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MOTION, ELECTRONICS & PHOTONICS,
ELECTRIC POWER, SOUND, LIGHT &
MATTER
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MOTION

HOLIDAYS - Constant Acceleration Equations
- Projectile Motion

TERM 1

WEEK 1 - Motion Outcome Begins

WEEK 2 - Motion Outcome

WEEK 3 - Motion Outcome
- Draft of Method due (Wed Feb 12)

WEEK 4 - Motion Outcome
- Data Analysis due (Mon Feb 17)

WEEK 5 - Motion Outcome due (Mon Feb 24)
- Graphical Analysis of Motion
- Forces

WEEK 6 - Impulse & Momentum

WEEK 7 - Work, Energy & Power
- Collisions,

WEEK 8 - Circular Motion

WEEK 9 - Gravitation

WEEK 10 - Circular Motion & Gravitation Test


ELECTRONICS & PHOTONICS

HOLIDAYS - Electric circuits
- Voltage Dividers

TERM 2

WEEK 1 - Diodes
- Voltage Amplifiers
- Transducers & Photonics

WEEK 2 - Electronics Test SAC (Mon May 5)


3


ELECTRIC POWER,

TERM 2

WEEK 2 - Electronics Test SAC (Mon May 5)
- Magnetic Fields
- Magnetic Forces

WEEK 3 - Electromagnetic Induction
- Induced EMF

WEEK 4 - Motors and Generators

WEEK 5 - Electric power generation

WEEK 6 - Electric Power SAC (Mon June 2)
- Electric Power Test

WEEK 7 & 8 - Exams
SOUND

TERM 2

WEEK 9 - Transmission of sound
- Waves
- Intensity

TERM 3

WEEK 1 - Reflection, transmission & absorption
- Diffraction

WEEK 2 - Interference of sound

WEEK 3 - Music
- Microphones & loudspeakers

WEEK 4 - Sound SAC (Mon August 4)


4


LIGHT & MATTER

TERM 3

WEEK 4 - Light & Waves

WEEK 5 - Photoelectric Effect
- Wave/Particle Duality

WEEK 6 - Energy Levels in an Atom
- Light Revision

WEEK 7 - Light SAC (Mon August 25)
- Exam Revision

ASSESSMENT

School-assessed coursework and an end of year examination will determine the students level of
achievement in Physics.

School-assessed Coursework

Students will be given a score out of 170 that will be a result of the students performance in five
outcomes.

Outcome 1 - A plan and report of a student-designed investigation including a concise
evaluation. (Marks allocated = 40)

Outcome 2 - A test on electronics and photonics. This will be done as a 50-minute
classroom activity. (Marks allocated = 30)

Outcome 3 - A written report on Electric Power. This will be done as a 50-minute
classroom activity. (Marks allocated = 40)

Outcome 4 - A summary report on practical activities related to Sound. This will be done
as a 50-minute classroom activity. (Marks allocated = 30)

Outcome 5 - A test on Light and Matter. This will be done as a 50-minute classroom
activity. (Marks allocated = 30)

The School-assessed coursework contribute 40% to the students study score.

Final examination

This will be a 2 hour external examination and will contribute 60% to the students study score.
5


UNIT 3 PHYSICS EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION

CROWN THE COIN

Every year your school runs a carnival. One of the major attractions is the Crown the Coin game
where people pay $1 for the chance to release a ball bearing on a metal track in the hope that it will hit
and hence win a $2 coin placed near the end of the track. To further frustrate the players chances of
winning the operator is able to change the height of the end of the track above the ground and the
position of the coin at the start of each game.



For many years, you have been playing this game for the odd win but usually suffer heavy losses.
This year is your chance for revenge. Your mother is chairperson of the Carnival Organising
Committee and now has the key to the storeroom where this game is kept. You plan to take the key
and experiment on the game so that next month when it makes its reappearance at the carnival you
can win back all that lost money (with interest).
Now you have a real chance to use all that physics you have been studying. It is also a chance to use
the computer for something other than games. You intend to come up with an equation that will allow
you to determine where to put the ball as long as you can estimate where the coin is horizontally from
the end of the track and can estimate how high the track is above the ground.



In the experimental investigation each student is to perform a practical investigation and write a report
in the range of 1000-1200 words on the investigation.

In order to obtain an excellent result the following points need to be apparent from the report. The
student has been able to

Demonstrate advanced understanding of the investigation
Independently design and conduct experimental procedures involving at least two continuous
independent variables.
Systematically collect relevant data. Accurately record insightful and detailed observations.
Estimate uncertainties in data and derived quantities correctly.
Analyse data accurately and fully
Communicate valid conclusions, relating data to hypotheses, taking into account sources of
error and uncertainty and limitations of experimental design


6


It is necessary to investigate the following relationships.

1. Relationship between Height of Track & Horizontal Distance (constant Ball Height)

2. Relationship between Height of Ball & Horizontal Distance (constant Height of Track)

Things to consider

How will Height be measured?
What constants should be used?
At least 7 good sets of data are needed for each experiment


REPORT FORMAT
Introduction

Aim of Investigation

The aim of this investigation is to find a relationship between

This will be done in 2 parts

Variables:

Use a table similar to the one below

Variable Symbol Unit of measurement Significance Range
Height of Track
Height of Ball
Mass of Ball
Horizontal Distance
Other variables?

PART HEADING
Aim of Part

The aim of this part of the experiment is to find a relationship between

Apparatus

Use a table similar to the one below

Equipment Purpose Accuracy Reason for choice





7


Method

The apparatus was set up as shown in the following diagram.

Diagram

Dot points eliminate the need to use complete sentences
Dont repeat what has been already stated in variables/apparatus
Justify what was done
Discuss how difficulties/potential difficulties can/will be overcome
Consider what you can/should do to gain accurate data. (How many significant figures should be
used to measure data? Do measurements need to be repeated?)

Include how data will be analysed.


Results:

The table below displays a summary of the data that was collected.

(The full set of data & graphs should be placed in an appendix at the end of the experiment.)

Example
Constants

Variable (unit) Variable (unit)




Analysis & Discussion

Graphs of the data were plotted using Microsoft Excel. Linear and power trend lines were inserted
and the graph with the greatest R
2
value was chosen to be the most appropriate curve (only show a
graph of the best trend line). An equation was then obtained.

Remember to
Make sure that axes are labelled with a name and unit
Remove background and gridlines unless they are really necessary
Make equation font of a readable size.
Change the equation from x & y to appropriate symbols.
Use correct significant figures.

Discuss the graphs and data.

Conclusion

The conclusion is a summary of the experiment. It must link the analysis and discussion to the aim.



8


Combining the Results of the 2 parts

Explain how all data and graphs can be linked together to reach a valid conclusion suitable graphs and
discussion.

Conclusion of Investigation

The conclusion is a summary of the investigation. It must link the analysis and discussion sections for
each part together and relate to the aim of the investigation. A discussion of how your final result
matches theory is expected.


ASSESSMENT CRITERIA

Criterion 1

Plan a practical investigation, using equipment correctly and safely in conducting practical work.

Provision of a clear, specific and comprehensive statement of the purpose of the investigation
Identification and definition of all of the significant physics ideas
Identification of all of the relevant variables that should be considered
Provision of a clear statement that justifies all reasons for selecting particular apparatus

Marking scheme

Aim (3 marks)
Variables (4 marks)
Apparatus (3 marks)

Criterion 2

Observe and record data accurately and estimate uncertainties.

Control of variables where appropriate and the inclusion in the experimental method of how
this was accomplished.
Explanation of how difficulties were overcome or how the experiment was modified to take
them into account.
Use of the most appropriate and available strategies.
Inclusion of repeated, relevant measurements/observations wherever possible.
Measurements/observations of variables over a suitable range of values.
Inclusion of sufficient data/observations in order to satisfy the purpose of the investigation
Discussion of the limitations of the apparatus and the measuring instruments and the
provision of some estimate of the uncertainty of measurements.

Marking scheme

Use of apparatus, clearly explained & justified method (7 marks)
Data collection (5 marks)
Limits & uncertainties (3 marks)



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Criterion 3

Analysis and interpretation of experimental data

Inclusion of a clear statement demonstrating an understanding of the relevance of the
experimental data.
Organisation of the data into a convenient form with suitable graphs, charts, tables or
diagrams used to demonstrate the relationship between variables and quantities
measured/observed.
Manipulation of data resulting in the calculation of physical values. Explanation of physical
relationships.
Accurate measurements and calculations with a correct treatment of significant figures.

Marking scheme

Organisation & presentation of graphs (3 marks)
Analysis of data (Parts 1 & 2) (7 marks)

Criterion 4

Evaluation of the practical work

Interpretation of experimental data of significance to the context.
Inclusion of evaluations that can be reasonably inferred from the data.
Discussion of the limitations of the experimental findings in terms of uncertainties.
Explanation of all differences between expected and obtained relationships.

Marking scheme

Discuss & combine results from parts 1 & 2 (5 marks)
Theoretical equation & discussion (2 marks)
Conclusion (3 marks)

Criterion 5

Knowledge and application of the appropriate physics terms, concepts and relationships

Application of key knowledge and skills about the area of study, throughout the task, with
clear definitions and explanations.
Appropriate use of accepted physics symbols, SI units and accepted terminology.
Clear labelling of diagrams and graphs.
Correct calculation of physical quantities significant to the context using a level of
mathematics outlined in the study design.

Marking scheme

Symbols & units (5 marks)
Labelling (5 marks)
Defining terms, clarity (5 marks)


10


MEASUREMENT & UNITS

The appropriate S.I. unit must accompany all measured quantities.

The following units should be used when solving a problem unless told otherwise.

QUANTITY UNIT SYMBOL

Length metre m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s

The following metric prefixes are often used

milli (m) = 10
-3
centi (c) = 10
-2
kilo = 10
3


Some units are obtained by combining other units.

All derived units should be made of SI units. If this is not the case, a conversion will be necessary
eg. 72 km/hr = (72 x 1000) / (60 x 60) = 20 m/s.

STANDARD FORM

Any number outside the range 1000 - 0.01 should be expressed in standard form.

Standard form involves expressing a number as a number between one and ten multiplied by a power
of ten.

Example Speed of light = 300 000 000 m/s = 3 x 10
8
m/s

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

The number of figures quoted in an answer should indicate the accuracy of a number.

The final answer should only contain as many figures as the least accurate number specified in the
question.

Example 1.27 kg x 328 m 25 s = 16.6624 kg m s
-1


This should be written as 17 kg m s
-1
because 25 is the least accurate number in the question as it
contained only 2 digits.

Zeros at the beginning of a number are not counted as significant figures.

e.g. 0.02040 has 4 significant figures. The first 2 zeros are not counted.


11


VECTORS & SCALARS

Physical quantities may be either vectors or scalars. Vector quantities must have a direction as well as
a magnitude. Scalar quantities have magnitude only.

Vector Quantities Scalar Quantities

Displacement Distance
Velocity Speed
Acceleration Work
Force Mass
Impulse Energy
Momentum Power

Arrows can represent vectors where the length indicates the magnitude and the direction is indicated
by the way the arrow points.

It is often easiest to split vectors into components.

Example 2 m N 60 E = 2 sin 60 E + 2 cos 60 N

Vectors cannot be added or subtracted like numbers.
For example 3 m North + 3 m East does not equal 6 m northeast.

Vectors may be added by placing the arrows that head to tail. The resultant vector is drawn from the
tail of the first vector to the head of the last vector. The magnitude of the vector and its direction can
be calculated from a scale diagram or geometry.

Subtracting a vector is the same as adding a vector in the opposite direction.

Change in a vector = final vector initial vector

The velocity of A relative to B = velocity of A velocity of B


GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS OF MOTION

A convenient way of displaying information about an object is on a graph. The gradient and/or the
area may give additional information about the object. If dividing the quantities or units of the y and
x-axes gives a known quantity or unit, then the gradient is useful. If multiplying the quantities or
units of the y and x-axes gives a known quantity or unit, then the area under the graph is useful.

For motion the following graphs are useful.

Graph Gradient Area

s - t velocity
v - t acceleration change in displacement
a - t change in velocity


PROBLEMS: Gardiner p16 Set 6 Ques. 3, 4, 7, 8, 11-13, 15, 16
12


MOTION EQUATIONS

average speed
distance covered
time taken



average velocity
change in displacement
change in time






average acceleration
change in velocity
change in time






If the acceleration of an object is constant, the following equations can be used

s
v u
2
x t

v = u + a t

v
2
= u
2
+ 2 a s

s = u t + a t
2


s = v t a t
2

where s = displacement u = initial velocity
v = final velocity a = acceleration
t = time


Note that as s, u, v & a are vectors, they must have a direction. Using positive and negative signs in
the equations can indicate this.

If an object is falling and the only force on it is gravity then its acceleration will be

g = 9.8 m s
-2
(often 10 is used)


PROBLEMS: Gardiner p22 Set 7 Ques. 1 8, 14 17, 19, 20
Gardiner p32 Set 12 Ques. 1 9

13


FORCES

The motion of an object can be determined if the forces acting on it are known. The way forces affect
motion are summarised by Newton's Laws.

1. A body at rest or in a state of uniform motion will remain in that state unless acted upon by
external unbalanced forces.

2. A body will accelerate in the direction of the resultant, or net, force that acts on it according
to the equation
F
net
= m a

3. For every applied force there is an equal and opposite reaction force.

Force is a vector quantity and is measured in Newtons (N). To find the net force, the forces must be
added vectorially.

If the net force on an object is constant, its acceleration will also be constant. This means that the
constant acceleration equations may be used to determine its motion.

When two or more objects are connected it is often best to consider them as a system and examine the
external forces on the system.


PROBLEMS: Gardiner Set 9 Ques. 1 4, 9 11, 31 34


MASS & WEIGHT

Mass is a property of an object. It is a measure of how much matter is present. It does not depend on
position.

Weight is a measure of the gravitational force acting on an object and depends on position. This force
is given by
Weight = W = m g

where g is the acceleration due to gravity or the gravitational field strength at a particular point.


PROBLEMS: Gardiner Set 10 Ques. 5 11


FRICTION

When friction acts on an object it provides a force that acts in the opposite direction to the direction of
motion. Friction depends on the roughness of the surfaces in contact and how hard they push against
each other, but not on the areas of the surfaces or the speed. Friction cannot cause motion; it only
opposes it.


PROBLEMS: Gardiner Set 9 Ques. 19 24, 27 29
Gardiner Set 10 Ques. 14 16, 18, 19
14


THE INCLINED PLANE

When an object is moving along an inclined plane it is often easiest to consider forces along and
perpendicular to the plane rather than vertically and horizontally.

Example

A toy car accelerates up a ramp of inclination
30. If the mass of the car is 2.0 kg, the force
supplied by the engine is 40 N and the
frictional force amounts to 2.0 N find the size
of

(a) the acceleration of the car up the ramp

(b) the normal reaction force exerted on
the car by the ramp.

Solution

(a) The net force is up the ramp

F
net
= moving forces stopping forces
= T - f - m g sin 30
= 40 - 2 - 2 x 10 x sin 30
= 28 N

=> a = F / m = 28 / 2 = 14 m s
-2


(b) The normal reaction force is

N = m g cos 30
= 2 x 10 cos 30
= 17 N


PROBLEMS: Gardiner Set 14 Ques. 1, 3, 5 8

15


IMPULSE & MOMENTUM

F t is called the impulse on an object.

m v is called the momentum of an object. m v is called the change in momentum.

F t = m v Impulse = Change in momentum

Impulse and momentum are both vector quantities. Their units are N s or kg m s
-1


When there are no external forces on a system, momentum is conserved, that is,

momentum before = momentum after


Gardiner Set 9 Ques. 12 18
Gardiner Set 17 Ques. 1, 2, 4, 6 9, 12, 13


WORK & ENERGY

Work done F s cos where is the angle between F and s.

