Communication Workshop

Course Code: BBCG-101
Course Name: Business Communication

UNIVERSITY OF PETROLEUM & ENERGY STUDIES
Contents
Unit 1 Communi cati on: I t's Nature and Meani ng ........................................................ 1
Unit 2 I mportance and Purpose of Communi cati on .................................................. 11
Unit 3 Dyadi c Communi cati on ..................................................................................... 15
Unit 4 Di mensi ons and Process of Communi cati on .................................................. 37
Unit 5 Communi cati on Channel s and Networks ....................................................... 53
Unit 6 Ver bal Communi cati on ...................................................................................... 69
Unit 7 Non-ver bal Communi cati on .............................................................................. 77
Unit 8 Bar r i er s to Effecti ve Communi cati on ............................................................. 87
Unit 9 Pr esentati on Ski l l s ............................................................................................ 99
1
UMT 1 Communicotion. t's Moture ond Meoning
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Communicolion: ll's Nolure
ond Meoning
Communi cati on i s a ski l l that you can l earn. I ts l i ke ri di ng a
bi cycl e or typi ng. I f your e wi l l i ng to wor k at i t, you can
rapi dl y i mprove the qual i ty of every part of your l i fe.
-Bri an Tracy
When we speak of communi cati on as the most i mpor tant
management tool for maki ng an i mpact on i nter per sonal
r el ati onshi ps, we must under stand the essenti al el ements
of communi cati on that mak es i t so vi tal for our dai l y
functi oni ng at our workpl ace. The word communi cati on has
been der i ved fr om the l ati n wor d communi s, meani ng
common. A person wi th whom we wi sh to share an i dea wi l l
under stand what we speak and wr i te onl y when we tr y to
communi cate i t i n a way that wi l l be understood by the other
per son.
An i dea by i tsel f cannot be under stood. I t has to be coded
ei ther i n words or i n si gns and symbol s. An i dea i s al ways
abstr act or i ntangi bl e. I t has to be br ought to l i fe thr ough
our abi l i ty to express that i dea i n a concrete way. Thi s i s not
al ways an easy task. Ther e ar e many var i abl es that ar e
i nvol ved i n the act of communi cati on. Here i s what can occur
Objectives
O Understand the meaning and definition of business communication
O Know the objectives of communication
O Nature of communication
O Principles of communication
O Scope of communication
O Limitations of communication
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usiness Communicotion
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at any workpl ace between a seni or and hi s/her subordi nate:
Ms. Aml a Cher r y was busy as usual wi th her dai l y wor k
pressure of fol l owi ng up wi th her cl i ents and prepari ng the
schedul e for thei r fl i ghts abroad. The busi ness had begun to
show si gns of pr osper i ty wi th a bur geoni ng l i st of cl i ents.
Th e v ol u me of wor k pu t h er u n der th e pr es s u r e of
commi tments to al l her cl i ents. She fel t the need for hel pi ng
hand so that she coul d be rel i eved of the pressure of work
and ful fi l l commi tments to her cl i ents.
Ms. Charu Dani el was recommended because she had good
oral and wri tten communi cati on ski l l s. Thi s made Aml a happy
as i t woul d take away some of her burden of maki ng regul ar
tel ephone cal l s and wr i ti ng of l etter s and sendi ng pr ess
r el eases. One day Aml a was neck deep i n her wor k when
Charu abruptl y entered Aml as room and pl aced the papers
on the tabl e sayi ng, Thi s i s what you had asked me to wri te
and I have done i t. I s there anythi ng el se that you want me
to do? I have to l eave earl y because I have an appoi ntment to
keep.
Aml a l ooked at her i n astoni shment and kept wonderi ng what
ki nd of a person her organi zati on had empl oyed.
What i s i t that stri kes us at once about thi s i nci dent? What
does i t tel l about the nature of communi cati on, the absence
of certai n factors that make our communi cati on unpl easant
and factors that shoul d be present so that our communi cati on
i s effecti ve? Di d Charu go wrong somewhere? Why di d Aml a
l ook at Charu that way?
Communicotion ~ Meoning ond DeIinitions
Communi cati on i s the nervous system of an organi zati on. I t
keeps the members of the organi zati on i nformed about the
i nternal and external happeni ngs rel evant to a task and of
i nterest to the organi zati on. I t coordi nates the efforts of the
member s towar ds achi evi ng or gani zati onal objecti ves. I t i s
the process of i nfl uenci ng the acti on of a person or a group.
I t i s a process of meani ngful i nteracti on among human bei ngs
to i ni ti ate, execute, accompl i sh, or pr event cer tai n acti ons.
Communi cati on i s, thus the l i fe bl ood of an or gani zati on.
Wi thout Communi cati on, an organi zati on i s l i fel ess and i ts
very exi stence i s i n danger.
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DeIinitions.
1. Communi cati on i s the sum of al l thi ngs one person does
when he wants to create understandi ng i n the mi nds of
another, i t i nvol ves a systemati c and conti nuous process
of tel l i ng, l i steni ng and understandi ng. Al l en Loui s
2. Communi cati on has been defi ned as the tr ansfer of
i nformati on from one person to another whether or not
i t el i ci ts confi dence. Koontz and ODonnel l
3. Communi cati on i s an exchange of facts, i deas, opi ni ons
or emoti ons by two or more persons. George Terry
4. Communi cati on i s defi ned as the pr ocess of passi ng
i nfor mati on and under standi ng fr om one per son to
another , i t i s essenti al l y a br i dge of meani ng between
peopl e. By usi ng the br i dge of meani ng a per son can
safel y cr oss the r i ver of mi sunder standi ng. Kei th
Davi s
Moture oI Communicotion
Communi cati on i s the art of bei ng understood Peter Usti nov
Many wr i ter s hav e i denti fi ed the adv antages of good
communi cati on ski l l s. I n di fferent ways they have suggested
that good communi cati on:
Leads to per sonal effecti veness
Hel ps to networ k wi th peopl e
Hel ps to col l aborate wi th everyone at the workpl ace
I nfl uence moti vati on for enhanced per for mance
Bu i l ds better u n der s tan di n g between bos s an d
subor di nates
Cr eates better i nter per sonal r el ati ons
I ncr eases l i steni ng abi l i ty
Hel ps empl oyees to understand need for change
Cr eates better en v i r on men t for u n der s tan di n g
resi stance to change
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Furpose or Ob|ectives oI Communicotion
The fol l owi ng are the mai n objecti ves of communi cati on
i. Conveyi ng the r i ght message: The mai n object of
communi cati on i s to convey the r i ght message to the
r i ght per son, i .e., to the per son for whom i t i s meant.
The message conveyed shoul d be wel l under stood and
accepted by the r ecei ver i n the r i ght per specti ve. I n
other wor ds, i t shoul d car r y the same meani ng whi ch
has been conveyed so that i t may be transl ated i nto acti on
effecti vel y.
ii. Coordi nati on of effort: Communi cati on i s an effecti ve
tool for coor di nati ng the acti vi ti es of di ffer ent per sons
engaged i n r unni ng a busi ness. Coor di nati on wi thout
communi cati on i s a remote possi bi l i ty. The i ndi vi dual s
of groups come to know what others are doi ng and what
i s expected from them onl y through communi cati on.
iii. Good i ndustri al rel ati ons: Communi cati on devel ops
good i ndustri al rel ati ons as i t conveys the feel i ngs, i deas,
opi ni ons and vi ewpoi nts of one party to the other party.
The two parti es- the management and the subordi nates
come cl oser thr ough communi cati on. They under stand
each other and di spel any mi sunder standi ng. Thus, i t
pr omotes cooper ati on and good i ndustr i al r el ati ons.
iv. Devel opment of manageri al ski l l s: Communi cati on
hel ps manager s to under stand human behavi our at
wor k . Commu n i cati on of facts , i deas , opi n i on s
i nformati on, feel i ngs etc. add val ue to the knowl edge of
managers about vari ous happeni ngs, i n the organi zati on
and behavi our of peopl e. Thus, communi cati on i s a
pr ocess of l ear ni ng.
v. Effecti veness of pol i ci es: The organi zati on formul ates
pol i ci es and programmes to gui de the work force. These
shoul d be conveyed pr oper l y to those who ar e r eal l y
r esponsi bl e for the executi on of wor k to achi eve the
organi zati onal objecti ves. Onl y effecti ve communi cati on
can tr ansl ate the pol i ci es i nto acti on. Effecti veness of
the pol i ci es can be judged from the success whi ch surel y
depends upon an effecti ve communi cati on system.
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Ther efor e, the above objecti ves of communi cati on wi l l l ead
i n boosti ng the moral e of peopl e and thus ensure the success
of or gani zati on.
Frinciples oI Communicotion
The fol l owi ng pr i nci pl es can be fol l owed to mak e the
communi cati on system mor e effecti ve.
(1) P r i nci pl e of cl ar i ty: The i dea or mes s age to be
transmi tted shoul d be cl earl y worded so that i t may be
i nterpreted by the recei ver i n the same sense i n whi ch
i t i s communi cated. There shoul d be no ambi gui ty i n the
message. For thi s purpose, the i dea to be communi cated
shoul d be very cl ear i n the mi nd of the sender. I t shoul d
be kept i n mi nd that the words do not speak themsel ves,
but the speaker gi ves them meani ng. I f the message i s
cl ear, i t woul d evoke an appropri ate response from the
other party. I t i s al so necessary that the recei ver must
be con v er s an t wi th th e l an gu age, th e i n h er en t
assumpti ons, and the mechani cs of communi cati on.
(2) Pri nci pl e of i ntegri ty: Communi cati on shoul d be ai med
at moti vati ng peopl e to take acti on as agreed upon. I n
thi s pr ocess, the super i or s r el y upon the subor di nates
an d u n der as s u mpti on th at th ei r i n tegr i ty i s
uni mpeachabl e. I t i s because the i ntegr i ty of the
organi zati on i s rel ated to the l evel of i ntegri ty possessed
by the subor di nates. No communi cati on may evoke a
r esponse fr om the subor di nates i f thei r i ntegr i ty i s
doubted. The super i or s shoul d tr ust the subor di nates,
accept thei r vi ewpoi nts and never doubt thei r i ntenti on,
i n executi ng the task entrusted to them.
(3) P r i nci pl e of i nfor mal i ty: For mal communi cati on
system i s cor ner stone of a for mal or gani zati on, and i t
l eads to transmi ttal of messages. But, someti mes, formal
communi cati ons prove i neffecti ve i n evoki ng the needed
r esponse fr om the subor di nates. I n such cases, the
super i or s shoul d adopt the str ategy of maki ng use of
i nformal channel s of communi cati on.
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(4) Pri nci pl e of attenti on: I n order to make the message
effecti ve, the r eci pi ents attenti on shoul d be dr awn to
the message communi cated. Each one i s di ffer ent i n
behavi our , senti ments and emoti ons, whi ch deter mi ne
the degree of attenti on. For thi s purpose, the superi or
must note that he hi msel f shoul d not expect fr om hi s
subor di nates what he hi msel f does not pr acti ce. So, a
manager cannot enforce punctual i ty i f he hi msel f i s not
punctual : Acti ons speak l ouder than words.
(5) Pri nci pl e of consi stency: Thi s pri nci pl e i mpl i es that
communi cati on shoul d al ways be consi stent wi th the
pol i ci es, pl ans, pr ogr ammes and obj ecti ves of the
organi zati on. Messages whi ch are i nconsi stent wi th the
pol i ci es and pl ans of the organi zati on create confusi on
i n th e mi n ds of th e s u bor di n ates abou t th ei r
i mpl emen tati on an d, s u ch a s i tu ati on may pr ov e
detri mental to the organi zati ons heal th.
(6) Pr i nci pl e of adequacy: The i nfor mati on shoul d be
adequate and compl ete i n al l respects. I nadequate and
i ncompl ete i nfor mati on may del ay acti on and destr oy
understandi ng, and create confusi on. And, i t al so affects
the effi ci ency of the sender and the r ecei ver of the
communi cati on.
(7) P r i nci pl e of ti mel i ness: Al l messages shoul d be
tr an s mi tted at th e pr oper ti me. An y del ay i n
communi cati ng message ser ves no pur pose except to
make them mer el y hi stor i cal document as i t l oses i ts
i mpor tance after someti me.
(8) Pr i nci pl e of feedback: One of the most i mpor tant
pri nci pl es of communi cati ons i s the pri nci pl e of feedback.
The communi cator must have feedback i nformati on from
th e r eci pi en t to k n ow wh eth er th e r eci pi en t h as
understood the message i n the same sense i n whi ch the
sender has meant i t, or whether the subordi nates agree
or di sagr ee wi th the contents of the message. I t al so
hel ps i n understandi ng atti tude of the peopl e.
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(9) P r i nci pl e of communi cati ons networ k:
Communi cati ons networ k means the r outes thr ough
whi ch the communi cati on travel s to i ts desti nati on, i .e.,
the per son for whom i t i s meant. A number of such
networks may exi st i n an organi zati on at a gi ven poi nt
of ti me; but the management shoul d consi der the
effecti veness of the communi cati ons networ k i n the
gi ven si tuati on, and i ts effects on the behavi our of the
reci pi ent before i t fi nal l y chooses the network.
Th e abov e pr i n ci pl es , i f fol l owed, wi l l mak e th e
commu n i cati on effecti v e. An effecti v e s y s tem of
communi cati on shoul d be i nstal l ed i n the organi zati on so as
to pr omote better i ndustr i al r el ati ons.
Scope oI Communicotion
The scope of communi cati on i ncl udes:
(1) I nfor mati on shar i ng: Th e mai n i n for mati on of
communi cati on i s to transmi t i nformati on from a source
to tar get i n di v i du al s or gr ou ps . Var i ou s ty pes of
i nformati on are transmi tted i n the organi zati on: Pol i ci es
an d r u l es , an d ch an ges an d dev el opmen t i n th e
organi zati on etc. There may be need for fast di ffusi on of
some i nfor mati on i n the or gani zati on, e.g., speci al
rewards and awards gi ven, settl ements wi th the uni on,
and major changes i n the organi zati on.
(2) Feedback: Ther e i s a need to gi ve feedback to the
empl oyees on thei r achi evements, to the depar tments
on thei r per for mance, and to the hi gher management
on the ful fi l l ment of goal s and, di ffi cul ti es encountered
i n the communi cati on of feedback hel ps i n tak i ng
correcti ve measures and maki ng necessary adjustments,
and i t moti vates peopl e i n devel opi ng chal l engi ng and
r eal i sti c pl ans.
(3) Control : The management i nformati on system i s wel l -
k nown as a contr ol mechani s m. I nfor mati on i s
transmi tted to ensure that pl ans are bei ng carri ed out
accordi ng to the ori gi nal desi gn. Communi cati on hel ps
i n ensuri ng such control .
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(4) I nfl uence: I nfor mati on i s power . One pur pose of
communi cati on i s to i nfl uence peopl e. The manager
communi cates to cr eate a good wor ki ng envi r onment,
ri ght atti tudes, and congeni al worki ng rel ati onshi ps. Al l
these are exampl es of i nfl uenci ng.
(5) Probl em sol vi ng: I n many cases communi cati ons ai m
at sol vi ng pr obl ems. Communi cati on between the
management and the uni ons on some i ssues (negoti ati on)
i s ai med at fi ndi ng a sol uti on. Many group meeti ngs are
hel d to brai nstorm al ternati ve sol uti ons for a probl em
and to evol ve a consensus.
(6) Deci si on-maki ng: For ar r i vi ng at a deci si on sever al
ki nds of communi cati on ar e needed, e.g., exchange of
i nfor mati on, vi ews, and avai l abl e al ter nati ves etc.,
communi cati on hel ps a great deal i n deci si on-maki ng.
(7) Faci l i tati ng change: The effecti veness of a change
i ntroduced i n an organi zati on depends to a l arge extent
on the cl ar i ty and spontanei ty of the communi cati on.
Communi cati on between the member s and empl oyees
hel ps i n r ecogni zi ng the di ffi cul ti es i n the pl anned
change, and i n taki ng correcti ve acti on.
(8) Gr oup bui l di ng: Communi cati on hel ps i n bui l di ng
rel ati onshi ps. I f communi cati on breaks down the group
may di s i n tegr ate. Commu n i cati on pr ov i des th e
necessar y l ubr i cati on for the pr oper functi oni ng of a
gr oup.
(9) Gate keepi ng: Communi cati on hel ps to bui l d l i nkages
of th e or gan i zati on wi th th e ou ts i de wor l d. Th e
or gani zati on can use i ts envi r onment to i ncr ease i ts
effecti veness.
Limitotions oI Communicotion
The di stor ti on of communi cati on i s i ts mai n l i mi tati on. I t
may have the fol l owi ng consequences:
i . The message recei ved i s not very cl ose to the message
sent.
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i i . The act of communi cati on i nvol ves an i mpl i ci t encodi ng
of the message.
i i i . The non-ver bal messages ar e not congr uent wi th the
verbal message.
i v. The message may not resul t i n the desi red response.
v. The communi cati on can at ti mes cr eate confusi on,
di sbel i ef, and confl i cts between the sour ce and the
tar get.
vi . Communi cati on at ti mes i s costl y and can be del ayed.
Summory
I n thi s uni t we have br i efl y cover ed the fundamental
concepts of communi cati ons. These i ncl ude the defi ni ti on,
pu r pos e an d obj ecti v es , pr i n ci pl es an d s cope of
commu n i cati on . Th i s u n i t al s o cov er s th e ex ten t an d
l i mi tati ons of communi cati on.
keview Questions
1. What are the objecti ves of communi cati on?
2. Di scuss the pri nci pl es of communi cati on.
3. El aborate on the scope of communi cati on.
4. What are the l i mi tati ons of communi cati on?
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UMT 2 mportonce ond Furpose oI Communicotion
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lmporlonce ond Purpose ol
Communicolion
ntroduction
Communi cati on i s a necessary condi ti on of human exi stence
and soci al organi zati on. But the i mportance of communi cati on
i n busi ness or gani zati on came to be r eal i zed qui te l ate.
Tradi ti onal l y i t was regarded as a taken-for-granted affai r.
However, over the l ast hal f century or so seri ous studi es and
experi ments have shown that every organi zati on i n a soci ety
i n whi ch there are peopl e operati ng at di fferent l evel s they
have thei r mul ti pl e di ffer ences, appr oaches, opi ni ons and
constr ai nts. I n or der to achi eve common goal s pr oper
i nteracti on between and amongst them i s, therefore, a must.
Foctors kesponsible Ior mportonce oI
Communicotion
At thi s poi nt i t becomes obl i gator y to i denti fy the factor s
responsi bl e for the growi ng i mportance of communi cati on.
(a) Large si ze of organi zati ons: We are l i vi ng i n the era
of mega organi zati ons. Modern organi zati ons are i ndeed
stupendous i n si ze as compar ed to the enter pr i ses of
yester year s. Many of them have thousands of peopl e
wor ki ng together i n one uni t or l i kewi se i n di ffer ent
uni ts spr ead i n di ffer ent states or acr oss the gl obe.
Mor eover , i t i s i n the ver y natur e of an enter pr i se to
Objectives
O Factors responsible for the Importance of Communication
O Purpose of Internal Communication
O Purpose of External Communication
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grow i n si ze wi th the passage of ti me. The resul t i s that,
i n many organi zati ons, the l evel s of hi erarchy have gone
up. General l y, there are three to fi ve l evel s of hi erarchy.
But i n many cases there are thi rteen to fi fteen l evel s. I t
i s i ndeed a di ffi cul t task to manage a jugger naut l i ke
such a huge or gani zati on. Communi cati on i s of vi tal
i mportance i n di recti ng peopl e, getti ng feedback and so
on.
(b) Gr owth of tr ade uni ons: Associ ati ons or uni ons of
wor ker s, speci al l y after the Wor l d War -I , have been
emer gi ng as a for ce to r eck on wi th. No system of
management can wor k effi ci entl y wi thout taki ng the
workers uni ons i nto confi dence. The managers have to
negoti ate wi th the representati ves of the empl oyees on
var i ous i ssues affecti ng the empl oyment condi ti ons
prevai l i ng i n the organi zati on. I t was not consi dered so
ver y i mpor tant i n the past. But i n moder n ti mes no
organi zati on can work sati sfactori l y wi thout the mutual
under standi ng and co-oper ati on between management
and trade uni ons. I n thi s regard communi cati on pl ays
the most vi tal rol e.
(c) The human rel ati ons aspect: Si nce 1930s i t has been
i ncreasi ngl y recogni zed that the managements sol e ai m
i s to i ntegrate peopl e i n order to encourage them so that
they ar e i n a posi ti on to per for m to the best of thei r
capaci ty. Thi s i s essenti al l y a soci al process. No need to
say that i t i s di ffi cul t to get work out of peopl e unl ess
they are treated humanel y. I t has been wi del y recogni zed
an d accepted th at h u man r el ati on wi th i n an y
or gani zati on have now changed fr om master -ser vant
r el ati onshi p to par tner shi p r el ati onshi ps. Wor ker s ar e
not machi nes. They ar e vi br ant l i vi ng per sons havi ng
thei r i ndi vi dual as wel l as col l ecti ve needs, feel i ngs and
aspi r ati ons.
(d) Publ i c r el ati ons aspect: Or gani zati ons ser ve the
soci ety at l arge i n vari ous fi el ds and aspects. Hence the
i mportance of communi cati on between them. Li ke many
oth er as pects of man agemen t, th e i dea of s oci al
responsi bi l i ty of busi ness got currency very recentl y and
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UMT 2 mportonce ond Furpose oI Communicotion
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the manager s came to be hel d r esponsi bl e to var i ous
secti ons of soci ety, speci al l y the customers, government,
suppl i ers and publ i c. Communi cati on between them and
the or gani zati on i s necessar y for putti ng the pr oper
i mage of the whol e busi ness i n perspecti ve.
(e) Technol ogi cal advancement: As has been repeatedl y
observed and stated, the worl d i s changi ng fast owi ng
to sci enti fi c and technol ogi cal advancement. Often i t
l eads to pr obl ems as subor di nates r esent or suppor t
these changes. Thi s affects the r el ati onshi p between
super i or s and subor di nates ver y vi tal l y. I f ther e i s no
pr oper communi cati on between the two, the wor k
suffer s and compl ai nts and di sputes may cr op up.
Technol ogy affects not onl y the methods of worki ng but
al so the composi ti on of gr oups. Such changes di sr upt
the i nter -r el ati onshi ps and pose a chal l enge to the
management to educate the subor di nates so that they
may smoothl y adapt to the dynami c char acter of the
or gani zati on.
Furpose oI nternol Communicotion
Taki ng al l these factor s i nto account we r eal i ze that no
organi zati on can functi on sati sfactori l y or achi eve i ts goal s
wi th ou t effecti v e commu n i cati on th at oper ates both
i nter nal l y and exter nal l y. I nter nal l y i t i s i mpor tant as i t
i ntegrates the manageri al functi ons. The most i mportant of
these functi ons are:
i . Establ i shi ng and di ssemi nati on of the goal s of an
enter pr i se;
i i . Devel opi ng pl ans for thei r achi evement;
i i i . Or gani zi ng human and other r esour ces i n the most
effecti ve and effi ci ent way;
i v. Sel ecti ng, devel opi ng and appr ai si ng member s of the
or gani zati on;
v. Leadi ng, di r ecti ng, moti vati ng and cr eati ng a cl i mate
i n whi ch peopl e want to contri bute thei r best, and
vi . Contr ol l i ng per for mance.
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Furpose oI Externol Communicotion
Exter nal l y, communi cati on r el ates an enter pr i se to the
envi ronment outsi de. I t i s through i nformati on exchange that
managers become aware of the needs of the customers, the
avai l abi l i ty of suppl i er s, the cl ai ms of stock-hol der s, the
regul ati on of governments, and the concerns of a communi ty.
I t i s through communi cati on that any organi zati on becomes
an open system i nter acti ng wi th i ts envi r onment and
responds to i t frui tful l y, purposeful l y and desi rabl y. Just to
take an exampl e, i t cannot be forgotten that the customer,
who i s the most i mpor tant enti ty for al l busi ness, exi sts
outsi de a company. I t i s through the communi cati on system
th at th e n eeds of th e cu s tomer s ar e i den ti fi ed. Th e
knowl edge of hi s needs enabl es the company to pr ovi de
pr oducts and ser vi ces pr ofi tabl y. I n the same way, i t i s
thr ough effecti ve communi cati on that the or gani zati on
becomes awar e of competi ti on and other potenti al thr eats
and constrai ni ng factors.
