Dr.

Stephen Marrin
Associate Professor, James Madison University
marrinsp@jmu.edu or spm8p@yahoo.com

EDUCATION
PhD. Foreign Affairs, University of Virginia, Department of Politics. 2009.
M.A. Foreign Affairs, University of Virginia, Department of Politics. 2002.
B.A. Political Science, Colgate University, 1995.

EMPLOYMENT
2013-Present: Associate Professor, Department of Integrated Science and Technology (Intelligence
Analysis Program), James Madison University. Harrisonburg, VA.
Courses taught: Introduction to National Security Intelligence; Intelligence Successes and Failures;
Ethics, Law and Intelligence Analysis; Senior Seminar on Issues in Intelligence Analysis; Capstone
Project in Intelligence Analysis
Service includes responsibility for conducting program assessment, drafting internal report for 2015
Academic Program Review and member of BS/ISAT Social Context Search Committee (2013-2014)

2010-2013: Lecturer (Asst Professor). Dept of Politics & History. Brunel University. London, UK.
Program Director. MA in Intelligence and Security Studies (MAISS). (2012-2013)
MAISS Admissions Director: Evaluate and decide on 60-70 applications each year, (2011-2013)
School of Social Sciences representative to the Universitys Faculty Senate (2012-2013)
Awarded Brunel Research Initiative and Enterprise Fund Grant (11,000) (2011-2012)
Organized Workshops: Structured Analytic Techniques (July 2011; 35 attendees); Comparing
Intelligence Analysis to Journalism (Jan 2012; 50 attendees); and Understanding and Improving
Intelligence Analysis: Learning from other Disciplines (July 2012; 140 attendees)
Received University Student Led Teaching Award (the Postgraduates Choice Award) 2011-2012
Courses taught include: World Politics; Intelligence and National Security; Contemporary Threats
and Analytical Methodology; Intelligence Analysis and Decision (all 2-terms)
Supervisor to 8-10 undergraduate senior theses and 10-15 MA theses each year.
External examiner for PhD at Kings College London. 2012.

2006-2010: Assistant Professor. Intelligence Studies Dept. Mercyhurst College. Erie, PA.
Courses taught: Introduction to Intelligence Analysis, Terrorism and Counterterrorism, Writing for
Intelligence, Intelligence and National Security, Improving Intelligence Analysis, Strategic
Intelligence Analysis, Advanced Analytical Techniques
Helped organize Departmental Conference (provided conference theme, subject matter content, and
speakers) attended by approx 120 in Dungarvan, Ireland (2009-2010)
Advisor, student-led Dept National Security Club: 50 student members (2007-2010)
Supervisor to 6 MA theses, 1 senior honors thesis, and academic advisor to 40 students/year.

2001 & 2004: Dept of Politics. University of Virginia. Charlottesville, VA.
2004: Grading Assistant. Terrorism and Intelligence taught by former CIA IG Fred Hitz
2001: Grading Assistant. Cold War and Intelligence taught by Fred Hitz.

2003-2004: Analyst, Defense Capabilities & Management, U.S. GAO; Washington DC.
Worked on a report evaluating the adequacy of militarys reserve retirement program and testimony
on the Air Forces proposal to lease Boeing aircraft as refueling tankers.

1999-2000: Research Analyst and Team Leader; S&ITG, TRW
Lead analyst/editor on team producing weekly memos for analytic unit at CIA Headquarters.

1996-1998: Intelligence Analyst; Office of Near East, South Asia, and Africa; CIA.
Leadership analyst on Middle East account. Produced leadership profiles and other intelligence
reports; provided briefings to military officers, Ambassadors, congressional staffers, and others.
Dr. Stephen Marrin

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PUBLICATIONS
Books
Improving Intelligence Analysis: Bridging the Gap between Scholarship & Practice. Routledge 2011.

Edited Books and Monographs
Editor Revisiting Intelligence and Policy: Problems with Politicization & Receptivity Routledge2014

Editor. Exploring the Literary Landscape: Resources for Teaching Intelligence. Monograph issued by the
International Association for Intelligence Education. September 2009.

Editor. Intelligence Theory: Key Questions and Debates. Routledge. 2008. (with M Phythian, P Gill)

Book Chapters
American Intelligence: Guiding the Ship of State Along a River of Power. Routledge Companion to
Intelligence Studies. (Eds. Michael Goodman, Rob Dover, and Claudia Hillebrand). Routledge. 2013.