Work is a scalar quantity and it is measured in Joules (J).

If F and s are perpendicular then the work done is zero.

When work is done against gravity Work = m g h where h is the height

In this case the work done is equal to the gravitational potential energy gained by the object.


PROBLEMS: Gardiner Set 18 Ques. 1 5, 7, 8
Gardiner Set 19 Ques. 1 3


KINETIC ENERGY

When an object is moving it has kinetic energy.

KE = m v

Kinetic energy is a scalar quantity and is measured in Joules.

A change in kinetic energy means that work is being done.

Work = change in kinetic energy


PROBLEMS: Gardiner Set 18 Ques. 9, 11 16, 19


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ELASTIC POTENTIAL ENERGY

One means of storing energy is in a spring where it can be used later as kinetic energy, the total
energy (spring + kinetic) must be constant.


The area under any F - x graph gives the amount of energy stored.

For springs obeying Hookes Law

F = k x

Elastic Potential Energy stored = k x

where k is the spring constant and x is the extension or compression.


PROBLEMS: Gardiner Set 20 Ques. 1 3


CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

The law of conservation of energy suggests that the total energy of a system remains constant. In the
cases where friction can be ignored a change in potential energy involves a corresponding change in
kinetic energy.


PROBLEMS: Gardiner Set 19 Ques. 5, 7 10, 12


POWER

Power is a measure of how quickly energy is used.

Power
work
time


Power is measured in watts (W) and is a scalar quantity. Another common formula for calculating
power is

Power = F v


PROBLEMS: Gardiner Set 18 Ques. 21 25
Gardiner Set 19 Ques. 4


17


ELASTIC COLLISIONS

If a collision is elastic the total kinetic energy before collision equals the total kinetic energy after
collision. Collisions are usually not elastic. Another way of saying that a collision is elastic is to say,
the interaction force depends only on the separations of the bodies ". This means that permanent
deformation of the bodies does not occur.

Example: A 1 kg mass moving at 4 m/s makes an elastic collision with a 3kg mass moving in
the same direction at 2 m/s. Find the velocity of the objects after the collision.

Before After

4 m/s 2 m/s x m/s y m/s

[ 1 kg ]--> [ 3 kg ]--> [ 1 kg ]--> [ 3 kg ]-->

momentum: 4 + 6 = x + 3y
so 10 = x + 3y
x = 10 - 3y

kinetic energy: 8 + 6 = x + (3)y
28 = x + 3 y
(sub. for x) 28 = 100 - 60 y + 9 y + 3 y

so 12y - 60 y + 72 = 0
y - 5 y + 6 = 0
( y - 3 ) ( y - 2 ) = 0

=> y = 3 or y = 2

If y = 2 ; x = 4, this is not a possible solution as the 1 kg mass cannot get ahead of the 3 kg mass.

so y = 3 ; x = 1 must be the solution.
18


INELASTIC COLLISIONS

The majority of collisions are inelastic so kinetic energy is not conserved. For an inelastic collision,
only a fraction of the initial kinetic energy is retained.

Example: An object of mass 2 kg travelling at 4 m/s makes a head on collision with an
object of mass 1 kg which is at rest. The system loses 1/4 of its initial kinetic
energy. Find the velocity of the objects after the collision.

Before After

4 m/s 0 m/s x m/s y m/s

[ 2 kg ]--> [ 1 kg ]--> [ 2 kg ]--> [ 1 kg ]-->


momentum : 8 = 2x + y
so y = 8 2x

KE : ( ( 2 ) 4 ) = (2) y + y
12 = x + y
2

24 = 2 x + y
(sub. for y) 24 = 2 x + 64 32x + 4 x

so 6 x - 32 x + 40 = 0
3 x - 16 x + 20 = 0
( 3x - 10 ) ( x - 2 ) = 0

=> x = 10/3 or x = 2

If x = 10/3 ; y = 4/3, this is not a possible solution as the 2 kg mass cannot get ahead of the 1 kg mass.

so x = 2 ; y = 4 must be the solution.
19


COLLISIONS

1. A 2 kg mass moving at 3 m/s makes an elastic, head-on collision with a 1 kg object which is
at rest. Calculate the velocity of the objects after the collision.

2. A 3 kg mass moving at 5 m/s makes an elastic, head-on collision with a 2 kg object which is
at rest. Calculate the velocity of the objects after the collision.

3. A 5 kg mass moving at 4 m/s makes an elastic, head-on collision with a 1 kg object moving at
2 m/s in the opposite direction. Calculate the velocity of the objects after the collision.

4. A 1 kg object moving at 5 m/s north makes an elastic collision into the back of a 3 kg object
moving at 1 m/s north. Calculate the velocity of the objects after the collision.

5. A 4 kg object moving at 2 m/s east makes a head-on collision with a 2 kg object which is at
rest. If one quarter of the kinetic energy is lost due to the collision, calculate the velocity of
the objects after the collision.

6. A 1 kg object moving at 4 m/s south makes a head-on collision with a 4 kg object which is at
rest. If the total kinetic energy after the collision is only one quarter of the initial kinetic
energy calculate the velocity of the objects after the collision.

7. A 2 kg object moving at 4 m/s east makes a head-on collision with a 1 kg object moving west
at 2 m/s. If half of the kinetic energy is lost due to the collision, calculate the velocity of the
objects after the collision.

8. A 1 kg object moving at 4 m/s north makes a head-on collision with a 2 kg object moving at 1
m/s south. If after the collision the system has only two thirds of the initial kinetic energy
calculate the velocity of the objects after the collision.



20


PROJECTILE MOTION

When an object is projected at an angle to the earth's surface it does not follow a straight line but
instead it follows a parabolic path. This is because there is acceleration vertically downwards due to
the earth but no acceleration horizontally.

To determine information about an object moving in this way it is best to consider vertical and
horizontal motions separately.

Example 1: An object is projected horizontally from the top of a cliff 20 m high at 30 m/s,
calculate
(a) the time taken to reach the ground
(b) the horizontal displacement
(c) the final velocity

(a) Horizontally Vertically

speed = 30 m s
-1
u = 0
a = 10 m s
-2

s = 20 m

Consider vertical motion

u = 0 a = 10 s = 20 m t =?

Use s = u t + 1/2 at

so 20 = 5 t



=> t = 2.0 s

(b) Consider horizontal motion speed = 30 time = 2

Use distance = speed x time = 30 x 2 = 60 m

(c) The final velocity has a vertical component and a horizontal component

Horizontal velocity = 30 m/s across,

Vertical velocity found from v

= u

+ 2as

v = 20 m/s down

The final velocity is the vector sum of these velocities

Using Pythagoras X = 36 m/s

Using trig tan 20/30 so 34
0


So the final velocity is 36 m/s at an angle of 34 degrees to the
ground. .

21


Example 2: A shell is fired from cannon with an initial velocity of 100 m/s at an angle of 60 to
the ground. Find

(a) the time it takes to reach the ground
(b) how far it is from the cannon when it hits the ground

(a) The velocity should firstly be broken up into vertical and horizontal components.

Vertically Horizontally

u = 100 sin 60 = 86.6 speed = 100 cos 60 = 50
a = -10 (taking upwards as positive)

Just before it reaches the ground
it will be travelling just as fast as
it was initially but in the opposite
direction so

v = -100 sin 60

Using v = u + at

t = 17.3 s

(b) Considering horizontal motion

Distance = speed x time = 50 x 17.3 = 866 m


PROBLEMS: Heinemann p. 29 Section 1.4 Ques. 1 10
Gardiner Set 13 Ques. 2 5, 7, 8, 10, 11


22


CIRCULAR MOTION

For an object to move in a circle at a constant speed it is necessary to apply a force perpendicular to
the motion of the object.

For circular motion:
F net
m v
2

r


where v is the speed and r is the radius of the circle

The direction of this force is towards the centre of the circle.

The acceleration can be found by
a
v
2

r



During one trip around the circumference of the circle the object moves a distance 2 r.
T is the period of the motion (time for one revolution).

v
2 r
T


a
4
2
r
T
2


F net
m 4
2
r
T
2


The frequency of the motion is the number of revolutions in one second.

f
1
T


Note that
m v
2

r
is not a real force but is a net force just like m a.

It is the sum of the forces on the object.


23


Example: A car of mass 1000 kg passes over a bridge which is formed by the arc of a circle
of radius 10 m.

(i) Find the force exerted by the car on the road at the top of the bridge if the car
is travelling at 8.0 m/s.

(ii) What speed would cause the car to be on the point of leaving the bridge at its
highest point?


(i) F
net
= mg N

N is the force of the road on the car
that is equal in magnitude to the force
of the car on the road.

N = m g F net = m g
m v
2

r
= 3.4 x 10
3
N


(ii) To leave the bridge N = 0 so F net = m g


m v
2

r
= m g

v = r g = 10 m/s


PROBLEMS: Heinemann p. 61 Section 2.5 Ques. 1 10
Heinemann p. 67 Section 2.6 Ques. 1 10
Heinemann p. 74 Section 2.7 Ques. 1 10

Gardiner Set 15 Ques. 1 5, 8 16

24


GRAVITATION

For any two objects an attractive force exists between them given by Newtons Law of Gravitation

F
G M m
r
2



where G is the gravitational constant 6.67 x 10
-11
N m
2
kg
-2

M is the mass of the body being orbited
m is the mass of the orbiting body
r is the distance between their centres

From F = m a, the acceleration of a body m, its centripetal acceleration, is

a
G M
r
2



This is often called the gravitational field strength or the acceleration due to gravity (g).

Equating this expression with the centripetal acceleration formula shows that


r
3
T
2
k (Keplers Law)

where k is a constant for all bodies orbiting the same body of mass M.


PROBLEMS: Heinemann p. 83 Section 3.1 Ques. 1 8
Heinemann p. 89 Section 3.2 Ques. 1 9, 11, 12
Heinemann p. 98 Section 3.3 Ques. 1 12
Heinemann p. 103 Section 3.4 Ques. 1 10


MOTION REVISION

PROBLEMS: Heinemann p. 30 Chap.1 Review Ques. 1 4, 6 18
Heinemann p. 75 Chap.2 Review Ques. 1 23
Heinemann p. 110 Chap.3 Review Ques. 1 20
Heinemann p. 112 Exam-style Ques. 1 50





25


ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

The current flowing passed a point is given by

I
q
t
where q is the charge in coulombs.

The energy possessed by a charge is given by

Energy = V q where V is the voltage.

The current flowing through an ohmic resistor can be related to the potential difference across its ends
by the formula
V = I R (Ohm's Law)

The amount of energy used by a resistor is given by

Energy = V I t

The power used in a resistor is given by
Power V I I
2

V
2



For resistors in series, the current flowing through all resistors is the same. The total voltage given by
the supply is equal to the sum of the potential difference across each resistor and the total resistance is
given by

R
T
= R
1
+ R
2
+ R
3
+ ....

For resistors in parallel, each resistor has a potential difference equal to the voltage of the supply. The
total current flowing is equal to the sum of the currents flowing through each resistor and the total
resistance is given by the formula

1

T

1

1

1

2

1

3


In most cases the voltage given to a circuit is not equal to the total voltage in the supply. This is due to
the existence of an internal resistance within the supply. The supply can be thought of as a source of
voltage (EMF) that is in series with a resistor. The actual voltage delivered will be the source voltage
less the voltage taken by the internal resistor.

V I r

Electronic components are also known as transducers. There are 2 types of transducers. Input
transducers have a non-electrical input and an electrical output. Output transducers have an electrical
input and a non-electrical output.

Two commonly used transducers are Temperature Dependent esistors (TDs or thermistors) and
Light Dependent esistors (LDs).


PROBLEMS: Heinemann p. 127 Section 4.1 Ques. 1 12

26


AC ELECTRICITY & THE CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE

Electricity is usually transmitted as an alternating current (AC). In this case the voltage is not
constant and the current regularly changes direction.

The cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) is an extremely useful device in electronics. It can be used to
give a visual representation of electrical signals in the form of a voltage-time graph.

When suitably calibrated, the grid marked on the screen can be used to make accurate measurements.

The vertical scale measures the voltage.

The horizontal scale measures time.

For a sinusoidal wave pattern, the following measurements can be made.



The peak voltage is given by V
PEK

V
peak to peak
2



RMS voltage is given by V
M

V
peak




The frequency of the wave is given by f
1
T



AC meters are designed to give RMS values.



PROBLEMS: Heinemann p. 291 Section 8.1 Ques. 7 10

27


VOLTAGE DIVIDERS

Voltage dividers allow a small, usable voltage to be obtained from a large voltage. A simple voltage
divider consists of two resistors in series.

Consider the following circuit.

The pair of resistors divides the voltage of the
battery into two parts. By choosing the right
pair of resistors you can make the divider give
you any voltage at I between 0V and 9V

If the resistor R has a low resistance
compared with resistor S, then the potential
difference across R will be less than the
potential difference across S. The voltage at I
would be high. If the voltage at I is high
enough then the light would be on.

This circuit allows the globe to be provided
with the voltage it needs in order to operate normally provided appropriate values of R and S are used.

If the addition of the globe is not to change the properties of the voltage divider circuit its resistance
should be greater than or equal to 10 times the resistance of S. (R
load
> 10 R
S
)

The disadvantage of this voltage divider circuit is that the energy across resistor R is wasted.


PROBLEMS:

Question 1

Consider the simple circuit as shown below.

(a) What is the potential difference
between terminals X and Y above?






(b) A very large resistance of size 10 mega ohms is connected across the terminals X and Y.
What effect would this resistance then have on the potential difference across X and Y?

The potential difference across X and Y with the 10M resistance in place would be:

A. significantly less than for the first circuit
B. significantly greater than for the first circuit
C. approximately the same as the first circuit




28


Question 2

A student designs a variable heating
element for heating liquids. The circuit is
shown.

The heating element is ohmic and has a
resistance of 100 ohms. The variable
resistor R
v
has a range of 0 to 100 ohms.



(a) Discuss and explain the behaviour of the heating element when the variable resistor is set to
zero. Determine the power used by the heating element.










(b) The variable resistor is now set to its maximum value of 100 ohms. Use calculations to
determine the flowing through the heating element, and calculate its power consumption.










(c) The student wants to increase the maximum power output of the heating element and
modifies the circuit by removing the 10 ohm resistor. Comment on the safety of this circuit
design.




29


Question 3

The following diagram shows two components, R and X, connected in series to a 9.0 V supply.









R is a variable resistor which follows Ohm's law. X is a component which does not follow Ohm's law.

The current-voltage graph below shows how the current in X varies with the potential difference
across it.



R is set so that the current in X is 0.10 A.

(a) What is the potential difference across R?






(b) Determine the resistance of R at this setting.






(c) Calculate the power loss in R at this setting.



30


Question 4

The cold storage room at a supermarket warehouse is equipped with a temperature sensor that triggers
a light to flash if the temperature rises over a certain level. The sensor contains a thermistor (T) which
has resistance characteristics shown below. The alarm is controlled by the voltage divider circuit
below and is triggered to turn on when V
OUT
rises past 8.0 V.






(a) What is the resistance of the thermistor when the temperature is 0 C?





(b) Determine the temperature at which the alarm is triggered.





(c) The battery for the sensor unit runs flat and is replaced; however the replacement battery is
defective and provides a voltage of only 10V. How will this affect the way the circuit triggers
the alarm? Use calculations in your answer.





V(V)
31


Question 5

The lighthouse at Point Lonsdale switches on automatically when the light intensity drops due to fog
or nightfall. The switching system contains a light-dependent resistor (LDR) that has the
characteristics shown below.



The LDR is part of a voltage divider circuit shown.



(a) What is the resistance of the LDR when the light intensity is 30 W/m
2
?