Key Foints
i . Ever y or gani zati on i s a soci ety compr i si ng di ffer ent
ki nds of peopl e.
i i . Communi cati on i s a necessar y par t of the pr ocess of
change.
i i i . Gr owi ng si ze of or gani zati ons, tr ade uni ons, human
r el ati ons wi thi n the or gani zati on, contact wi th publ i c,
tech n ol ogi cal adv an cemen t ar e th e mai n factor s
r es pon s i bl e for th e gr owi n g i mpor tan ce of
communi cati on.
i v. Communi cati on i s of vi tal i mportance to the organi zati on
both i nternal l y and external l y.
keview Questions
1. What are the factors that are responsi bl e for i mportance of
communi cati on?
2. Wri te a short note on I nternal Communi cati on.
3. El aborate on External Communi cati on.
15
UMT 3 Dyodic Communicotion
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7EJ !
Dyodic Communicolion
ntroduction
The ter m dyadi c communi cati on, i n gener al , r efer s to an
i nter acti on between two per sons. Even i f mor e than two
per s on s ar e pr es en t i n a s i tu ati on , i t i s on l y two
communi cator s that pl ay a fundamental r ol e. Basi cal l y
therefore i t i s a person-to-person transacti on and one of the
commonest form of speech communi cati on. I t provi des i deal
condi ti ons for cl ose-range conti nuous feedback. The meani ng
exchanged between the sender and the r ecei ver i s mar ked
by hi gh fi del i ty. There i s frequent change i n the rol e of the
par ti ci pan ts an d body l an gu age acqu i r es a gr eater
si gni fi cance. Thi s i s so because the mi nutest r eacti ons ar e
mutual l y obser vabl e.
The for mal dy adi c communi cati on wi th whi ch we ar e
concer ned demands ar ti str y that can be acqui r ed thr ough
practi ce. Dyadi c communi cati on may take a number of forms
but we shal l di scuss onl y the fol l owi ng fi ve: face-to-face
conversati on, tel ephoni c conversati on, i ntervi ew, i nstructi on
and di ctati on.
Foce to Foce Conversotion
Con v er s ati on i s th e mos t common for m of dy adi c
communi cati on. I t l i nks peopl e together , be i t i n soci al or
Objectives
O Face to Face Conversation
O Telephonic Conversation
O Interviews
O Instruction
O Dictation
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pr ofessi onal l i fe. Conver sati on may be defi ned as or al and
usual l y i nformal or fri endl y exchange of vi ews, i deas, etc. I n
a conver sati on the par ti ci pant has to pl ay the r ol e of a
speaker or a l i stener i nter changeabl y. Ver y often we for m
an i mpressi on about an i ndi vi dual from the way he tal ks and
the topi c(s) on whi ch he converses.
Most of us fi nd i t easy to converse wi th our fri ends, rel ati ves
an d col l eagu es wh om we l i k e an d tr u s t. Th at i s wh y
conversati on rarel y fi nds a pl ace i n a programme of formal
i n s tr u cti on . Si n ce ev er y pr ofes s i on al i s r equ i r ed to
parti ci pate i n thi s form of dyadi c communi cati on l et us bri efl y
l ook at some of the i mpor tant poi nts to be bor ne i n mi nd.
However, the rul e that the best practi ce for conversati on i s
conver sati on i tsel f/sti l l hol ds tr ue.
I t i s useful fi rst to anal yze your own conversati on habi ts and
then try to change them for greater effecti veness. Ask yoursel f
questi ons such as the fol l owi ng for sel f-anal ysi s:
(i ) Do I fi nd i t di ffi cul t to start a conversati on?
(i i ) Am I unabl e to pi ck a topi c?
(i i i ) Am I unabl e to keep the conversati on fl owi ng smoothl y?
(i v) Do I al ways agree wi th what others say or di sagree wi th
them al l the ti me?
(v) Do I fr equentl y tal k about mysel f, my fami l y and my
i nter ests?
(vi ) Do I have a tendency to domi nate ever y conver sati on
si tuati on?
(vi i ) Do I gi ve the other parti ci pants a chance to speak?
(vi i i ) Have I any manneri sms l i kel y to annoy peopl e?
(i x) Do I respect other peopl es ti me and i nterests?
(x) Am I sel f-consci ous about the l anguage I use - grammar,
pr onunci ati on, ar ti cul ati on, etc.?
The answers that you get woul d prove useful both for formal
and i nformal conversati on. Now we gi ve bel ow a few hel pful
hi nts.
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HelpIul Hints
The conversati on shoul d be of i nterest to the parti ci pant
and may begi n wi th a topi c i n whi ch both of you have
some i nter est. As i t fl ows i nto new channel s adjust
your sel f to the comments and new poi nts of vi ew.
Occasi onal l y ther e woul d be spel l s of si l ence. These
need not bother you because often dur i ng these spel l s
new thoughts are generated.
Be al ert to the atti tudes that others may have and dont
be sur pr i sed when you r eal i ze that the atti tudes ar e
l i kel y to change.
Occasi onal l y, cal l the person by name and l ook at hi m
whi l e speaki ng. I f you speak the name al oud you woul d
be generati ng a more fri endl y feel i ng. To cap i t al l , take
care of your l anguage and oral demeanor.
Be al ways cour teous and cheer ful . Feel i nter ested i n
what i s bei ng sai d.
Bei ng dogmati c and ar gumentati ve may spoi l your
conversati on, but i t i s useful to have a poi nt of vi ew.
Avoi d pet and superfl uous words and phrases.
Often we devel op a fancy for a par ti cul ar expr essi on. An
anal ysi s of your own speech may reveal that you have a fad
for certai n words or phrases (e.g. ti me frame, al l ergi c, etc.).
Avoi d usi ng them fr equentl y i n conver sati on. Si mi l ar l y,
expr essi ons that smack of affectati on and exagger ati on
shoul d be shunned. The smooth fl ow of conversati on i s l i kel y
to be hampered i f you del i beratel y use forei gn words or use
hi gh-fl own vocabul ary to i mpress the l i stener. An overuse of
words such as very l ovel y, wonderful , and excel l ent may
al s o mar th e pl eas an t i n for mal atmos ph er e i n wh i ch
conversati on ought to take pl ace.
Telephonic Conversotion
One form of dyadi c conversati on i s i nteracti on between two
persons on the tel ephone. I n thi s form the advantage of usi ng
body l anguage and eye-contact i s l ost. But i t i s one of the
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commonest and fastest ways of contacti ng per sons. I t i s
si mpl e, handy, and i n the l ong r un economi cal . I t has
th er efor e been ter med as a pr i cel es s mean s of
communi cati on.
Here are a few gui del i nes for tel ephoni c conversati on:
Cul ti vate a cheerful and fri endl y tone.
Modul ate your voi ce.
Never sound hurri ed, fl ustered or i mpati ent.
Enunci ate your words cl earl y.
Do not use sl ang.
Speak di sti nctl y. I f you use a word whi ch i s l i kel y to be
mi sunder stood, spel l i t out.
Li sten attenti vel y to the cal l er. I f the message i s l ong,
keep reassuri ng that you are l i steni ng by speaki ng words
such as Yes, OK, Yea, etc.
Be courteous i n al l ci rcumstances.
Dont engage your tel ephone l onger than necessary.
Bear the fol l owi ng poi nts i n mi nd when you recei ve a cal l or
make a cal l .
keceiving Colls
Li ft the r ecei ver pr omptl y.
Reveal your i denti ty, e.g. Ram Gopal , Chi ef Accountant.
Hol d the mouthpi ece pr oper l y.
I f you do not know who the cal l er i s, obtai n hi s name
and desi gnati on.
Even i f the cal l er i s annoyed keep yoursel f cool .
Gi ve the r equi r ed i nfor mati on accur atel y. I f i t i s not
r eadi l y avai l abl e pr omi se to r i ng back and of cour se,
keep your pr omi se.
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I f a wrong number cal l comes to you do not abuse the
cal l er or sl am down the recei ver.
Keep a jot pad and a penci l handy to note messages, i f
any.
Keep your tel ephone on your l eft hand si de so that the
ri ght hand i s free to wri te.
Take the message ful l y and correctl y.
Moking Colls
Hav e a per s on al tel eph on e di r ector y l i s ti n g th e
tel ephone numbers whi ch you have often to use.
I f you ar e maki ng a cal l for somebody el se, fol l ow hi s
i nstr ucti ons.
Have al l the materi al ready before you di al the number.
I t i s bad manners to keep somebody on the l i ne whi l e
you rummage through your fi l es.
I f you have to say a number of thi ngs, al ert the l i stener
by sayi ng somethi ng l i ke thi s: I want your opi ni on on
two poi nts. One, two. . . .
I f you wi sh to l eave a message say so and gi ve a few
seconds to the recei ver to get ready. Let your message
be cl ear and accurate.
I f i t i s i mportant, you may repeat i t.
However ami abl e you may be, there are l i kel y to be persons
i n your or gani zati on wi th whom you may not l i ke to have
any face-to-face i nteracti on. Unl ess ci rcumstances force you,
you can use the tel ephone as a tool of contact. Si mi l arl y, i f
you fi nd that an offi cer i s busy i nteracti ng wi th others very
often or for l ong peri ods and you have an urgent busi ness to
tr ansact wi th hi m, tel ephone i s the answer . Of cour se you
woul d have to deci de i n i ndi vi dual cases and si tuati ons when
to use the tel ephone and when not to use i t.
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nterviews
The word i ntervi ew i s deri ved from intrevue meani ng si ght
between. I t i s a meeti ng between two persons wi th a speci fi c
purpose. I t may be defi ned as any purposeful i nter-personal
commu n i cati on between two i n di v i du al s . I n ter ms of
structure and format i ntervi ewi ng i s therefore a more formal
for m of dyadi c communi cati on. However , an i nter vi ew
s i tu ati on may con s i s t of on e i n ter v i ewee an d s ev er al
i nter vi ewer s and vice versa. Her e we shal l di scuss dyadi c
i nter vi ews but many of the poi nts wi l l be appl i cabl e to al l
i nter vi ew si tuati ons.
An i nter vi ew demands di r ect and dynami c i nter acti on. By
i ts ver y natur e the pr ocess i nvol ves an assessment of one
par ti ci pant by another . Someti mes one of the par ti ci pants
r epr esents an or gani zati on or a gr oup wher eas the other
parti ci pates i n hi s i ndi vi dual capaci ty.
One of the purposes of the i ntervi ew i s to el i ci t i nformati on
whi ch i s not avai l abl e fr om the wr i tten r ecor ds or other
sour ces.
There are vari ous types of i ntervi ews rangi ng from the one
conducted by a journal i st for newspaper reporti ng to that by
a psychi atri st wi th a pati ent. The purpose defi nes the type
of i nter vi ews. The i nter vi ew br oadcast and tel ecast on the
radi o and tel evi si on i s general l y to seek an experts opi ni on
on i ssues of cur r ent i nter est to peopl e or to educate the
publ i c on a matter of gener al i mpor tance. Such i nter vi ews
have the sembl ance of pri vacy but we al l know that they are
meant for publ i c consumpti on. Si mi l ar i s the case wi th a
journal i sti c i ntervi ew, onl y that i t i s made publ i c after a ti me-
l ag. Then there are si tuati ons where i ntervi ew takes the form
of a ser i es of pr obi ng questi ons wi th a vi ew to di scover i ng
the truth, for exampl e, the ki nd of i nterrogati on that i s done
by the pol i ce. Another type of i ntervi ew termed counsel i ng
i ntervi ew i s conducted to provi de gui dance and psychol ogi cal
support to the i ntervi ewee. I t may be done by an educati onal
psychol ogi st or a tr ai ned counsel or , the pur pose bei ng to
bri ng back the mi nd of the i ntervi ewee to a state of normal cy
or to hel p hi m steer through a peri od of emoti onal cri si s. I n
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l arge professi onal organi zati ons and educati onal i nsti tuti ons
provi si on may exi st for the conduct of such i ntervi ews.
Her e we ar e i n ter es ted i n th e fol l owi n g two ty pes of
i ntervi ew: (i ) empl oyment i ntervi ew and (i i ) data col l ecti on
i ntervi ew. These are the types of i ntervi ew i n whi ch you wi l l
have to parti ci pate i n your professi onal l i fe. Cl osel y rel ated
wi th the fi rst type of i ntervi ew are promoti on i ntervi ew and
annual i nter vi ew. The ter m empl oyment i nter vi ew r efer s
to the i nter vi ew of a candi date for a job i n a par ti cul ar
organi zati on. Promoti on i ntervi ew and annual i ntervi ew are
conducted i n r espect of the empl oyees who ar e al r eady i n
s er v i ce. Th e for mer i s ar r an ged wh en a pr opos al for
promoti on of an empl oyee i s under consi derati on. The l atter
i s a routi ne annual feature; i ts purpose i s to assess through
personal i nteracti on, the contri buti on and progress made by
an empl oyee duri ng the year under revi ew. But both these
types of i nter vi ew ar e not common i n I ndi a. We shal l
ther efor e di scuss onl y the empl oyment i nter vi ew i n some
detai l . I t i s cl ear that sever al fundamental poi nts i n thi s
di scussi on ar e r el evant for not onl y pr omoti on and annual
i ntervi ews but al so for data col l ecti on i ntervi ew. Obvi ousl y
the di scussi on of any empl oyment i nter vi ew i s fr om the
vi ewpoi nt of the i ntervi ewee, whereas that of data col l ecti on
i n ter v i ew i s fr om th e v i ewpoi n t of th e i n ter v i ewer .
Nonethel ess, i n both cases the other parti ci pants woul d fi nd
suffi ci ent val uabl e i nformati on.
Employment nterview
The mai n purpose of the empl oyer i s to judge the sui tabi l i ty
of the appl i cant to the job and that of the appl i cant, to fi nd
out whether the needs and r equi r ements of the job woul d
s u i t h i m an d al s o wh eth er , th e en v i r on men t i n th e
organi zati on woul d be conduci ve to hi s professi onal growth.
Cl ear l y, thi s for m of dyadi c communi cati on pr ovi des an
opportuni ty to both the parti ci pants for i ntense i nteracti on
and cl ose obser vati on of each other s per sonal i ty tr ai ts as
refl ected i n verbal behavi our and body l anguage. As we are
aware, the empl oyment i ntervi ew takes pl ace when on the
face of i t there i s a case for the acceptance of the appl i cants
ser vi ces. The empl oyer knows ful l y wel l the basi c detai l s
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abou t th e car eer of th e appl i can t h i s edu cati on al
background, hi s other i nterests, hi s experi ence, soci al status,
etc. I n the case of experi enced empl oyees he al so knows the
assessment of the appl i cants earl i er empl oyer(s). What then
i s the i ntervi ew for?
A prospecti ve empl oyers mai n ai m i s to judge your sense of
val ues, your atti tude towards work. He wants to get a feel of
your respect for fai r pl ay and sense of justi ce and honesty i n
the di schar ge of duti es. I n fact, whi l e conducti ng the
i n ter v i ew h e l ook s for s i gn s of th es e tr ai ts i n y ou r
per sonal i ty. Ever y empl oyer , no wonder , wants peopl e
ar ound who possess posi ti ve per sonal qual i ti es and ar e
dependabl e. The qual i fi cati ons and the ki nd of educati onal
background the i ntervi ewee has do not gi ve an adequate i dea
of these i mpor tant r equi r ements.
Pl anni ng the i nter vi ew, whatever be i ts type, demands
adequate and careful pri or preparati on. How shoul d one pl an
to appear i n an i ntervi ew of thi s sort? Surel y each appl i cant
wants to be successful , to be offered the job even i f he may
ul ti matel y deci de not to accept i t. Fai l ur e i n an i nter vi ew
certai nl y i njures the ego of a person temporari l y. You shoul d
therefore pay cl ose attenti on to the fol l owi ng, i f you wi sh to
achi eve success.
I t has been ri ghtl y sai d that apparel often procl ai ms the man;
certai nl y so i n the case of an i ntervi ew. Physi cal appearance
cr eates the fi r st i mpr essi on and tel l s somethi ng about the
personal i ty of the i ndi vi dual ... Cl eanl i ness and neatness are
the fi rst requi rements for a smart turn out. Whi l e goi ng for
an i ntervi ew spend a few mi nutes and take a cri ti cal l ook at
your appear ance: the cl othes that you wear , the hai r -styl e
and the footwear. Harmony and sobri ety shoul d mark your
atti re. You shoul d never put on somethi ng i n whi ch you feel
uncomfor tabl e because i t may l ead to i nconveni ence and
oddi ti es i n your behavi our whi l e you are bei ng assessed for
the job. Loud col ors, and other such ornamentati ons are l i kel y
to di str act the attenti on of the i nter vi ewer fr om your
countenance whi ch pl ays a defi ni te rol e i n an i nteracti on of
thi s ki nd. Your ai m shoul d be to use your physi cal appearance
to create the fi rst ri ght i mpressi on on the i ntervi ewer.
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Pl easi ng physi cal appear ance shoul d be accompani ed by
pr oper depor tment and the r i ght poi se. How you car r y
yoursel f, how you wal k and si t, how you make an exi t - al l
these ar e i mpor tant. Good depor tment and good manner s
together generate a proper atmosphere and put you at ease.
Be obser vant and tr y to i mbi be these qual i ti es fr om the
peopl e who possess a hi gh degree of soci al charm and poi se.
Nothi ng shoul d appear to be arti fi ci al , i ni ti ati ve and odd i n
your demeanor. You shoul d appear to be your natural sel f.
These qual i ti es wi l l hel p you i n maki ng a mark not onl y at
the empl oyment i ntervi ew but throughout your career.
Take care that you do not i ndul ge i n certai n manneri sms i n
your speech or behavi our. Expressi ons l i ke err, you know
Oh my God, Wel l , etc. shoul d be avoi ded. Si mi l ar l y, do
not use sl ang and hi ghl y col l oqui al l anguage or uncommon
abbrevi ati ons. The tone shoul d be fri endl y but not i nti mate.
Check careful l y that you are not i n the habi t of maki ng odd
gestur es whi l e tal ki ng. Pl ayi ng wi th the hai r or wi th the
buttons of your bush shi rt, or the keys i n your hand creates a
bad i mpressi on. Si mi l arl y, fi xi ng your gaze on the i ntervi ewer
or a pai nti ng or other objects i n the room i s al so consi dered
as bad manners.
Li steni ng i s an art whi ch hel ps as much at the i ntervi ew as
i n soci al si tuati ons. I f you mai ntai n a stony si l ence when the
i ntervi ewer i s speaki ng, he may feel uneasy. I t i s therefore
necessary to gi ve si gnal s that you are l i steni ng to hi m. Your
r esponse may take the for m of a nod or a smi l e or even
someti mes whi speri ng approval s, such as hmm, yes, etc.
You shoul d not i nter r upt the i nter vi ewer . Wai t ti l l he has
fi ni shed, howsoever i mpati ent you may be to react to what
he i s sayi ng.
Cul ti vate your speech. The best way to do so i s to tape-record
i t and l i sten to i t cri ti cal l y. Anal yses your speech to fi nd out
whether you speak cl earl y, or you eat your syl l abl es and sl ur
ov er y ou r wor ds . Does y ou r s peech s ou n d du l l an d
monotonous or l i vel y and ani mated?
I s the pi tch of your voi ce too hi gh or too l ow? Do you stress
the ri ght syl l abl e and use the appropri ate i ntonati on? Sati sfy
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your sel f that your speech i s cl ear , has pr oper r hythm and
sounds pl easant. Dai l y pr acti ce can cer tai nl y enhance the
qual i ty of your speech. Shakespear es r emar k, Mend your
speech a l i ttl e, l est i t shoul d mar your for tune hol ds good
even today. Proper speech wi l l hel p you not merel y i n getti ng
the job but al so i n movi ng up on the l adder of your career.
More i mportant than al l these i s what you say. Are you cl ear
i n your thoughts? Can you express them i n pl ai n l anguage?
Do you understand your poi nt of vi ew on current i ssues i n
unmi stakabl e terms? Do you have a phi l osophy of your own
(a set of opi ni ons) whi ch you can put befor e other s wi th
convi cti on supported by val i d arguments? Have you acqui red
the habi t of cool l y argui ng your case? Do you feel crestfal l en
when your poi nt of vi ew i s not accepted? These are some of
the questi ons whose answers are obvi ous and you must have
been made awar e of them i n the cour se of your educati on.
What i s requi red i s that at the ti me of i ntervi ew you refresh
your memor y.
Avoi d al ways gi vi ng uncompl i mentar y r efer ences of your
for mer empl oy er s or oth er as s oci ates an d mak i n g
unchari tabl e remarks about them.
Types of I ntervi ew Questi ons
There i s a great di versi ty i n the types of questi ons that may
be asked at an i nter vi ew. You shoul d tr y to anti ci pate the
type of questi ons l i kel y to be asked. Partl y the type wi l l be
deter mi ned by the si tuati on and the speci fi c pur pose that
the i ntervi ewer has i n mi nd. I n general , the questi ons wi l l
be based on what you have stated i n your bi odata and your
reacti on to the organi zati ons vi sual i zati on of your rol e i n i t.
We may cl assi fy the questi ons i nto the fol l owi ng categori es:
di r ect questi ons, open-ended questi ons, cl osed questi ons,
bi pol ar questi ons, l oaded questi ons.
Di rect questi ons, gener al l y used at the i ni ti al stage, ar e
expl i ci t, demandi ng speci fi c i nformati on: Whats your name?
How ol d are you? I n whi ch company di d you work l ast? etc.
Open-ended questi ons ar e not so str ai ght; onl y the topi c
on whi ch i nfor mati on i s r equi r ed i s speci fi ed and the
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i ntervi ewee i s asked to el aborate: What i s your educati onal
backgr ound? How di d you fi nd your exper i ence of wor ki ng
on thi s pl ant i n ABC company? etc.
Cl osed questi ons demand r esponses fr om a l i mi ted and
narrow area. Often these questi ons provi de al ternati ves from
whi ch the response i s sel ected. An extreme form of the cl osed
questi on i s the one whi ch demands Yes or No r esponse.
Thi s i s al so cal l ed a bi pol ar questi on. A few exampl es are
as fol l ows: I f sel ected, woul d you be abl e to joi n next month?
Woul d you l i ke to be posted i n Bombay or Cal cutta? We are
prepared to offer thi s job to you on a contract of three years;
i s i t acceptabl e to you?
Loaded questi ons general l y demand a response whi ch the
i nter vi ewer expects. They ar e suggesti ve i n natur e and
encour age the i nter vi ewee to agr ee wi th the i nter vi ewer .
Someti mes these may be used as a trap to di scover whether
the i ntervi ewee i s cl ear i n hi s mi nd about what he i s i n for.
I deal l y, as a gener al r ul e, l oaded questi ons shoul d not be
used by the i nter vi ewer . However , as an i nter vi ewee, you
shoul d be prepared to face any type of questi ons.
The cor e of the body of the i nter vi ew i s the set of var i ous
types of questi ons di scussed above. Apar t fr om these, i n a
structured i ntervi ew, there are prel i mi nary questi ons whi ch
set the tone for the i ntervi ew and establ i sh rapport between
the i nter vi ewer and the i nter vi ewee. Si mi l ar l y, at the end
there are a few questi ons to si gnal the end of the i ntervi ew.
The i ntervi ewer ai ms at hel pi ng the i ntervi ewee to compl ete
the expressi on of hi s thoughts and to cl ari fy hi s stand before
the i nter vi ew ends.
I t i s di ffi cul t to vi sual i ze the questi ons that may be asked at
an i ntervi ew. However, we gi ve bel ow a sampl e of questi ons
that coul d be asked at an empl oyment i ntervi ew.
Educotionol ockground
(i ) Gi ve a bri ef resume of your educati onal career.
(i i ) Why di d you deci de to study Economi cs i n your M.A.?
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(i i i ) Have you studi ed some books i n thi s fi el d other than
those pr escr i bed?
(i v) Coul d you name a few such books and descr i be thei r
themes?
(v) Apar t fr om Econ omi cs wh i ch fi el d of k n owl edge
i nter ests you?
(vi ) Coul d you name some of the books you have read i n thi s
area of your i nterest?