Intelligence Analysis and Decisionmaking: Methodological Challenges. Intelligence Theory: Key
Questions and Debates. (Eds. P Gill, S Marrin and M Phythian). Routledge. 2008. 131-150.

Adding Value to the Intelligence Product. Handbook of Intelligence Studies. (Ed. Loch Johnson)
Routledge. 2006. 199-210.

Improving CIA Analysis by Overcoming Institutional Obstacles. Bringing Intelligence About:
Practitioners Reflect on Best Practices (Ed. Swenson) Joint Military Intelligence College 2003. 40-59

Journal Articles
Improving Intelligence Studies as an Academic Discipline. Intelligence and National Security.
Accepted July 2014; forthcoming 2015.

Evaluating CIAs Analytic Performance: Reflections of a Former Analyst. ORBIS. 57/ 2 2013 325-339

Rethinking Analytic Politicization. Intelligence and National Security. Vol. 28. No. 1. 2013. 32-54.

Evaluating the Quality of Intelligence Analysis: By What Mis-Measure? Intelligence and National
Security. Vol. 27. No. 6. (December 2012). 896-912.

Is Intelligence Analysis an Art or a Science? International Journal of Intelligence and
Counterintelligence. Vol. 25. No. 3. Fall 2012. 529-545.

Intelligence Studies Centers: Making Scholarship on Intelligence Analysis Useful. Intelligence and
National Security. Vol. 27. No. 3. June 2012. 398-422.

The 9/11 Terrorist Attacks: A Failure of Policy Not Strategic Intelligence Analysis.Intelligence and
National Security. Vol. 26, Nos. 2-3, April-June 2011. 182-202.

Academics and Practitioners: Competitors or Collaborators?Competitive Intelligence and Strategy. Vol.
3.Issue 5.May 2010.

National Assessment by the National Security Council Staff 196880: American Experiment in a British
Style of Analysis Intelligence & National Security 24/5 (2009) 644-673 (with Philip Davies)

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Training and Educating US Intelligence Analysts.International Journal of Intelligence and
Counterintelligence. Vol. 22.Issue 1. (Winter 2008-2009). 131-146.

Intelligence Analysis Theory: Explaining and Predicting Analytic Responsibilities. Intelligence and
National Security. 22:6 (December 2007). 821- 846.

Intelligence Analysis: Structured Methods or Intuition? American Intelligence Journal. V25.N1.
(Summer 2007). 7-16.

At Arms Length or At the Elbow?: Explaining the Distance between Analysts & Decisionmakers.
International Journal of Intelligence and CounterIntelligence. Vol. 20, No. 3.(Fall 2007). 401 414.

Modeling an Intelligence Analysis Profession on Medicine.International Journal of Intelligence and
Counterintelligence. Vol. 19.No. 4. (Winter 2006-2007). 642-665. (with Dr. Jonathan Clemente)

Improving Intelligence Analysis by Looking to the Medical Profession. International Journal of
Intelligence and Counterintelligence. Vol. 18. No. 4. (2005). 707-729. (with Dr. Jonathan Clemente)

Preventing Intelligence Failures By Learning From the Past. International Journal of Intelligence and
Counterintelligence. Vol. 17.No. 4. (Oct-Dec 2004). 655-672.

CIAs Kent School: Improving Training for New Analysts. International Journal of Intelligence and
Counterintelligence. Vol. 16. No. 4 (Winter 2003/2004). 609-637.

Other Articles, Book Reviews and Encyclopedia Entries
Intelligence Education: Towards What Ends? SRI Conference Proceedings. 2013.

Why Teach About Intelligence. Guide to the Study of Intelligence. The Intelligencer: Journal of US
Intelligence Studies. (Association of Former Intelligence Officers). Vol. 20. No. 1 (Spring/Summer
2013). 67-71.

Review of Analyzing Intelligence (Eds. George &Bruce.)International Affairs.85/1 (2009)167-168.

Intelligence Analysis: Turning a Craft Into a Profession. Proceedings of the 2005 International
Conference on Intelligence Analysis. McLean, Virginia. May 2005.

Review of Arthur S. Hulnicks Keeping Us Safe: Secret Intelligence and Homeland Security in
International Journal of Intelligence and Counterintelligence. V18. N3. (2005) 549-573.