(b) The switching unit is activated when the voltage across it rises past 8.0V.
Where should the switching unit be placed in the voltage divider circuit; X or Y?
Explain your answer and determine the light intensity at which the lighthouse turns on.









32


THE DIODE

A diode is a device that has a large resistance (> 10M) in one direction and a small resistance
(< 5 ) in the other direction

A diode usually has a band around one of its ends.


When the banded end of the diode directed towards the negative terminal the diode is said to be
forward biased. In this situation the diode has a low resistance so a large current can flow.

When the banded end of the diode directed towards the positive terminal the diode is said to be
reverse biased. In this situation the diode has a very high resistance so almost no current can flow.

Diodes do not obey Ohms Law. graph of current against voltage has the following shape.



The maximum forward biased voltage is often called the switch-on voltage.

Diodes are often used to protect components that should only have current flow through them in a
certain direction.

When a diode is connected to AC only half of the current will be allowed to flow.

Another group of diodes called light emitting diodes (LEDs) behave the same as normal diodes but
also give off light.

A diode is represented by the following symbol.



PROBLEMS: Heinemann p. 135 Section 4.2 Ques. 1 5, 6 (b), 7 10



33


Question 1

Lisa uses two resistors make a voltage divider to use with a 6.0 V battery in order to obtain a 4 V
output between P and Q.

(a) What is the resistance of
the resistor R
1
?






Now Lisa investigates a diode with the I-V characteristics shown below.




She uses the diode in the circuit shown.

(b) Explain why the current Lisa measures
in the circuit is extremely small.





Lisa reverses the battery polarity and measures the current as 5.4 mA.

(c) What is the voltage, V
XY
, across
the diode?



(d) What is the resistance of the
resistor, R
2
? The resistance of
the ammeter in the circuit can
be neglected. Show your
working.
34


Question 2

As part of an experiment, a diode and light globe are connected as shown in the circuit diagrams
below.


The graph below shows the I V characteristics of the diode.



(a) A cathode ray oscilloscope is used to measure the potential difference across the light globe
in each circuit. On the axes below, show the voltage signals that were observed.
Include voltage values in your answers.



(b) How will the brightness of the globe compare in these two circuits? Explain your reasoning.




35


Question 3

A diode and a light globe have I-V characteristics shown below.

DIODE LIGHT GLOBE




(a) The diode and light globe are connected as shown below.
Discuss whether the globe lights up or not, and determine
the current that flows through the globe.





(b) The diode and light globe are now connected as shown below.
Again discuss whether the light globe glows, and determine the
current that flows through it.





Question 4

Two non-ohmic resistors X and Y are connected in parallel. These non-ohmic resistors show voltage-
current curves as follows.

What is the total current flowing in this circuit?




36


AMPLIFICATION

Transistors are able to act as amplifiers. A small change in the base current causes a large change in
the current between the collector and the emitter. A practical example of this is when a microphone
input provides a small variation at the base of a transistor which leads to larger variations between the
collector and the emitter. This enables sounds to be amplified electronically.

A base voltage of about 0.6 V is needed for the transistor to begin to conduct electricity. If the
voltage is below this it is in cut off and no current flows. bove about 0.7 V it is in saturation and
maximum current flows. Between 0.6 V and 0.7 V the relationship between input and output current
is linear.
The performance of voltage amplifiers is often displayed in the form of a V
out
versus V
in
graph
where the gradient of the graph gives the gain.

Voltage gain
V
out
V
in




If the gradient of the graph is negative then the amplifier is an inverter and the output signal will be
the negative of the input signal.
Amplification can only occur within a small range of values for V
in
. Attempting to amplify voltages
outside the amplification area can lead to distortion and clipping.

PROBLEMS:

Heinemann p. 142 Section 4.3 Ques. 1 7
V
in
V
out
37


Question 1

A voltage amplifier has a gain of 50. Explain what is meant by the term "gain".



Question 2

Brian is investigating the performance of an amplifier. He feeds the alternating signal shown below
into the amplifier which has the following V
OUT
- V
IN
characteristics.



(a) Calculate the magnitude of the gain of this amplifier.




(b) The input signal is fed into the amplifier. Determine the peak value of the output voltage
produced.




(c) Brian increases the amplitude of the input signal to a peak voltage of 0.10V.
On the graph below, sketch and label the output signal produced by the amplifier.

38


Question 3

The circuit below can be used to measure accurately, with the help of a cathode ray oscilloscope
(CRO), the gain of a voltage amplifier.



The graphs below were obtained on a cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) screen while taking
measurements with this arrangement. The oscilloscope settings for these graphs are given.


Connected between points A and C.
Calibrated control settings:
Y Amplifier = 0.2 V per square
Time base = 0.5 milliseconds per square
Connected between points D and E.
Calibrated control settings:
Y Amplifier =1.0 V per square
Time base = 0.5 milliseconds per square

(a) What is the peak-to-peak value of the potential difference between points A and C?



(b) Determine the peak-to-peak value of the potential difference between points B and C.



(c) What is the peak-to-peak value of the potential difference between points D and E?



(d) Determine the voltage gain of the amplifier.

Question 4


Sue and Alan construct the following circuit in order to measure the gain of a voltage amplifier.

The diagrams below are the traces from a cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) screen that Sue and Alan
observed during experiments.

Connected between points A and C
Calibrated control settings:
Y Amplifier = 0.2 V per square

(a) Calculate the peak to peak voltage between A and C




Connected between points D and E
Calibrated control settings:
Y Amplifier =1 V per square

(b) Calculate the peak to peak voltage between D and E




(c) Calculate the peak to peak voltage between B and C




(d) What is the 'gain' of this voltage amplifier?




(e) State whether this voltage amplifier inverts or does not invert the input signal






40
PHOTONICS

Photonics combines electronics and light.

Optical electrical devices receive light.
Electrical optical devices emit light.

LEDs convert electricity into light when placed in the forward bias direction.
Photodiodes can convert light into electricity (photovoltaic mode).
When placed in the reverse bias direction (photoconductive mode) photodiodes have a fast response
and can be used to transmit information from light beams.

Transistors have a low resistance when sufficient voltage enters the base.
Phototransistors have a low resistance when sufficient light is directed onto them. They have a slow
response but high sensitivity and high gain.

LDs convert light into an electrical output but have a slow response.

Light Intensity
Power
rea



Photonic communication systems consist of a 'carrier' wave (colour, high frequency) and an
'information' wave. These waves are combined where the combined wave has the frequency of the
carrier wave and the amplitude of the information wave.

Modulation involves converting information into light.
De-modulation involves recovering the information from the light.

Different photodiodes respond better to different frequencies. A particular photodiode is needed to
receive a certain carrier wave. The brightness of the light causes current variations.

Laser beams are often used because they can emit light of a specific frequency in a fixed direction
with minimal power loss.


PROBLEMS: Heinemann p. 169 Section 5.2 Ques. 1 10
Heinemann p. 179 Review Ques. 1 7
Heinemann p. 180 Exam Style Ques. 1 33



41
MAGNETIC FIELDS

A magnetic force can be seen to act on current carrying wires and charged particles as well as some
metallic objects.

As with gravitation and electrostatics we can imagine a field being associated with magnetism.
Magnetic field strength is measured in Teslas (T). Magnetic field lines go from a north pole to a south
pole. Magnetic field is a vector quantity.

When compasses are in the vicinity of a current carrying wire they are deflected. They indicate that a
magnetic field is surrounding the wire. The direction of this field can be found by using the right
hand rule.

If the thumb of the right hand is pointing in the direction of the conventional current flow, the
accompanying magnetic field will circle the wire in the direction indicated by the fingers when they
are brought together to form a fist.

Magnetic field lines will also pass through and around a loop. If the fingers are curled in the direction
of the current flow the thumb will indicate the direction in which the field will pass through the loop.

On a diagram a magnetic field can be drawn as either a set of parallel lines pointing in the direction of
the magnetic field, a set of crosses if the magnetic field is inwards or a set of dots if the field is
outwards.

The current in a wire is drawn as either a single line pointing in the direction of the current, a cross
inside a circle if the current field is inwards or a dot inside a circle if the current is outwards.

PROBLEMS:

1. For each of the cases shown in figure below, 2. The figure below gives the direction
what is the direction of the magnetic field at of the magnetic field at a point P
point X due to the current I in a wire? associated with a current in a wire.
(X is in the plane of the page.) For each case use the key to give the
direction of the current in the wire
.




42
MAGNETIC FORCE ON A WIRE

If a current flows through a wire that is perpendicular to a magnetic field it experiences a force that
can be found using the formula

F I L B sin

I is the current flowing and L is the length of the wire within the magnetic field B. Note that if B and
I are perpendicular the force is a maximum but if they are in the same or opposite directions the force
is zero. is the angle between B and I.

When the thumb of the right hand is pointed in the direction of the conventional current and the
fingers are pointed in the direction of B, the palm of the right hand will then point in the direction of
the force.

PROBLEMS:

1. What is the direction of the force on the current carrying conductor in the magnetic field, for
each case in figure below?













43
2. In Figure below, PQRST is a loop of wire carrying a current, placed in a uniform magnetic
field that is directed to the right.



What is the direction of the magnetic force acting on section:

(a) PQ of the wire?

(b) QR of the wire?

(c) ST of the wire?



3. What is the magnitude of the force per metre on a wire carrying a current of 0.80 A in a
uniform magnetic field of flux density 2.0 10
2
T, if the wire is perpendicular to the
magnetic field?





4. A wire 1.2 m long carrying a current of 0.65 A has a force of 3.9 10
2
N exerted on it by a
uniform magnetic field at right angles to the wire. What is the magnitude of the magnetic flux
density?






5. A wire 80.0 cm long is at right angles to a magnetic field of flux density 4.0 10
2
T. If the
wire experiences a force of 4.8 10
2
N, what is the current in the wire?







44
6. A conductor carrying a current of 4.0 A is placed between the poles of a strong pair of
magnets of strength 1.0 T, as shown below. The current direction is out of the plane of the
page. What are the magnitude and the direction of the force on a 12 cm length of the
conductor?








7. A stream of electrons is directed to the right, through a magnetic field that is directed into the
plane of the page. In which direction will the stream of electrons be deflected?








Gardiner p. 178 Ques. 1 4
45
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

When a wire is moved through a magnetic field, charges within the wire separate so that positive
charges move to one end of the wire and negative charges move to the other. This separation of
charges causes a potential difference or EMF (electromotive force) to exist between the ends of the
wire. The value of the EMF is found by

L B v sin

is the potential difference between the ends of the wire
L is the length of the wire
B is the magnetic field strength
v is the velocity of the wire.
is the angle between v and B.

PROBLEMS:

1. A straight wire of length l is moved horizontally to the left, with a constant speed v, through a
vertical magnetic field of flux density B, as shown in the figure below
.


(a) What is the magnitude of the emf induced in the wire when:

(i) the wire is moving with a speed v to the left, as shown?

(ii) the wire is stationary?

(iii) the wire is moving to the right with a speed of 2v?

(iv) the wire is moved vertically upwards in the direction of the field with a speed
of v?

(b) What would be the magnitude of the induced emf if, instead, the wire was held
stationary and the magnetic field was moved with constant speed v:

(i) to the left?

(ii) vertically upwards?


46
2. A straight wire is moved at a constant speed of 4.0 m s
1
at right angles to a magnetic field of
magnitude 0.25 T. If the emf induced in the wire is 0.50 V, what is the length of the wire?



3. A metal rod PQ of length 15 cm is moved vertically downwards with a constant speed of
0.80 m s
1
through a magnetic field of 3.0 10
3
T, as shown in the figure below.



(a) What is the emf induced in the rod PQ?


(b) Which end of the rod gains a net negative charge?


4. A conducting rod AB slides along metal conducting rails ED and FC in a uniform magnetic
field of flux density 0.36 T, as shown in the figure below.



AB is moved to the right with a speed of 2.5 m s
1
. There is a resistance of 8.0 ohms in
section EF and this is the only resistance of the circuit.

(a) What is the emf induced in AB?


(b) What is the induced current in AB?


(c) What is the direction of the current in AB?


(d) What is the magnitude and the direction of the force needed to keep AB in motion?


(e) What is the net force on AB?


47
INDUCED EMF

When a loop is moved through a magnetic field, a current will flow around the loop only when there
is a change in either the area of the loop or the size of the magnetic field.

We define the magnetic flux () through the loop as being

B (measured in Webers).

A change in the magnetic flux will produce an EMF () that is given by

N

t


where N is the number of turns of wire making up the loop.

Note that the negative sign indicates that the EMF and hence the current produced will oppose any
change in flux. Also as the EMF depends on time, as time increases the EMF will decrease if the flux
does not continually change.

Rotating the loop can also change the flux. A rotation can either change the area through which the
field passes or cause the field to enter the loop from the opposite direction.

PROBLEMS:

1. The magnetic flux through a loop of wire changes from 5.0 10
3
Wb to zero in 0.020 s.
What is the emf induced in the loop of wire?



2. The magnetic flux through a loop of wire changes from 4.5 10
4
Wb to 2.0 10
4
Wb in
0.0010 s. What is the emf induced in the loop?




3. An emf of 1.5 millivolts is induced in a coil of wire when the magnetic flux threading the coil
increases from zero to a value, x, in 1.5 milliseconds.

(a) What is the rate of change of flux threading the coil?


(b) What is the magnitude of x?


4. A square loop of wire of side length 5.0 cm lies between the poles of a large electromagnet.
When the electromagnet is turned on, the magnetic field increases from zero to 0.80 T in
0.50 s. What is the average magnitude of the emf induced in the loop?


48
5. A coiled spring loop of wire of radius 12 cm is held
between the poles of a strong magnet as shown in the
diagram.

(a) The magnetic field strength between the poles of
the magnet is 1.6 NA
1
m
1.
What is the magnetic
flux through the loop?



(b) The coiled spring loop is released and it contracts to a circle of radius 4.00 cm in
0.60 s. What is the average emf induced between the ends of the loop?



6. A coil containing 500 turns of insulated copper wire is threaded by a magnetic flux of
4.8 10
4
Wb. This magnetic flux is reduced to zero in 0.012 s. What is the magnitude of the
average emf induced in the coil?



7. A magnetic field of flux density 0.010 T is perpendicular to a coil of 50 turns of wire, each of
area 15 cm
2
. What is the magnitude of the emf induced in the coil if the direction of the field
is reversed in 0.012 s?



8. A circular loop of wire of diameter 12 cm has an electrical resistance of 4.0 . It is placed in
a magnetic field of flux density 0.010 T so that the plane of the loop is perpendicular to the
field. The loop is removed from the field in 0.08 s.

(a) What is the magnitude of the emf induced in the loop?



(b) What is the current flowing through the loop?


(c) How much electrical energy is dissipated when the loop is removed from the field?

49
9. A circular coil consisting of 12 turns and of area A is held with
the plane of the coil perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field of
magnitude B. The entire coil is within the magnetic field (see
diagram).



(a) The magnitude of the magnetic field is halved in time t. What is the magnitude of the
induced emf in the coil in terms of A, B and t?



(b) Which one or more of the following changes would cause a clockwise current to flow
through the coil?

A. Decreasing the strength of the magnetic field.
B. Increasing the strength of the magnetic field.
C. Reversing the direction of the magnetic field.
D. Distorting the shape of the coil to reduce its area.
E. Pulling the coil to the right so that it moves out of the magnetic field.


10. The figure below shows the north pole of a bar magnet
being pushed into a solenoid. For each of the following
situations state whether the current flows through the
meter from X to Y or from Y to X. If no current flows,
write N.

(a) The North Pole is moved towards the solenoid.


(b) The magnet is held stationary in the solenoid.


(c) The north pole of the magnet is withdrawn from the solenoid.


(d) The south pole of the magnet is moved towards the solenoid.