Co-curriculor Activities
(i ) You have pr oduced a number of pl ays dur i ng your
educati onal car eer . Tel l us how you got i nter ested i n
dr ama.
(i i ) Do you thi nk your i nter est i n dr ama affected your
studi es?
(i i i ) What work di d you do as a member of the edi tori al board
of your col l ege newsl etter ?
(i v) Do you thi nk thi s ki nd of work has added somethi ng to
your academi c exper i ence?
(v) What di ffi cul ti es, i n your opi ni on, does an edi tor face i n
produci ng a newsl etter of thi s type?
Extro-curriculor Activities
(i ) How i s i t th at, al th ou gh y ou pl ay ed badmi n ton
throughout your col l ege career, you never parti ci pated
i n any worthwhi l e tournament?
(i i ) Apart from physi cal exerci se, does thi s game i mpart any
other qual i ti es to the pl ayer?
(i i i ) What i s the si ze of the badmi nton court?
(i v) Do you pl ay any other games?
Experience
(i ) Descr i be the speci fi c wor k that you wer e doi ng i n the
pr oducti on depar tment.
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(i i ) What new thi ngs have you l earnt?
(i i i ) What are the ways of maxi mi zi ng producti on?
(i v) Di d you i ntr oduce any new techni que or pr ocedur e to
i ncr ease pr oducti on?
(v) I n what way wi l l your experi ence hel p our organi zati on?
Generol Knowledge
(i ) What i s your opi ni on about the new i ndustr i al pol i cy
announced by the Government of I ndi a?
(i i ) What are the mai n causes of i nfl ati on i n I ndi a?
(i i i ) Do you thi nk defi ci t fi nanci ng shoul d be stopped? Why?
(i v) Gi ve your comments on the Seventh Fi ve-Year Pl an.
(v) Do y ou thi nk the Gov er nment of I ndi as 20-poi nt
programme wi l l usher i n a new era?
(vi ) What further steps shoul d be taken to attract i nvestment
from I ndi ans l i vi ng abroad?
(vi i ) How s h ou l d th e pace of tech n ol ogy tr an s fer be
accel er ated?
(vi i i ) Comment on the cur r ent economi c cl i mate i n the
countr y.
Miscelloneous
(i ) What do you understand by team-spi ri t?
(i i ) Do you thi nk i t can be cul ti vated? I f yes, how?
(i i i ) What are the qual i ti es of an effi ci ent manager?
(i v) Do you thi nk you possess these qual i ti es?
(v) How can the confl i cts between the management and
l abour be r esol ved?
Empl oyers Expectati ons
We may cl assi fy the i nfor mati on whi ch an empl oyer seeks
whi l e consi deri ng a person for a job, i nto the fol l owi ng sub-
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headi ngs:
(i ) State of heal th: Ev er y or gan i zati on des i r es i ts
empl oyees to be i n a heal thy state. Apart from judgi ng
at the i ntervi ew, the organi zati on requi res a new entrant
to under go a medi cal exami nati on, the standar ds of
whi ch di ffer fr om pr ofessi on to pr ofessi on.
(i i ) Attai nments: A pr obe i s made thr ough sear chi ng
questi ons to veri fy what i s wri tten by the candi date i n
the bi odata and to assess the nature and qual i ty of hi s
achi evements.
(i i i ) I ntel l i gence: A cl ose observati on i s made of the refl exes
and responses of the i ntervi ewee to di scover the extent
of hi s grasp and confi dence.
(i v) Apti tude: Certai n questi ons are di rected merel y to fi nd
out the candi dates apti tude for the job he has appl i ed
for .
(v) I nterests: An attempt i s made to understand the other
di mensi ons of the per sonal i ty of the candi date by
encouragi ng hi m to speak about hi s i ntel l ectual or soci al
pur sui ts.
(vi ) Di sposi ti on: A vi tal pi ece of i nfor mati on that al l
empl oyers woul d l i ke to have i s whether the candi date
has the abi l i ty to work wi th others.
(vi i ) Ci rcumstances: A peep i nto the i ntervi ewees previ ous
envi ronment and fami l y ci rcumstances may gi ve some
cl ue to the candi dates capaci ty to work.
Some empl oyer s use an assessment r ecor d sheet to judge
the sui tabi l i ty of i nter vi ewee.
Doto Collection nterview
Ver y often you woul d be cal l ed upon to col l ect data for a
speci fi c purpose and present i t i n the form of a l etter, memo,
r epor t, etc. Thi s i nfor mati on may ei ther be avai l abl e wi th
the offi cers i n your own organi zati on or other organi zati ons.
Many of the poi nts we have di scussed so far are rel evant for
conducti ng thi s type of i nter vi ew al so. However , si nce the
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nature of thi s i ntervi ew di ffers both i n respect of i ntervi ewer-
i ntervi ewee rel ati onshi p and i n the purpose for whi ch i t i s
conducted, certai n addi ti onal poi nts need to be borne i n mi nd
i n the conduct of data col l ecti on i ntervi ew. One, be cl ear i n
your own mi nd about the type and the amount of i nformati on
you are seeki ng. Two, frame the questi ons whi ch wi l l el i ci t
the requi red i nformati on. Three, be ready wi th a strategy of
bri ngi ng the i ntervi ewee back to the poi nt, i f he goes off the
tr ack. Four , be as unobtr usi ve as possi bl e i n note-taki ng.
Accuracy i n recordi ng data i s essenti al and so you may deci de
to use certai n abbrevi ati ons to be transl ated l ater. Fi ve, do
not enter i nto a di scussi on or argument wi th the i ntervi ewee.
Si x, al ways assume a subor di nate posi ti on, l eavi ng the
domi nant r ol e to the i nter vi ewee. Seven, occasi onal l y you
may seek cl ari fi cati on, but too many i nterrupti ons can prove
annoyi ng. Ei ght, be an attenti ve l i stener, gi vi ng cl ues to your
i nterest i n whatever i s bei ng conveyed. Ni ne, i f your questi ons
embarrass the i ntervi ewee and he hesi tates to answer them,
do not i nsi st on a response.
Pl anni ng for Data Col l ecti on I ntervi ew
Professi onal s are busy persons and you must therefore seek
thei r appoi ntment for the i nter vi ew. Al so i ndi cate the
amount of ti me i t i s l i kel y to take. Go pr epar ed wi th a
notebook to r ecor d the poi nts. Car eful l y vi sual i ze how you
are goi ng to open the di al ogue and how you propose to end
the i ntervi ew. You may, i n fact, wri te a few questi ons that
you woul d use to begi n the i ntervi ew and al so the remarks
that you woul d make to concl ude the i ntervi ew.
Whatever be the type of i ntervi ew be courteous and tactful .
Take maxi mum advantage of the i mmedi ate feedback that i s
avai l abl e to you. Mai ntai n throughout a pl easant atmosphere,
control l i ng the envi ronment by sel ecti ng appropri ate verbal
and non-verbal symbol s. As far as possi bl e i ntroduce di versi ty
i n i nteracti on. For exampl e, i f a number of questi ons have
el i ci ted no response mani pul ate your enqui ry i n such a way
that i t el i ci ts an affi rmati ve answer. A cl i mate of mutual trust
can resul t i n a successful i ntervi ew.
You may someti mes deci de to wri te al l the mai n questi ons
that you wi sh to ask for el i ci ti ng the rel evant i nformati on.
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To r ecor d the answer s you shoul d car r y wi th you a handy
notebook. You can al so use the answer sheet i tsel f for wri ti ng
the answers. But then you shoul d ensure that enough space
i s avai l abl e on the sheet for responses both to the mai n and
to the suppl ementary questi ons.
A speci men copy of the i ntervi ew sheet used to col l ect data
for thi s book i s gi ven bel ow:
UGC Book Wri ti ng Project on Professi onal Communi cati on
(Authors: Prof Kri shna Mohan & Dr (Mrs.) Meera Banerji )
nterview Sheet
(i ) Name:
(i i ) Desi gnati on:
(i i i ) Or gani zati on:
(i v) Total exper i ence:
(v) Mai n functi on:
(vi ) (a) How i mportant are wri tten and oral communi cati ons
to your parti cul ar job?
(b) Whi ch one do you thi nk i s more i mportant from the
poi nt of vi ew of the mai n functi on that you perform?
(c) Name some of the wri tten communi cati ons that you
send or r ecei ve.
(i ) You wri te (i i ) You recei ve
(d) Speci fy the modes of oral communi cati on (tel ephone,
i nter vi ew, face-to-face di scussi on etc.)
(vi i ) (a) Do communi cati on mi sunder standi ngs someti mes
i nterfere wi th the effi ci ency of your Department?
(b) I f yes, ki ndl y expl ai n bri efl y how thi s happens.
(c) How can barri ers to communi cati on be removed?
(v i i i ) Wh at k i n d of pr obl ems , i f an y , do y ou face i n
communi cati ng?
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(a) wi th super i or s
(b) wi th peer s
(c) wi th subor di nates
(i x) (a) Do you feel there i s a need for trai ni ng the empl oyees
of your organi zati on i n Engl i sh communi cati on ski l l s?
(b) I f y es , wh at k i n d of tr ai n i n g s h ou l d th ey be
i mpar ted?
(c) Can you gi ve us some i dea about the ki nd of materi al s
to be used and techni ques to be empl oyed for thei r
tr ai ni ng?
(x) What ki nd of reference materi al (mechani cs of wri ti ng,
wor ds often con fu s ed, wor ds often mi s s pel t,
pr on u n ci ati on of wor ds gen er al l y u s ed i n y ou r
pr ofessi on, etc.) do you thi nk can pr ove useful to a
professi onal i n doi ng hi s job?
(xi ) Any other remarks that you woul d l i ke to make i n thi s
context.
nstruction
Di r ecti ng other s to per for m a par ti cul ar act i s one of the
functi ons of a professi onal . Contrary to the general bel i ef, i t
i s not an easy task to tel l others what one expects them to do
wi thout causi ng any psychol ogi cal or emoti onal r esi stance.
I n fact, gi vi ng i nstructi on i s an art whi ch can be cul ti vated.
For the purpose of thi s di scussi on we shal l treat al l that i s
sai d to achi eve a si ngl e task as one i nstructi on. For exampl e,
i f you ask your secretary to make arrangements for a meeti ng,
you may i nstruct her to supervi se the seati ng arrangement,
suppl y of stati onery, servi ng of coffee, etc. Here the task i s
the arrangements for the meeti ng and al l that you have asked
your secretary to do i s rel ated to that task and i s therefore
one i nstr ucti on.
Most often you wi l l be r equi r ed to gi ve i nstr ucti on to
subor di nates and juni or offi cer s. Whi l e doi ng so, keep i n
mi nd:
(i ) the background knowl edge of the reci pi ent;
(i i ) hi s psychol ogi cal make-up;
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(i i i ) hi s capaci ty to grasp; and
(i v) hi s abi l i ty to act upon your i nstructi ons.
Further, make sure that you restri ct yoursel f to the one task
whi ch you want to be performed. I f a si tuati on requi res you
to gi ve more than one i nstructi on, separate each by a ti me-
gap or a cl ear si gnal for the end of one i nstructi on and the
begi nni ng of the other. The l anguage you use shoul d be pl ai n,
di r ect and pol i te and the sentences shor t. Gener al l y, the
r esponse to an i nstr ucti on i s an acti on and i ts success i s
measur ed by the extent to whi ch i t has been per for med
accordi ng to your vi sual i zati on.
The mai n di fference between the i nstructi on on the one hand
and conversati on and i ntervi ew on the other i s i n terms of
response. I n the l atter two, the response i s verbal whereas
i n the former i t i s acti on. The verbal response to i t i s onl y to
i ndi cate that the reci pi ent has understood the message or to
affi rm hi s abi l i ty to act upon i t.
Dictotion
Di ctati on i s another type of dyadi c communi cati on ver y
fr equentl y used i n pr ofessi onal or gani zati ons. I t i s an ar t
whi ch ever y pr ofessi onal has to l ear n i n or der to tr ansact
hi s day to day busi ness effi ci entl y. I t i s wr ong to suppose
that one automati cal l y acqui res the abi l i ty to di ctate as soon
as one j oi ns an or gani zati on. I n fact, i t r equi r es l i vel y
i magi nati on and constructi ve mental i ty to practi se thi s art
successful l y. Some of the hi nts gi ven bel ow woul d prove of
hel p to you i n l earni ng the art of di ctati on:
(i ) Tel l the steno the form of communi cati on you are goi ng
to use and the si tuati on prompti ng i t. For exampl e, one
may begi n by sayi ng the fol l owi ng to put the steno i n a
r ecepti ve mood: Thi s i s a l etter i n r esponse to the
enqui ry we have recei ved from Bhar at Steel
Cor por ati on Now we shal l wr i te a ci r cul ar
i nvi ti ng quotati ons from regi stered fi rms..
Thi s i s a memo to al l heads of secti ons aski ng them to
i mpl ement r esol uti on No. 48 r ecentl y passed by the
Boar d of Di r ector s.
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(i i ) Pi cture the enti re composi ti on, i .e., the total matter to
be di ctated, i n ver bal ter ms. The sequenci ng of i deas
and the structure shoul d be cl ear i n your mi nd before
you start di ctati ng.
(i i i ) Devel op the capaci ty of one sentence buffer memory i nto
whi ch you shoul d be abl e to cast each sentence as i t
takes shape and i s uttered. Remember that i n di ctati on
the i ni ti al edi ti ng and r ewr i ti ng i s done befor e the
sentence i s recorded i n the notebook of the steno. Thi s
i s the most fl exi bl e stage and requi res deft handl i ng of
the pr oces s of conv er ti ng meani ng i nto l i ngui s ti c
mater i al .
(i v) Speak ever y syl l abl e wi th equal emphasi s, devi ati ng
fr om the nor mal str ess patter n. Take extr a car e i n
di ctati ng homonyms, e.g., pal e, pai l ; ascent, assent;
compl i men t, compl emen t; s tati on er y , s tati on ar y .
Si mi l ar l y, wor ds whi ch have homonymi c r el ati onshi p
are l i kel y to confuse the steno; so speci al care shoul d be
taken i n di ctati ng them. A few exampl es of thi s category
ar e: l ater , l atter , pr oceed, pr ecede; el i gi bl e, i l l egi bl e;
accede, exceed; accept, except.
(v) Di ctate al l the punctuati on marks. I t may be too much
to ex pect th e s ten o to pu n ctu ate at th e ti me of
transcri pti on. The begi nni ng of a new paragraph shoul d
al so be si gnal l ed.
(vi ) Di ctate i n phr ases, wi th appr opr i ate pauses between
them. The steno notes down your words i n phrases. I n
shorthand transcri pti ons l ong words do not necessari l y
take mor e ti me than shor t wor ds. Gener al l y speci al
abbr evi ati ons ar e pr ovi ded for commonl y used l ong
wor ds. But i f you have to di ctate an unfami l i ar or
uncommon l ong word gi ve more ti me to the stenographer.
Unusual proper names, and techni cal words may have
to be wri tten i n l ong hand. You shoul d therefore spel l
them and pause l ong enough for them to be wr i tten.
Spel l i ng more words than necessary i s not a bad practi ce
because i t wi l l save your ti me l ater when you go through
the tr anscr i pti on.
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(vi i ) Match the speed of your di ctati on to the speed of your
steno.
(vi i i ) Do not change the constr ucti on of your sentences too
often.
(i x) When you recei ve the transcri pti on and fi nd i n i t words
or phrases or sentences whi ch do not exactl y fi t i nto the
context, dont attempt to i nterpret meani ng out of them.
I nstead, r ead them al oud, l i steni ng to the sounds
car efu l l y to s ee wh eth er an oth er gr ou p of wor ds
emerges whi ch i s ei ther what you ori gi nal l y sai d or i s
more appropri ate i n the context.
(x) I f you di ctate i nto a machi ne, l i sten to the mater i al
recorded before aski ng your st eno to type i t. Thi s shoul d
be done al so wi th a steno new to the job.
Acqui si ti on of the abi l i ty to di ctate has gr eat pr ofessi onal
si gni fi cance. I t pr ompts a pr ofessi onal to tr ansmi t hi s
message wi thout del ay, addi ng not onl y to hi s own effi ci ency
but al so to the heal thy functi oni ng of the organi zati on to whi ch
he bel ongs. An i nci dental gai n i s that the devel opment of
effecti ve di ctati ng techni ques can i ncul cate the capaci ty to
speak extempor aneousl y.
Assi gnments
1. As the speci al cor r espondent of the Bharat Times you
have been deputed to i ntervi ew the survi vors of an ai r
cr ash. A r epor t based on thi s i nter vi ew i s sl ated for
publ i cati on i n your newspaper. Draft the l i st of questi ons
that you woul d use for i ntervi ewi ng the passengers.
2. As a speci al correspondent of the Employment News you
have been asked to i ntervi ew the Bank Managers of the
nati onal i zed banks i n your town. The purpose i s to el i ci t
the l atest i nformati on on the faci l i ti es avai l abl e to the
educated unempl oyed youth and the pr ocedur es for
av ai l i n g of th em. Pr epar e a l i s t of qu es ti on s for
i ntervi ewi ng the Bank Managers.
3. As Personnel Manager of a Publ i c Li mi ted Company you
have to i ntervi ew fresh graduates for recrui tment to the
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juni or management cadr e. Pr epar e a l i st of questi ons
wh i ch y ou ar e l i k el y to u s e for i n ter v i ewi n g th e
candi dates.
4. Assume that you ar e the Pr oducti on Manager of a
manufacturi ng pl ant, whi ch has gone out of order. The
mai ntenance engi neer of the company whi ch i nstal l ed
the machi ne has been deputed for repai ri ng i t. I nventi ng
the necessary detai l s, prepare a set of i nstructi ons that
you woul d gi ve to your Deputy Manager. You yoursel f
woul d be away on tour on the day the mai ntenance
engi neer i s to come.
5. Pr epar e a set of i nstr ucti ons for the newl y r ecr ui ted
stenographers i n your organi zati on on the techni que of
l i steni ng and r ecor di ng di ctati on.
6. For the benefi t of your juni or col l eagues wri te a detai l ed
gui dance note on how to di ctate repl i es to l etters.
37
UMT 4 Dimensions ond Frocess oI Communicotion
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Dimensions ond Process ol
Communicolion
ntroduction
The i mportance of communi cati on has been hi ghl i ghted. As
a corol l ary to the same l i ne of thi nki ng i t can be very wel l
r eal i zed that communi cati on i s mul ti di mens i onal or
mul ti di r ecti onal . Ther e ar e var i ous di r ecti ons i n whi ch i t
fl ows. I n order to have an i dea of how i t works i n a typi cal
or gani zati on i t i s wor thwhi l e havi ng a l ook at i ts l evel s of
oper ati on. I t usual l y takes the for m of a pyr ami d l i ke the
one shown her e i n a l ar ge manufactur i ng and mar keti ng
or gani zati on.
Figure 4.1
Objectives
O Hierarchy of Communication
O Communication- A Two way Process
O Elements of Communication
O Process of Communication

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Thi s i s a l arge organi zati on, havi ng ei ght l ayers. There may
be more l ayers/l evel s/ki ers or l ess, al l of them bei ng bound
or hel d together by communi cati on. The arrow-l i nes i n the
pyrami d show the fol l owi ng di recti ons of communi cati on:
(a) Downwar d Communi cati on
(b) Upwar d Communi cati on
(c) Hor i zontal or Later al
(d) Di agonal or Cr osswi se.
Downword Communicotion
Any organi zati on has an i nbui l t hi erarchi cal system, and i n
that, i n the fi r st i nstance, communi cati on i nvar i abl y fl ows
downwar ds . That i s why tr adi ti onal l y downwar d
communi cati on was hi ghl i ghted and emphas i zed. I t
or i gi nated i n the assumpti on that the peopl e oper ati ng at
hi gher l evel s have the author i ty to communi cate to the
peopl e at the l ower l evel s. Hence thi s ki nd of communi cati on
exi sts especi al l y i n or gani zati ons wi th an author i tar i an
atmospher e. Whether one l i kes thi s ki nd of atmospher e or
not, i f woul d be di ffi cul t to concei ve of any or gani zati on
wi thout downward communi cati on. A sampl e representati on
of downward communi cati on can be stated as fol l ows:
Wri tten
e.g. i nstructi ons memoranda
l etter s
handbooks
pamphl ets
pol i cy statements pr ocedur es
el ectr oni c news di spl ays
Or al
e.g. i nstr ucti ons
speeches
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meeti ngs
tel ephone
l oudspeaker
Probl ems of Downward Communi cati on
Whi l e i ssui ng i nstructi ons or sendi ng l etters, every CEO or
Gener al Manager as s umes that what he i ntends to
communi cate i nvar i abl y r eaches the per sons i t i s i ntended
for and under stood. But unfor tunatel y i t i s not al ways so.
I nformati on i s qui te often l ost or di storted i n the course of
i ts j our ney down the chai n of command. I n fact, many
di r ecti ves or i nstr ucti ons ar e not under stood or even r ead.
I t i s, therefore, to be al ways kept i n mi nd that mere i ssuance
of pol i ci es and pr ocedur es does not ensur e communi cati on.
That i s why, a feedback system becomes essenti al . For any
communi cati ve pur pose to be ser ved, i t i s essenti al to fi nd
out whether the recei ver of the message or i nformati on has
understood i t or percei ved i t, i n the same way as i ntended
by the sender.
Another pr obl em that ver y often comes up i s that the
downward fl ow of i nformati on through di fferent l evel s of the
or gani zati on i s ti me-consumi ng. The mor e the l evel s, the
mor e the chances of del ay or di l uti on of i nfor mati on. The
del ay may someti mes be so fr ustr ati ng that some top
managers make i t a poi nt to send the i nformati on or message
or i nstructi on di rectl y to the person or group concerned.
Moreover, downward communi cati on i s l i kel y to be fi l tered,
modi fi ed or di storted at any or each l evel as managers deci de
what shoul d be passed down to thei r empl oyees. The accuracy
of the i nformati on i s qui te l i kel y to be l i mi ted by status and
power: di fferences between manager and empl oyee, and l ack
of trust.
Someti mes managers wi thhol d i nformati on i n order to keep
the empl oyees dependent on them. The net resul t i s that, i n
the absence of compl ete i nfor mati on, empl oyees may feel
confused, uni nformed, or powerl ess and mi ght fai l to carryout
thei r tasks properl y. I t may l ead to unnecessary confl i ct and
s poi l th e empl oy er -empl oy ee, s u per v i s or -s u bor di n ate
r el ati ons.
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Upword Communicotion
The mai n functi on of upwar d communi cati on i s to suppl y
i nformati on to the upper l evel s about what i s happeni ng at
the l ower l evel s. I t i s j ust the r ever se of the pr evi ous
di mensi on. I t tr avel s fr om the peopl e at the bottom and
r eaches the upper l evel s of the or gani zati on str uctur e.
Unfortunatel y, there i s very l i ttl e appreci ati on of thi s form
of communi cati on as i t does not fi t i nto the tr adi ti onal
concepts of or gani zati on behavi our accor di ng to whi ch the
ri ght to communi cate was supposed to have been vested i n
the hi gher ups onl y.
Upward communi cati on i s essenti al l y parti ci pati ve i n nature
an d can fl ou r i s h on l y i n democr ati c or gan i zati on al
envi ronment. And onl y i n such an envi ronment i t can sati sfy
the need of the upper l ev el s of management to k now
s peci fi cal l y about pr oducti on per for mance, mar k eti ng
i nformati on, fi nanci al data, what l ower l evel empl oyees are
thi nki ng and feel i ng about the whol e or part of the busi ness.
I n the wor ds of Koontz, Ty pi cal mean s for u pwar d
communi cati on-besi des the chai n of command are suggesti on
s y s tems , appeal and gr i ev ance pr ocedur es , compl ai nt
systems, counsel i ng sessi ons, joi nt setti ng of objecti ves, the
grapevi ne, group meeti ngs, the practi ce of open-door pol i cy,
moral e questi onnai res, exi t i ntervi ews and ombudsperson.
Probl ems of Upward Communi cati on
Cer tai n pr obl ems do unnecessar i l y cr op up i n upwar d
communi cati on. They are pri mari l y psychol ogi cal i n nature.