Review: General William Odoms Fixing Intelligence: For a More Secure America (New Haven: Yale
University Press, 2003) in Political Science Quarterly. V. 119.N.2.(Summer 2004).352-353.

Homeland Security Intelligence: Just the Beginning.Journal of Homeland Security. Nov 2003.
Reprinted in: Intelligencer: Journal of U.S. Intelligence Studies. V14. N1(2004). 43-51.

Homeland Security and the Analysis of Foreign Intelligence. Markle Foundation Task Force on
National Security in the Information Age Background Paper. October 2002. Also reprinted in: The
Intelligencer: Journal of U.S. Intelligence Studies. V13. N2. (2003). 25-36.

The CIA's Kent School: A Step in the Right Direction. The Intelligencer: Journal of U.S. Intelligence
Studies. (Association of Former Intelligence Officers). V.11. No. 2.(Winter 2000).55-57.
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INVITED PAPERS/PRESENTATIONS
Intelligence Analysis in the United States: Culture and Methods. Norwegian Defence Intelligence
School. Oslo, Norway. December 2014.

How Colleges and Universities Are Meeting Law Enforcement Intelligence Education and Training
Needs. Law Enforcement Intelligence Education and Training Symposium. University of Maryland
University College, IAFIE and IALEIA. Largo, MD. March 2014.

Professionalizing Intelligence Analysis. Georgetown University Seminar. March 2014.

Enhancing the Artistry of Intelligence Analysis. Understanding and Improving Intelligence Analysis:
Learning from Other Disciplines. University of Mississippi. Oxford, MS. July 2013.

The impact of the information age on intelligence: handling the information overload. International
Training Course. Geneva Centre for Security Policy. Geneva, Switzerland. Apr 2013.

Intelligence Analysis, the Social Sciences, and History: Understanding and Explaining International
Actors and Outcomes. San Francisco, CA. 2 April 2013.

Intelligence Analysis Basic Course. European External Action Service (EEAS)/European Institute of
Public Administration. Brussels, Belgium. February 2013.

Theory, Practice and Scholarship on Intelligence Analysis: Intelligence Research at Brunel and its Impact.
ESRC Festival of Social Sciences. Battle of Britain Bunker: RAF Uxbridge, UK. Nov 2012.

Intelligence Education: Towards What End. Intelligence in the Knowledge Society. National
Intelligence Academy. Romanian Intelligence Service. Bucharest, Romania. October 2012.

Evaluating the Quality of Intelligence Analysis. Understanding and Improving Intelligence Analysis:
Learning from other Disciplines. Brunel University. London, UK. July 2012.

International Workshop on Intelligence IWI 2012: Analytic outreach: the new intelligence paradigm &
the role of academic experts. Rey Juan Carlos University Madrid, Spain. June 2012.

International Conference on Intelligence Analysis 2012: From Intelligence to Policy Making. Center for
Intelligence Studies. Turkeys National Intelligence Organization. Ankara, Turkey June 2012

Using Scholarship to Improve the Art and Science of Intelligence Analysis.MITRE Roundtable on
Analytic Methods and Practices. Tysons Corner, Virginia. April 2012.

Comparing Intelligence Analysis to Journalism. Forum on Intelligence Analysis. Brunel University.
London, UK. January 2012.

Structured Analytic Techniques: Science or Pseudo Science?Forum on Intelligence Analysis:
Structured Analytic Techniques. Brunel University. London, UK. July 2011.

Intelligence Producers, Consumers, and Politicization.25
th
International Training Course in Security
Policy. Geneva Centre for Security Policy. Geneva, Switzerland. May 2011.

The CIAs Analysis in the Post-Cold War World. Landscapes of Secrecy: The CIA in History, Fiction
& Memory. UK Arts & Humanities Research Council. Nottingham, UK. April 2011

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Evaluating the Influence of Intelligence Analysis on National Security Decision-making. American and
Canadian Studies Research Seminar. University of Birmingham. February 2011.

Evaluating the Impact of Intelligence on Decision.UK Defence Intelligence Analytical Colloquium.
London, England. December 2010.

Professionalizing Intelligence. Keynote Address. 2010 secau Security Congress sponsored by Edith
Cowan Australian University. Perth, Australia. Nov/Dec 2010.