(e) The south pole of the magnet is removed from the solenoid.


(f) The North Pole is held stationary and the solenoid is moved to the right.


(g) The North Pole is held stationary and the solenoid is moved to the left.


(h) The magnet is rotated clockwise about its midpoint.


(i) Both the magnet and the solenoid are moved to the right with the same speed.


50
11. A rectangular coil of wire can be rotated about an axis in a uniform magnetic field directed
out of the plane of the page as shown in the figure below.



The loop has an area of 1.2 10
3
m
2
and is rotated at a constant rate of 12 turns each
second.

(a) Which one of the graphs best represents the variation of the magnetic flux through the
coil with time, if at time t = 0 the plane of the coil is perpendicular to the magnetic
field?



(b) When the plane of the coil is perpendicular to the magnetic field, what is the value of
the induced emf in the coil?


51
12. The figure below shows two coils, AB and CD. The
current flowing through AB produces a magnetic
field that threads the coil CD. For the following
situations state whether the current flows through the
galvanometer connected to coil CD from X to Y or
from Y to X. If no current flows through the
galvanometer, write N.

(a) The current in AB is increased from zero when the switch is closed.


(b) The current in AB is reduced to zero when the switch is opened.


(c) The sliding contact on the variable resistor is moved to the left with the switch closed.


(d) The sliding contact on the variable resistor is moved to the right with the switch
closed.

(e) A steady current flows through AB.

13. A coil of wire has an area of 0.050 m
2
. The coil
is placed between the poles of a strong
electromagnet of uniform flux density 0.80 T as
shown in the figure below. When the current
through the electromagnet is turned off, the
magnetic field drops to zero.


If the magnetic field falls to zero in a time of
1.2 s, what is the magnitude of the average emf
produced in the loop?

14. Two flat horizontal coils are placed as shown in
the figure below.

Use the following key to answer parts a) d):

A. The current in coil 2 is clockwise, looking
from above.
B. The current in coil 2 is anticlockwise,
looking from above.
C. No current flows in coil 2.

(a) The sliding contact of the rheostat is moved from X to Y.

(b) The sliding contact of the rheostat is held at Y.

(c) The sliding contact is removed from the rheostat at Y.

(d) The sliding contact is held midway between X and Y and coil 2 is moved towards
coil
52
MOTORS & GENERATORS

For a rectangular coil of N turns (2 sides with length L and width W) one side rotating in a circle

max 2 N L B v sin 90 L B v 2 N L B (2W/2 f) 2 NBf

Instantaneous EMF = max sin (2f t)


PROBLEMS:

1. An electric motor is set up as shown.

. In which direction must the current flow for the
coil to rotate in a clockwise direction as seen from
the end of the coil AB?







2. Why is it necessary for the current direction in the coil of a DC motor to be reversed every
half turn?











3. DC motor has a part called a commutator. What is the purpose of this part?





53
4. The figure shows a rectangular coil placed between the
poles of a strong magnet as part of a DC motor.

The coil has 40 turns of wire and each turn is rectangular
with length 0.060 m and width of 0.040 m. The magnetic
field is uniform and has a magnitude of 0.050 T. The coil
is free to rotate when placed between the poles of the
magnet. A current of 1.5 A flows through the coil.

(a) At the instant represented in the diagram, the plane of the coil is parallel to the
magnetic field. Which one of the following correctly gives the direction of the force
on the side AD?

A. upwards
B. downwards
C. to the right to the left

(b) What is the magnitude of the force on the side (i) AD and (ii) CD when the plane of
the coil is parallel to the field?



(c) In what ways could the magnitude of the force on the coil be increased?


5. The figure below shows the basic features of a small DC electric motor. WXYZ is the rotating
coil, connected to a DC battery. The direction of the magnetic field is parallel to the plane of
the coil.

(a) With the coil in the position shown and looking from point P, will the coil rotate
clockwise or anticlockwise?


(b) The magnetic field has magnitude of 0.24 T and the length of the coil within the
magnetic field is 0.060 m. What is the maximum force on the side ZY when a current
of 4.0 A flows through the coil?

54
6. A rectangular coil of wire WXYZ is placed in a uniform magnetic field as shown below.
The ends of the coil are connected to a CRO to measure the voltage when the coil is moved.
A student moves the coil vertically upwards with a uniform speed. The entire coil is in the
magnetic field for 0.3 s and leaves the field between 0.3 s and 0.5 s, as shown in the graph.



(a) Which one of the graphs best shows the variation of the voltage across the ends of the
coil with time?



(b) If the coil has 160 turns and the area of each turn is 0.025 m
2
, what is the magnitude
of the voltage produced across the ends of the coil for the time interval from 0.3 s to
0.5 s?




(c) The coil is then rotated at a constant speed. Sketch the shape of the trace seen on the
CRO.




(d) Sketch the trace seen if the coil is rotated at twice the speed.

55
7. A 50-turn coil of wire has dimensions 0.16 m by 0.10 m as shown. A current of 2.0 A flows
through the coil. The coil is vertical and there is a magnetic field of 0.12 T through the coil to
the right.


(a) What is the magnitude and direction of the force on the following sides?

(i) AB


(ii) BC



(b) The coil forms part of an electric motor. In which direction (A, B, C or D) will the
coil start to rotate?

A. clockwise
B. anticlockwise
C. not possible to tell
D. it will remain at rest


8. The armature of an AC generator is rotating at a constant speed of 30 revolutions per second
in a horizontal field of flux density 1.0 Wb m
2
. The diameter of the cylindrical armature is 24
cm and its length is 40 cm. What is the maximum emf induced in the armature if it has 30
turns?






9. A flat rectangular coil 15 cm by 20 cm has 300 turns. An alternating emf of peak value 340 V
is produced when the coil rotates at 3000 revolutions per minute in a uniform magnetic field.
What is the value of the magnetic field strength?





56
10. A rectangular coil of 30 turns and area 100 cm
2
rotates at 1200 revolutions per minute in a
uniform magnetic field of flux density 0.50 T. Find:

(a) the frequency of the generated emf


(b) the maximum emf


(c) the RMS emf


(d) the equation that gives the emf at any instant.




11. A rectangular coil of length 15 cm and width 12 cm, having 60 turns, rotates in air about its
axis at 1200 revolutions per minute in a uniform magnetic field of flux density 0.40 T.

(a) What is the emf when:

(i) its plane is perpendicular to the magnetic field?


(ii) its plane is parallel to the magnetic field?


(b) Draw a graph to show the time variation of the emf over an interval of 1/20 of a
second.




(c) What is the magnitude of the peak emf?


(d) What is the RMS voltage?



12. The armature of a 50 Hz AC generator rotates in a magnetic field of strength 0.15 T. If the
area of the coil is 2.5 10
2
m
2
, how many turns must the coil contain if the maximum emf
produced is 150 V?




13. How does a generator differ from a motor?


57
14. A student sets up a coil and a magnetic field to demonstrate an electric generator, as shown
below.


The ends of the coil are connected to slip rings A and B. When the coil is turned at a slow
speed a small current is observed on the meter.

(a) The coil is turned in a clockwise direction, when looking from position C.
When is the magnetic flux through the coil:

(i) maximum?

(ii) minimum?

(b) Describe the current through the meter.


(c) To obtain greater accuracy, the student replaces the slip ring with a split ring
commutator and the galvanometer with a CRO. The student observes the trace on the
CRO as the voltage varies with time and the ends of the coil make contact with the
split ring commutator. The coil is rotated as before. Which one of the following
graphs best represents the variation of voltage with time as seen on the CRO?





58
HOUSEHOLD ELECTRICITY SUPPLY

Household electricity is produced by electromagnetic induction caused by the spinning of
electromagnets between wire coils. In Victoria, this spinning is caused by steam that is obtained by
usually using coal to heat water.

When electricity travels through the transmission wires, an amount of energy is lost. Using small
currents can reduce this energy loss. If however, a large amount of power is to be transmitted then the
transmission lines must carry a very high voltage.


TRANSFORMERS

Voltages can be changed to different values with a minimal loss of power using transformers, which
work by electromagnetic induction. A simple transformer consists of two coils of wire of different
numbers of turns wound onto a soft metal core.



For a transformer
V
1
V
2

N
1
N
2


The input voltage must be AC. The voltage produced is an AC voltage.

Virtually no power is lost so it can be said that

V
1
I
1
= V
2
I
2

The effective voltage is often called the RMS voltage.

In Australia electricity for domestic use is provided at 240 V RMS.



59
PROBLEMS:

1. Does a transformer transform voltage, current or energy?




2. Why is alternating voltage necessary for a transformer?






3. For a transformer with a 1000-turn primary, what voltage is available at the 200-turn
secondary if the primary coil is supplied with 240 V AC?






4. For a transformer with 200 turns on the primary coil, supplied with 100 V AC, how many
turns are required to give 600 V AC at the secondary?






5. A transformer with 1500 turns in the primary coil is supplied with 240 V AC. How many
turns are required in the secondary to give 60 V AC?





60
6. A transformer is connected to an AC source that can deliver 30 A. The secondary coil of the
transformer can deliver a maximum current of 10 A.

(a) What type of transformer is used?





(b) Calculate the ratio between the number of turns in the primary and the number of
turns in the secondary.






(c) Explain why an alternating current, and not a direct current, is used in a transformer.







7. A step-down transformer with a primary coil of 500 turns and a secondary coil of 250 turns.
The primary coil is connected to a 240 V AC mains supply.

(a) What is the secondary voltage?





(b) Explain how the transformer operates.






(c) If the primary current is 2.4 A, what would the secondary be if the transformer is 100
per cent efficient?






(d) Why would you expect the efficiency of the transformer to be less than 100 per cent?


61
8. A step-down voltage transformer is connected to a 240 V 50 Hz AC mains supply. There are
1200 turns in the primary coil. The secondary coil has three terminals as shown below.



When a 10.0 resistor is connected between terminals P and Q, the current flow in the
resistor is 0.60 A. When the same resistor is connected between terminals Q and R, the
current flow is 1.00 Amperes. Assume that the transformer is 100 per cent efficient.

(a) What is the potential difference between P and Q?


(b) What is the potential difference between Q and R?


(c) What is the number of turns in the secondary coil between terminals:

(i) P and Q?


(ii) Q and R?


(d) What is the potential difference between P and R?


(e) What current would flow through the 10.0 resistor if it was connected between
terminals P and R?


(f) A CRO could be used to compare the output voltage between P, Q and R. On the
same set of axes sketch the graphs that would be seen on the CRO if it was connected
in turn between terminals:

(i) P and Q



(ii) Q and R.

62
9. What material is normally used for the core of a transformer? The material of the core is
laminated. Why is this?




10. A step-up transformer is connected to an AC generator that delivers 120 V and 80 A. The
ratio of the number of turns in the secondary coil to the number of turns in the primary is 500.

(a) What is the voltage in the secondary coil?


(b) What is the power input?


(c) What is the maximum power output?


(d) What is the maximum current in the secondary?



11. An ideal transformer is supplied with an AC voltage of 24 V RMS and a current of 1.5 A, as
shown below.



(a) What is the peak voltage of the primary of the transformer?


(b) What is the RMS secondary voltage?


(c) What is the RMS secondary current?


(d) What is the power supplied to the transformer?


(e) What is the power supplied to the load?

63
12. There are 100 turns in the primary of a step-up transformer and 1000 turns in the secondary.
Is there a power gain in the secondary circuit? Explain your answer.





13. A large, steady DC voltage is supplied to the primary coil of a transformer, but no secondary
voltage or current is obtained. Why not?






14. Below is the graph of voltage against time for an AC supply.

What is the:

(a) peak voltage?

(b) RMS voltage?

(c) peak to peak voltage?

(d) average voltage?

(e) period?

(f) frequency?


15. To generate electricity in a power station, an electromagnet is rotated close to some coils of
wire. To produce the AC voltage the electromagnet must rotate at exactly 50 Hz.

(a) If the generator at a power station produces an output emf of 20 kV and a current of
17 500 A, what is the power output?



(b) If the electromagnet rotated at 25 Hz what must be done to the magnetic field to
produce the same output voltage?



(c) Why must the coil be rotated to produce an emf?

64
16. A 60 W globe is operated from a 240 V RMS AC supply.

(a) What is the RMS current flowing through the globe?



(b) What is the resistance of the globe when it is lit?



(c) What is the peak value of:

(i) the supply voltage?


(ii) the current through the globe?


17. What is the average value of the current from a 240 V AC supply to a 100 W lamp?




18. What advantage does AC have over DC for long distance power transmission?




19. The current through a car lamp is found to be the same as the effective current through a
household lamp, yet the household lamp is much brighter. Explain why this is so.



20. A person accidentally makes good electrical contact with a 6 V car battery to the earth. The
current path is from the left arm to the right hand with a resistance of approximately 1000
ohms.

(a) What is the current flow?


(b) Is this dangerous?


21. A person accidentally establishes good electrical contact with a 240 V RMS AC supply. The
current path is from the left hand to the left forearm with a resistance of approximately 500
ohms.

(a) What is the current flow?


(b) Is this dangerous?

65
22. A set of 12 Christmas tree lights operates from a 240 V RMS supply. The 12 globes are
connected in series. Each light dissipates 4.0 W of power.

(a) What is the RMS voltage across each globe?


(b) What is the RMS current through each globe?


(c) One of the globes is removed and a voltmeter with a resistance of 2.0 10
4
ohms is
connected across the terminals of the globe socket. What would be the RMS voltage
reading on the voltmeter?


(d) Another set of 12 different globes, in parallel with each other, are connected to the
240 V RMS supply. Each globe dissipates 4.0 W of power. What is:

(i) the current through each of these globes?


(ii) the potential drop across each globe in the parallel setup?



(e) Explain the difference in the function of the two systems when one globe blows.


23. How many joules of electric energy are there in 1 kilowatt-hour?


24. 33 MW of power with a voltage of 66 kV arrives at a town substation, from a generator, over
transmission lines that have a total resistance of 6.0 .

(a) What is the current in the transmission lines?



(b) What is the power loss over the transmission lines?



(c) What is the emf at the generator end of the transmission lines?



(d) What is the power output of the generator?


(e) What fraction of the power generated is lost in the transmission lines?

66
25. Two transmission lines each have a resistance of 2.5 and carry a current of 500 A. The emf
of the generator connected to the transmission lines is 12 kV.

(a) What is the power loss over the transmission lines?


(b) What is the power input from the generator?


(c) What is the voltage at the end of the transmission lines?


(d) What is the power available at the end of the transmission lines?



26. 20 kW of power is available from a generator, at 250 V, for transmission to consumers in a
town some distance from the generator. The transmission lines over which the power is
transmitted have a resistance of 1.2 .

(a) How much power is lost if the power is transmitted at 250 V?


(b) What would be the voltage at the end of the transmission lines?


(c) Would the townspeople be able to use normal 240 V electrical appliances? Why?


(d) How much power would be lost if, instead, the voltage was stepped up by a
transformer at the generator to 6.0 kV?


(e) What would be the voltage at the town if the power was transmitted at 6.0 kV?


27. When electrical energy is transmitted over long distances, this is done through thick wires of
low resistance and at high voltage. Why is high voltage used?



67
28. The transmission system designed to deliver 200 MW of electrical power to a town from a
distant generating plant has a power loss of 20 MW in the transmission wires. The voltage
input to the transmission system at the power plant is 500 kV.

(a) What is the current in the transmission wires?


(b) What is the voltage when the power reaches the town?


(c) What is the total electrical resistance of the transmission wires?


(d) Why is the electrical power transmitted at such high voltage?



29. A farmer living near a waterfall has a small water-driven power generator capable of an
output of 1000 V AC RMS voltage. The electric power is then transmitted by transmission
lines to his farmhouse several kilometres away. A step-down transformer then provides 240 V
AC RMS for the house and farm machinery.