I t i s qui te often seen that hi gher-ups do not l i ke to be tol d
or even l i ke to hear from thei r juni ors anythi ng agai nst thei r
wi shes. Hence the pi ece of communi cati on may qui te often
not even be al l owed to go up. Or , i t may be di stor ted or
mi srepresented. I t may, i n the absence of a heal thy open door
pol i cy be mi si nterpreted, mi sunderstood or suppressed. The
empl oyees may feel l et down or become shy and rel uctant to
express themsel ves. I n such a si tuati on the communi cati on
event becomes a non-event. I t i s i ncr easi ngl y bei ng taken
care of by modern management that has come to appreci ate
th e i mpor tan ce an d r i gh t of th e i n di v i du al /gr ou ps of
i ndi vi dual s to expr ess.
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The Concept of Ombudsperson
I n thi s connecti on i t i s worthwhi l e to di scuss the concept of
Ombudsper son (or Ombudsman whi ch i s a Swedi sh wor d
meani ng a commi ssi oner appoi nted to i nvesti gate the
compl ai nts of pr i vate ci ti zens agai nst gover nment offi ci al s
or agenci es). Ti l l qui te r ecent ti mes thi s concept r emai ned
onl y i n Sweden. But now many Amer i can compani es ar e
maki ng ver y pr ofi tabl e use of i t. They have establ i shed a
posi ti on for a person who i nvesti gates empl oyees concerns.
General El ectri c, Mc Donnel l Dougl as and AT &T are just a
few compan i es th at ar e u s i n g th e Ombu ds per s on for
pr omoti ng upwar d communi cati on. I t pr ovi des val uabl e
upward communi cati on l i nk and prevents scandal s and l egal
costs by ti mel y acti on on the part of the appropri ate persons.
Loterol or Horizontol Communicotion
When communi cati on takes pl ace between two or mor e
per sons who ar c subor di nates wor k i ng under the same
per son, or those who ar e wor ki ng on the same l evel , i t i s
cal l ed l ateral or hori zontal communi cati on. A good exampl e
of thi s ki nd of communi cati on i s that between functi onal
managers. I t i s necessary for the revi ewi ng of the acti vi ti es
assi gned to vari ous subordi nates havi ng i denti cal posi ti ons.
They are servi ng the organi zati on i n di fferent capaci ti es but
thei r goal s ar e common. Thei r i nter acti on i s necessar y to
mai ntai n co-or di nati on.
Thi s var i ety of communi cati on mostl y takes pl ace dur i ng
commi ttee meeti ngs or conferences i n whi ch al l members of
the gr oup, mostl y peer s, i nter act. Dur i ng the cour se of
i nter acti on the vi ews of each other ar e made known and
deci s i on s ar e ar r i v ed at. Her e th er e ar e n o s u per i or
subor di nate r el ati onshi ps. The best exampl e of l ater al
communi cati on can be seen i n the i nteracti on of producti on
and marketi ng departments. Strategi es of marketi ng cannot
be fr u i tfu l u n l es s i ts pl an s ar e commu n i cated to th e
pr oducti on depar tment. The mar keti ng chi ef has to be i n
constant touch wi th the pr oducti on chi ef i n or der to meet
customer orders as per schedul e.
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Diogonol or Crosswise Communicotion
Di agonal or crosswi se communi cati on i ncl udes the hori zontal
fl ow of i nformati on as al so that among persons at di fferent
l evel s who have no di rect reporti ng rel ati onshi ps. Thi s ki nd
of communi cati on i s used to speed i nfor mati on fl ow to
i mpr ove under standi ng, and to coor di nate effor ts for the
achi evement of or gani zati onal objecti ves. I t must be noted
that a very great deal of communi cati on does not fol l ow the
organi zati onal hi erarchy but cuts across the wel l drawn l i nes.
Di agonal or cr osswi se communi cati on usual l y takes the
fol l owi ng oral and wri tten forms.
I n thi s type of communi cati on, proper safeguards need to be
taken to prevent potenti al probl ems. Speci al care has to be
taken that (1) crosswi se communi cati on bui l ds up appropri ate
cr osswi se r el ati onshi ps, (2) subor di nates wi l l r efr ai n fr om
mak i n g commi tmen ts bey on d th ei r au th or i ty , an d
(3) subor di nates wi l l k eep thei r super i or s i nfor med of
i mportant i nterdepartmental acti vi ti es. I n bri ef, di agonal or
crosswi se communi cati on may create di ffi cul ti es, but i t i s a
necessi ty i n many enter pr i ses i n or der to r espond to the
compl ex and dynami c organi zati onal envi ronment. I n other
wor ds we may say that i n or der to secur e effi ci ency i n
deci si on-mak i ng, al l messages do not necessar i l y r oute
through verti cal channel s of communi cati on. Organi zati ons
al so bui l d up envi ronment for cross contacts.
Communicotion is o Two-woy Frocess
Management of an or gani zati on i s effecti ve onl y when i ts
communi cati on machi nery i s effecti ve. The very exi stence of
management depends upon an effecti v e machi ner y of
communi cati on. An effecti ve communi cati on machi ner y i s
i mpor tant becaus e i t communi cates and hel ps i n
i mpl ementi ng the pol i ci es and objecti ves of the organi zati on
on the one hand, and al so hel ps i n understandi ng the nature
and behavi our of the peopl e at work.
Management communi cati on i s a two-way process. I t means
that the management and the subordi nates to convey thei r
feel i ngs, i deas, opi ni ons, facts, gr i evances etc. to the other
party. Communi cati on i s sai d to be a conti nuous process of
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exchange of vi ews and i deas, but i t shoul d be both ways-
downwar d and upwar d. The communi cati on machi ner y or
pr ocess shoul d not onl y pr ovi de the manager wi th the
pr i vi l ege of communi cati ng or der s and di r ecti ons to the
wor ker s to get the wor k done towar ds the achi evement of
organi zati onal objecti ves as pl eaded by the cl assi cal theory
of organi zati on behavi our known as theory X by McGregor
but the workers al so must be gi ven a ri ght to approach the
management and communi cate thei r compl ai nts, gri evances,
opi ni ons, facts, suggesti ons etc., whi ch may i n r esponse to
the or der s or di r ecti ons r ecei ved fr om the management, or
i n the i nter est of the or gani zati on, contr i buti ng to the
achi evement of i ts objecti ves.
Elements oI Communicotion
The var i ous el ements i nvol ved i n the pr ocess ar e br oadl y
grouped i nto (1) source (2) message (3) channel (4) recei ver
(5) effect. A di scussi on of these fol l ows:
1. Source: The source i s the ori gi nator of the i dea or the
message. I t may al so be known as the sender who may
be an i ndi vi dual or a group, though ul ti matel y i t i s an
i ndi vi dual who mi ght be acti ng the rol e on behal f of a
group. The source concei ves i dea, prepares the message,
sel ects the channel , and deci des about the recei ver.
2. Message: I t r efer s to the sti mul us that the sour ce
transmi ts to the recei ver. I t i s what communi cati on i s
al l about. Messages are composed of symbol s havi ng a
cer tai n mean i n g to th e s ou r ce an d th e r ecei v er .
Tr ansl ati on of an i dea i nto a message appr opr i ate for
transmi ssi on by the source i s cal l ed encodi ng. When the
message (symbol s etc.) i s conver ted i nto a cer tai n
meani ng i t i s known as decodi ng. Decodi ng i s done by
the recei ver. The message shoul d be cl earl y worded so
that i s easi l y understood by the recei ver.
3. Channel : The channel i s a means thr ough whi ch the
message tr avel s fr om the sour ce to the r ecei ver . The
channel may be mass medi a (not meant for any parti cul ar
i ndi vi dual ) such as newspaper s, r adi o, T.V. etc., or
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i nter per sonal (meant for a par ti cul ar i ndi vi dual ) such
as tel ephone, cor r espondence etc. Sel ecti on of the
channel depends upon the message to be conveyed,
av ai l abi l i ty of th e ch an n el , cos t of th e ch an n el ,
effecti veness of the channel etc.
4. Recei ver : The r ecei ver i s the per son for whom the
message i s i ntended. I t i s the si ngl e most i mpor tant
el ement i n the communi cati on process. Any negl ect on
the part of the recei ver may render the communi cati on
i neffecti ve.
5. Effect: Effect i s the change i n the behavi our of the
recei ver occurri ng i n response to the message recei ved.
The r ecei ver may i gnor e the message, or stor e the
i nformati on recei ved, or act accordi ng to the wi shes of
the sour ce.
Frocess oI Communicotion
I n thi s er a of gl obal i zati on, knowl edge management, and
cor por ate gover nance, the pr i me factor that concer ns the
work force from the top hi erarchy to the l evel s bel ow, i s the
abi l i ty to communi cate effecti vel y. The more organi zed and
cl ear the communi cati on pattern i s, greater wi l l be the i mpact
of the message on the recei ver. A number of corporate scams
i n r ecent ti mes ar e exampl es of communi cati on that have
gone awry.
How does the sender ensure that the message has been wel l
transmi tted and understood by the person on the other si de?
I s there any way by whi ch the message can be modi fi ed and
cor r ected i f needed?
Si nce communi cati on i s the transmi ssi on of i nformati on from
the sender to the recei ver, i t i s necessary to understand the
r el ati onshi p between the two when communi cati on takes
pl ace. The word process i ndi cates that i t i s an acti vi ty that
i s connected wi th a ser i es of steps that ar e del i ber atel y
undertaken to reach a goal . The process demands that both
the sender and the recei ver pay attenti on to the fi ner aspects
or el ements of successful communi cati on.
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A communi cati on process i ncl udes the fol l owi ng:
The sender
The sender has an i dea
The sender encodes the i dea i nto a message
The message travel s through the channel
Noi se i n the transmi ssi on process
The recei ver of the message
The r ecei ver decodes the message
The r ecei ver pr ovi des the feedback
The frame of reference of the sender and the recei ver
The context of the check.
Communi cati on i s the process by whi ch...
1. I n for mati on , I deas , Opi n i on s , Vi ews , Atti tu des ,
Feel i ngs. Bel i efs, Message
Ar e
2. Conveyed, Passed On, Exchanged, Shared
By/To
3. Transmi tter (Tx) Sender
Recei ver (Rx) Li stener
I s Effecti ve Onl y When I t
4. Refl ects i n the Mi nd of Rx as a Tr ue I mage Of the
Thoughts Conveyed by the Tx
For the
5. Recei vi ng and Understandi ng of the Message
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1. The sender : The sender of a message can be any
i n di v i du al . Fr om th e watch man an d peon i n an
organi zati on to managers, vi ce-presi dents and company
CEOs and managi ng di rectors.
2. The sender has an i dea: The process of communi cati on
begi ns when the sender i s struck by an i dea. An i dea i s
a sti mul us that sets the sender thi nki ng about i t. There
may be many sti mul i crowdi ng the senders mi nd al l at
the same ti me. The sti mul us that i nterests and possesses
the senders attenti on becomes an i dea. The sender may
then wi sh to shar e/convey/exchange the i dea wi th
an oth er per s on . Howev er , man y compl ex factor s
i nfl uence the for mati on of the i dea. For exampl e, the
sender may be i nfl uenced by the exi sti ng mood, hi s/her
cul tural habi ts, and strong bi as for the i dea, atti tudes,
val ues, norms and practi ces. These factors i nfl uence the
sender s per cepti on and the fi l ter i ng exper i ence for
i nter pr eti ng the si tuati on and for mi ng the i dea for
tr ansmi ssi on.
The fol l owi ng exampl es i l l ustr ate how these compl ex
factors can affect the formati on of an i dea. For i nstance,
the subordi nate wants to ask the boss for l eave though
he knows that i t i s year-end and getti ng l eave mi ght be
di ffi cul t. And the boss i s l i kel y to say no. He hesi tates
aski ng.
I n another si tuati on you are meeti ng your fri end after a
l ong ti me. Not ever ythi ng has gone the r i ght way
between the two of you. Suddenl y when you meet your
fri end you do not know whether to say hel l o or turn your
face away and i gnore, or pul l a smi l e and greet warml y
as though nothi ng had happened.
I n yet another case, a br i ght young tr ai nee, r ecentl y
r ecr ui ted, was ver y eager to exchange hi s i deas about
r ecr ui tment of fr esh management gr aduates wi th hi s
i mmedi ate boss. But he hesi tated putti ng forth hi s i deas
because he was not sur e whether the i dea woul d be
accepted. He knew that the boss was shor t temper ed
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and a sti ckl er for r ul es. But sti l l , the young man was
bent on di scussi ng hi s proposal wi th the boss.
What i s i t that you note i n these exampl es? Ar e the
sender s i nfl uenced by the si tuati ons fr om thei r past
experi ences? I s the process of understandi ng a si tuati on
i nfl uenced by atti tudes, val ues, and memory?
The r ecei ver does not accept a message i mmedi atel y.
The message passes thr ough the per sonal fi l ter s of
val ues, bel i efs, atti tudes, and opi ni ons.
Al l sender s thi nk that thei r i deas wi l l be accepted
because they assume that the recei ver wi l l be recepti ve.
Most of us thi nk that way. However , i deas do not get
accepted that easi l y. Ther e i s al ways some di ffer ence
or oppos i ti on to an i dea. The s ucces s of effecti v e
communi cati on depends on the sender s abi l i ty to
accuratel y predi ct how the i dea wi l l i mpact the recei ver
and what ki nd of ski l l s woul d be necessary to create a
posi ti ve i mpact.
3. The sender encodes the i dea i nto a message:
Encodi ng i s the pr ocess by whi ch the sender conver ts
the i dea i nto a message by usi ng verbal or non-verbal
medi ums of communi cati on. These can be words, si gns,
si gnal s, gestur es, symbol s, or body movements. The
conver si on of the i dea i nto a message connects the
sender to the r ecei ver . I n or der to ensur e that the
message i s wel l understood, the sender uses words and
nonverbal si gnal s that the recei ver i s fami l i ar wi th. I f
not, the message gets r ej ected. For exampl e, i f the
r ecei ver r ejects a l etter or a job r esume because they
are ful l of cl i chs and jargon, i t means that the sender
has not been careful wi th the necessary ski l l s requi red
for maki ng the messages effecti ve. Thi s i s how the use
of ambi guous or carel essl y chosen words often l eads to
the bypass of the actual message resul ti ng i nto confusi on
and mi sunderstandi ngs. Hence, ski l l ed communi cati on
pay attenti on to every detai l of message composi ti on.
4. The message travel s through the channel : Channel
i s the vehi cl e that carri es the message to the recei ver.
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The var i ous channel s i ncl ude postman, computer , fax,
l etter , tel ephone, memor andum, r epor t, pi ctur e, fi l m,
r adi o, tel evi si on, and book that ar e used to del i ver
messages. I t i s i mpor tant for the sender to know the
sui tabl e channel for the ki nd of message that has to be
transmi tted. The choi ce of the channel depends on the
purpose of the communi cati on, the senders needs, and
the profi l e of the recei ver.
5. Noi se i n the channel /transmi ssi on process: Anythi ng
that di srupts or i nterferes wi th the transmi ssi on process
i s cal l ed the noi se or the bar r i er to communi cati on.
Channel noi ses can cause di sturbances i n the tel ephone,
computer , tel evi si on, r adi o, fax machi ne, or er r or s i n
typogr aphy i n e-mai l messages, uncl ear pr onunci ati on
i n or al commu n i cati on (v oi ce as a ch an n el of
communi cati on) poor faci al expr essi ons (face as a
channel of communi cati on) or poor gestures (body as a
channel of communi cati on). Poor sel ecti on of the channel
for transmi ssi on of the message can al so be a noi se to
the r ecei ver .
6. The r ecei ver of the message: The r ecei ver i s any
i ndi vi dual to whom the message has been transmi tted.
Li ke the sender, the recei ver al so has a set of personal
fi l ters-atti tudes, val ues, i deas, opi ni ons, bel i efs, feel i ngs
and cul tur e. The el ement of per cepti on pl ays a major
r ol e i n the r ecei ver s acceptance or r ej ecti on of the
message. The sender mi ght thi nk that the message has
been ver y effecti vel y composed and tr ansmi tted and
hence wi l l be r ecei ved. The r ecei ver , however , mi ght
have a di ffer ent per cepti on about the message. The
success and fai l ur e of communi cati on al so depends on
how the recei ver recei ves the message. Percepti on pl ays
a major rol e i n i nfl uenci ng communi cati on. I t i s the way
by whi ch peopl e seek meani ng i n thei r envi r onment.
Hence, i t i s aptl y sai d that communi cati on i s message
percei ved, and not message sent.
7. The recei ver decodes the message: Decodi ng i s the
pr oces s of tr an s l ati n g wor ds , s i gn s , s y mbol s i n to
meani ngs. The recei ver has to move through the enti re
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fi l ter i ng pr ocess befor e successful l y decodi ng and
accepti ng the message. Successful decodi ng i s cor r ect
u n der s tan di n g of th e i n ten t of th e mes s age as
transmi tted by the sender. Li ke ski l l ed senders who ai m
at cr eati n g mi r r or i mage wh i l e en codi n g an d
tr an s mi tti n g th e mes s age, s k i l l ed r ecei v er s of
communi cati on al so ai m at decodi ng and understandi ng
the message as the sender woul d have l i ked i t to be
r ecei v ed. Th i s i s n ot agai n an eas y tas k . No
commu n i cati on can be compl etel y s u cces s fu l or
compl etel y understood because no two persons are same.
They have di ffer ent l i fe exper i ences. Al so, too many
noi ses di srupt the enti re process of communi cati on. Both
the sender and the recei ver have to manage the noi ses
wel l i f they want thei r communi cati on to be successful .
8. F eedback sent by the r ecei ver : Feedback i s the
r ecei v er s r es pon s e to th e s en der s mes s age. Th e
r esponses can be both ver bal and nonver bal . I t i s an
i mportant factor i n the communi cati on process because
i t hel ps the sender to know whether the message has
been understood or not. Very often, senders del i beratel y
seek feedback by aski ng such questi ons as, does thi s
exampl e seem r el evant i n thi s context? what do you
thi nk? or how about l ooki ng at thi s pr obl em i n a
sl i ghtl y di fferent way? or am I maki ng mysel f cl ear?
Feedback demands great attenti on from the recei ver of
the message. Good l i steni ng sk i l l s, abi l i ty to r ead
between the l i nes, and i nter pr et a metamessage or a
hi dden message, ar e expected of a competent r ecei ver
of communi cati on. Successful communi cati on, therefore,
i s a two-way process. Both the sender and the recei ver
have an equal shar e of r esponsi bi l i ty i n the cycl e of
communi cati on.
9. Frame of reference of the sender and the recei ver:
Successful communi cati on takes pl ace when the senders
frame of reference matches the recei vers and vi ce-versa.
Fr ame of r efer ence i s a combi nati on of i deas, bel i efs,
opi ni ons, atti tudes, val ues, knowl edge, cul tur e, past
exper i ences and many other el ements. I t i s the same
thi ng as the fi l ter s that peopl e wear . The bi ggest
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chal l enge that the sender faces i s i n drawi ng the recei ver
i nto hi s or her own frame of reference. Thi s i s not agai n
easy. Too many noi ses occur at thi s stage and these need
to be over come for successful communi cati on to take
pl ace. But when the two fr ames meet, communi cati on
i s sai d to be a mi rror refl ecti on of the i ntended message.
10. The context of communi cati on: Every communi cati on
takes pl ace wi thi n a context. Context i s formed by the
combi nati on of ci r cumstances that i nfl uence the pi ece
of communi cati on at a certai n poi nt of ti me. The factors
that i nfl uence a context ar e physi cal sur r oundi ng,
emoti on s an d r eacti on s of peopl e to wh om th e
communi cati on i s tr ansmi tted, thei r atti tudes, and
opi ni ons. These factors di ffer from si tuati on to si tuati on.
Therefore, no two transmi ssi ons can be repl i ca of each
other because the si tuati ons ar e di ffer ent. Context
i nfl uences both the encodi ng and the decodi ng stages.
A pi ece of communi cati on i n annual gener al meeti ng
may have a di ffer ent i mpact and meani ng than when
del i vered to the empl oyees wi thi n an organi zati on.
Organi zati ons can functi on effi ci entl y onl y i f i t creates
a system of communi cati on networ ks that wi l l speci fy
who wi l l communi cate wi th whom. A pr oper
communi cati on system can onl y l ead the or gani zati on
to functi on as a cohesi ve body that i s wel l networ ked
for the dai l y work to go on smoothl y. I magi ne a company
wher e no such networ ks exi st and wher e ever y body
sends confl i cti ng, confusi ng and overl appi ng memos and
r epor ts to ever ybody. Such a company can onl y be
descr i bed as unr egul ated, di sor gani zed and chaoti c
wher e peopl e ar e nei ther r es pons i bl e for s endi ng
i nfor mati on nor r es pons i bl e for r ecei v i ng i t. An
organi zati on cannot functi on that way.
Key Foints
(i ) An organi zati on has many l evel s of hi erarchy.
(i i ) Communi cati on i s a mul ti -di recti onal acti vi ty.
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(i i i ) The di r ecti ons or di mensi ons of communi cati on ar e-
downward, upward, hori zontal or l ateral , and di agonal
or cr osswi se.
(i v) Al l these di recti ons or di mensi ons have thei r own uses
and pr obl ems.
(v) The ombudsper son has come to occupy an i mpor tant
pl ace i n the context of modern busi ness communi cati on.
keview Questions
1. Gi ve speci fi c r easons for the i mpor tance of downwar d
communi cati on.
2. Di scuss some of the probl ems caused by stri ctl y adheri ng
to the practi ce of downward communi cati on.
3. Wri te a note on the uses of upward communi cati on.
4. The l ack of upward communi cati on can be di sastrous.
Di scuss wi th reference to some exampl es.
5. What can manager s do to faci l i tate the fr ee fl ow of
i nfor mati on?
6. Wh at do y ou mean by l ater al or h or i zon tal
communi cati on? How and why does i t take pl ace?
7. Wri te a detai l ed note on the i mportance and functi ons
of ombudsper son.
8. Di scuss the term di agonal or crosswi se communi cati on
wi th some exampl es.
9. Wri te short notes on the fol l owi ng:
(a) suggesti on box,
(b) gr i evance r edr essal ,
(c) i nfor mal meeti ngs,
(d) company newspaper ,
(e) open-door pol i cy.
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UMT 5 Communicotion Chonnels ond Metworks
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7EJ #
Communicolion Chonnels
ond Nelworks
ntroduction
Al l communi cati on takes some way, or passage through some
wel l -defi ned, easi l y i denti fi abl e stages. Everyone i s fami l i ar
wi th the phr ase thr ough pr oper channel that i s used i n
al most al l busi ness l etter s/ appl i cati ons/r epr esentati ons. I t
means that the sender of the wri tten communi cati on means
to pass i t on to the addressee through somebody occupyi ng
an i mpor tant posi ti on i n the hi er ar chi cal system of the
.or gan i zati on . Th e wor d ch an n el th er efor e, becomes
synonymous wi th the posi ti on or poi nt thr ough whi ch the
communi cati on passes. These posi ti ons or poi nts exi st at
di fferent l evel s i n the pi pel i ne.
Chonnels oI Communicotion
Formol Vs. nIormol
Channel s of communi cati on may be cl assi fi ed i nto two
categor i es:
(a) For mal
(b) I nfor mal
Objectives
O Channels of Communication
O Types of Grapevine
O Communication Networks
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Formol Chonnel oI Communicotion
A for mal channel of communi cati on can be defi ned as a
means of communi cati on that i s nor mal l y contr ol l ed by
manager s or peopl e occupyi ng si mi l ar posi ti ons i n an
or gani zati on. Any i nfor mati on, deci si on, memo, r emi nder
etc., wi l l fol l ow thi s path. For exampl e, an executi ve A,
occupyi ng a top posi ti on, passes an order to hi s i mmedi ate
subordi nate B who, after retai ni ng the useful i nformati on
up to hi m, passes the desi red order to the next man C for
necessary acti on and so on. I n thi s way the channel i s a formal
one. I n the same way, communi cati on may travel from bel ow
and pass thr ough stages or poi nts, agai n r ei nfor ci ng the
formal structure or character of the organi zati on.