Improving Intelligence Analysis by Understanding and Preventing Analytic Failure. Democratic
Governance of Intelligence, National & International Intelligence Cooperation, Understanding
Intelligence Failure & Intelligence Reform in Turkey. Istanbul, Turkey Sept 2010

Exploring the Value of Analogies: Finding Analytic Best Practices in Other Fields. Global Intelligence
Forum: The Dungarvan Conference. Dungarvan, Ireland. July 2010.

University Analytic Training. Workshop organized by the Committee on Behavioral and Social Science
Research to Improve Intelligence Analysis for National Security. National Academy of Sciences.
Washington DC. May 2009.

The Intelligence-Policy Interface and Iraq in Britain and the United States.Intelligence and Government
in the 21
st
Century. Brunel University (sponsored by ESRC). London, UK. March 2009.

Reconceptualizing the Relationship Between CIAs Analysis & Decisionmaking: Case of Pre-9/11
Terrorism Intelligence The CIA & US Foreign Policy University College Dublin, Ireland Feb 2009

Historical Overview of All-Source Analysis at the Conference on Learning the Lessons of All-Source
Intelligence Analysis sponsored by State Departments Bureau of Intelligence and Research and the
ODNIs I.C. Lessons Learned Center. Washington, DC. July 2008.

Intelligence Studies v. Intelligence School and Implications for IAFIE. International Association for
Intelligence Education. Naval Postgraduate School. Monterey, CA. June 2008

Surprise Attack and Intelligence Reform at the conference "In from the Cold: Richard Betts and the
Renaissance of Intelligence Studies" hosted by Williams College. April 2008.

Training US Intelligence Analysts. Intelligence Training: Best Practices and Next Practice. Swedish
National Defence College & CIAs Global Futures Forum. Stockholm, Sweden. Aug 2007.

The Challenge of Fusion. State and Local Intelligence: Challenges for Homeland Security. Naval
Postgraduate School/Center for Homeland Defense and Security. Monterey, CA. July 2007

Changes Associated with Professionalizing Intelligence. International Association for Intelligence
Education (IAFIE) Conference. McLean, VA. June 2007.

Intelligence Analysis Professionalism. Society of Competitive Intelligence Professionals Annual
Conference. NY, NY. April/May 2007. (Presentation given by Dan Mulligan)

Non-Intelligence Analytical Approaches.International Colloquium on Intelligence. Mercyhurst College.
Erie, PA. June 2006.

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Professionalizing Intelligence Analysis. INTELCON: National Intelligence Conference and Exposition.
Bethesda, MD. May 2006.

Using the Medical Analogy to Teach Intelligence. International Association for Intelligence Education
Conference. Herndon, VA. May 2006.

Making Better Communicators at conference Employing Strategic Communications in the Modern
Operational Environment. Naval War College. Providence, RI. March 2006.

Turning a Craft into a Profession. The Future of Intelligence Analysis: Challenges and Opportunities.
Swedish National Criminal Intelligence Service. Stockholm, Sweden. Feb 2006.

Speaker. Intelligence, Internal Security, and Americas Own MI5. 2005 Annual Symposium.
Association of Former Intelligence Officers (AFIO). October 2005.

Reforming Intelligence: Using Medicine as a Model. INTELCON: National Intelligence Conference
and Exposition. Arlington, VA. February 2005.

Intelligence Analysis. 2004 Intelligence Community High School Colloquium sponsored by Trinity
College of Washington DC. International Spy Museum. May 2004.

ACADEMIC GUEST LECTURES
Evaluating CIAs Analytic Performance: Reflections of a Former Analyst. Guest lecture for students on
intelligence related study abroad from Campbell University. London, UK. June 2013.

Art and Science of Intelligence Analysis. Guest Lecture for course on strategic intelligence taught by
CDR Toni Gay at the US Coast Guard Academy. New London, CT. April 2012.

Intelligence Analysis: Methods, Challenges, and Opportunities. Guest Lecture for course on
Intelligence and Security taught by Prof. Mark Phythian. University of Leicester. February 2011.

Guest lecture on careers in intelligence and national security to two courses on foreign policy taught by
Prof. Doug Macdonald. Colgate University. Hamilton, NY. April 2009.