(a) What is the peak voltage across the terminals of the generator?



(b) There are 1600 turns on the primary winding of the transformer. How many turns are
there on the secondary winding?



(c) The power generator is capable of producing 50 kW of electric power when all the
farm machinery and household appliances are operating. The total resistance of the
transmission wires is 0.25 ohm.

(i) What is the RMS current in the transmission wires when the generator is
producing maximum power?




(ii) What is the power loss in the transmission wires?



(iii) What steps could be taken to reduce this power loss?




68
30. Electric power is supplied to a factory by a power station some distance away. The power
station is capable of producing 0.90 MW of power and the voltage across the terminals of the
generator is 9.0 kV. The wires connecting the generator of the power station to the
transformer at the factory have a total resistance of 0.25 ohm.

(a) What is the current (RMS) flowing through the wire to the factory?



(b) What is the power loss in the connecting wires?



(c) The factory has a step-down transformer to change the voltage to 1000 V. What is the
ratio of the number of turns in the primary coil to that in the secondary coil of this
transformer?



(d) If the transmission voltage had been 1.0 kV, and if the generator was supplying the
same power, would the power losses in the transmission wires have been more or
less? Explain.




31. An electricity supply commission in a country area supplies power from a 12 kV power line
to a farm some distance from the supply line. A transformer assumed to be 100 per cent
efficient is used and, after connection to the house, the secondary voltage was measured to be
240 V. The ratio of primary turns to secondary turns in the transformer is 48:1.

(a) What is the RMS voltage across the primary coil?



(b) During a load test after installation, the RMS voltage across the secondary coil is
measured as 230 V and the RMS current as 50 A when all the electrical appliances
are turned on. What is the power use in the house?



(c) What is the RMS primary voltage during the load test?



(d) During the load test what would be the RMS current in the primary coil?



(e) During the load test, what is the power loss in the transmission wires from the supply
line to the primary of the transformer?



69
32. To supply electrical energy to a house in a country area, a transformer is used to step down
the voltage from 6.0 kV RMS to 240 V RMS. The wires connecting the step-down
transformer to the house have a total resistance of 0.030 ohm.

(a) What is the peak voltage across the output terminals of the transformer?



(b) If there are 10 000 turns in the primary winding of the transformer, how many turns
are there in the secondary winding?



(c) At one particular time, 20 kW of electric power is being drawn from the output
terminals of the transformer.

(i) What is the RMS current flowing in the transmission wires from the
transformer to the house?



(ii) Calculate the power loss in these transmission wires.









70
SOUND

Vibrations cause sounds. These vibrations need a medium to travel through. A particle vibrating
within a medium causes nearby particles to vibrate. In this way sound is transferred from one place to
another. Sound cannot travel through a vacuum. Sounds travel more quickly through a denser
medium. Sound travels through air at a speed of about 330 metres per second.

TRANSMISSION OF SOUND

The way sound is transmitted can be understood by considering the effect that a moving loudspeaker
has on the air in front of it. As the speaker moves outwards the air in front of it is compressed. This
compression in turn causes further compressions in front of it. When a speaker moves backwards it
creates a space, a rarefaction, that air moves back into. The air is be compressed again as the speaker
moves forwards. This causes the air molecules to vibrate backwards and forwards as longitudinal
waves.

When the variation from normal air pressure is a maximum (at a compression or rarefaction) a
pressure antinode exists.

When the variation from normal air pressure is a minimum a pressure node exists.




71
WAVES

Waves are disturbances that travel through space. Longitudinal waves travel in the direction of the
wave and transverse waves travel at right angles to the direction of the wave. Both types of waves
have similar behaviour except those longitudinal waves will not travel through a vacuum. Sound is a
longitudinal wave.

Waves can be displayed by using two graphs:
* a displacement - distance graph and
* a displacement - time graph

The displacement - distance graph shows the shape of the wave and the position of each particle for
one particular value of time. The distance between two adjacent and corresponding displacements is
called the wavelength ().The maximum displacement of the graph is the Amplitude of the wave.




Wavelength ()




Amplitude

Distance
Displacement

72
The displacement - time graph shows the displacement of one particular point on the wave for all
values of time. The length of time between two adjacent and corresponding displacements is called
the period (T) of the wave.

The frequency of the wave (f) is the measure of how many peaks pass a given point each second and
is measured in hertz (Hz).



Period (T)



The speed of a wave ( v ) can be found using the formula

v f or v / T

HEARING SOUNDS

The human ear acts like a microphone; it converts sound waves into an electrical signal that is
transmitted to the brain for interpretation.

The human ear can detect not all vibrations. Each sound wave has three properties associated with it
(amplitude, frequency and tone) that can be detected by the human ear to varying degrees.

PITCH

The pitch of a sound results from the frequency of vibration, i.e. the number of vibrations in a given
amount of time. Increasing the greater rate of vibration produces a higher pitch. The frequency of the
vibrations is measured in hertz (symbol - Hz). One hertz is one vibration per second or one cycle per
second. Humans can hear sounds in the range from 16 Hz to 20,000Hz.

TONE

Tone is the quality of a note. Notes from different musical instruments may have the same pitch and
intensity but still sound different. This is because they are made up of a different mixture of
waveforms. Musicians use words like rich, thin, harsh, clear and warm to describe different timbres.


Amplitude

Time
Displacement

73
INTENSITY

The intensity of a sound is dependent upon the amplitude and is a measure of the power delivered by
the sound waves to a given area. With very intense sounds it is possible to feel the air compressions
of the sound waves. Intensity is measured in watts per square metre (W m
-2
).

Intensity
Power
area


The greater the amplitude, the louder the sound.

Intensity (Amplitude)
2



Intensity also decreases with distance.
I
1
d
2


Sound meters can be used to measure how intense a sound is. The intensity of sound is often
measured in decibels. The decibel scale gives a good idea of the way in which the ear hears
intensities.

L (in dB)10 log
10

I
I
o


Another way of indicating intensity levels is using the dB(A) scale. This scale is used by sound meters
which take into consideration the frequency of the sound being measured, in a manner similar to the
human ear, with the meter being more sensitive to sound in the middle range of human hearing.

Typical sound intensities are: dB W / m

Threshold of hearing (1000 Hz) 0 10
-12

Normal conversation 60 10
-6

Noisy factory 90 10
-3

A loud clap of thunder 110 10
-1

Pain threshold 120 10
0


Doubling the intensity in W m
-2
corresponds to a 3-dB increase.

Loudness is similar to intensity however because the human ear is more sensitive to certain
frequencies, sounds of the same intensity may not have the same loudness.

A 10-dB increase is heard as a doubling of the loudness.






74
VIEWING SOUNDS

The type of wave produced can be displayed using a device called a Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
(CRO). Sounds can be changed into electrical signals and displayed on the screen of the CRO. The
appearance of the display on the screen is called the waveform of the sound.

It is possible to produce sounds of particular frequencies using a device called a Signal Generation.
The waveform of these sounds can be displayed on the CRO and the sounds can be heard using a
loudspeaker.

The figure below shows the CRO displays obtained with notes of different frequency and volume or
loudness.



Different musical instruments have different waveforms even when they are playing notes of the same
pitch and volume. This difference in shape relates to the tone of the note.

PROBLEMS: (Assume speed of sound in air = 340 m s
-1
)

1. Below is the displacementdistance graph for a periodic wave.



(a) What is the wavelength of the periodic wave?


(b) What is the amplitude of the wave?

Loud
Quiet
Low pitch & frequency
High pitch & frequency
75
2. The range of frequencies of the audible spectrum is from 20 Hz to about 20 kHz. To what
range of wavelengths in air do these frequencies correspond?



3. A sound wave of wavelength 34 cm travels at 340 m s
1
in air. What is the frequency of the
sound?



4. Students are listening to an audio frequency oscillator that is producing a sound of frequency
5000 Hz. What is the wavelength of this sound?



5. When a trumpet is played, the sound waves that are produced spread out in all directions from
the source.

(a) Which one of the following best describes the motion of the air particles at a distance
of 12.0 m from the trumpet?

A. The air particles are vibrating in the direction of motion of the sound waves.

B. The air particles are vibrating at right angles to the direction of motion of the
sound waves.
C. The air particles are moving away from the trumpet at 340 m s
1
.

D. The air particles are moving away from the trumpet with a speed greater than
340 m s
1
.
E. The air particles are moving away from the trumpet with a speed less than
340 m s
1
.

(b) What is the sound level, in dB, corresponding to an intensity of 2.0 x 10
7
W m
2
?



(c) What is the intensity of sound in, W m
2
produced by a trumpet with a loudness
level of 30 dB?















76
6. The figure below shows the trace produced on a cathode ray oscilloscope when a microphone
picks up a single note sung by an opera singer.



Draw on the above graph, the oscilloscope trace that would result from:

(a) a louder sound of the same frequency

(b) a note of the same amplitude but with half the frequency

(c) a sound from an audio frequency oscillator having the same pitch as the singer.


7. A sound wave consists of regions of air pressure that alternate from slightly higher to slightly
lower than normal. At one particular instant, the variation in the air pressure of a sound wave
a long way from its source is as shown below.



(a) What is the frequency of the sound wave?


(b) Which of the points A to H in the diagram correspond to point(s) where the sound
wave is causing zero displacement of the air particles?


(c) Show the pressure variations of the wave:

(i) a quarter of a period later



(ii) half a period later.



(d) The intensity of a sound decreases markedly with distance from a source. Why?
77
REFLECTION OF SOUNDS

Sound waves are able to reflect, or bounce off, objects. This property is most obvious when echoes
are heard. Echoes can be used to determine how far away objects are. The time it takes for the sound
wave to bounce back to where it came from determines the distance with a shorter time meaning a
shorter distance

Example: A person shouts "Hello" into a cave and hears an echo after one second. How deep is the
cave if the speed of sound is 300 m/s?

If the total time of travel is one second then it must have taken the sound 0.5 seconds to reach the cave
wall and 0.5 seconds to come back. If sound travels at 300 m/s then in 0.5 seconds it would travel
0.5 x 300 = 150 metres

Water waves can be used to demonstrate the law of reflection.

The angle of incidence and the angle of reflection are measured between the normal and the direction
of travel of the waves.


TRANSMISSION & ABSORPTION

When sound waves strike a material the energy can be transmitted, absorbed and reflected. The
amount that is reflected depends on the relative acoustic impedance of the materials. If these values
are similar there is little reflection. Air is a substance with little acoustic impedance. Some of the
sound that is not reflected will be absorbed by the material and changed into other forms of energy
and some will be transmitted through the material. The amount of absorption depends on the
absorption coefficient of the material. Soft materials are usually the best absorbers.

In many theatres curtains cover the brick walls to prevent the reflection of sound by absorption. The
brick walls reflect outside sounds, which prevents noise from entering the theatre.


78
DIFFRACTION OF WAVES

Aim:

The aim of this experiment is to observe the way in which water waves diffract.

Apparatus:

Ripple tank, light source, straight barriers, paper, and wave generator

Method:

The light source is placed above the ripple tank that is filled with water. The sheet of paper is placed
under the ripple tank. The behaviour of the waves is noticed by looking at the paper.

Part 1 - Waves passing an obstacle

Use the wave generator to produce straight pulses.

(i) Direct the waves towards
a straight barrier. The
pattern seen should be
similar to that shown.















(ii) Do the waves move into the region of water directly behind the barrier?





79
(iii) How does the bending of the waves changea with a change in the wavelength of the waves?
Label the following diagrams appropriately.






Part 2 - Waves passing through a gap

Use the wave generator to produce straight pulses. Place two barriers in the water so that there is a
gap of about 2-cm between them.

(i) Direct the waves directly towards the
gap and use a diagram to show how
the waves appeared after they passed the
gap. The pattern seen should be similar
to that shown.












(ii) Do the waves move into the region of water directly behind the barriers?



80
(iii) How does the bending of the wave change with a change in the wavelength of the waves?
Label the following diagrams appropriately.







81
(iv) How does the bending of the wave change with a change in the size of the gap? Label the
following diagrams appropriately.



Medium gap





82
DIFFRACTION OF SOUND

Diffraction is the way waves travel around corners. When waves are forced through a narrow gap they
emerge as circular pulses. This is more obvious when the gap is very small compared with the
wavelength. Diffraction is seen for water waves.

Sound waves have the ability to bend around corners or diffract like water waves. Low pitch sounds
bend more than high pitch sounds, and the bending is greatest when the gap through which the sound
waves travel is smallest. This is why when music is heard from a stereo from outside an open window
the high-pitched sounds are only clearly heard when the listener is opposite the window.

PROBLEMS:

1. Parallel water waves of wavelength 2.0 cm are incident on a gap between two barriers. The
width of the gap is about 5 cm.

(a) Draw the shape of the wave pattern after the waves have passed through the aperture.









(b) The wavelength is now increased until the wavelength is approximately 5 cm. What
effect will this have on the wave pattern behind the aperture?




(c) What phenomenon is illustrated by this example?



2. What effect do you expect on the bending of the waves (i.e. the amount of diffraction), when:

(a) the slit is made narrower without changing the wavelength?



(b) the slit is made wider without changing the wavelength?



(c) the wavelength is increased without changing the width of the slit?



(d) the wavelength is decreased without changing the width of the slit?





83
3. Waves diffract around the edge of a barrier or obstacle. What effect does decreasing the
wavelength have on the amount of diffraction?






4. If the slit width is less than the wavelength then which of the following statements are true for
water waves in a ripple tank? (One or more answers)

A. No diffraction occurs.
B. The slit acts as a point source.
C. The sides of the slit cast a sharp shadow.
D. The water waves are strongly diffracted.


5. Waves in a ripple tank with a constant depth of water approach (a) a narrow opening and (b) a
wide opening in a barrier. Sketch the shape of the waves after they have passed through the
barrier, for each of the two cases.

84
INTERFERENCE OF WAVES

When two probes strike the surface of water at the same time, the following patterns are observed
when high frequency and low frequency waves are produced but the distance between the probes is
kept constant.








Set up a ripple tank so that 2 dippers strike the surface of the water at the same time.

When two probes strike the surface of water at the same time, the following patterns are observed
when the distance between the probes is changed.

Suggest the advantages and disadvantages of having speakers close together and far apart.








85
INTERFERENCE OF WAVES

The aim of this exercise is to relate the position of nodal lines produced by interference to the path
difference as measured by the distance from points on the nodal lines to the sources of the waves.

The diagram below is a photograph of waves produced in a ripple tank.


X Y

The first 3 nodal lines to the left of the central maximum are to be drawn on the sheet of paper as well
as the positions of the sources X & Y.

Five points are to be marked on the diagram (A, B, C, D & E) which indicate five different points on
the first nodal line to the left of the central maximum.

A point F is to be marked such that it is on the second nodal line to the left of the central maximum
and as far as possible from the two sources.

A point G is to be marked such that it is on the third nodal line to the left of the central maximum and
as far as possible from the two sources.

The distances from X & Y to each of the points A - G are then to be measured and the path
differences calculated.
86
Results:

Wavelength of waves = cm

TABLE 1

Line Distance (cm) Line Distance (cm) Path difference
(cm)
AX AY
BX BY
CX CY
DX DY
EX EY

TABLE 2

Line Distance (cm) Line Distance (cm) Path difference
(cm)
EX EY
FX FY
GX GY


Analysis of results:

1. What do you notice about the values for the path difference in Table 1?

2. Calculate the average path difference for Table 1 and then relate this value to the wavelength
of the waves.


3. What do the results obtained in Q1 & 2 suggest about the path difference for points on the
first nodal line?

4. For Table 2, relate the path differences obtained to the wavelength of the waves. What does
this suggest about points on nodal lines and their path differences?

5. Given that maximums occur between nodal lines, suggest how the path differences of points
on maximums relate in general to wavelength of the waves.