The I nfl uence of Formal Channel s of Communi cati on
Th e for mal ch an n el s i n fl u en ce th e effecti v en es s of
communi cati on pri mari l y i n two ways. I n the fi rst pl ace, the
for mal ch an n el s cov er an ev er -wi den i n g di s tan ce as
or gani zati ons gr ow. For exampl e, effecti ve communi cati on
i s general l y far more di ffi cul t i n a l arge retai l organi zati on
wi th br anches spr ead far and wi de than i n a smal l or bi g
department store l ocated at one pl ace. Secondl y, the formal
channel s of communi cati on can actual l y i nhi bi t or stand i n
the way of free fl ow of i nformati on between organi zati onal
l evel s. For exampl e, i n a bi g factory, an assembl y-l i ne worker
wi l l communi cate a probl em to a supervi sor rather than to
the pl ant manager . Hi gher -l evel manager s may someti mes
not even come to know somethi ng of vi tal i mportance as and
wh en n eeded. On th e pos i ti v e s i de, th er e ar e man y
advantages al so. The for mal channel s, by vi r tue of thei r
tendency to moni tor and fi l ter i nformati on; keep the hi gher-
l evel managers from getti ng bogged down wi th i t.
nIormol Chonnel oI Communicotion
By hi s ver y natur e man cannot al ways have a hi ghl y
formal i zed or regi mented l i vi ng. Logi cal l y he cannot and wi l l
not al ways communi cate through formal channel s al one. Si de
by si de wi th the for mal channel of communi cati on, ever y
or gan i zati on h as an equ al l y effecti v e ch an n el of
communi cati on that i s the i nformal channel . I t i s not offi ci al l y
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sancti oned, and qui te often i t i s even di scouraged or l ooked
down upon. But then, i t i s very much there, and has been
gi ven the name grapevi ne preci sel y because i t runs i n al l
di recti ons- hori zontal , verti cal , di agonal . As the management
experts put i t, i t fl ows around water cool ers, down hal l ways,
thr ough l unch r ooms, and wher ever peopl e get together i n
gr oups .
I t shows that the peopl e are al most al ways l ooki ng forward
to an oppor tuni ty to get together . Man i s es s enti al l y
gregari ous by nature. The l ower we go down the pyrami d of
the or gani zati on the mor e mani fest thi s gr egar i ousness
becomes. Ther e ar e str ong soci o-psychol ogi cal r easons for
i t. The most i mpor tant r eason i s the i ntense, i r r epr essi bl e
desi r e to communi cate, to tal k, to shar e ones feel i ngs and
thought, or just to gossi p or to i ndul ge i n smal l tal k. Thi s
gossi p or smal l tal k may, and ver y often, does car r y some
i mportant i nformati on. I t may even manufacture some pi ece
of i nfor mati on and get the r umour mi l l wor ki ng. Ever y
organi zati on has a rumour mi l l . Every worker, every offi ce
goer and above al l every manager has to get used to i t.
Factors Responsi bl e for the Grapevi ne Phenomenon
The gr apevi ne becomes hyper acti ve when the fol l owi ng
factors prevai l : .
(a) Feel i ng of uncertai nty or l ack of sense of di recti on when
the organi zati on i s passi ng through a di ffi cul t peri od.
(b) Feel i ng of i nadequacy or l ack of sel f-confi dence on the
par t of the empl oyees, l eadi ng to the for mati on of
gr oups.
(c) Formati on of a coteri e, cl i que or favoured group by the
manager, gi vi ng other empl oyees a feel i ng of i nsecuri ty
or i sol ati on.
Any wor ker oper ati ng i n such ci r cumstances wi l l be fi l l ed
wi th i deas and wi l l at l east whi sper to l i ke-mi nded fri ends
at whatever l evel he fi nds them. Mostl y they fi nd them at
thei r own l evel , though groupi ngs i ncl udi ng other l evel s are
not rul ed out. I t i s a very subtl e and i nteresti ng phenomenon
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now bei ng ser i ousl y studi ed and anal yzed by psychol ogi sts
and management experts.
Types oI Gropevine Choins
Kei th Davi s has i denti fi ed four types of gr apevi ne chai ns
that can be enumerated as fol l ows:
(a) Si ngl e-str and chai n: I n thi s type of chai n A tel l s
somethi ng to B who tel l s i t to c and so on i t goes down
the l i ne. Thi s chai n i s the l east accurate i n passi ng on
the i nfor mati on.
(b) Gossi p chai n: I n i t one per son seeks out and tel l s
everyone the i nformati on he or she has obtai ned. Thi s
chai n i s often used when i nfor mati on or a message
regardi ng an i nteresti ng but non-job-rel ated nature i s
bei ng conveyed.
(c) Probabi l i ty chai n: I n thi s type of chai n i ndi vi dual s are
i ndi fferent to, or not real l y i nterested i n, the persons to
whom they are passi ng some i nformati on. They just tel l
at r andom, and those peopl e i n tur n tel l other s at
r andom. Thi s chai n i s found when the i nfor mati on i s
somewhat i nteresti ng but not real l y si gni fi cant.
(d) Cl uster chai n: I n thi s type of chai n A tel l s somethi ng
to a few sel ected i ndi vi dual s, and then some of these
i ndi vi dual s i nform a few other sel ected i ndi vi dual s.
Davi s i s of the opi ni on that the cl uster chai n i s the domi nant
grapevi ne pattern i n an organi zati on. General l y onl y a few
i n di v i du al s , cal l ed, l i ai s on i n di v i du al s , pas s on th e
i nformati on they have come upon, and then they are l i kel y
to shar e i t wi th the peopl e they tr ust or fr om whom they
woul d l i ke favours. I t has been observed that general l y the
i nfor mati on they pass on i s i mmedi atel y i nter esti ng or
rel evant to them, job-rel ated, and above al l , ti mel y. Most of
i nformal communi cati on takes pl ace through thi s chai n.
Meri ts of the Grapevi ne
1. Speedy tr ansmi ssi on: The gr eatest featur e of the
gr apev i n e i s th at i t tr an s mi ts i n for mati on at a
remarkabl y fast speed. Everyone knows that a rumour
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travel s, or spreads l i ke wi l d fi re. The moment a worker
comes to know that somethi ng i s l abel ed as top secret
or confi denti al he becomes cur i ous to l ook i nto i t or
have a sni ff of i t and passes i t on to hi s very fi rst cl ose
bosom fri end. And then, from hi m to another, i t spreads
wi thi n mi nutes. Managers have been known to di stri bute
i nfor mati on thr ough pl anned l eaks or car eful l y used
just-between-you-and-me r emar ks.
2. Feedback val ue: I t i s above al l through the grapevi ne
that the managers or top bosses of an organi zati on get
the feedback regardi ng thei r pol i ci es, deci si ons, memos
etc. The feedback reaches them much faster through the
i nfor mal channel than thr ough the for mal channel .
Through the grapevi ne the managers come to know the
pul se of the organi zati on.
3. Support to other channel s: The grapevi ne functi ons
as a s u ppl emen tar y or par al l el ch an n el of
communi cati on. The offi ci al l y r ecogni zed or sacr ed or
for mal channel takes not onl y mor e ti me i n car r yi ng
i nformati on, but al so i mposes certai n constrai nts on the
pr ocess of communi cati on. So, whatever i s deemed to
be unsui tabl e for offi ci al channel can be very successful l y
transmi tted through the grapevi ne.
4. Sati sfacti on and Sol i dar i ty of the wor ker s: The
grapevi ne gi ves i mmense psychol ogi cal sati sfacti on and
str engthens the sol i dar i ty of the wor ker s. Whi l e the
purel y formal channel wi l l put them off, the grapevi ne
dr aws them near to each other , thus k eepi ng the
organi zati on i ntact as a soci al enti ty.
Demeri ts of Grapevi ne
1. Ther e i s somethi ng i nbui l t i n the ver y natur e of the
gr apevi ne that makes i t l ess cr edi bl e than the for mal
channel s of communi cati on. Si nce i t spreads or transi ts
i nformati on by word of mouth i t cannot al ways be taken
seri ousl y. On the other hand i t i s al so very l i kel y to be
contradi cted. So i t i s not very dependabl e.
2. The gr apevi ne does not al ways car r y the compl ete
i nformati on. As i t i s very often based on guesswork or
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whi spers i n the corri dors i t may not gi ve the recei ver
the compl ete pi ctur e of the si tuati on or the whol e
message.
3. The grapevi ne may, and i ndeed often does, di stort the
i nfor mati on. As i t i s enti r el y unoffi ci al , i nfor mal and
unauthenti cated i t may cast asper si on on anybody or
i mpute moti ves to the most wel l -meani ng of the peopl e.
As i ts ori gi n l i es i n the rumour-mi l l i t may spread any
ki nd of stori es about hi ghl y responsi bl e peopl e, even at
the ri sk of spoi l i ng the i mage of the organi zati on.
4. The speed wi th whi ch the grapevi ne spreads may al so
at ti mes prove counterproducti ve. I deal l y any message
or i nfor mati on or pol i cy deci si on shoul d take i ts own
course and ti me. But once i t l eaks i t may damage the
reputati on of the organi zati on or upset the pl ans of the
manager s.
Effecti ve use of the Grapevi ne
Wi th the above poi nts i n mi nd one can al ways r eal i ze the
ur gent need to use the gr apevi ne effecti vel y. After al l we
have to l earn to l i ve wi th i t. We cannot wi sh i t away. So, a
tactful manager has to take some posi ti ve measures to get
the best out of thi s i nformal channel of communi cati on. Gi ven
bel ow are a few i mportant poi nts i n thi s regard:
1. I n the fi r st pl ace a tactful manager wi l l k eep the
empl oyees wel l -i nfor med about or gani zati onal pol i cy
matter s, pl ans and pr ospects. Thi s wi l l check the
tendency of specul ati on that can someti mes assume
danger ous pr opor ti ons because of the el ements of fear
and anxi ety on the part of the empl oyees.
2. Fr ui tful gr oup acti vi ti es that enhance sel f wor th and
update k nowl edge shoul d be hel d as fr equentl y as
possi bl e. Thi s wi l l not onl y boost the mor al e and sel f-
confi dence of the workers but al so check thei r i ncl i nati on
to i ndul ge i n smal l tal k.
3. The manager shoul d, as far as possi bl e, have an open-
door pol i cy wi thout gi vi ng the i mpr essi on of cheap
popul ar i ty or favour i ti sm.
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4. The manager shoul d cr eate a heal thy envi r onment
wher e ther e i s r oom for per sonal tal k. But i t must be
made cl ear that wor k i s of par amount i mpor tance.
Nothi ng shoul d be al l owed to i nterfere wi th the progress
of the or gani zati on. For thi s pur pose r egul ar ti mi ngs
shoul d be fi xed up for meeti ngs wi th the empl oyees.
5. The manager must tactful l y i denti fy the l eaders and wi n
thei r confi dence so as to feel the pul se of thei r fol l owers.
6. As far as possi bl e the empl oyees, through thei r l eaders,
shoul d be associ ated wi th deci si on maki ng. Thi s wi l l
frustrate any negati ve aspect of the grapevi ne.
7. The manager must keep tr yi ng to get cl ues about hi s
styl e of functi oni ng through regul ar i nteracti on wi th the
empl oyees i n as tactful , di pl omati c manner as possi bl e.
8. Rumour mongeri ng ai med at character assassi nati on or
mal i gni ng somebody i n the organi zati on shoul d not be
encour aged. Showi ng di staste for such tal k wi l l ear n
prai se for the managers l eadershi p qual i ti es.
9. A manager must l ear n to be a good l i stener . I n thi s
connecti on i t i s worthwhi l e to enumerate the four types
of l i steni ng that are as fol l ows:
(a) Di scr i mi nati ve l i steni ng
(b) Eval uati ve l i steni ng
(c) Appr eci ati ve l i steni ng, and
(d) Empathi c l i steni ng.
Unfor tunatel y empathi c l i steni ng i s the l east pr acti sed by
managers. They may be, and mostl y they are, too busy to l i sten
empathi cal l y, that means shari ng the speakers feel i ngs. But
th ey s h ou l d n ot for get th at th i s i s a r el i ef-s eek i n g
conver sati on, and ther efor e ver y i mpor tant to bui l d up
meani ngful human rel ati ons. I t does not requi re any regul ar
trai ni ng as a psychol ogi st. But todays manager can al ways
ben efi t fr om th e i n s i gh t of moder n ps y ch o-an al y ti cal
research and l earn to practi se i nformal empathi c l i steni ng.
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Communicotion Metworks in on Orgonizotion
Communi cati on networ k s r efer to r egul ar patter ns of
i n ter acti on amon g peopl e an d a s y s temati c fl ow of
i nformati on. The two ki nds of networks that exi st are:
Formal network of communi cati on
I nformal network of communi cati on
Formol Metwork
The management l ays down the for mal communi cati on
networ ks. The networ k i s r efl ected i n the or gani zati onal
char t that shows the hi er ar chy of command. The for mal
networ k i s al so l abel l ed as the chai n-of-command model .
Al l organi zati onal pol i ci es and deci si ons ori gi nate wi th the
top hi erarchy and they fl ow down through the managers and
super vi sor s to the l ower -l evel empl oyees. Moder n day
man agemen ts , h owev er , en cou r age a l ot of open
communi cati on wi th empl oyees so that a free communi cati on
cl i mate i s gener ated for exchange of i nfor mati on. Such a
worki ng cl i mate hel ps organi zati ons to know thei r empl oyees
better, and who i n turn can understand the organi zati onal
goal s and objecti ves. I t al so hel ps the top brass to remai n i n
tune wi th the changi ng tr ends i n the mar k et, i ncr ease
effi ci ency and pr oducti vi ty, and most i mpor tantl y, bui l d
empl oyee mor al e.
Many organi zati ons these days l ay down cl ear communi cati on
pol i ci es that have to be fol l owed by empl oyees acr oss the
l ev el s. Regul ar i nter acti ons hel p the human r esour ce
department to keep assessi ng the areas for i mprovement.
The or gani zati onal char t of a company wi l l show that
i nformati on mai nl y fl ows i n three di recti ons:
1. Downwar d
2. Upwar d
3. Hor i zontal
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Downword Communicotion
I t occur s when super i or s send down messages to thei r
s u bor di n ates . Deci s i on mak er s l i k e th e CEO an d th e
manager s pass down i nfor mati on about j ob pl ans, j ob
r ati onal e, r el evant i nstr ucti ons, pol i ci es and pr ocedur es so
that the organi zati onal cul ture and nature of work are cl earl y
understood by the empl oyees. I t i s a sort of an i ndoctri nati on
pr ocess that takes pl ace. I t i s ai med at i mpr essi ng the
organi zati ons mi ssi on and vi si on upon the subordi nates and
how they can pl ay a dynami c r ol e i n ful fi l l i ng them. The
super i or s al so di scuss the feedback for cor r ecti on of er r or s
so that subordi nates can work better wi th a cl earer sense of
r esponsi bi l i ty and commi tment.
The bi ggest barri er to downward communi cati on, however,
i s the l ong l i ne of communi cati on from the top l evel to the
l ower l evel s. The l onger the l i ne of downward communi cati on,
the greater i s the chance for the di storti on of the message.
Si nce i t i s one-way communi cati on, there i s no opportuni ty
for i mmedi ate feedback. Most of the ti me, i t i s wr i tten i n
for m.
Other bar r i er s that pl ague downwar d communi cati on ar e,
super i or s per cepti on of the subor di nates and vi ce ver sa,
el ement of mi strust (empl oyees who mi strust a superi or may
bl ock the rel ay of downward messages), l ack of contact wi th
th e s u per i or , s u per i or s per cei v ed as bi as ed s ou r ce of
i nformati on than the organi zati ons grapevi ne.
However , moder n managements do r eal i ze the i mpor tance
of downwar d communi cati on and have ther efor e shor tened
the l i ne by encouragi ng team-work and i nteracti ng di rectl y
wi th the team l eaders. A study at General El ectri c reveal ed
that cl ear communi cati on between the boss and the workers
was the most i mpor tant factor i n j ob sati sfacti on. GE
l aunched a program to encourage managers to communi cate
di r ectl y wi th empl oyees, i ncl udi ng i nfor mal meeti ngs to
encour age i nter acti ons.
Managements al so have begun to pay a great deal of attenti on
to the powerful i mpact that newsl etters, company i ntranets,
and vi deos can pl ay i n speedi ng up the enti r e pr ocess of
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i nformati on fl ow. Open downward communi cati on has great
moti vati onal val ue.
Upword Communicotion
Messages that ar e sent by subor di nates to super i or s ar e
l abel ed as upwar d communi cati on. When empl oyees ar e
expected to perform and show resul ts, i t i s natural that they
mi ght exper i ence some di ffi cul ti es i n car r yi ng out the
speci fi ed tasks. I n upward communi cati on, empl oyees di scuss
thei r probl ems wi th superi ors and al so seek suggesti ons for
i mpr ov emen t, s or t ou t u n s ol v ed wor k pr obl ems , s eek
sol uti ons to r ecur r i ng confl i cts, di scuss steps for qui cker
compl eti on of projects and such other rel ated matters. Such
regul ar meeti ngs wi th subordi nates al so gi ve the superi ors
oppor tuni ti es to fi nd out what the subor di nates ar e doi ng,
and most i mportantl y what they feel about each other, the
assi gned work and about organi zati onal worki ng cl i mate.
The channel s used for communi cati on are face-to-face tal ks,
memos, r epor ts, e-mai l s and phone messages. Ther e ar e
bar r i er s, however , to upwar d communi cati on.
There may exi st a perceptual gap between the superi ors and
the subor di nates. Peopl e at l ower hi er ar chi cal l evel s may
di stort i nformati on when communi cati ng to persons of hi gher
ranks ei ther for pl easi ng the boss or i mpressi ng the boss for
a pr omoti on. The str onger the subor di nates i nter est i n
advancement and pr omoti on, gr eater i s the chance for
di stor ti on.
Todays managements have begun to see the posi ti ve resul ts
of open upward communi cati on. The open door pol i cy i s very
common wi th or gani zati ons these days. When manager s
encourage meeti ngs wi th the subordi nates, they get a chance
to i nteract wi th the subordi nates and know thei r mi nds. A
personal and human touch wi th subordi nates goes a l ong way
i n bui l di ng tr ust-r el ati onshi p wi th the subor di nates and i t
al so hel ps i n sustai ni ng thei r moral e. We al l know about Jack
Wel chs wal ki ng the tal k mantra.
Open upward communi cati on has strong advantages. Posi ti ve
appr oaches fr om the super i or s can conver t di str ustful ,
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i n tr i gu i n g an d s ch emi n g empl oy ees i n to pr odu cti v e
i ndi vi dual s. An open and heal thy communi cati on cl i mate acts
as a tou ch s ton e for qu al i ty . Th e pr es en t wor k pl ace
envi r onment of mer ger s and acqui si ti ons, cost cutti ng
measures, ri ghtsi zi ng and recrui tment of temporary workers
i s exer ti ng a gr eat deal of uncer tai nty on subor di nates. I n
fact, al mos t ev er y body i s a v i cti m of today s s wi ft
devel opments at wor kpl ace. Such fast changi ng si tuati ons
need an empatheti c under standi ng and hence today s
manager s need to be pr epar ed to deal wi th emoti onal l y
surcharged si tuati ons. At no cost shoul d the top management
over l ook the empl oyees sense of tr ust, pr i de, esteem and
respect i n such changi ng si tuati ons.
Horizontol Communicotion
Al so known as l ater al communi cati on, messages her e, ar e
pas s ed on between empl oy ees wor k i n g at th e s ame
or gani zati onal l ev el s. For ex ampl e, communi cati on i s
tr ansacted between the heads of the accounts/pr oducti on/
mai ntenance/cr eati v e/mar k eti ng and communi cati on
di vi si ons. Si mi l ar l y, wor ker s i n the offi ce and the wor ker s
on the si te are l ateral l y connected.
The advantages ar e many. Empl oyees enjoy a congeni al
en v i r on men t for di s cu s s i n g th ei r wor k wh er e th e
conventi onal hi er ar chi es do not exi st. Task coor di nati on,
br ai nstor mi ng i deas for pr ojects, shar i ng and managi ng
i nfor mati on and knowl edge, a constant endeavour to bui l d
r appor t ar e some of the benefi ts of l ater al communi cati on
networ k.
However, the bi tter si de to such i nteracti ons al so exi sts. Not
al ways do these exchanges go off smoothl y. The most common
dr awback i s the pr eval ence of pr ofessi onal r i val r y among
member s. The achi ever s mi ght thi nk about themsel ves as
super i or s to other s and hence expect pr efer ences fr om the
top management. Others may not l i ke to share i nformati on
and knowl edge wi th the achi evers. Very often, speci al i zati on
al so makes peopl e ri gi d about thei r poi nt of vi ew and whi ch
i nfl uences them to reject another perspecti ve to the probl em.
The dr awback s of l ater al networ k ar e, ther efor e, ego,
pr ejudi ce, tur f war s, ter r i tor i al i ty, jeal ousy, r i val r y and a
super i or atti tude.
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nIormol Communicotion Metwork
Because the formal communi cati on networks have i nherent
pr obl ems of command and contr ol , the i dea of i nfor mal
communi cati on network emerged wi th empl oyees pl ayi ng the
l ead r ol e. The i nfor mal communi cati on networ k i s al so
l abel l ed as grapevi ne. Shared personal experi ences, career
i nter ests, i nter per sonal attr acti on, cur i osi ty about peopl e,
thi ngs happeni ng wi thi n the or gani zati on, and s oci al
i nteracti on are the reasons behi nd i ts exi stence. Grapevi ne
i s mai nl y the network of who tal ks to whom whi ch does not
fi gure on the organi zati onal chart. Such tal ks and i nteracti ons
take pl ace i n the corri dor, near the watercool er, i n the wash
room, the l unch room, near the noti ce boards where peopl e
cl u s ter ar ou n d to ex pr es s th ei r feel i n gs wi th ou t an y
i nhi bi ti ons. They feel that such tal ks al l ow them to breathe
fresh ai r and enjoy thei r i nteracti ons.
Resear ch i ndi cates that gr apevi ne has been conventi onal l y
l i nked wi th gossi p or rumour mongers. I t i s general l y bel i eved
that peopl e who are l ess seri ous mi nded and i ndul ge i n l oose
tal ks are the ones who keep the grapevi ne al i ve and strong
i n an organi zati on. Thi s may not be al ways a correct way of
i n ter pr eti n g th e i n for mal n etwor k of commu n i cati on .
Grapevi ne exi sts because the formal network does not al ways
pr ovi de adequate i nfor mati on about or gani zati onal l i fe. So
empl oyees seek i nformati on from grapevi ne to sati sfy thei r
curi osi ty. I t may be about a superi ors bi as towards a certai n
empl oyee, the possi bi l i ty of number of publ i c hol i days bei ng
r educed, shi ft hour s bei ng changed, or somebody pr efer r ed
by the top management i s assi gned a new project and so on.
Peopl e take i nter est i n such tal ks because they ar e jui cy,
i nteresti ng, and have freshness about the stori es.
Grapevi ne al so exi sts i n organi zati ons because i nformati on
i s powerful . Whoever possesses i nformati on and i s prepared
to barter i t wi l l fi nd themsel ves i n posi ti ons of strength. Gary
Kr eps cal l s such peopl e i nfor mal l eader s and makes an
i nteresti ng observati on about them:
Peopl e who seek or gani zati onal power and i nfl uence,
es peci al l y th os e wh o do n ot h av e power fu l for mal
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hi erarchi cal posi ti ons wi thi n the organi zati on, often attempt
to gai n power by gather i ng k ey i nfor mati on about the
organi zati on and i ts members and di ssemi nati ng i t through
th e gr apev i n e. Kr eps cal l s th em th e Mach i av el l i an
per sonal i ty types.
However, contrary to the popul ar bel i ef, the grapevi ne can
be a powerful network of communi cati on i n an organi zati on.
The management often uses the ser vi ce of the i nfor mal
l eader s to di ssemi nate i nfor mati on about or gani zati onal
devel opments. Thi s way the management can contr ol the
spread of untrue rumours and unfounded fears.
Kreps observes, Rarel y do i nformal l eaders l i ke to be caught
i n a l i e. They want and need accurate i nformati on to mai ntai n
thei r i nfor mal power over other or gani zati on member s.
Vi ci ous, untr ue r umour s ar e j ust as danger ous for the
i nfor mal l eader s as for thei r vi cti m because untr uths can
undermi ne the i nformal l eaders posi ti on and power.
