in the filament of the X-ray tube. Adjusting the current being applied to the
filament results in variations in the radiation intensity. Remember that the filament provides the
electrons for interaction with the target. When the tube current is varied, the number of electrons
being supplied to the anode (target) varies.
Voltage Control
The voltage control on an X-ray system is similar to the current control in that it includes some type
of metered display and a rheostat in the circuit. The units of the meter are usually kilovolts and the
control is often labeled kV. This voltage is the electrical potential between the anode and the cathode
of the tube and is referred to as the tube voltage. Variations in the tube voltage affects the energy of
the radiation; penetrating power varies with the voltage. Increasing the tube voltage increases the
speed of the electrons interacting with the target. As energy of radiation is a function of the
wavelength, Increasing the energy results in a shorter wavelength X-ray photon, which has greater
penetrating power.
Time Control
The third control feature of an X-ray system is the timer. The timer is no different then one you set
when baking cookies. It may be an analog or digital display of some sort. The function of the timer is
simply to control the duration of the exposure, in other words, how much time the tube is generating
radiation. It is, however, connected to the circuits of the system. When the time has elapsed, the
system shuts down and no more radiation will be produced until the system is reset.


Prepared By: Er. Tol Man Shrestha
5
X-Rays
Review:
1. The three main parts to an x-ray generator setup are an x-ray tube, a high voltage power
supply, and a control unit.
2. The X-ray generator provides three things that are required to produce X-rays, and they are a
source of electrons, a means of acceleration, and a target for interaction.
Functional Block Diagram of X-ray Machine:













Figure: basic functional block diagram of an X-ray Machine

There are mainly three parts of the circuit of X-ray machine.
1. H.V. production:
Step up transformer and rectifier circuit
kV selector switch controls voltage during exposure
timer circuit aids the exposure circuit
voltage compensator stabilizes the variation in the supply
2. Heating Unit and Control
6v-12v/3.5A rated A.C. supply heats the filament
X-Ray Tube
kV meter
Exposure
Switch
H.V. Supply
Timer
Circuit
kV
controller
Voltage
compensator
mA
controller
Rectifier
Heating Filament
and cathode
temp
r
controller
C
o
l
l
i
m
e
t
e
r

AC
Self Rectification Circuit
Prepared By: Er. Tol Man Shrestha
6
X-Rays
The filament temperature determines the tube current and the tube current control
has a mA selector and thermal sensor.
3. X-Ray tube
The heart of an X-ray machine is a vacuum-sealed glass cylinder containing a pair of electrodes.
When electricity is sent through the tube, X-rays are released at the positive electrode. The X-ray
beam can be limited to reach the patients particular part using a device called collimeter. The
high-energy rays pass through soft body tissue, but get absorbed by dense material such as bone.
This creates shadows that can be captured with photographic or fluoroscopic techniques.
Doctors used X-rays to see inside living patients bodies without having to cut them open.
Biological effects of X-Rays:
E
2
0 +Encrgy E
+
+0E
-
(Ion poirs)
E
2
0 +X Roy ormotion o rcc roJicols
E
+
+0E
-
(Ion poirs but not normol)
All ionizing radiation loose energy in their passage through the matter by process which produces ion
pair either has primary or secondary effects.
H
+
and OH
-
are free radicals and are not quite same as normal ion. These free radicals are the main
source of biological effect of ionizing radiation. Depth of penetration of radiations on the tissues
density varies organ to organ and varies free radical formation.
Other adverse effects are:
Damage To DNA From Ionization
Rate of Reproduction Oxygen Supply
Lymphocytes and Blood Forming Cells
Reproductive and Gastrointestinal (GI) Cells
Nerve and Muscle Cells


Uses of X-ray:
Diagnostic X-ray:
high mA; large current requires for heating filament and low exposure time
eg., X-ray, CT-scan, Angiography, Cathlab
Therapeutic X-Ray:
Low mA, high kV potential difference between anode and cathode
Used : to kill some kind of cells
Cancer treatment
Lithotripsy (breaking stone in very small pieces)

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