87
INTERFERENCE

When two or more sets of waves meet, they will mix with each other. This phenomenon is called
interference. The resulting interference pattern is the sum of these waves. This is superposition. If two
speakers produce the same note there will be points where the sound is loud and other points where no
sound is heard.

Consider water waves with crests and troughs being emitted at the same time. When a crest meets a
crest or a trough meets a trough a double crest or trough will be produced if the amplitudes are equal.
If a trough meets a crest they will cancel each other out resulting in a smooth region (a node). Sound
behaves like water waves. A nodal line is a line that joins points of zero amplitude. Less nodal lines
are produced when a distance that is small compared with the wavelength separates the two speakers.

Consider two points which generate circular waves in phase (at the same time) and a point X which is
of distances a and b from these points.

If the difference between a and b (the path difference) is a multiple of the wavelength of the waves
(i.e. n ) we have a point of maximum amplitude. If the path difference is half of a multiple of the
wavelength (i.e. odd ) we have a point of zero amplitude.







Constructive interference (maximums) occurs if path difference = 0, , 2, 3, 4 ..

Destructive interference (minimums) occurs if path difference = , 1 , 2 .

A loud sound is heard at a maximum and no sound is heard at a minimum.


88
STANDING WAVES

When two sets of identical waves move towards each other they interfere to produce a standing wave
pattern along the line between their sources. Along this line, points of maximum intensity are
separated by a distance of one half of the wavelengths.



MUSIC

Musical instruments rely on the production of vibrations and standing waves. The sound produced by
a musical instrument depends on the standing wave patterns that are produced as a result of a
vibration. The shape of a musical instrument and its dimensions determine which frequencies are
produced. Only vibrations of a certain frequency will produce standing waves. Standing waves are
heard with an increased intensity as the waves add together to boost the amplitude of the sound.

STRINGED INSTRUMENTS

Stringed instruments (such as the guitar, harp, piano and violin) produce a sound when the strings
vibrate by plucking, hitting or bowing.

The PITCH of the note depends on the length of the string, its tension and the mass per unit length.
Decreasing the length, increasing the tension or decreasing the mass per unit length can increase the
pitch.

With a stringed instrument, a number of standing waves can be produced. These waves have
displacement nodes at the ends of the string and a maximum at the point where the vibration is started.

The following diagrams show how the string of an instrument can move when a note sounds. Each
harmonic is a different mode of vibration. The diagram shows a family of harmonics or overtones
called a HARMONIC SERIES.

89


The frequency of any harmonic for a vibrating string is given by

f
n v
2 L
where n is the number of the harmonic

v is the speed of the wave

and L is the length of the string

Note that the wave on a string does not move along the string like a wave on water. The wave stays in
one place as each part of the string vibrates.

The movement of a vibrating string is quite complex. It is a combination of harmonics. Strings can
vibrate only at frequencies that are two, three or more times the frequency of the simplest vibration.
The combination of all these modes of vibration gives the sound its tone.

A single vibrating string gives little sound because it moves a very small volume of air. On most
stringed instruments, sound is amplified acoustically by a sound box. The string forces the sound
box to vibrate. This sets a much larger volume of air into vibration. The shape and structure of the
sound box affects the way it vibrates and helps to produce the characteristic tone of the instrument.



L
Fourth harmonic or third overtone
/ 2 = L / 4 => = 2 L
4
v = f => f = 4 v
2 L
First harmonic or fundamental frequency
/ 2 = L => = 2 L

v = f => f = v
2 L
L / 2 Second harmonic or first overtone
/ 2 = L / 2 => = 2 L
2
v = f => f = 2 v
2 L
L / 3
Third harmonic or second overtone
/ 2 = L / 3 => = 2 L
3
v = f => f = 3 v
2 L
L / 4
90
WIND INSTRUMENTS

Wind instruments include the clarinet, flute, recorder and trumpet. They produce a sound when the air
inside them is made to vibrate. A woodwind player blows over a reed, a hole or a sharp edge. Brass
players set up a vibration by making their lips vibrate.

The air in a pipe has modes of vibration giving a set of notes called the harmonic series. This is very
similar to the vibrations of strings.

Simple trumpets are just brass tubes with no holes or valves. They can sound only the notes produced
by the harmonic series. The modern trumpet can play all the notes of the scale by using valves to
divert the air through three extra lengths of tubing. This increases the length of the instrument so as to
lower the pitch by a definite amount.

The longer the column of air, the lower the frequency at which it vibrates. So the longest wind
instruments produce the lowest notes. There are whole families of instruments that show this pattern.

On a woodwind instrument you open or close some of the holes to play different notes. This has the
effect of changing the length of the air column inside.

The instruments used by many popular musicians and musical groups these days are electronic.
Either the vibration is started in a traditional way, picked up by a microphone (pick-up) then amplified
using electronic amplifiers, or the vibrations are created in electronic circuits. In each case a
loudspeaker produces the sound we hear.

The loudness of the sound can also be increased by resonance. All objects have a natural frequency of
vibration. If the vibrations of the instrument match the natural frequency of the sound box or air
column, a loud sound is produced.

The open end of a pipe has a displacement maximum and a pressure minimum (node). The closed end
of a pipe has a pressure maximum and a displacement minimum (node).


91
CLOSED PIPES

A pipe that is closed at one end will have a standing wave pattern as show below



Note that there are only odd numbered harmonics.

The frequency of the sound produced by a pipe closed at one end is given by

f
(odd) v
4 L




L First harmonic or fundamental frequency
/ 2 = 2 L => = 4 L

v = f => f = v
4 L
L
L
First overtone or third harmonic
/ 2 = 2L / 3 => = 4 L
3
v = f => f = 3 v
4 L
Second overtone or fifth harmonic
/ 2 = 2L / 5 => = 4 L
5
v = f => f = 5 v
4 L
Pressure
Antinode
Pressure
Node
A N
A

A
A A A
N N
N N N
92
OPEN PIPES

A pipe that is open at both ends will have a standing wave pattern as show below



The frequency of the sound produced by a pipe open at both ends is given by

f
n v
2 L



BEATS

When two sounds with a slightly different frequency are played at the same time, the waves will
interfere and produce beats.

Beat frequency = f
2
- f
1

L First harmonic or fundamental frequency
/ 2 = L => = 2 L

v = f => f = v
2 L
L
L
Second harmonic or first overtone
/ 2 = L / 2 => = 2 L
2
v = f => f = 2 v
2 L
Third harmonic or second overtone
/ 2 = L / 3 => = 2 L
3
v = f => f = 3 v
2 L
Pressure
Node
Pressure
Antinode
N
Pressure
Node
N A
N N N
N N N N
A A
A A A
93
PROBLEMS (Assume speed of sound in air = 340 m s
-1
)

1. (a) What is the fundamental frequency of a 20 cm pipe if:

(i) the pipe is open at both ends?




(ii) the pipe is closed at one end?




(b) For each pipe, what would be the frequencies of the first four overtones?





2. Two cylindrical plastic tubes are used for an experiment. Tube A has a length of 0.80 m, is
open at both ends and vibrating in its fundamental frequency. Tube B has a length of 1.00 m,
is closed at one end and vibrating in the first overtone.

(a) What is the frequency of the note from tube A?




(b) What is the frequency of the note from tube B?





3. What is the shortest length of pipe of uniform diameter and closed at one end that will
resonate to a tuning fork of frequency 384 Hz?






4. A violin string vibrates with a frequency of 330 Hz as its fundamental frequency. What are
the frequencies of the first three overtones?






94
5. Two successive overtones of a vibrating violin string are 780 Hz and 1040 Hz. What is the
fundamental frequency of the violin string?






6. The vibrating length of a guitar string is 60 cm.

(a) What is the wavelength of the fundamental mode of vibration?





(b) If the speed of the wave in the guitar string is 360 m s
1
what is the fundamental
frequency?





(c) If the vibrating length of the guitar string is increased, does the fundamental
frequency increase or decrease? Give a reason for your answer.






7. The velocity of the transverse waves in a guitar string stretched between two bridges on a
guitar is 350 m s
1
. When the guitar string is plucked it vibrates with a fundamental frequency
of 330 Hz.

(a) What is the wavelength of the standing waves in the plucked guitar string?




(b) What is the length of the guitar string between the two bridges?





(c) How far apart are the nodes in the standing waves in the string?


95
8. A clarinet acts as a tube closed at one end (the mouthpiece) and open at the other end.
Vibration of the air column is produced in the mouthpiece. A particular clarinet has a
fundamental frequency of 150 Hz.

(a) What is the wavelength of this sound?





(b) Which one of the graphs of displacement amplitude plotted against distance from the
open end best illustrates the amplitude of vibration of air particles at the fundamental
frequency of 150 Hz? (On the distance axis X is the open end and Y is the
mouthpiece.)





(c) What is the length of this model of the clarinet?






(d) What other frequencies are possible in this model?

96
9. A plastic tube with corrugated sides and open at both ends can produce a musical note if
whirled in a horizontal circle. This can be modelled as a tube open at both ends.

(a) The effective length of one such tube is 1.2 m. What would be the fundamental
frequency of the note produced when the tube was whirled in a horizontal circle?





(b) What is the frequency of the first two overtones?





(c) If the plastic tube behaves like a tube open at both ends, which one of the following
best describes the pressure nodes for the fundamental mode of the vibration?

A. There is only one pressure node in the tube and this is at one end.
B. There is only one pressure node in the tube and this is in the centre.
C. There are pressure nodes at each end and none in between.
D. There are two pressure nodes in the tube, at 0.40 m and 0.80 m from one end.

(d) There will be a range of frequencies produced by the tube but only a few frequencies
are audible. Why? What difference would it make if a longer tube was used?





97
MICROPHONES

Microphones convert sound waves into an AC signal.
Carbon microphones
Early carbon microphones consisted of two metal
plates separated by granules of carbon. One plate
faces outward and acts as a diaphragm. When
sound waves strike this plate they cause the
pressure on the granules to change, which in turn
changes the electrical resistance between the
plates. A direct current is passed from one plate to
the other and the changing resistance results in a
changing current.
Piezoelectric (crystal or ceramic) microphones

A piezoelectric microphone contains a transducer element that generates a
voltage when a crystal or ceramic material is deformed due to pressure
variations.

The advantage of this microphone is that its output voltage is capable of
driving an amplifier directly. The frequency response is uniform through to
values above 10 000 Hz and the cost is also low.


Electrodynamic (moving coil) microphones

The moving coil microphone has
been one of the most popular
microphones for high-quality
recording for a long time. It
responds well to sounds in the
whole range of human hearing. In a
moving coil, or (electro) dynamic,
microphone, a small diaphragm is
attached to a coil of wire. Sound
waves cause the diaphragm moves
backwards and forwards. The coil
will move between the poles of a
permanent magnet inducing a
voltage in the coil.

98
Velocity (ribbon or pressure gradient) microphones

Pressure gradient, or velocity, microphones
also work on the principle of induction.
Rather than a coil, a velocity microphone has
a thin metal ribbon suspended between the
poles of a permanent magnet. The ribbon
vibrates in response to the sound waves, and
the EMF induced in the ribbon is
proportional to the speed of vibration.
Typically, the achievable frequency response
for a velocity microphone is 3015 000 Hz.
The most important characteristic of this
type of microphone is that it can easily be
adapted to function as a directional
microphone: thanks to the shielding screens,
the ribbon can be exposed to sound waves
from a particular direction only.

Electret-condenser microphones

A condenser microphone operates on the basis of variations in internal capacitance. Pressure variations
cause the diaphragm to move and this causes the movement of the permanently charged membrane
which is known as the electret. This movement changes the capacitance and therefore the output signal
voltage. This is the cheapest type of microphone available. On the negative side, the plastic foil
cannot stand the tensions that are needed for high resonant limiting the high-frequency response and
stability of the microphone.




99
LOUDSPEAKERS

Fidelity is defined as the accuracy with which the input signal of a system is reproduced at the output
end of a transmission system. A loudspeaker converts electric signals to pressure signals. A moving
coil or dynamic loudspeaker is basically a moving coil microphone working in reverse.

A cone is fixed to a coil. An alternating current makes the
coil around the fixed magnet move backwards and forwards,
creating compressions and rarefactions in the air in front of
the cone. The loudspeaker also requires an enclosure to
properly bring the sound to the listener in a controlled
manner.

When a speaker cone moves forward, the front surface sends
out a compression wave. But at the same time the rear of the
cone is creating a rarefaction. At low frequencies (less than
200 Hz), diffraction effects cause the sound waves from the
back of the loudspeaker to bend around the outer rim of the
speaker and cancel out the sound waves from the front
surface. To remedy this, the speaker is mounted in a box
filled with some absorbent material. A sound baffle is a
device which is designed to muffle or at least greatly reduce
unwanted sounds. Sounds coming from the back surface of
the cone are thus contained and absorbed, so they cannot
interfere with the sound waves from the front surface. The
higher frequencies dont suffer as much from diffraction.
The high-frequency signals are sent to the loudspeakers
called tweeters and the low frequencies to the woofer or sub-
woofer. Mid-range frequencies are sent to squawkers.






100
LIGHT

Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation that can be detected by the human eye. Light has the
ability to do many things including the ability to

1. bounce off objects (reflection).
2. change its path as it moves from one material to another (refraction).
3. bend around corners (diffraction).
4. interfere with other light rays (interference).

The speed of light through a vacuum (3 x 10
8
m/s) is believed to be the maximum possible speed that
can be attained.

THE PARTICLE MODEL OF LIGHT

Initially physicists attempted to explain the behaviour of light in terms of a particle model. Whilst
this model accounts for the law of reflection it does not adequately account for refraction as it predicts
that light will travel faster in materials with higher refractive indices which is in fact false. It also is
not a good model for explaining partial reflection and partial transmission or diffraction and
interference effects. Because of this physicists abandoned then particle model and looked for a better
model.

WAVES

Waves are disturbances that travel through space. There are two types of waves: Longitudinal waves
are disturbances which travel in the direction of the wave, and transverse waves which are
disturbances which travel at right angles to the direction of the wave. Longitudinal waves will not
travel through a vacuum. If light were to be a wave it would have to be a transverse wave because
light can travel through a vacuum.

f = 1 / T

The speed of a wave ( v ) can be found using the formulae

v f or v / T

The maximum displacement is called the Amplitude.



101
REFRACTION OF WAVES

Waves can account for the refraction of light. The below diagram shows water waves travelling from
deep water into shallow water.



Waves in the shallow travel more slowly and have a shorter wavelength.

The speed of the wave is given by v f

v
1
v
2

2


The frequency is always constant. If light was a wave the different colours would be represented by
different frequencies. (The colour of light does not change when travelling from one material to
another.)

All colours of light are refracted by a different amount. The colours of the spectrum, in the order of
least bent to most bent, are red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. (Remember ROY G
BIV). This also the order of the frequencies with red light having the lowest frequency (biggest
wavelength) and violet light having the highest frequency (smallest wavelength)


DIFFRACTION

Diffraction is the way waves travel around corners. When waves are forced through a narrow gap
they emerge as circular pulses. This is more obvious when the gap is very small compared with the
wavelength. Diffraction is seen for both light and water waves. A single slit can be considered to be
a large number of slits very close together.


Shallow
Deep
102
INTERFERENCE

When two or more sets of waves meet they interfere with each other. The resulting interference
pattern is the sum of these waves. This is superposition.

Consider light waves with crests and troughs being emitted at the same time, that is, they are in phase
or coherent. When a crest meets a crest or a trough meets a trough a double crest or trough will be
produced if the amplitudes are equal. If a trough meets a crest they will cancel each other out. A
bright band indicates maximum amplitude whilst a dark bank indicates a point of zero amplitude.
Fewer bands are seen when a distance that is small compared with the wavelength separates the two
slits.