Moder n managements hav e r eal i zed the power of the
gr apev i n e. Th ey h av e mov ed away fr om th e r i gi d
management structure i n whi ch onl y a few of them shared
v i tal i n for mati on . Wi th th e fl atten ed h i er ar ch i cal
or gan i zati on al s tr u ctu r e, n ow fol l owed i n man y
or gani zati ons, i ncr eased team wor k and col l abor ati ve styl e
of functi oni ng have br ought empl oyees i n cl ose pr oxi mi ty.
Thi s gi ves them a chance to i nteract wel l and know the l atest
buzz i n the corri dors. Empl oyees feel i mportant because they
get a chance to keep themsel ves i nfor med about var i ous
thi ngs happeni ng and they need not be dependent on the
i nfor mal l eader s, who someti mes can become the power
br oker s.
The change i n the moder n or gani zati onal str uctur e has
r educed the power of the gr apevi ne and al most made i t a
source of l oose and unheal thy tal ks. The more work-centered
the workforce i s, better wi l l be the i nteracti ve envi ronment
of the organi zati on.
Howev er , i t i s i mpor tan t to n ote th at wh en for mal
communi cati on networ k i s weak and i neffecti ve, ther e i s
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bound to be a great deal of i rresponsi bl e tal k creepi ng i nto
the or gani zati on, and the gr apevi ne then becomes mor e a
buzz. Grapevi ne nouri shes duri ng peri ods of uncertai nty and
due to l ack of cl ear l y spel t out for mal communi cati on
networks. Empl oyees must know who i s to report to whom.
Rol e defi ni ti ons and r ol e r esponsi bi l i ti es for empl oyees ar e
i mportant for the success of an organi zati on.
Summory
The uni t has bri efl y acquai nted you wi th the dynami c nature
of communi cati on. I n communi cati on, you deal wi th i deas.
But these i deas cannot be communi cated unl ess you code
them appropri atel y ei ther i n words, or i n si gns or i n symbol s.
The thr ee Vs pl ay a si gni fi cant r ol e i n mak i ng y our
communi cati on effecti ve to the r eci pi ent. Communi cati on
may be i n any of these forms-verbal , vi sual , and vocal .
Successful communi cati on tr ansmi ts val ues, atti tudes, and
feel i ngs thr ough pr oper l y chosen wor ds. The concepts of
I SEP and I SEC i l l ustrate why and how communi cati on i s a
r esponsi bl e task.
You as a part of an organi zati on wi l l have to conduct yoursel f
r esponsi bl y not onl y i n face-to-face si tuati ons wi th bosses
and s ubor di nates but al s o wi th peopl e fr om di ffer ent
back gr ou n ds an d or gan i zati on s . Th e pr oces s of
communi cati on tel l s you that there are several el ements that
pl ay an i ntegr al par t to make i t i nter acti ve. Unl ess these
el emen ts ar e effecti v el y deal t wi th , th e i mpact of
communi cati on may be l essened. I t i s i mportant for a ski l l ed
communi cator to under stand that the fr ame of r efer ence
must be establ i shed for any communi cati on to be successful .
At wor kpl ace, one must know how to go about wi th hi s or
her wor k. An or gani zati on has both for mal and i nfor mal
communi cati on networks. One does need to understand how
the for mal networ k functi ons . Downwar d, Upwar d,
Hori zontal or Lateral communi cati on are di fferent i n many
ways. Whi l e downwar d i s command and contr ol type, the
upward communi cati on suffers because subordi nates may or
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may not be very open i n thei r i nteracti ons wi th the bosses.
The per ceptual gap often cr eates thi s l ack of i nter acti on
between the superi ors and the subordi nates. The l ateral l evel
of i nteracti on demands a good deal of pol i shed i nterpersonal
s k i l l s fr om man ager s . Th e i n for mal n etwor k of
communi cati on, popul arl y cal l ed the grapevi ne, unl i ke the
formal network, i s peopl e ori ented. When the formal network
fai l s to keep the empl oyees i nformed about the happeni ngs
i n the or gani zati on, the i nfor mal networ k functi ons wi th
gr eater effi cacy.
Al though these networ ks have i nher ent pr obl ems, moder n
managements, through team- work, meeti ngs and open door
pol i cy, have r educed the i nfl uence of the gr apevi ne. Of
course, grapevi ne can al so be put to good use.
The communi cati on concepts and exampl es fr om r eal l i fe
exper i ences offer you gl i mpses i nto the compl ex natur e of
communi cati on.
Key Foints
(i ) Al l communi cati on passes thr ough some wel l -defi ned
stages or channel s.
(i i ) Th e ch an n el s of commu n i cati on ar e for mal an d
i nfor mal .
(i i i ) The for mal channel of communi cati on i s the most
effecti ve.
(i v) The i nformal channel i s al so cal l ed the grapevi ne.
(v) Both for mal and i nfor mal channel s have thei r own
pr obl ems.
(vi ) A resourceful manager can put the grapevi ne to great
use.
keview Questions
1. What do you mean by the phrase through proper channel ?
2. Why i s the i nformal channel cal l ed the grapevi ne?
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3. How does th e for mal ch an n el s ometi mes i n h i bi t
i nformati on? Di scuss wi th some exampl es.
4. What factor s ar e r esponsi bl e for the gr owth of the
gr apevi ne?
5. Why i s i t necessar y for an or gani zati on to have an
i nformal channel of communi cati on si de by si de wi th a
for mal channel ?
6. How man y ty pes of gr apev i n e ch ai n s h av e been
i denti fi ed? How do they functi on?
7. What are the demeri ts of the grapevi ne? Di scuss wi th
ex ampl es , s ome pr obl ems cr eated by i t i n s ome
or gani zati on/or gani zati ons.
8. Wri te a note on how a manager can effecti vel y control
the gr apevi ne.
9. Wri te short notes on the fol l owi ng:
(a) The rumour mi l l
(b) Probabi l i ty chai n
(c) Empathi c l i steni ng
(d) Pl anned l eak of i nformati on
(e) Li ai son i ndi vi dual s
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7EJ $
Verbol Communicolion
ntroduction
Man i s the onl y speci es gi fted wi th l anguage. And the use of
l anguage i s pri mari l y i n speech. Wri ti ng comes afterwards.
That i s why we are taki ng up oral communi cati on before i ts
wri tten counterpart. I n any organi zati on, as i n everyday l i fe,
whi l e communi cati ng both for mal l y and i nfor mal l y, we
communi cate more oral l y than i n wri ti ng. I t i s pri mari l y oral
communi cati on that bui l ds up human rel ati onshi ps. I t i s the
use of the gi ft of speech, or tal ki ng that bri ngs the members
of a fami l y, nei ghbours and fri ends, and l i kewi se, col l eagues
i n an organi zati on together. Wi thout oral communi cati on any
or gani zati on wi l l become j ust l i fel ess. I ts i mpor tance,
ther efor e, cannot be over emphasi zed.
Formol vs nIormol Orol Communicotion
I n a busi ness organi zati on there are ampl e opportuni ti es for
both formal and i nformal oral communi cati on, But i n fact, a
l ot more ti me i s spent i n i nformal oral communi cati on. The
si mpl e r eason i s that al l communi cati on i s essenti al l y
conversati onal i n nature and has a soci al purpose. Whenever
peopl e get togeth er th er e i s bou n d to be face-to-face
communi cati on i n whi ch they wi l l shar e al l sor ts of i deas,
feel i ngs, etc. The or i gi n of the gr apevi ne l i es her e. The
i mportance of the grapevi ne has been di scussed earl i er.
An oth er v er y fr equ en tl y u s ed ty pe of i n for mal or al
communi cati on i s cal l ed phati c communi cati on. General l y,
i t i s not regarded as i mportant. But the fact i s that i t i s very
Objectives
O Formal versus Informal Oral Communication
O Factors Inhibiting Effective Oral Communication
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vi tal i n establ i shi ng rel ati onshi ps. For exampl e, by maki ng
comments on the weather or putti ng questi ons about the
heal th of the fami l y one br eaks the i ce and gets i nto a
di al ogue wi th the person before hi m. I t i s just a ri tual i zed
way of speaki ng i n whi ch what i s sai d i s not as i mportant as
the fact that i t i s sai d at al l . Thi s ki nd of di al ogue generates
war mth i n r el ati onshi p wi th fr i ends or col l eagues and
promotes further communi cati on by mai ntai ni ng contact wi th
the l i stener .
Si de by si de wi th, and i n addi ti on to, the i nfor mal or al
communi cati on, vari ous ki nds of formal oral communi cati on
take pl ace i n an organi zati on. Very often peopl e i n busi ness
have to make formal presentati ons before a group that may
be l arge or smal l . At other ti mes they have to parti ci pate i n
meeti ngs and group di scussi ons. Ti me to ti me they have to
appear for or conduct i nter vi ews. Most of the l etter s and
r epor ts ar e l ar gel y di ctated. Al l these ar e for mal ki nds of
oral communi cati on. I n thi s way we see that both formal and
i nformal types of oral communi cati on thri ve together.
Advontoges oI Orol Communicotion
Or al communi cati on i s the most fr equentl y used means of
sendi ng messages because i t has certai n di sti nct advantages.
Some of these advantages are gi ven bel ow:
(a) The greatest advantage of oral communi cati on i s that i t
pr ovi des i mmedi ate feedback and cl ar i fi cati on. Peopl e
l i steni ng to the speak er can ask questi ons, mak e
comments, add to the i nformati on provi ded and so on.
Both the speaker and the l i stener/l i steners by turn can
enter i nto a ki nd of short di al ogue and make the whol e
communi cati on event pur poseful .
(b) Oral communi cati on bui l ds up a heal thy cl i mate i n the
or gan i zati on by br i n gi n g th e s u per i or an d th e
subor di nate together . Thi s gi ves the subor di nate a
feel i n g of i mpor tan ce an d th e s u per i or a better
understandi ng of hi s mi nd. I nformal or pl anned meeti ngs
can greatl y contri bute to the understandi ng of probl ems/
i ssues i n whi ch they become partners.
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(c) Or al communi cati on i s a ti me-savi ng devi ce. Whi l e a
l etter di ctated and typed, enter ed i n the di ar y, put i n
the envel ope and car r i ed to the per son addr essed wi l l
take a l ong ti me, oral transmi ssi on of the message makes
the communi cati on i mmedi atel y effecti ve. That i s why
many ski l ful managers cut down on paper work and save
ti me by cal l i ng up thei r juni ors or wal ki ng up to thei r
super i or s.
(d) Or al commu n i cati on i s th e mos t effecti v e tool of
per suasi on as i t l ends a per sonal touch to the whol e
busi ness. Resol vi ng a confl i ct wi l l not be possi bl e i n the
absence of or al communi cati on. Unl ess a manager /
super vi sor tal ks to the wor ker s i n a per suasi ve tone,
the confl i ct wi l l r emai n ther e. No exchange of l etter s
can achi eve what a meeti ng can.
(e) I n conti nuati on of the pr evi ous poi nt we can see that
oral communi cati on i s very effecti ve i n i nteracti ng wi th
gr oups. The speaker can i mmedi atel y under stand the
groups reacti on and arri ve at a sati sfactory concl usi on
by putti ng hi s vi ews across and exchangi ng poi nts.
(f) Or al communi cati on i s al so ver y economi cal , both i n
terms of money and ti me. I t saves the money spent on
stati onery i n organi zati ons i n whi ch the managers i nsi st
on every i nstructi on, every message i n wri ti ng.
(g) Oral communi cati on provi des ampl e scope to the sender
of the message to mak e hi msel f cl ear by sui tabl y
changi ng hi s words, voi ce, tone, pi tch, etc. On the other
hand, the words once wri tten cannot be changed. I n other
wor ds, the message once tr ansmi tted i n wr i tten for m
cannot be r etr acted. Or al communi cati on on the other
hand, has the advantage of on-the spot adaptati on/
wi thdr awal /i mpr ovement.
Disodvontoges oI Orol Communicotion
Or al communi cati on al s o has s ome di s adv antages as
di scussed bel ow:
(a) Or al communi cati on does not al ways save ti me and
money. Qui te often meeti ngs go on wi thout any resul ts
or agreements achi eved. Such meeti ngs can be very ti ri ng
and wasteful .
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(b) Or al communi cati on i n i tsel f i s not al ways effecti ve.
Ther e ar e cer tai n condi ti ons that must be necessar i l y
ful fi l l ed i n order to make i t effecti ve. I t depends mai nl y
on the atti tude of the sender and the r ecei ver of the
message.
(c) Human memory bei ng what i t i s, oral messages cannot
be retai ned for a l ong ti me. I t means that they must be
acted upon i mmedi atel y. They cannot be found i n record
books and we cannot refer back to them. Thi s i s a seri ous
l i mi tati on of oral communi cati on.
(d) I n the abs ence of a taped or wr i tten r ecor d, or al
messages do not have any l egal val i di ty.
(e) Oral messages al so can l ead to mi sunderstandi ng i f the
speaker has not careful l y organi zed hi s thought or the
l i s ten er mi s s es th e mes s age on accou n t of h i s
i nattenti veness.
(f) Much depends upon the l ength of the message. I f i t i s
l ong i t i s not sui tabl e for oral transmi ssi on. There are
ch an ces of s ometh i n g v i tal getti n g dr opped or
mi sconstr ued.
(g) I t i s di ffi cul t to assi gn responsi bi l i ty for anythi ng goi ng
ami ss or any mi stake by omi ssi on or commi ssi on i n oral
communi cati on.
Foctors nhibiting EIIective Orol Communicotion
Th er e ar e s ev er al factor s wh i ch i mpede pr oper or al
communi cati on between speaker and the l i stener . Some of
these are as fol l ows:
1. Exper i ence and backgr ounds di ffer between
speaker and l i stener : Ever yone cor r el ates what he
hears or sees wi th hi s own experi ence. To some peopl e
ri sk taki ng i s a way of l i fe. They thri ve on i t. However,
r i sk taki ng may be agai nst the sense of secur i ty of a
person who has perhaps burnt hi s fi ngers once. Speaker
mi ght have been born i n a very affl uent fami l y wi th hi gh
soci al standi ng. The l i stener mi ght bel ong to a mi ddl e
cl as s fami l y wi th con s er v ati v e atti tu des . Th ei r
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backgr ounds di ffer . Ther efor e, under standi ng di ffer s.
Both of them mi ght be speaki ng Engl i sh, but thei r
wavel engths are al together di fferent and the two do not
understand each other. I nstead of heari ng what peopl e
tel l us, we hear onl y what our mi nds tel l us.
2. We fai l to convey the i nformati on the l i stener needs
and can understand: For exampl e, a manager may feed
a subordi nates mi nd wi th i nformati on he i s not ready
to grasp. For exampl e, i f suddenl y a manager i nstructs
a subordi nate about detai l ed techni ques of pl anni ng, he
wi l l not be abl e to understand anythi ng unl ess he al ready
knows the basi cs of the pl anni ng process. Si mi l arl y, i f
someone spoke of computer s to a per son who had no
knowl edge whatsoever of computers, the resul t wi l l be
a bl ank l ook.
3. Our stereotypes and bel i efs i nfl uence what we hear:
For exampl e, a man wi th a strong prejudi ce gets some
i nformati on that contradi cts i t. Hi s tendency wi l l be to
twi st the i nfor mati on so that i t suppor ts r ather than
negates hi s prejudi ce. To ci te a case: A i s a good offi ce
wor k er bu t h ates ou tdoor wor k . For h i s car eer
progressi on, hi s manager makes hi m a sal esman. A sees
thi s benevol ent act to be a puni shment for hi m. He hates
the work, so he i s sure he wi l l fai l there. He thi nks the
manager knows thi s and i s acti ng to purposeful l y rui n
hi s car eer .
4. Our emoti onal state of mi nd col ours what we hear:
A worri ed, fearful empl oyee fi nds a threat i n everythi ng
he hears. Fear fi l ters qui te a l ot of communi cati on. We
attach meani ngs whi ch just do not exi st. Si mi l arl y, other
emoti ons l i ke hatred or l ove col our i nformati on that we
r ecei ve.
5. Often we di scredi t a speakers message because we
suspect hi s moti ve: The cl assi c exampl e of thi s barri er
i s to be found i n l abour -management r el ati ons. Many
uni on members are convi nced that the management i s
anti -l abour , and r efuse to bel i eve anythi ng that the
management tel l s them. Si mi l arl y, the management feel s
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that gri evances are pol i ti cal maneuvers desi gned to wi n
uni on votes. Because of such cl ose-mi nded atti tudes, i t
i s i mpossi bl e for each si de to mak e i tsel f pr oper l y
under stood.
6. We fai l to eval uate the meani ng behi nd what we
hear: Someti mes, we go to the opposi te extreme- i nstead
of judgi ng what we hear by the speaker s i magi ned
moti v e, we compl etel y i gn or e th e pos s i bl e l aten t
meani ngs of hi s words. We often tend to forget that most
statements are a combi nati on of facts and feel i ngs. For
exampl e, a worker who often compl ai ns that hi s machi ne
has broken down, perhaps doesnt l i ke hi s work. Letti ng
hi s machi ne br eak-down, i s per haps a good way to
communi cate hi s feel i ngs.
7. Often, what we say has symbol i c meani ngs for
others: What we say often has far greater meani ng than
what appears on the surface. That i s why one often gets
sur pr i si ngl y str ong r eacti ons to what one consi der s a
ver y mi l d statement. For exampl e, a management
announces the i ntr oducti on of El ectr oni c Bank Ledger
Posti ng but i t i s under stood by the bank uni on as a
prel ude to decl ari ng peopl e surpl us, or the bl ocki ng of
promoti on avenues and so on.
8. Words have di fferent meani ngs for di fferent peopl e:
The speaker and l i stener i nter pr et wor ds di ffer entl y.
I n fact, as year s pr ogr ess, wor ds themsel ves come to
h av e di ffer en t mean i n gs . To ci te an ex ampl e,
automobi l e means a sel f-pr opel l ed vehi cl e but we
know i t does not i ncl ude a scooter or a farm tractor. I f
one says: moral , another may ask i f danci ng, dri nki ng,
smoki ng, or eati ng beef i s mor al . Cathol i cs feel bi r th
control i s not moral . I s the breaki ng of a prohi bi ti on l aw
moral ? I f we l ook at a di cti onary we woul d be amazed at
the many meani ngs common words have. For exampl e,
the word cat has ni ne meani ngs- al l di fferent.
9. Our reference group often di ctates the way we hear
a message: We often i denti fy oursel ves as a group and
thi s tends to shape our opi ni ons on many matters. For
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exampl e, mai ntenance men gener al l y thi nk that the
machi ne workers do not handl e machi nes properl y and
thi s causes more breakdowns. The workers thi nk that
breakdowns occur because of sl oppy mai ntenance. Many
str ong feel i ngs ar e gener ated because of i magi ned
sl i ghts.
10. Tendency to eval uate: The major bar r i er to mutual
i nter per sonal communi cati on i s our natur al tendency
to judge, to eval uate, to appr ove (or di sappr ove) the
statement of the other per son. Al though the tendency
to make eval uati on i s common i n al most al l i nterchange
of l anguage, i t i s v er y much hei ghtened i n thos e
si tuati ons wher e feel i ngs and emoti ons ar e deepl y
i nvol ved. So, the stronger our feel i ngs, the more l i kel y
i t i s that ther e wi l l be no common el ement i n the
communi cati on. Ther e wi l l be j ust two i deas, two
feel i ngs, two judgements, bypassi ng each other due to
emoti onal bar r i er s.
Thi s tendency to r eact to any emoti onal l y char ged
statement by formi ng an eval uati on of i t from our own
poi n t of v i ew i s a maj or bar r i er to i n ter per s on al
communi cati on.
Key Foints
(i ) Speech comes before wri ti ng. Hence there i s more oral
communi cati on than wri tten.
(i i ) There i s more i nformal oral communi cati on than formal
or al communi cati on.
(i i i ) Ther e ar e var i ous types of for mal or al communi cati on
l i ke face-to-face tal ki ng, oral presentati ons, i ntervi ews
etc.
(i v) Or al communi cati on has cer tai n di sti nct advantages
over wr i tten communi cati on l i ke i mmedi ate feedback,
qui ckness of transmi ssi on etc.
(v) Oral communi cati on al so has certai n di sadvantages l i ke
waste of ti me, l ack of r etenti on, l ack of l egal val i di ty,
etc.
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keview Questions
1. Why do we have more oral communi cati on than wri tten?
Gi ve r easons.
2. What do you mean by phati c communi cati on? I l l ustrate
your answer wi th some exampl es.
3. What, accor di ng to you, ar e the thr ee most i mpor tant
advantages of oral communi cati on?
4. On the one hand i t i s sai d that oral communi cati on saves
ti me and on the other i t i s sai d that i t wastes ti me. How
and why does i t happen? Di scuss wi th some exampl es
known to you. Otherwi se, you coul d i nvent any names
and detai l s.
5. Di s cus s the factor s that I nhi bi t Effecti v e Or al
Communi cati on.
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Non-verbol Communicolion
ntroduction
Non-ver bal communi cati on r efer s to al l exter nal sti mul i
other than spoken or wr i tten wor ds and i ncl udi ng body
moti on, characteri sti cs of appearance, characteri sti cs of voi ce
and use of space and di stanci ng. Al l these non-verbal cl ues
taken together are al so known as body l anguage. I n day to
day oral communi cati on we keep on i nterpreti ng non-verbal
cl ues wi thout bei ng awar e that we ar e doi ng so. I t i s onl y
ver y r ecentl y that a systemati c study has been made to
anal yze non-verbal communi cati on and kinesics i s the name
gi ven to thi s branch of l earni ng. Some schol ars however prefer
to cal l the use of space and di stanci ng as proxemics whereas
some i ncl ude the study of voi ce qual i ty as part of the vocal
aspect of oral communi cati on.
Body l anguage pl ays a si gni fi cant rol e i n oral communi cati on.
Si gmu n d Fr eu ds obs er v ati on may appear to be an
exaggerati on but i t i s the exaggerati on of a vi tal truth: He
that has eyes to see and ears to hear may convi nce hi msel f
that no mor tal can keep a secr et. I f hi s l i ps ar e si l ent he
chats wi th hi s fi ngerti ps; betrayal oozes out of hi m at every
Objectives
O Personal Appearance
O Posture
O Gestures
O Facial Expression
O Eye Contact
O Space Distancing
O Listening
O Silence as Communication
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pore... I t i s bel i eved that a charmi ng person has a pl easant
voi ce, a dynami c person has a vi brant voi ce and a confi dent
person an assured voi ce.
Recentl y an attempt has been made to make a systemati c
study of the el ements whi ch are vi sual l y percei ved and thei r
r ol e i n communi cati on. That i s why these el ements ar e
col l ecti vel y termed as the vi si bl e code. Though verbal and
non-verbal means of communi cati on are cl osel y i nterl i nked,
cer tai n s tu di es h av e tr i ed to s epar ate th ei r r el ati v e
i mportance i n terms of the i mpact of the message. Accordi ng
to Bi rdwhi stel l , 35% of the message i s carri ed verbal l y, whi l e
65% i s conveyed non-verbal l y. Mehrabi an (1971) has anal yzed
the i mpact of a message as fol l ows: 7% verbal , 38% vocal and
55% non-verbal . Though the studi es i n thi s area are i n thei r
i nfancy, tr ai ni ng i n the pr oper use of the vi si bl e code i s
essenti al to acqui re the ski l l of effecti ve communi cati on. I n
fact, effi ci ency i n i ts use can to some extent make up for the
defi ci ency i n ver bal communi cati on. We al l can r ecal l
si tuati ons i n whi ch the speakers command over the l anguage
was defi ci ent and yet he was abl e to dri ve the message home
because of the proper use of hi s body l anguage.