Guest lecture to two courses on intelligence and foreign policy taught by Professor Douglas Macdonald.
Colgate University. Hamilton, NY. November 2003.



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CONFERENCE PAPERS
Intelligence Analysis Capstone Projects: The James Madison University Experience. International
Conference on Exercises, Gaming, and Simulations. Washington DC. March 2015.

Improving How to Think in Intelligence Analysis and Medicine. ISA. New Orleans. February 2015.
(with Efren Torres)

The Influence of Intelligence Analysis on American Foreign Policy. APSA. Washington DC. August
2014.

Strategic Intelligence Analysis and Policymaking in the US: Historical Perspectives. ISA. San
Francisco, CA. April 2013.

The US System of Intelligence. British International Studies Association and the International Studies
Association Joint International Conference. Edinburgh, Scotland. June 2012.

Intelligence, Policy and Politics: The Limited Role of the Expert Analyst. ISA. San Diego, CA. April
2012.

Reconceptualizing Politicization. ISA. Montreal, Canada. March 2011.

Making Intelligence Studies Theory Relevant to Practice. ISA. New Orleans, LA. Feb. 2010.

Re-Conceptualizing the Politicization of Intelligence Analysis.Annual conference of the Canadian
Association of Security and Intelligence Studies (CASIS). Ottawa, Canada. Oct 2009.

Creating a Code of Ethics for Intelligence Analysis. ISA. Chicago, IL. Feb/Mar 2007.

Speaker on Panel titled Codes of Ethics for Intelligence Professionals? International Intelligence Ethics
Association Conference. Springfield, VA. January 2007.

Intelligence Theory and Foreign Policy: Explaining and Predicting Intelligence Roles and Missions.
ISA. San Diego, CA. March 2006.

Intelligence Analysis: Turning a Craft Into a Profession. 2005 International Conference on Intelligence
Analysis. McLean, VA. May 2005.

Why Does Distance Between Intelligence and Decisionmaking Vary?: The Impact of Decisionmaking
Culture on Intelligence Analysis. 2005 International Conference on Intelligence Analysis. McLean, VA.
May 2005.

Does Means of Intelligence Delivery Matter?: The Case of Iraqi WMD Intelligence. ISA. Honolulu,
Hawaii. March 2005.

Improving Intelligence Analysis and Its Incorporation into Policymaking: Lessons from the Medical
Community ISA. Montreal. 2004.

Spying at Home: Lessons from U.S. Experiences Abroad. 2003 Counterterrorism and Civil Liberties
Conference. Central Missouri State University. March 2003.

The CIAs Kent School: A Step in the Right Direction. ISA. New Orleans, LA. March 2002.

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OTHER CONFERENCE PARTICIPATION
Chair. Historical Perspectives on Intelligence. ISA. New Orleans, LA. February 2015.

Discussant. Global Health and Intelligence. ISA. New Orleans, LA. February 2015.

Roundtable Participant: Reflections on the Intelligence Studies Section at 30. New Orleans. Feb. 2015.

Chair and Discussant. Improving Intelligence Analysts Understanding of International Actors and
Outcomes through Social Sciences and History. ISA. Toronto, Canada. March 2014.

Chair and Discussant. Improving Intelligence Analysis: Best Practices from the Social Sciences and
History. ISA. Toronto, Canada. March 2014.

Discussant. Intelligence Machinery and Organizational Culture. ISA. Toronto, Canada. March 2014.

Chair & Discussant. Building Active Learning into Intelligence Studies. ISA. San Francisco, CA. April
2013.

Discussant. Beyond Big Data: New Approaches to Social Media for Intelligence Analysis. ISA. San
Francisco, CA. April 2013.

Chair. Understanding Intelligence: From National Systems to Abstract Principles. British International
Studies Association and ISA Joint Conference. Edinburgh, Scotland. June 2012.

Discussant. Intelligence Transformation in New Democracies. ISA. San Diego, CA. April 2012.

Discussant. Beyond the Intelligence Cycle? ISA. San Diego, CA. April 2012.

Discussant. Intelligence Analysis and Decision. ISA. Montreal, Canada. March 2011.

Discussant. Intelligence and the Military. ISA. Montreal, Canada. March 2011.

Discussant.Intelligence Past and Intelligence Future. ISA. Montreal, Canada. March 2011.