A nodal line is a line that joins points of zero amplitude.

Consider two points which generate light waves in phase ( at the same time ) and a point X which is
of distances a and b from these points.

If the difference between a and b (the path difference) is a multiple of the wavelength of the waves
(n ) we have a point of maximum wavelength. If the path difference is half of an odd number of the
wavelengths ( (2n 1) ) we have a point of zero amplitude.

PROBLEMS:

1. In terms of wavelength, explain the difference between constructive and destructive
interference.






2. Two students and B perform a Youngs slits experiment to measure the wavelength of red
light. They wonder what would happen if the experiment were performed in water instead of
air. Student A says that the spacing between the dark bands would increase. Student B
disagrees. Which student is correct? Explain why.






3. Blue light is incident on two narrow slits. An interference pattern of bright blue and dark
bands is formed on a screen. Red light, instead of blue, is now allowed to fall on the same two
narrow slits. Explain what will happen to the spacing between the dark bands.


103
4. An interference pattern is formed on a screen when red light is passed through two narrow
slits placed close together. What, if anything, happens to the spacing between the bright
bands of the pattern when:

(a) the separation of the slits is increased?



(b) a more intense red light is used?



(c) blue light is used instead of red light?



(d) the screen is moved further away from the slits?



(e) the source of the red light is moved closer to the slits?



(f) the slits are made narrower but their separation is unchanged?




5. Light and radio waves are both electromagnetic waves. A brick wall casts a shadow on the
ground, yet you could hear a radio behind the wall without seeing the transmitting antenna.
Explain these phenomena.





6. An interference pattern is formed on a screen when green light is passed through two narrow
slits placed close together. What happens to the spacing between the bright bands of the
pattern when the separation of the slits is:

(a) decreased?



(b) increased?


104
7. An interference pattern is formed on a screen when yellow light is passed through two narrow
slits placed close together. What, if anything, happens to the spacing between the bright bands
of the pattern when:

(a) the separation of the slits is increased?


(b) a more intense yellow light is used?


(c) blue light is used instead of yellow light?


(d) the screen is moved further away from the slits?


(e) the source of the yellow light is moved closer to the slits?


(f) the slits are made narrower but their separation is unchanged?


8. The diagram shows green light from a source incident
on two narrow slits. A series of equally spaced bright
and dark bands is produced on the screen.



(a) Why is a bright central maximum seen at A?



(b) Why is there a dark band at B?



(c) What is formed between the dark bands B and C? Explain.



(d) What changes occur in the pattern if

(i) blue light is used instead of the green light?


(ii) red light is used instead of the green light?


105
9. Four students each perform an experiment to form an interference pattern on a screen with a
white light source, a red filter and a set of double slits.

(a) Each student makes a comment about the observed pattern. For each comment,
answer the students question.

Andrea: When the screen is moved further away from the slits, the fringes get
further apart. Why does this happen?





Brett: When the red filter is taken away, leaving only the white light source,
some of the fringes become coloured. Why should this be?





Catherine: There are only two slits but several bright and dark bands appear.
Why is this?





David: The distance between the slits and the screen in my experiment is the
same as in the others but the fringes are further apart in mine. Why
is this?





(b) If each student covered up one of the slits, what would he or she expect to see on the
screen? Explain this observation.





(c) If this single slit were made narrower, what would happen to the pattern on the
screen? Explain.

106
10. A diffraction pattern is formed on a screen when red light is incident on a narrow single slit.
What, if anything, happens to the pattern if:

(a) the width of the slit is increased?



(b) a more intense red light is used?



(c) blue light is used instead of red light?



(d) the screen is moved further away from the slit?



(e) the source of the red light is moved closer to the slit?



11. (a) Two microwave generators emit waves in phase of wavelength 3.0 cm. What is the
frequency of the waves?



(b) The generators are placed 1.8 m apart, as shown. A detector is moved from X to Y.



(i) What will the detector register at A?


(ii) What is the distance of:

the first minimum from A?


the first maximum from ?



(iii) How many minima will the detector register between X and Y?


107
12. Light of a single wavelength passes through two closely spaced narrow slits. Bright and dark
bands form a pattern on a screen placed some distance from the two slits. M is the centre of
the pattern on the screen.

(a) Use the wave model for light to explain how the pattern of bright and dark bands is
formed.



(b) The distance between the two slits is now increased. What differences, if any, will be
observed in the pattern on the screen?



(c) One of the slits is now blocked off so that the light from the laser passes through
only one slit. Describe the pattern seen on the screen.



(d) The slit width is now increased from 0.01 mm to 0.02 mm and nothing else is
changed. Which one of the following statements best describes what would be
observed in the pattern when the slit is widened?

A. There will be no change in the pattern of bright and dark bands.
B. The bright and dark bands will be in the same positions, but the bright bands
will be brighter.
C. The spacing between the bright bands will be greater than before.
D. The spacing between the bright bands will be less than before.
E. There will be no obvious pattern of bright and dark bands.

13. Sketch the intensitydistance graph for:

(a) the diffraction pattern of a single slit








(b) the interference pattern of a double slit.







108
14. Red light of wavelength 600 nm falls on two narrow slits whose separation is 1.2 x 10
4
m.
An interference pattern is formed on a screen 1.6 m away.

(a) Describe the pattern seen on the screen.



(b) Each slit is made narrower but the separation between the centres of the two slits is
kept the same as before. Which of the following now describes the pattern?

A. The spacing between the dark bands increases.
B. The spacing between the dark bands decreases.
C. The spacing between the dark bands is unchanged.
D. The intensity of the central maximum increases.
E. The intensity of the central maximum decreases.
F. The intensity of the central maximum is unchanged.

(c) The slits are returned to their original width and separation. Blue light is substituted
for the red light. Compared to the original pattern, the spacing between the dark
bands will be:

A. the same
B. decreased
C. increased

(d) The slit separation is halved (compared with the original separation). What is the
spacing between the dark bands now?



(e) The screen is moved towards the slits. Which of the graphs AF best describes the
variation of the spacing between the dark bands with the distance of the screen from
the two slits?





109
15. Red light is refracted less than blue light, but blue light is diffracted less than red light.
Explain these statements in terms of the wavelengths of the two colours.






16. (a) What is the speed of yellow light of wavelength 580 nm in:

(i) water of index of refraction 1.33?




(ii) glass of index of refraction 1.50?




(b) What is the wavelength of the yellow light when passing through the water and
through the glass?




(c) What is the frequency of the yellow light in the water and in the glass?

110
THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

Sometimes when light strikes a metal, electrons are observed leaving the metal. The number of
electrons ejected depends on the intensity of the light. Brighter light causes more electrons to be
emitted.

When a voltage is used to attract or repel the emitted electrons, a graph of current vs voltage with the
following shape will be obtained.



Vc is the cut off voltage, that is, the voltage required to stop all electrons.

Note that the cut off voltage depends on colour. The current does not depend on the voltage causing
acceleration.

Whilst the light intensity causes more electrons it does not change the kinetic energy they have when
they are emitted. This kinetic energy has the value KE = V q where V is the cut off voltage.

The energy of a charge is sometimes expressed in electron volts rather that joules. In this case, the
size of a charge in measured in electrons rather than coulombs.

1 electron = 1.6 x 10
-19
C

V
I
Dim Blue
Orange
Bright Blue
Green
V
CB
V
CG
V
CO
111
A graph of KE (Vq) versus f gives the following:



f
o
is the threshold frequency and depends on the metal. Electrons are not emitted for frequencies
below this value.

The gradient of this graph is constant for all metals and is called Planck's constant (h).

h = 6.626 x 10
-34
Js

= 4.136 x 10
-15
eVs

W is a constant called the work function and is the minimum energy required to cause electron
emission. It can also be thought of as the energy holding the electron to the metal.

From the graph KE = hf - W, where hf is the incident energy of the light.

PROBLEMS:

1. A metal surface emits electrons when it is struck by blue light but not when struck by green
light. Will the surface emit electrons when it is struck by:

(a) violet light?

(b) yellow light?

2. Certain photographic materials are damaged if handled in white light, but can be handled
safely in red light. How do you account for this?


f
o
f
o
Potassium Zinc
KE
Frequency
W

W

112
3. Violet light has a wavelength of 450 nm.

(a) What is the frequency of violet light of this wavelength?



(b) What is the energy of one photon of violet light of wavelength 450 nm?
(Give your answer in both joules and electron volts.)



(c) How many photons would be emitted per second from a 60 W violet light source?



4. What is the wavelength of X-rays whose photons each carry 5.0 x10
4
eV of energy?




5. Arrange the following in order of increasing energy:

(a) a photon of green light
(b) a photon of violet light
(c) a microwave photon
(d) an X-ray photon.

6. A light beam of a certain wavelength strikes a metal surface. The photons in the light beam
have just sufficient energy to remove an electron from the surface of the metal. What would
be the effect of using:

(a) a light beam of the same wavelength but of greater intensity?



(b) a light beam of longer wavelength?



(c) a light beam of shorter wavelength?




7. unlight reaches the Earths surface at a rate of approximately 800 joules of energy per
second per square metre. If the average wavelength of light from the Sun is 510 nm, how
many photons per second will strike 1 cm
2
of the Earths surface?


113
8. A radio station operates on a frequency of 1.5 x 10
6
Hz.

(a) What is the energy of a photon of this frequency?



(b) Compare this photon energy with that of a gamma ray of frequency 1.5 x 10
19
Hz



(c) What does this mean about the detection of individual photons of radio waves and
gamma-rays?




9. One X-ray photon can eject an electron from zinc, but a thousand photons of green light have
no effect. Explain this.




10. Why do different metals have different work functions?



11. Why does the particle theory of light explain the photoelectric effect when the wave theory
does not?




12. The threshold frequency of sodium is 5.6 x 10
14
Hz.

(a) Calculate the work function of sodium.


(b) A sample of sodium metal is exposed to radiation of frequency 7.5 x 10
14
Hz. What is
the maximum kinetic energy of the ejected electrons?



13. The cut-off potential to prevent electron flow through a photoelectric cell is 4.8 volt. What is
the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons in the cell?



14. The threshold frequency of chromium is 1.12 x 10
15
Hz. What is the work function of
chromium?

114
15. More energy is required to remove an electron from iron than from calcium.

(a) Which metal has the higher work function?

(b) Which metal has the higher threshold frequency?

(c) Which metal has the longer threshold wavelength?

16. The diagram below shows a photoelectric tube in which light of a particular frequency, f, and
of constant intensity strikes the metal cathode.

Electrons are emitted from the cathode and travel to the anode, or collector. As the potential
difference between the anode and cathode changes, the current measured by the milliammeter
varies, as shown in the following graph.



(a) Why is the photoelectric current constant at positive values of V?



(b) If the frequency of the light striking the plate is now varied, which of the graphs AF
best represents the relationship between the magnitude of Vc and f?


115
17. The graph below shows the maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons ejected from a
magnesium surface by light of various frequencies.


(a) Use the graph to calculate the value of Plancks constant.



(b) What is the minimum amount of energy required to remove an electron from a
magnesium surface?


(c) If another metal had been used instead of magnesium, what change would this have
made to the gradient of the graph and to the minimum amount of energy required to
remove an electron from the surface of the metal?



18. A graph of current (in microampere) against the potential difference for various frequencies
of incident light is shown below. Graph A is for the situation described.

(a) Which of the graphs AE describes the situation for which the intensity of the light is
decreased?

(b) Which of the graphs AE shows the situation when light of a lower frequency is
used?


(c) For the conditions applying to graph A, what is the maximum kinetic energy (in eV)
with which the electrons leave the emitter surface?


116
19. Why is the stopping potential for electrons ejected from a metal during the photoelectric
effect a function of the incident photons rather than the metal from which the electrons are
ejected?



20. The removal of an electron from the surface of a piece of copper requires more energy than
from lithium metal.

(a) Which of the two metals has the higher work function?

(b) In which of the two metals will light of the longer wavelength cause the photoelectric
effect?


21. An electromagnetic wave with a wavelength shorter than the threshold wavelength falls on a
given metal. The light intensity on the metal is increased.

(a) What happens to the number of photoelectrons ejected from the metal?


(b) What effect does the increase in light intensity have on the maximum kinetic energy
of the ejected electrons?


22. The photoelectric effect does not occur unless the incident light has a frequency above the
threshold frequency, i.e. the photons must have sufficient energy. Why, then, cant two or
more low-energy photons be absorbed by a metal and produce the same effect?




23. What is an appropriate unit for hf in Einsteins photoelectric equation?



24. A heliumneon laser has a wavelength of 633 nm.

(a) What is the frequency of the laser light?



(b) What is the energy of a photon of the laser light?



(c) What is the momentum of a photon of the laser light?



117
WAVE-PARTICLE DUALITY

The discovery of the photoelectric effect upset the notion that light was a wave.

If light were like a wave a greater intensity would mean greater amplitude as changing the frequency
changes the colour. This however would suggest that greater intensity would mean more energy as the
energy of a single wave is indicated by its amplitude. The fact that more intense light does not cause
emitted electrons to travel with a greater speed, and hence kinetic energy, led scientists to believe that
light does not always behave as a wave. Surprisingly the photoelectric effect led physicists back to the
particle model. If light were a stream of particles, a greater intensity would be represented by more
particles. If each particle had a fixed amount of energy (its colour) more particles would lead to more
emitted electrons but the energy of the emitted electrons would be the same no matter what the
intensity.

It became apparent that light sometimes behaved as a particle and at other times it behaved as a wave.

Both the wave and particle models predict that light should exert a pressure. This pressure is
proportional to the light intensity. This pressure must be due to a collision and this in turn suggests
that photons (packages of light) have a momentum.

Momentum of a photon
hf
c

h



PROBLEMS:

Assume the speed of light is 3.0 x 10
8
m s
1
; charge on the electron is 1.6 10
19
C, mass of the
electron is 9.1 10
31
kg or the mass of a neutron is 1.67 x 10
27
and Plancks constant is 6.63 10
34

J s.

1. What is the wavelength of an electron whose speed is 1.5 x 10
7
m s
1
?





2. What is the wavelength of a golf ball of mass 46 grams that is moving at a speed of 20 m s
1
?





118
3. An electron is accelerated across a potential difference of 40 V. Find its:

(a) (i) kinetic energy



(ii) momentum



(iii) wavelength



(b) A proton of mass 1800 times that of the electron is also accelerated across a potential
difference of 40 V. Find its:

(i) kinetic energy



(ii) momentum



(iii) wavelength








4. (a) What is the wavelength of X-ray photons of energy 3.6 x 10
4
electron volt?




(b) At what energy do electrons have a de Broglie wavelength equal to that of 3.6 x 10
4

electron volt X-rays?



(c) Could you easily demonstrate the wave characteristics of these electrons?


119
5. The wave nature of water waves in the ocean is obvious to us, but the wave nature of a
moving car is not. Explain.




6. A bullet of mass 50 gram has a speed of 1.2 10
3
m s
1
.

(a) What is its de Broglie wavelength?



(b) Why is the wave nature of the bullet not revealed through diffraction effects?



7. (a) What would be the momentum of an electron with the same wavelength as yellow
light (580 nm)?




(b) What accelerating potential would you need to give an electron this momentum?




8. What wavelength is associated with a beam of neutrons of energy 0.030 eV?




9. An electron and a photon each have a wavelength of 0.20 nm. What are:

(a) their energies?



(b) their momenta?



10. What is the wavelength of an athlete of mass 75 kg moving at 10 m s
1
?




11. At what speed does an electron have a de Broglie wavelength of 2.5 10
8
m?


120
ENERGY LEVELS IN AN ATOM

An atom contains three major particles. The proton is a positively charged particle and has a mass
number of one. The neutron is a neutral particle and has a mass number of one. The electron is a
negatively charged particle and has a mass number of zero. The proton and the neutron are located at
the centre of the atom, to form the nucleus of the atom, with the electrons surrounding them in regions
called shells with each shell representing a different energy level.