We may categori ze the el ements of the vi si bl e code as fol l ows:
Fersonol Appeoronce
The fi rst i mpact on the audi ence/l i stener i s created by the
personal appearance of the speaker. Even before the speaker
utters the fi rst syl l abl e we begi n to form an opi ni on about
h i m an d v i s u al i ze th e way h e i s goi n g to tal k . On es
appearance may put the audi ence i nto a resi stant or even a
hosti l e atti tude or i nduce i n them a recepti ve mood whi ch i s
essenti al for the success of communi cati on. I t i s par tl y
because of thi s that uni forms have been prescri bed by certai n
organi zati ons as al so the ki nd of dress that shoul d be worn
on cer tai n speci fi ed occasi ons. A uni for m may i ndi cate the
ki nd of work one does or i nsti l l a sense of oneness or be a
marker of status. I n fact, conventi ons have been establ i shed
i n regard to the use of dress and general physi cal appearance
i n r espect of cer tai n communi cati on si tuati ons such as
i nter vi ew, convocati on, state banquet, etc. We ar e al l
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accustomed to l ooki ng for cl ues about the personal i ty of an
i ndi vi dual i n terms of hi s dress, hai r styl e, make-up, etc.
Fosture
Posture al so conveys a weal th of meani ng i n an economi cal
way. I t i s an i mportant part of body l anguage and general l y
refers to the way one stands, si ts and wal ks. The movement
of the body, the posi ti on of hands and l egs and other parts of
the body reveal an i ndi vi dual s personal i ty _whether he i s
vi br ant, al i ve and dynami c, ner vous and ji tter y, confi dent
and sel f-assur ed, etc. A good speak er stands tal l , feet
together wi th the wei ght di r ectl y over the i nstep keepi ng
hi s chi n on a l i ne paral l el to the fl oor or at ri ght angl es to
the backbone. Standi ng i n thi s posture before a group i s i n
fact one of the fi r st essenti al s for success i n speaki ng. A
dr oopi ng shoul der and a pr otr udi ng stomach i ndi cate that
the speaker i s di scouraged, ti red and worn out. The posture
of si tti ng may exude an ai r of opti mi sm, or despondency, or
be i ndi cati ve of a sense of fai l ur e or of i nattenti veness. To
some extent a speaker can gauge the measure of success of
hi s communi cati on by observi ng the posture of the l i stener.
The communi cati on si tuati on and the speci fi c purpose whi ch
one has to achi eve determi ne the way one si ts. For exampl e,
a subordi nate whi l e sel l i ng an i dea to hi s boss or expl ai ni ng
an i mportant poi nt woul d not recl i ne i n hi s chai r. I n a group
di scussi on the person who takes a turn to speak changes his
postur e when he star ts communi cati ng. A pr ospecti ve
speaker on the dai s i s watched by the audi ence whi ch tri es
to guess the ki nd of man he i s from the way he si ts. Whi l e
di ffer ent si tuati ons wi l l demand di ffer ent si tti ng postur es,
one shoul d keep ones back strai ght from the wai st up, both
the feet shoul d be on the fl oor , one sl i ghtl y i n fr ont of the
other. The abdomi nal muscl es shoul d be pul l ed i n. The chest
shoul d come out i n l i ne. The abi l i ty to wal k across the stage
wi th ease and gr ace contr i butes a gr eat deal to the fi r st
i mpr essi on the speak er mak es upon hi s audi ence. The
wal ki ng posture may convey whether a speaker i s confi dent,
energeti c and vi tal or wi thdrawn, di ffi dent and nervous. To
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wal k gr aceful l y one shoul d r emember the fol l owi ng ti ps:
move the l egs fr eel y fr om the hi ps; l i ft your feet fr om the
fl oor ; do not dr ag or shuffl e them; wal k i n a str ai ght l i ne;
avoi d a stri de or taki ng ti ny steps.
Whi l e speak i ng, natur al l y ther e woul d be shi fts i n the
posture. These have to be cul ti vated. One must l earn where
to pl ace ones hands and how to shi ft the wei ght of the body
on the l egs whi l e speaki ng.
Gestures
Ges tu r es too pl ay a s i gn i fi can t r ol e i n mak i n g th e
communi cati on effecti ve. A wel l -ti med gestur e can dr i ve a
poi nt home. Si mi l arl y, pl ayi ng wi th a ri ng, twi sti ng a key-
chai n, or cl aspi ng ones hand ti ghtl y r ob a speaker of the
effecti veness of hi s communi cati on. Someti mes gestures do
not accompany or al del i ver y and ar e used to communi cate
certai n el ementary and short messages such as yes, no,
come her e , go ther e , k eep si tti ng , be si l ent , etc.
However , al l or al communi cati ons ar e accompani ed by
gestures such as, shruggi ng of the shoul ders, fl ouri sh of the
hands, movement of the head, etc. I n fact, wi thout the
accompanyi ng gestures i t woul d be di ffi cul t to speak. These
gestures enhance the i mpact and add a greater val ue to what
i s bei ng sai d besi des exerci si ng a more powerful i mpact upon
the l i stener . To l ear n and to make appr opr i ate gestur es i t
woul d be useful to practi se before a mi rror, seeki ng gui dance
fr om fr i ends and col l eagues who ar e consi der ed effecti ve
communi cator s. Thus, thr ough a pr ocess of sel f-eval uati on
i n the use of gestures one can certai nl y i mprove and achi eve
greater effi ci ency i n the art of speaki ng.
Fociol Expression
Of al l the parts of the body the face i s the most expressi ve. A
s mi l e (fr i endl i nes s ), a fr own (di s content), r ai s i ng the
ey ebr ows (di s bel i ef), or ti gh ten i n g th e j aw mu s cl es
(antagoni sm) can add to the meani ng bei ng conveyed through
verbal means. A wooden expressi on on the face may prejudi ce
the l i steners whereas bri ghtness i n the eyes may keep thei r
i nterest sustai ned and al so evoke an enthusi asti c response.
Exudi ng zeal when one i s maki ng a poi nt or smi l i ng whi l e
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expl ai ni ng an i ntri cate probl em makes the job of the speaker
easy. We can recal l occasi ons where what coul d have been
effecti ve communi cati on turned out to be a fai l ure because
the speaker di d not have pr oper faci al expr essi ons. Bi ti ng
the l i ps, rai si ng the eyebrows at regul ar i nterval s or bl i nki ng
the eyes too often can cer tai nl y mar the smooth fl ow of
communi cati on.
Eye Contoct
Eye contact wi th the l i stener i s perhaps the most i mportant
aspect of the body l anguage. I t has been ri ghtl y sai d that the
eye i s an extensi on of the brai n and a wi ndow of the soul .
Stress i s l ai d on conti nuous eye contact between the speaker
and the l i stener because i t tel l s whether the speaker i s
si ncer e and al so whether the l i stener i s i nter ested. Eye
con tact i s a mean s of gai n i n g feedback , en abl i n g th e
communi cator to al ter, adjust and reframe hi s message whi l e
transmi tti ng i t. Very often thi s process i s automati c and the
i nter acti on thr ough eyes between the speak er and the
l i stener takes pl ace unconsci ousl y. Studi es have shown that
better eye-contact l eads to more effecti ve communi cati on. A
good speaker therefore l ooks at al l secti ons of hi s audi ence
and not on the ground, the cei l i ng or at the door. I f a secti on
of the audi ence i s conti nuousl y i gnored, i t wi l l l ose i nterest
i n what i s bei ng communi cated.
Spoce Distoncing
Each communi cator mai ntai ns a per sonal ter r i tor y ar ound
hi msel f. He normal l y does not al l ow i t to be i nvaded at the
ti me of communi cati on unl ess the rel ati onshi p between hi m
and the l i stener i s ver y fr i endl y or i nti mate. I n soci al
i nter cour se, nor mal l y, a zone r angi ng fr om 4 to 12 feet i s
mai ntai ned when the si tuati on i s formal . Thi s i s termed as
social distance. Thi s ter m al so i ncl udes a r efer ence to the
standing-seated position. The person who i s i n the superi or
or commandi ng posi ti on, usual l y stands and the other s
r emai n seated. For exampl e, i t may be di ffi cul t to contr ol
th e cl as s (i n fact, an y gr ou p) i f th e teach er does n ot
communi cate i n a standi ng posi ti on. Thus, i n a l arge group
di scussi on one can prove more effecti ve i f one stands whi l e
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speaki ng. I n publ i c gather i ngs the di stance between the
audi ence and the communi cator i s much gr eater - i t may
r ange fr om 12 to 30 feet dependi ng upon many other
consi der ati ons (e.g. secur i ty).
Space di stanci ng di ffer s fr om cul tur e to cul tur e and i t can
cause embarrassment to a communi cator i n a forei gn cul tural
setti ng. For exampl e, i n I ndi a two mal e adul ts may hug each
other and wal k hand i n hand si mpl y because they are fri ends,
wher eas i n another countr y thei r r el ati onshi p may be
mi sconstr ued. An Amer i can may fi nd an I ndi an too cl ose
(di stance-wi se) to hi m whi l e tal ki ng and to avoi d thi s he may
l ean back i n hi s chai r . However , i n hei ghtened emoti onal
states of mi nd (e.g. anger , shock , danger ), the nor mal
di stanci ng i s i gnor ed.
To concl ude, two thi ngs cl earl y emerge out of thi s di scussi on:
one, the vi si bl e code i s as i mportant as the verbal code and
trai ni ng i n the use of the former i s as essenti al as i n the use
of the l atter ; two, the vi si bl e code di ffer s fr om cul tur e to
cul tur e and car e shoul d be taken to use the appr opr i ate
symbol s i n cross-cul tural contexts. I n I ndi a the si tuati on i s
more compl ex i n as much as a forei gn verbal code has to be
accompani ed by a nati ve vi si bl e code.
Listening
No or al communi cati on can be effecti ve wi thout pr oper
l i steni ng on the part of the recei ver of the message. As we
have di scussed how a tactful manager can ver y posi ti vel y
handl e the grapevi ne or i nformal channel of communi cati on
by empathi c l i steni ng. Here, i n thi s secti on, we are goi ng to
focus on maki ng oral communi cati on effecti ve by i mprovi ng
l i steni ng.
Poor l i s ten i n g may defeat th e v er y pu r pos e of or al
communi cati on. I t has been found by author i ti es on the
subject that general l y peopl e retai n onl y about one fourth of
what they hear after two days. I n thi s way l i steni ng becomes
the weakest l i nk i n oral communi cati on.
I t i s, ther efor e, ver y i mpor tant to i mpr ove the abi l i ty to
l i sten. I t requi res seri ous efforts on the part of the l i stener
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to absorb what he i s bei ng tol d. I t i s l argel y a matter of mental
condi ti oni ng. We wi l l l i sten careful l y onl y i f we want to l i sten.
Mostl y peopl e become l azy, and l i steni ng r equi r es ser i ous
work. We have to trai n oursel ves to l i sten attenti vel y. Wi th
an al ert mi nd we have to l earn to pay attenti on to spoken
words. The best gui dance i n thi s regard i s contai ned i n the
fol l owi ng. Ten Commandments of Li steni ng as formul ated
by Kei th Davi s and John W. Newstrom:
1. Stop tal ki ng: Unfor tunatel y, most of us ar e mor e
prone to tal ki ng than l i steni ng. General l y we are more
i nterested i n what we want to say than i n what we are
bei ng tol d. So we must stop tal ki ng before we l i sten.
2. Put the tal ker at ease: I f the speaker/tal ker i s not at
ease he wi l l not be abl e to do hi s job sati sfactori l y. So i t
i s very i mportant for the l i stener/l i steners to make the
tal ker comfor tabl e.
3. Show the tal ker that you want to l i sten: The tal ker
must be gi ven to understand that the l i stener/l i steners
are eager to l i sten. Hence, i t i s i mportant not to di stract
the tal ker by l ooki ng at your watch, readi ng some book
or newspaper or l ooki ng away from hi m. Moreover, you
shoul d gi ve the tal ker the i mpr essi on that you ar e
l i steni ng to hi m to understand rather than to oppose.
4. Remove di stracti ons: Certai n acti vi ti es l i ke tappi ng
wi th a pen or penci l , shuffl i ng paper s or passi ng
somethi ng al ong di stracts the tal ker.
5. Empathi ze wi th the tal ker : Tr u e ex ch an ge of
i nformati on can take pl ace onl y i f we pl ace oursel ves i n
the posi ti on of the tal ker. Thi s way we wi l l be abl e to
appr eci ate hi s poi nt of vi ew and bui l d up a cl i mate
conduci ve to communi cati on.
6. Be pati ent: Pati ence pays. Thi s sayi ng hol ds good i n
ever y si tuati on. We shoul d gi ve enough ti me to the
tal ker. There are al l ki nds of tal kers. Some get to the
poi nt very qui ckl y, whi l e some take a l ot more ti me. So
we must gi ve the tal ker enough ti me to come to hi s poi nt
i n hi s own way. We must not be tempted to i nterrupt.
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7. Hol d your temper : Anger i s the wor st enemy of
communi cati on as i t bui l ds wal l s among the parti ci pants
i n the communi cati on event. I t hardens thei r posi ti ons
and bl ocks thei r mi nds to others words.
8. Go easy on ar gument and cr i ti ci sm: As Dal e
Car negi e has ver y succi nctl y sai d, you cannot wi n an
ar gu men t. Ar gu men t an d cr i ti ci s m do n ot l ead
anywhere. On the other hand, argument and cri ti ci sm
put the tal ker on the defensi ve and make hi m angry.
9. Ask questi ons: Putti ng questi ons shows an open mi nd.
I t shows that you are l i steni ng. I t shows that you are
getti ng the message and al so gi vi ng the feedback.
10. Stop tal ki ng: Thi s i s the l ast as wel l as the fi r st
commandment. Al l other commandments or r ul es of
l i steni ng depend on i t. I n thi s way we see that we can
i mpr ove our l i steni ng onl y thr ough consci ous effor t.
Here i t i s worth whi l e to consi der the rol e of si l ence i n
communi cati on.
Silence os Communicotion
Si l ence, by i ts very nature, communi cates. I t can al so be deftl y
used to communi cate. There i s an age ol d sayi ng - Si l ence i s
hal f consent . Yes, ver y often, especi al l y i n r esponse to a
request or a questi on regardi ng our opi ni on about somethi ng,
we k eep qui et. That ser ves the pur pose. I t shows our
approach i s posi ti ve. On the other hand, si l ence can al so send
out a negati ve si gnal . For exampl e, i f somebody asks us for a
l oan and we keep qui et i t wi l l general l y be construed as a
negati ve response. I t we want to hel p somebody we openl y
say so. Si l ence al so shows our di si nterestedness i n somethi ng.
Our i nterest i n somethi ng or somebody freel y comes to our
l i ps and i s evi dent through our eyes. I nterest has an i nbui l t
el emen t of ex ci temen t wh i l e l ack of i n ter es t i s bes t
expr essed thr ough si l ence. And we al so k eep qui et to
suppr ess our anger . A keen obser ver can easi l y make out
our atti tude and i nterpret our si l ence i n such a si tuati on.
Col l ecti ve si l ence of workers i n an offi ce communi cates a l ot
about thei r atti tude to wor k and thei r cul tur e. Ther e i s a
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wor l d of di ffer ence between a pl ace buzzi ng wi th r aucous
noi ses and one that has peopl e wor ki ng qui etl y. Wor ki ng
qui etl y shows sati sfacti on whi l e maki ng noi ses at work shows
some di scontent.
I n a meeti ng or group di scussi on i f somebody keeps qui et i t
i s construed that he i s mental l y absent or probabl y not real l y
i nterested i n what i s goi ng on. I t may al so be i nterpreted as
hi s i gnorance of the matter bei ng di scussed. I n the same way
a candi dates si l ence i n an i ntervi ew betrays hi s i gnorance.
Si l ence on the part of the audi ence at the ti me of a speech
shows i nterest and parti ci pati ve l i steni ng. Speaki ng at such
a ti me wi l l di stract the speaker and gi ve a poor i mpressi on
of the audi ence. That i s why qui te often we hear Si l ence
pl ease! I n thi s way we see that si l ence i s a mul ti pr onged
communi cati on tool and speaks l ouder than words.
Key Foints
(i ) Li steni ng i s very i mportant to make oral communi cati on
effecti ve.
(i i ) One has to make seri ous effort to become a good l i stener.
(i i i ) Si l ence al so communi cates i n di fferent ways.
keview Questions
1. Wri te a note on the i mportance of l i steni ng. Why i s i t
necessary to stop tal ki ng?
2. Vi sual i ze a si tuati on i n whi ch, i n the mi dst of your
speech, you ar e r epeatedl y i nter r upted by a l i stener .
What effect wi l l i t have on the enti r e communi cati on
event?
3. Wr i te a note on the exper ts advi ce, Empathi ze wi th
the tal ker .
4. Why i s a l i stener advi sed to go easy on argument and
cr i ti ci sm?
5. How does aski ng questi ons hel p a speaker/tal ker?
6. Wri te a note on si l ence as a means of communi cati on.
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Borriers lo Elleclive
Communicolion
ntroduction
There are many barri ers i n effecti ve communi cati on. Due to
such bar r i er s the message may not r each the i ntended
r ecei ver , or ther e may be fl aws i n encodi ng and decodi ng
the message. Thi s uni t exami nes some such bar r i er s and
suggests how to overcome them.
When a communi cati on i s sent to the r ecei ver , i t must be
effecti ve and i t i s effecti ve onl y when i t has been understood
by the r ecei ver i n the same sense i n whi ch the sender
i ntended i t. I f i t i s not properl y understood by the recei ver,
th e v er y pu r pos e of commu n i cati on i s l os t an d th e
communi cati on pr oves i neffecti ve. Ther e may be so many
obstructi ons i n the way of i ts bei ng effecti ve. The message
may not r each the r ecei ver ; ther e may be some fl aws i n
encodi ng and decodi ng the message; the channel used may
be defecti ve or there may be some noi se i n the channel , or
the channel used may be wrong, there may al so be personal
probl ems. Thus, for vari ous reasons, the message may not be
recei ved by the recei ver as was i ntended by the sender.
Types oI orriers
Th es e bar r i er s , obs tr u cti on s , an d i n ter r u pti on s i n
communi cati on may broadl y be categori zed i nto the fol l owi ng
Objectives
O Recognize the various types of barriers to effective communication
O Distinguish between external, organizational and personal barriers
to effective communication
O Adopt steps to make communication effective
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gr oups:
1. Exter nal Bar r i er s
2. Or gani zati onal Bar r i er s
3. Per sonal Bar r i er s
However , thi s cl assi fi cati on does not suggest that these
categor i es ar e mutual l y excl usi ve.
Externol orriers
Exter nal bar r i er s ar e those caused by factor s other than
organi zati onal and personal factors. Such external barri ers
may be (a) semanti c barri ers, (b) emoti onal or psychol ogi cal
bar r i er s.
(a) Semanti c Bar r i er s: Such bar r i er s ar e obstr ucti ons
caused i n the pr ocess of r ecei vi ng or under standi ng a
message dur i ng the pr ocess of encodi ng or decodi ng i t
i nto words and i deas. The l i ngui sti c capaci ty of the two
parti es may have some l i mi tati ons, or the symbol s used
may be ambi guous. Symbol s may have several meani ngs
and, unl ess the context i s known to the recei ver, he i s
l i kel y to take the meani ng of the symbol accor di ng to
h i s pr econ cei v ed n oti on an d mi s u n der s tan d th e
commu n i cati on . For th i s pu r pos e, a mean i n gfu l
di sti ncti on shoul d be made between i nferences and facts.
I nferences are meani ng taken out of the context of the
communi cati on and at ti mes can not be avoi ded i n
communi cati on pr ocess. Si nce i nfer ences can gi ve a
wrong si gnal , one shoul d be aware of them and anal yze
them careful l y. I n case of any doubt, more feedback may
be sought.
Symbol s may be cl assi fi ed as l anguage, pi cture, or acti on.
(i ) Language: I n wri tten or verbal communi cati on, words
used are i mportant. A word used i n the communi cati on
may h av e s ev er al mean i n gs . I n a face to face
communi cati on, i t i s easy to seek cl ari fi cati on of words
used, i f any doubt i s encounter ed. I n case of doubt
feedback i s r equ i r ed. Man y wor ds wh i ch we u s e
i nformal l y may be taken l i teral l y i n other contexts, i .e.,
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non-fr i endl y si tuati ons, or i n wr i tten communi cati on.
Thus, effecti ve communi cati on i s i dea-centr ed r ather
than word-centred. The communi cati on may be decoded
correctl y by the recei ver onl y i f the context i s known to
hi m; other wi se, i t may be i ncor r ectl y i nter pr eted.
Wi thout context, l anguage i s just l i ke an eyesor e that
i rri tates our senses and i nterferes wi th our percepti ons.
Someti mes, l ack of cl ar i ty and pr eci si on i n a message
makes i t di ffi cul t to under stand. Poor l y chosen and
i ncor r ect wor ds and phr ases, car el ess omi ssi ons, l ack
of coher ence, bad or gani zati on of i deas, awk war d
sentence str uctur e, i nadequate vocabul ar y, pl ati tudes,
numbi ng repeti ti ons etc. are some of the faul ts found i n
many cases of poor communi cati on.
Communi cati on wi th techni cal per sonnel and speci al
groups may pose another type of l anguage probl em. Such
per s on s or gr ou ps u s e tech n i cal wor ds i n th ei r
messages. I t creates hi ndrance i n communi cati on wi th
per sons not i n thei r speci al ty ar ea because of the
recei vers i gnorance of thi s type of jargon.
(i i ) Pi cture: Pi cture i s another type of symbol . Pi ctures are
vi sual ai ds worth thousands of words. An organi zati on
makes extensi ve use of pi ctures l i ke bl uepri nts, charts,
maps, gr aphs, fi l ms, thr ee-di mensi onal model s, and
other si mi l ar devi ces. A vi ewer may come to understand
the whol e story when he sees them.
Someti mes, a pi ctur e cr eates confusi on i n the mi nd of
th e obs er v er : i t may be ambi gu ou s i f i t i s n ot
suppl emented by words or acti ons.
(i i i ) Acti on: Acti on i s an oth er ty pe of s y mbol . We
communi cate by both-by acti on or by l ack of i t. To do or
not to do, both have a meani ng for the r ecei ver . For
exampl e, i f a subordi nate does a good job, patti ng and
non-patti ng on hi s back by the super i or , both have a
meani ng. Patti ng may i nspi re hi m to do a better job agai n,
and non-patti ng may make hi m di sappoi nted. I n thi s
sense, we communi cate al l the ti mes on the job whether
we i ntend to do so or not. Acti on or non-acti on may
i nfl uence the per cepti on of the r ecei ver .
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Acti on speak s l ouder than wor ds. I f a per son says
somethi ng and does another, there i s a credi bi l i ty gap.
The bi gger the gap, the l ess seri ousl y peopl e take hi m,
and he wi l l l ose the confi dence of hi s subordi nates. They
wi l l not take seri ousl y what he says.
Body l anguage i s a type of acti on i n whi ch a message i s
communi cated through the movement of the whol e body
or a part of i t. Mostl y face and hands are used i n body
l anguage. Exampl es ar e eye-contact, eye movement,
smi l es and frowns, touchi ng a furrowed brow, cl oseness,
l i p movement, breathi ng rate etc.
Th es e di ffer en t ty pes of s y mbol s ar e u s ed i n
communi cati on. I f these are i nterpreted i ncorrectl y, the
communi cati on may not carry the sense i ntended by the
sour ce but somethi ng al together di ffer ent.
(b) Emoti onal or psychol ogi cal bar r i er s: Per sonal or
emoti onal or psychol ogi cal barri ers ari se from moti ves,
atti tudes, judgement, senti ments, emoti ons, and soci al
val ues of par ti ci pants. These cr eate a psychol ogi cal
di stance that hi nders the communi cati on, or partl y fi l ters
i t out, or causes mi si nterpretati on, thereby maki ng the
communi cati on i nadequate.
The fol l owi ng are some emoti onal barri ers:
1. Pr ematur e eval uati on: Pr ematur e eval uati on i s a
tendency to eval uate a communi cati on pr ematur el y,
r ath er th an k eepi n g an open mi n d du r i n g th e
i n ter ch an ge. Su ch ev al u ati on i n ter fer es wi th th e
transfer of i nformati on and begets a sense of futi l i ty i n
the sender . Thi s bar r i er can be r emedi ed by empathy
and non-eval uati ve l i steni ng.
2. L oss i n tr ansmi ssi on and r etenti on: When
communi cati on passes thr ough var i ous l evel s i n an
or gani zati on, successi ve tr ansmi ssi ons of the same
message are decreasi ngl y accurate. A part of i nformati on
i s l ost i n tr ansi t: i t i s sai d that about 30% of the
i nformati on i s l ost i n each transmi ssi on. Poor retenti on
of the i nformati on i s agai n a mal ady. Research reveal s
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that wor ker s r etai n onl y 50% of i nfor mati on and the
supervi sors retai n 60% of i t.