Discussant. Organizing and Managing Strategic Intelligence. ISA. New Orleans, LA. Feb. 2010.

Discussant. Intelligence and Decision: The Heart of the Matter. ISA. NY, NY. February 2009.

Chair. Studying the Adversary: Terrorism, Crime, and Intelligence. ISA NY, NY. February 2009

Roundtable.Future Directions for Intelligence Studies. ISA. San Francisco, CA. March 2008.

Chair and Discussant Teaching Intelligence and Terrorism. ISA. San Francisco, CA March 2008.

Chair. Aggregating the Intelligence Studies Literature ISA. San Francisco, CA. March 2008.

Chair. Theories of Intelligence: the Next Steps. ISA. Chicago, IL. Feb/Mar 2007.

Chair, Creating Intelligence Theory: New Approaches. ISA. San Diego, CA. March 2006.

Chair. Intelligence, Internal Security, and Americas Own MI5. 2005 Annual Symposium. Association
of Former Intelligence Officers (AFIO). October 2005.
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PROFESSIONAL ACTIVITIES: Ongoing
Professor Associate (External Research Fellow). Centre for Intelligence and Security Studies. School of
Social Sciences. Brunel University. 2014-Present.

Chair, Intelligence Studies Section at International Studies Association. 2013-2016.

Associate Editor on the Editorial Board. Salus Journal. 2013-Present.

Editorial Board. Australian Institute of Professional Intelligence Officers Journal. 2009-Present.

Editorial Advisory Board. International Journal of Intelligence & Counterintelligence 2005-Present

PROFESSIONAL ACTIVITIES: Completed
Convenor for ISA Workshop. Intelligence Analysis, the Social Sciences, and History: Understanding
and Explaining International Actors and Outcomes. San Francisco, CA. April 2013.

Program Chair. Intelligence Studies Section at International Studies Association. 20082012
Each year organized 70-120 participants onto 17-20 panels for the annual conference

Guest Editor. Revisiting Intelligence and Policy: Problems with Politicization and Receptivity. Special
Issue: Intelligence and National Security. Vol.28. No. 1. 2013.

Program Committee European Conference on Intell. & Security Informatics. Athens, Greece. 2011.

Editor. ISAs Intelligence Studies Section Contribution (11 peer-reviewed articles) to the International
Studies Encyclopedia. Blackwell Publishers. 2010. (with Larry Lamanna).

Editorial Review Board. American Intelligence Journal. 2006 - 2010.

Member, Intelligence Advisory Council. American Military University. 2006 2010.

Member; Board of Directors. International Association for Intelligence Education. 2006 2009.

Subject Matter Expert. Participated in Building Strategic Concepts of the Intelligence Enterprise as an
invitee of the Office of the Director of National Intelligence. Washington, DC. January 2008.

Subject Matter Expert. Participated in State Dept organized interagency working group Project Horizon
as invitee of Office of the Director of National Intelligence. Washington DC. March 2006.

Subject Matter Expert. Participated in working group for development of intelligence training course for
the Dept of Homeland Security. National White Collar Crime Center. Charleston, SC. Jan 2006.

Subject Matter Expert. Participated in workshop on Intelligence Theory. Office of the Director of
National Intelligence/RAND. Washington DC. June 2005.

Program Committee Member. International Conference on Intelligence Analysis, sponsored by the
Assistant Director of Central Intelligence for Analysis. May 2005. McLean, VA

Referee for International Security, Security Studies, Foreign Policy Analysis, Intelligence & National
Security, International Relations, Journal of Conflict Studies, SAGE Open, Georgetown University Press,
CQ Press, Continuum Books, Routledge/Taylor&Francis, Ashgate Publishing, Asian Journal of
International Law, PBS NOVA.
Dr. Stephen Marrin

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MEDIA INTERVIEWS AND CITATIONS
Peter Monaghan. Intelligence Studies. The Chronicle of Higher Education. 20 March 2009.

Jason Vest. The Recent Past and Future of Intelligence Politicization. World Politics Review. 2 February
2009.

Richard Willing. Contractors Playing Major Role in U.S. Intelligence. USA Today 25 Apr 2007.

Profiled as National Journals top 10 experts on intelligence reform. (Gregg Sangillo and Siobhan
Gorman Smarter Intelligence: A Post-9/11 Priority. National Journal. 22 May 2004. 1572-1579.