Normally an electron will be in the lowest possible available energy level. During a collision with a
particle, such as another electron, an electron can receive enough energy for it to become excited and
move into another shell. It will remain in this new shell for only a short period of time and then will
return to its original shell emitting the excess energy as a photon (a package of energy). In such
collisions the electron can only accept a certain amount of energy as it cannot exist between shells.

The frequency of the emitted photon can be calculated using the formula

E h f

The speed of the emitted photon in air will be 3.0 x 10
8
m s
-1
.

If the electron is to accept energy from a collision with a photon it must accept either all or none of
the photons energy. It will only accept all of the energy if that energy matches the energy required for
movement to another shell.

The circumference of an electron shell is equal to n where n is the number of the shell and is the
wavelength of the electron.

121
Example: Below is shown a table of the internal energy levels of a hypothetical atom.

Ionisation _____________________ 8.0 eV

3rd excited state _____________________ 7.4 eV

2nd excited state _____________________ 5.4 eV

1st excited state _____________________ 3.6 eV

Ground state _____________________ 0 eV

(a) What is the minimum energy a bombarding electron must have to remove an electron
from this atom?

When an electron is removed the atom is ionised hence 8.0 eV is required.

(b) What could be the possible energies of an electron after collision with such an atom if the
energy of the incident electron was

(i) 2.4 eV (ii) 3.8 eV (iii) 5.8 eV (iv) 7.4 eV

An electron within the atom can absorb 0, 3.6, 5.4, 7.4 or 8.0 or greater than 8.0 eV.

(i) No energy would be absorbed from an electron with 2.4 eV so it would emerge
from a collision with 2.4 eV.
(ii) An electron with 3.8 eV could have either 0 eV or 3.6 eV absorbed so it could
emerge with either 3.8 eV or 0.2 eV.
(iii) An electron with 5.8 eV could have either 0 eV, 3.6 eV or 5.4 eV absorbed so it could
emerge with 5.8 eV, 2.2 eV or 0.4 eV.
(iv) An electron with 7.4 eV could have 0 eV, 3.6 eV, 5.4 eV or 7.4 eV absorbed so it
could emerge with 7.4 eV, 3.8 eV, 2.0 eV or 0 eV.

(c) To which states could an electron be excited to if the atom was bombarded with photons of
energy (i) 5.4 eV (ii) 7.5 eV

If the electron is to accept energy from collision with a photon it must accept either all or
none of the photons energy. It will only accept all of the energy if that energy matches the
energy required for movement to another shell.

(i) The electron could absorb all of the energy from the photon and move to the 2nd
excited state.

(ii) The electron will remain in the ground state.


122
PROBLEMS:

1. The diagram below gives the energy levels of the element caesium.



(a) Electrons of energy (i) 1.0 eV, (ii) 2.0 eV, (iii) 2.6 eV and (iv) 3.2 eV collide with
gaseous caesium atoms. What are the possible energies of the electrons emerging?








(b) An electron of energy 1.8 eV collides with a caesium atom in its ground state. After
the collision, the electron is found to have 0.4 eV of energy. Relative to the ground
state what is the energy of the caesium atom after the collision?







(c) What is the minimum energy that a bombarding electron must have in order to excite
a caesium atom?







(d) What is the minimum energy that a bombarding electron must have in order to ionise
a caesium atom?



123
2. The diagram below shows some of the energy levels of a hypothetical atomic system. The
energies are those measured above the ground state, which is labelled zero.



(a) The system is initially in the 6.0 eV level. What possible photon energy (or energies)
will be subsequently emitted as the atom returns to the ground state?





(b) If the system is in the ground state and is bombarded by an electron of energy 5.0 eV
what are the possible electron energies and photon energies that will result?





(c) To what value of n (i.e. the highest state) can an atom of this system, initially in the
ground state, be excited by an electron of energy 7.0 eV?













124
ANSWERS

COLLISIONS

1. 1 m/s and 4 m/s 2. 1 m/s and 6 m/s

3. 2 m/s and 8 m/s 4. 3 m/s and -1 m/s

5. 1 m/s East and 2 m/s East 6. 0 m/s and 1 m/s South

7. 1 m/s East and 4 m/s East 8. 2 m/s South and 2 m/s North


VOLTAGE DIVIDERS

1. (a) 3 volts (b) C

2. (a) It creates a short circuit across the element, and so no current will flow through the
heating element its power use will be zero watts.
(b) The total resistance of the circuit will be 60. => Current through element 0.1 A
Power used by element = I
2
R = 1.0 W
(c) This is not a safe circuit design because if R
V
is set to zero, there will be a short
circuit across the battery terminals and so an extremely large current will be drawn
from the battery.

3. (a) When the current in the circuit = 0.10 A, the voltage across X = 2.0 V.
Hence, the voltage across R = 9.0 - 2.0 = 7.0 V
(b) The resistance of R = V/I = 7/0.1 = 70 ohms
(c) Power loss in R = V x I = 7.0 x 0.1 = 0.7 W

4. (a) 5 k (b) 1 C (c) 7 C

5. (a) 4 k Read off graph.
(b) As the light intensity drops, the resistance of the LDR also falls. Thus the 4 k
resistor gets a greater proportion of the 12 V as it gets darker, and will trigger the
system to turn on as it rises past 8 V. Therefore the switching unit should be placed at
X. At the activation point, the resistor has 8 V of the 12 V (i.e. two-thirds) so should
have two-thirds of the resistance. Thus the resistance of the LDR should be 2 k,
making the light intensity 20 W/m
2
.


125
THE DIODE

1. (a) 2 k (b) The diode is reverse biased.
(c) From the graph, if the current is greater than 3.5 mA, the voltage across the diode =
0.6 V. Since the current is 5.4 mA, the voltage is 0.6 V
(d) The voltage across R
2
= 6.0 - 0.6 = 5.4 V. R = 5.4 / (5.4 x 10
-3
) = 1000 ohms

2. (a) The diode uses 0.5V in each circuit.

Circuit 1 Circuit 2


(b) Circuit 1 has the brighter globe. The diode in circuit 2 only allows current flow on
each positive cycle thus reducing the energy output of the globe.

3. (a) The globe will light up. 180mA. (b) The globe will light up. 140mA

4. Since the resistors are in parallel, V
X
= V
Y
= 4.0 V. From the graph I
X
= 0.1 A and I
Y
= 0.4 A.
Hence, the total current = 0.1 + 0.4 = 0.5 A

AMPLIFICATION

1. The output voltage is 50 times the input voltage.


2. (a) 40

(b) 2.0V

(c)




3. (a) From the graph, the potential difference between points A and C
= height of the trace x Y amplifier setting = 4 x 0.2 = 0.8 V
(b) This is a voltage divider 0.073 V
(c) From the graph, the potential difference between points D and E
= height of the trace x Y amplifier setting = 5 x 1.0 = 5.0
(d) The gain of a voltage amplifier = 5/0.073 = 68.5

4. (a) 0.8 volts (b) 5.0 volts (c) 0.073 volts (d) 68.5
(e) Inverts

126
MAGNETIC FIELDS

1. a E b E c B d A e F f E
2. a B b C c E d F
MAGNETIC FORCE ON A WIRE

1. a F b F c B d D e B f C g C h F
2. a no force b F c no force
3. 1.6 x 10
2
N per metre length
4. 5 x 10
2
T
5. 1.5 A
6. 0.48 N downwards
7. Downwards
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

1. a i Blv ii 0 iii 2Blv iv 0 b i Blv ii 0
2. 0.50 m
3. a 3.6 x 10
4
V b Q
4. a 0.11 V b 0.014 A c from A to B d 5.8 x 10
4
N to the right e 0
INDUCED EMF

1. 0.25 V
2. 0.25 V
3. a 1.5 x 10
3
Wb s
1
b 2.2(5) x 10
6
Wb
4. 4.0 x 10
3
V
5. a 7.2 x 10
2
Wb b 0.11 V
6. 20 V
7. 0.13 V
8. a 1.4 mV b 0.35 mA c 4.0 x 10
8
J
9. a 6BA/t b A, C, D, E

127
10. a X to Y b N c Y to X d Y to X e X to Y
f Y to X g X to Y h Y to X (initially) i N
11. a A b 0
12. a X to Y b Y to X c X to Y d Y to X e N
13. 3.3 x 10
2
V
14. a B b C c A d B

MOTORS & GENERATORS

1. from B to C to D to A
2. otherwise the coil would reverse direction after half a rotation
3. to change current direction every half turn
4. a B b i 0.18 N ii 0 c increase current or magnetic field
5. a anticlockwise b 5.7(6) x 10
2
N
6. a C b 1.2 V
7. a i 0.038(4) N down ii 0.024 N towards input wires b D
8. 543 V
9. 0.12 T
10. a 20 Hz b 18.(8) V c 13.(3) V d 18.8 sin 40t
11. a i 0 ii 54 V c 54 V d 38 V
12. 127 turns
13.
14. a i coil parallel to the magnetic field ii coil perpendicular to the magnetic field
b alternating current produced c A

128
HOUSEHOLD ELECTRICITY SUPPLY

1. voltage, current
2. to produce a changing magnetic field
3. 48 V
4. 1.2 x 10
3
turns
5. 375 turns
6. a step-up transformer b 1/3
7. a 120 V c 4.8 A
8. a 6.0 V b 10 V c i 30 ii 50 d 16 V e 1.6 A
9. Eddy currents can cause heating in the soft iron core of a transformer. To overcome this,
transformer cores are often made of thin layers of soft iron separated by insulating layers.
The eddy currents that can build up in each layer of the laminate are much smaller, and so
the heating effect is much less.

10. a 60 kV b 9.6 kW c 9.6 kW d 0.16 A
11. a 34 V b 9.0 V c 4.0 A d 36 W e 36 W
12. no, energy cannot be created
13. There is no change in flux threading the secondary coil.
14. a 340 V b 240 V c 680 V d 0 e 0.02 s f 50 Hz
15. a 350 MW b The magnetic field must be do ubled.
c A change in magnetic field through the coil is needed.
16. a 0.25 A b 960 c i 340 V ii 0.35 A
17. 0
18. Less power is lost in the wires.
19.
20. a 6.0 mA b painful but not lethal
21. a 480 mA b lethal
22. a 20 V b 0.20 A c 227 V d i 0.017 A ii 240 V
23. 3.6 x 10
6
J
24. a 500 A b 1.5 x 10
6
W c 69 kV d 34.5 MW e 4.3%
129
25. a 1.25 x 10
6
W b 6.0 x 10
6
W c 9.5 kV d 4.75 x 10
6
W
26. a 7.68 kW b 154 V c no, low voltage d 13.3 W e 250 V
27. The current is low and the power losses are kept to a minimum.
28. a 400 A b 450 kV c 125
d current is lower and power loss is smaller
29. a 1.4 x 10
3
V b 384 c i 50 A ii 625 W
30. a 100 A b 2.5 kW c 9 d less, because current is lower
31. a 11.5 kV b 11.5 kW c 11.0(4) kV d 1.0(4) A e 990 W
32. a 340 V b 400 c i 83.(3) A ii 208 W

SOUND

1. a 4.0 m b 10 cm
2. 17 m to 0.017 m
3. 1.0 10
3
Hz
4. 0.068 m
5. a A b 53 dB c 1.0 x 10
-9
Wm
-2

6. a Bigger amplitude b Double wavelength c same
7. a 170 Hz b A, C, E, G d Intensity varies with (distance)
-2

DIFFRACTION OF SOUND

1. a Waves dont diffract b Waves begin to diffract c Diffraction
2. a increase b decrease c increase d decrease
3. less diffraction
4. B and D
5. a diffraction b no diffraction

130
MUSIC

1. a i 850 Hz ii 425 Hz b open pipe: 1700 Hz, 2550 Hz, 3400 Hz, 4250 Hz
closed pipe: 1275 Hz, 2125 Hz, 2975 Hz, 3825 Hz
2. a 213 Hz b 255 Hz
3. 22 cm
4. 660 Hz, 990 Hz, 1320 Hz
5. 260 Hz
6. a 1.2 m b 300 Hz c decreased
7. a 1.0(6) m b 0.53 m c 0.53 m
8. a 2.2(7) m b F c 0.57 m d 450 Hz, 750 Hz, 1050 Hz
9. a 142 Hz b 283 Hz, 425 Hz c C
LIGHT

1.
2. student B
3. more than before
4. width of the central maximum will be: a decreased b unchanged (but brighter)
c decreased d increased e unchanged

5. Wavelength of radio waves is bigger than light
6. a increases b decreases
7. a decreases b no change c decreases d increases e no change
f no change in spacing (but less bright)
8. a path difference is 0 b path difference is /2 c a bright band
d i bright bands are closer together ii bright bands are further apart
9.
10. The bands will be a smaller b same size but brighter c smaller d bigger
e same size but brighter

11. a 1.0 10
10
Hz b i maximum intensity ii 0.75 cm, 1.5 cm iii 120
12. a interference occurs b spacing between the dark bands will be less
c Brighter & wider central band d D
13.
131
14. b C, E c B d bigger than before e A
15.
16. a i 2.26 10
8
m s
1
ii 2.00 10
8
m s
1
b 436 nm, 387 nm c 5.2 10
14
Hz in both

THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

1. a yes b no
2.
3. a 6.67 10
14
Hz b 4.42 10
19
J, 2.76 eV c 1.36 10
20

4. 0.024 nm
5. microwave photon, green light photon, violet light photon, X-ray photon
6. a more photoelectrons ejected but with the same energy b no photoelectrons ejected
c photoelectrons ejected with greater energy
7. 2.1 10
17

8. a 6.2 10
9
eV (9.9 10
28
J)
b energy of a gamma ray photon is 10
13
times as great
9. X-rays have a greater frequency
10. Metals have different abilities to hold onto electrons
11.
12. a 2.3 eV b 0.8 eV
13. 4.8 eV
14. 4.6 eV
15. a iron b iron c calcium
16. a all the emitted electrons reach the anode b D
17. a 7 10
34
Js b 6.0 10
19
J c none, different
18. a D b E c 3.0 eV
19.
20. a copper b lithium
21. a more photoelectrons ejected b none
22.
23. J or eV
132
24. a 4.74 10
14
Hz b 1.96 eV c 1.05 10
27
Ns
WAVE-PARTICLE DUALITY

1. 4.9 10
11
m
2. 7.2 10
34
m
3. (a) (i) 6.4 10
18
J (ii) 3.4 10
24
kg m s
1
(iii) 1.9(4) 10
10
m
(b) (i) 6.4 10
18
J (ii) 1.45 10
22
kg m s
1
(iii) 4.6 10
12
m
4. (a) 3.5 10
11
m (b) 2.0 10
16
J
5. Wavelength of a car is extremely small
6. (a) 1.1 10
35
m (b) Wavelength of a car is extremely small
7. (a) 1.1(4) 10
27
kg m s
1
(b) 4.5 10
6
V
8. 1.6(5) 10
10
m
9. electron i 38 eV ii 3.3 10
24
kg m s
1

photon i 6.2 10
3
eV ii 3.3 10
24
kg m s
1

10. 8.8 10
37
m
11. 2.9 10
4
m s
1


ENERGY LEVELS IN AN ATOM

1. a 1.0 eV, 2.0 eV, 2.6 eV, 3.2 eV, electrons which make elastic collisions;
0.2 eV, 0.6 eV, 0.8 eV, 1.2 eV, 1.8 eV electrons which make inelastic collisions
b 1.4 eV c 1.4 eV d 3.9 eV
2. a 6.0 eV b 5.0 eV, no photons emitted c n = 3





133







134

135

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