3. Di str ust of communi cator : The communi cator i s
someti mes di str usted by hi s own subor di nates. I t
happens when he l ack s sel f-confi dence, or i s l ess
competent i n hi s posi ti on. He fr equentl y mak es i l l
consi der ed judgements or i l l ogi cal deci si ons, and then
r evi ews hi s own deci si ons when he fai l s to i mpl ement
them. Repeated exper i ence of thi s k i nd gr adual l y
con di ti on s th e r ecei v er to del ay acti on , or to act
unenthusi asti cal l y, hence maki ng the communi cati on
i neffecti ve, though apparentl y i t i s compl ete.
4. Fai l ure to communi cate: Someti mes, managers do not
commu n i cate th e n eeded mes s ages to th ei r
subor di nates. Thi s mi ght be because of l azi ness or
procrasti nati on on thei r part, or they arbi trari l y assume
that everybody has got the i nformati on, or they may hi de
i nformati on del i beratel y to embarrass the subordi nate.
5. Undue rel i ance on the wri tten word: I n cases where
the empl oyees have undue rel i ance on the organi zati ons
wr i tten pol i ci es an d v i ewpoi n ts an d h es i tate i n
accepti ng the face to face verbal communi cati on of thei r
super i or s, communi cati on cannot be effecti ve. Thi s i s
because they wi l l be di si ncl i ned to accept oral orders of
thei r superi ors whi ch are not consi stent wi th the wri tten
pol i ci es of the organi zati on. Such a si tuati on embarrasses
both the subor di nates and the super i or s, unl ess ther e
i s a hi gh degr ee of mutual confi dence between the
or gan i zati on an d i ts empl oy ees . A wr i tten
communi cati on mi ght fai l to expl ai n the purpose of the
or der , pr ocedur e, or di r ecti ve. Wr i tten communi cati on
often tel l s what i s to be done but not why i t shoul d be
done and, thus, i t l acks per suasi on. Hence, wr i tten
communi cati on shoul d not be rel i ed upon very ri gi dl y,
rather i t shoul d be used as suppl ementary to producti ve
face to face rel ati onshi ps.
6. I nattenti on: The preoccupi ed mi nd of the recei ver and
the resul tant non-l i steni ng i s one of the major chroni c
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psychol ogi cal barri ers. I t i s a common phenomenon that
peopl e si mpl y fai l to react to bul l eti ns, noti ces, mi nutes,
and r epor ts.
Orgonizotionol orriers
An organi zati on i s a del i berate creati on of management for
the attai nment of certai n speci fi c objecti ves. The day to day
functi oni ng of the organi zati on i s regul ated i n such a way as
to contri bute to the attai nment of these objecti ves i n the most
effecti ve manner . For thi s pur pose, a var i ety of offi ci al
measur es ar e adopted such as desi gni ng of the str uctur e,
ar r angement of acti vi ti es, for mul ati on of var i ous pol i ci es,
rul es and regul ati ons, and procedures, l ayi ng down of norms
of behavi our , i nsti tuti ng a r ewar d and puni shment system
etc. Al l these var i abl es mar kedl y affect the or gani zati ons
functi oni ng. As such major organi zati onal barri ers are:
1. Or gani zati onal pol i cy: The gener al or gani zati onal
pol i cy r egar di n g commu n i cati on pr ov i des ov er al l
gui del i nes i n thi s matter . Thi s pol i cy mi ght be i n the
form of a wri tten document, or i t has to be i nferred from
organi zati onal practi ce, parti cul arl y at the top l evel . I f
th e pol i cy cr eates h i n dr an ce i n th e fr ee fl ow of
communi cati on i n di ffer ent di r ecti ons, communi cati on
woul d not be smooth and effecti ve.
2. Organi zati onal rul es and regul ati ons: More often,
di ffer ent acti vi ti es of an or gani zati on ar e gover ned by
speci fi c rul es and regul ati ons. Such rul es and regul ati ons
prescri be the subject-matter to be communi cated as al so
the channel through i t i s to be communi cated. The rul es
may restri ct the fl ow of certai n messages and may omi t
many i mpor tant ones. For exampl e, the r ul es may
pr escr i be that upwar d communi cati on shal l be onl y
through proper channel . Such restri cti ons may del ay the
message and may deter empl oyees from conveyi ng any
message. An empl oyee may gi ve up the i dea of conveyi ng
a message to the top executi ve to avoi d the observance
of r u l es . Th e mes s age may be i mpor tan t to th e
organi zati on. I t may al so be the case that the superi or
may not al l ow hi m to convey the message. Thi s barri er
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i s s tr on gl y oper ati v e i n I n di an pu bl i c s ector
undertaki ngs where observance of rul es and regul ati ons
i s more ri gi d.
3. Status rel ati onshi p: The pl aci ng of peopl e i n superi or-
subor di nate r el ati onshi p i n a for mal or gani zati on
str uctur e al so bl ocks the fl ow of communi cati on and,
more parti cul arl y, i n the upward di recti on. The greater
the di fference i n hi erarchi cal posi ti ons i n terms of thei r
status, the gr eater woul d be the wor r y of mi ddl e
managers about what thei r seni or bosses mi ght thi nk;
thi s l eads to thei r payi ng l i ttl e attenti on to the needs
and demands of thei r subor di nates. The subor di nates
ar e r el uctant to communi cate, or the manager s i n the
mi ddl e of hi er ar chy may be r el uctant to pass on thei r
juni or s communi cati on to the next hi gher executi ve,
whi ch thei r bosses do not l i ke or whi ch may have a
negati ve effect on thei r own r el ati onshi ps. Di sl i ke,
di strust, di ssati sfacti on wi th job and work envi ronment
are other reasons for rel uctance to tel l anythi ng to thei r
bosses. Such obstructi on may be overcome by creati ng
an atmos ph er e of tr u s t an d con fi den ce i n th e
or gani zati on.
4. Compl exi ty i n or gani zati on str uctur e: I n an
or gani zati on wher e ther e ar e a number of manager i al
l evel s, communi cati on gets del ayed as i t moves al ong
the hi erarchi cal l i ne. Al so, chances of the communi cati on
getti ng di storted are greater as the number of fi l teri ng
poi nts i s hi gher . Thi s i s par ti cul ar l y tr ue i n upwar d
communi cati on because peopl e at i nter medi ate l evel s
do not l i k e to pass on negati ve r emar k s ei ther of
themsel ves or of thei r superi ors.
5. Or gani zati onal faci l i ti es: Cer tai n or gani zati ons
provi de certai n faci l i ti es for smooth, adequate, cl ear, and
ti mel y fl ow of communi cati on s uch as meeti ngs ,
confer ences, compl ai nt or suggesti on boxes, open door
s y s tem etc. I f th es e faci l i ti es ar e n ot pr oper l y
emphasi zed, peopl e gener al l y fai l to communi cate
effecti vel y.
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Fersonol orriers
As communi cati on i s basi cal l y an i nter per sonal pr ocess,
many per s onal factor s i nher ent i n the two par ti es to
communi cati on, the sender and the r ecei ver , i nfl uence the
fl ow of communi cati on and present many hurdl es i n the way
of effecti ve communi cati on.
1. Bar r i er s i n super i or s: Super i or s pl ay an i mpor tant
r ol e i n communi cati on. Because of thei r hi er ar chi cal
posi ti on, they act as bar r i er s i n a number of ways as
fol l ows:
(i ) Atti tude of super i or s: Gener al atti tude of the
superi ors about communi cati on, or atti tude towards
a par ti cul ar communi cati on, affect the fl ow of
messages i n di fferent di recti ons. I f the atti tude i s
unfavourabl e, there i s greater possi bi l i ty of fi l teri ng
or col our i ng of the i nfor mati on. Any i nfor mati on
recei ved from the top may not reach the bottom i n
the same for m, or even the r ever se may happen.
Manager s at i nter medi ate l evel s may col our the
i nformati on, someti mes i ntenti onal l y, wi th a vi ew
to twi st the si tuati on i n thei r favour. I n some cases
the super i or quotes hi s subor di nate i ncor r ectl y or
may say somethi ng agai nst hi m before hi s boss just
to spoi l hi s car eer , or hi s chance of pr omoti on, or
hi s i mage i n the eyes of the boss.
(i i ) Fear of chal l enge to authori ty: The superi ors i n
an or gani zati on gener al l y tr y to wi thhol d the
i nfor mati on comi ng down the l i ne or goi ng up as
frequent passi ng of i nformati on may di scl ose thei r
own weaknesses; thi s general l y happens when the
super i or l acks sel f-confi dence and i s afr ai d that
someone el se mi ght be promoted i n hi s pl ace i f hi s
weaknesses were to come to l i ght.
(i i i ) I nsi stence on proper channel : There are channel s
of communi cati on i n an or gani zati on al ong whi ch
i nfor mati on passes upwar d or downwar d. Some
offi cers i nsi st too much on communi cati on through
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proper channel . They do not l i ke any bypassi ng i n
communi cati on. But, someti mes, bypassi ng becomes
necessar y i n the i nter est of the or gani zati on;
h owev er , th e s u per i or s th i n k by pas s i n g as
thwarti ng of thei r authori ty and bl ock the fl ow of
communi cati on.
(i v) L ack of confi dence i n subor di nates: The
superi ors general l y percei ve that thei r subordi nates
ar e l ess competent and, they ar e not capabl e of
adv i si ng thei r super i or s. Ther efor e they feel ,
whether correctl y or otherwi se, that they are over
bu r den ed an d h av e n o ti me to tal k to th ei r
subor di nates.
(v) I gnor i ng communi cati on: Someti mes , the
superi ors i gnore a communi cati on or a part of i t, to
and fr om thei r subor di nates, to mai ntai n thei r
i mpor tance. I n some cases, i nfor mati on does not
r each the r ecei ver i n the same for m as i t was
r ecei ved fr om the sender : the super i or s fi l ter the
i nfor mati on.
2. Barri ers regardi ng subordi nates: There are certai n
factors i n the subordi nates whi ch adversel y affect thei r
parti ci pati on i n the communi cati on process. Some factors
l i ke atti tude, l ack of ti me appl i cabl e to the super i or s
ar e al so appl i cabl e her e. Two mor e factor s i n the
s u bor di n ates n eed s peci al atten ti on s wh i ch ar e
responsi bl e for bl ocki ng communi cati on i n the upward
di r ecti on.
(i ) Unwi l l i ngness to communi cate: The
s u bor di n ates gen er al l y ar e n ot wi l l i n g to
communi cate upwar d any i nfor mati on whi ch i s
l i kel y to affect them adver sel y. I f they feel that
suppl y of such adverse i nformati on i s necessary for
control purposes they woul d modi fy i t i n such a way
so as not to harm thei r i nterest.
(i i ) Lack of proper i ncenti ve: Lack of i ncenti ves to
communi cate al so pr event the subor di nates fr om
communi cati ng upwar d. They ar e puni shed when
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they are wrong but may not be rewarded when they
work marvel ousl y wel l and offer a novel suggesti on.
The super i or s assume that better per for mance on the
par t of s u bor di n ates i s th ei r du ty towar ds th e
organi zati on or i t i s i n thei r own i nterest. The rewards
and puni shment system and the atti tude of the superi ors
towar ds thei r subor di nates ar e r esponsi bl e for thi s
agony. I f a novel suggesti on by a subordi nate does not
evoke any i nterest i n the superi or he woul d not convey
i t.
The above are some of the barri ers whi ch come i n the
way of effecti ve communi cati on. They vi ti ate the message
i n sever al ways i ncl udi ng di stor ti on, fi l ter i ng, and
omi ssi on. Di storti on means changi ng the context or the
meani ng of the text of i nfor mati on. Fi l ter i ng means
r educi ng the message onl y to a few basi c detai l s, and
omi ssi on refers to del eti on of al l or a part of the message
from the text. We must be careful about these barri ers
i n communi cati on.
Steps to Moke Communicotion EIIective
I n order to remove barri ers to communi cati on an open door
communi cati on pol i cy shoul d be pr epar ed and fol l owed by
managers at al l l evel s. The superi ors i n the organi zati on must
cr eate an atmos ph er e of con fi den ce an d tr u s t i n th e
or gani zati on so that the cr edi bi l i ty gap may be nar r owed
down. Major efforts i n thi s di recti on are:
1. Two-way communi cati on: The or gani zati ons
communi cati on pol i cy shoul d pr ovi de for a two-way
tr affi c i n communi cati on-upwar ds and downwar ds. I t
br i ngs two mi nds cl oser and i mpr oves under standi ng
between the two parti es, the sender and the recei ver. A
sound feedback system shoul d be i ntr oduced i n the
or gani zati on so that di stor ti on i n, and fi l ter i ng of,
mes s ages s h ou l d be av oi ded. Th er e s h ou l d be n o
communi cati on gap.
2. Str engtheni ng communi cati on networ k: The
communi cati on network shoul d be strengthened to make
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commu n i cati on effecti v e. For th i s pu r pos e, th e
procedure of communi cati on shoul d be si mpl i fi ed, l ayers
i n downward communi cati on shoul d be reduced to the
mi ni mum possi bl e. Decentr al i zati on and del egati on of
author i ty shoul d be encour aged to make i nfor mati on
commu n i cati on mor e effi ci en t, th r ou gh fr equ en t
meeti ngs, confer ences, and ti mel y di ssemi nati on of
i nformati on to the subordi nates.
3. Promoti ng parti ci pati ve approach: The management
s h ou l d pr omote th e par ti ci pati v e appr oach i n
management. The subor di nates shoul d be i nvi ted to
par ti ci pate i n the deci si on-maki ng pr ocess. I t shoul d
seek cooper ati on fr om the subor di nates and r educe
communi cati on bar r i er s.
4. Appr opr i ate l anguage: I n communi cati on cer tai n
symbol s are used. Such symbol s may be i n the form of
wor ds, pi ctur es, and acti ons. I f wor ds ar e used, the
l anguage shoul d be si mpl e and easi l y compr ehensi bl e
to the subordi nates. Techni cal and mul ti -syl l abl e words
shoul d, as far as possi bl e, be avoi ded. The sender must
use the l anguage wi th whi ch the r ecei ver i s fami l i ar .
The message shoul d be supported by pi ctures or acti ons,
wher ever necessar y, to emphasi ze cer tai n poi nts. The
sender must al so practi se i n acti on what he says to others
or expects from others.
5. Cr edi bi l i ty i n communi cati on: One cr i ter i on of
effecti ve communi cati on i s credi bi l i ty. The subordi nates
obey the or der s of thei r super i or because they have
demonstr ated thr ough thei r acti ons that they ar e
trustworthy. They must practi se whatever they say. The
superi or must al so mai ntai n hi s trustworthi ness. I f the
superi or i s trusted by the subordi nates, communi cati on
wi l l be effecti ve.
6. Good l i steni ng: A communi cator must be a good l i stener
too. A good manager gi ves hi s subordi nates a chance to
speak freel y and express thei r feel i ngs wel l before hi m.
The manager al so gets some useful i nfor mati on for
fur ther communi cati on, and can al so have a better
understandi ng of the subordi nates needs, demands, etc.
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7. Sel ecti ng on effecti ve communi cati on channel : To
be effecti ve, the communi cati on shoul d be sent to the
r ecei ver thr ough an effecti ve channel . By effecti ve
ch an n el we mean th at th e mes s age r each es i ts
desti nati on i n ti me, to the ri ght person, and wi thout any
di stor ti on, fi l ter i ng, or omi ssi on.
Summory
I n thi s uni t barri ers to effecti ve communi cati on are i denti fi ed
and di scussed at l ength. The bar r i er s can be cl assi fi ed as
exter nal , or gani zati onal , and per sonal . Towar ds the end of
the uni t var i ous steps that can be taken to r emove these
bar r i er s, to mak e communi cati ons mor e effecti ve, ar e
di scussed.
keview Questions
1. Wh at ar e th e v ar i ou s bar r i er s to effecti v e
communi cati on? Suggest sui tabl e measures to overcome
these bar r i er s.
2. Ex pl ai n th e pr i n ci pal bar r i er s to man agemen t
communi cati on and suggest measures for i mprovement.
3. What ar e the possi bl e obstr ucti ons to communi cati on
and how can they be removed?
99
UMT Fresentotion Skills
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7EJ '
Presenlolion 5kills
The ability to speak effectively i s an acquirement
rather than a gift
WI LLI AM JENNI NGS BRYAN
ntroduction
I n thi s chapter we pr opose to consi der the communi cati on
si tuati ons i n whi ch an i ndi vi dual i s pi tted agai nst a group.
The two mos t common and i mpor tant s i tuati ons /
communi cati on events of thi s type ar e pr esentati ons and
i ntervi ews. They are probabl y the most seri ousl y consi dered
or al ver bal communi cati on acti vi ti es though qui te a l ar ge
amount of non-ver bal and wr i tten el ements contr i bute to
thei r effecti veness. Nobody can speak or wri te l i ke a robot,
i .e., wi thout any gestures or, i n busi ness, wi thout any other
ai ds.
The i mportance of speaki ng cannot be overemphasi zed. Most
of the ti me we communi cate through speaki ng because i t i s
so natural and spontaneous. But publ i c speaki ng, or speaki ng
Objectives
O Occasions and Definitions
O Guidelines for the Use of Visual Aids
O Pre-Presentation Jitters
O Getting ready for a Presentation
O Getting Started
O Delivering the Presentation
O Qualities of a Skillful Presenter
O Capturing and Maintaining Attention
O Closing a Presentation
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before an audi ence, i s an art that has to be l earnt wi th great
care and seri ous effort. That i s why so much has been wri tten
about the ar t of publ i c speak i ng, power ful speak i ng,
effecti ve speaki ng and so on. Dal e Car negi e, for i nstance,
has become a househol d name al l over the worl d for hi s best
sel l er s on publ i c speaki ng. Power ful speaker s have al ways
been revered and emul ated. But duri ng the fi rst hal f of the
twenti eth centur y peopl e al l over the wor l d, especi al l y i n
Eur ope and Amer i ca, owi ng to the two wor l d war s and
unfor eseen pol i ti cal devel opments, r eal i zed the i mpor tance
of systemati c courses/trai ni ng i n publ i c speaki ng.
Our di scussi on so far has centered around the ski l l s that are
i nvol ved i n maki ng oral and wri tten communi cati on effecti ve
at workpl ace. Both i nternal and external busi ness si tuati ons
requi re managers to i nteract wi th peopl e conti nuousl y. For
deci si ons to be arri ved at and resul ts to be shown, managers
have to col l aborate, work on thei r own, and report thei r work
to super i or s. A par t of r egul ar communi cati on that takes
pl ace dur i ng the cour se of dai l y wor k i s what manager s
present before the management.
I t wi l l not be an overstatement i f i t i s sai d that managers
exper i ence di scomfor t zone whi l e maki ng pr esentati ons
ei ther to bosses or to cl i ents. The word presentati on bri ngs
to ones mi nd pi ctur es of pai r s of eyes star i ng at the
pr es en ter , s ome s mi r k i n g, s ome l ook i n g pos i ti v el y
di si nterested, and others bei ng i ndi fferent. Of course, some
members i n the audi ence do encourage the speaker. But they
ar e ver y few i n number . Such mental i mages wor k as
di si ncenti ves and hence the wor d, butter fl i es i s gener al l y
referred to when one speaks of presentati on.
Pr esentati ons tak e pl ace al l the ti me i n or gani zati ons.
Gen er al l y , pr es en ter s h av e ampl e ti me to pr epar e a
presentati on. A sequenti al arrangement of the poi nts gi ves
i t a structured shape. Yet, there are ti mes when a presenter
has to make a presentati on on the spot. Such a presentati on
may take an unstr uctur ed patter n. Maki ng a pr esentati on
to the cl i ent for a busi ness deal about pr oducts, of cour se,
needs a strong sal es pi tch about qual i ty, pri ce, rel i abi l i ty and
several other factors that are i mportant to posi ti on a product
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as better than i ts competi tor s pr oduct. Power poi nt sl i des
suppor ted by excel l ent or al del i ver y ar e cal l ed for such a
tas k . Bu t does pr es en tati on mean on l y power poi n t
del i ver i es? What happens when cl i ents show a pr efer ence
for a face-to-face tal k across the tabl e for a di scussi on about
the deal ? Woul d such a communi cati on be di fferent from the
power poi nt pr esentati on? When busi ness pr ocedur es have
to be expl ai ned to a newcomer, woul d i t not i nvol ve i nstant
pr esentati on ski l l s? Endl ess, on-goi ng acti vi ti es that take
pl ace i n an organi zati on, i nvol ve presentati ons of some ki nd
or the other.
Fresentotions. Occosions ond DeIinition
I n i ndustry and commerce the term presentati on has come
to be used i n r efer ence to publ i c speaki ng. The r eason,
per haps, i s that the pur pose of a pr esentati on i s mor e
pr eci sel y, mor e concr etel y defi ned. Ther e may be many
occasi ons for a presentati on, such as
(i ) l aunchi ng a new product or servi ce,
(i i ) starti ng a trai ni ng course/sessi on,
(i i i ) presenti ng a new busi ness pl an,
(i v) maki ng a marketi ng/sal es proposal ,
(v) maki ng a contri buti on to a conference/semi nar,
(vi ) di versi fi cati on of a busi ness.
Speaki ng before an audi ence on any of the occasi ons stated
above, or on a si mi l ar occasi on, i s a seri ous matter. I t requi res
careful preparati on that cannot sati sfactori l y be done by one
person al one. That i s why a presentati on has been defi ned
as a formal or set-pi ece occasi on wi th two usual hal l marks:
the use of audi ovi sual ai ds, (and) team work.
Looki ng at i n thi s way, a presentati on stands out as a speech
made wi th the hel p of at l east one teammate on the basi s of
suffi ci ent mater i al /i nfor mati on gather ed and pr ocessed for
a si gni fi cant busi ness occasi on and del i vered wi th the hel p
of audi o-vi sual ai ds i n or der to make a posi ti ve i mpact on
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the audi ence. I n order to make a successful presentati on one
has to take the fol l owi ng steps:
(a) Be cl ear about the occasi on: I t means that the person
proposi ng to make a presentati on must know hi s proper
spher e and the pur pose he wants to ful fi l thr ough hi s
pr esentati on. I s i t goi ng to be a pr esentati on for a
semi nar or a conference, or the occasi on of l aunchi ng an
exci ti ng new pr oduct? I s ther e suffi ci ent ti me for the
pr esentati on and di scussi on ther eafter ? I t i s al so ver y
i mpor tant to know what has been happeni ng ti l l the
ti me the pr esentati on i s goi ng to take pl ace. Wi thout
th i s i n for mati on th e s peak er wi l l n ot be abl e to
understand the context. I f, for exampl e, the presentati on
i s goi ng to be made on an i naugur al occasi on, i t i s
defi ni tel y the exci ti ng ti me to put your best foot forward.
On the other hand, i f the organi zati on has been faci ng
some fi nanci al pr obl ems and the audi ence has to be
appri sed of the si tuati on, the presentati on has to focus
on vi tal stati sti cs, i nfer ences dr awn ther e fr om, and
posi ti ve suggesti ons.
(b) Make audi ence anal ysi s: Befor e mak i ng a
pr esentati on i t i s of utmost i mpor tance to under stand
for whom i t i s meant. An audi ence i s not just a gatheri ng
of i ndi vi dual s at one pl ace. I t has a col l ecti ve personal i ty
of i ts own. I n the pr evi ous uni t qui te some space has
been gi ven to the vari ous aspects of group personal i ty.
The same factor s have to be taken i nto account her e.
Besi des, we must al so see the si ze of the audi ence that
i s l i k el y to i n fl u en ce h ow for mal or i n for mal th e
pr esentati on i n goi ng to be. The age, sex, educati onal
background, experi ence, nati onal i ty/nati onal i ti es of the
audi ence have gr eat r el evance to the pr esentati on.
Anyone can i magi ne how i mportant i t i s to know whether
one i s goi ng to make a presentati on before an al l mal e,
al l femal e, or a mi xed audi ence. I t wi l l i nfl uence our
choi ce of words, tone, need for detai l s and i l l ustrati ons
and so on. I t wi l l al so gi ve us an i dea of thei r expectati ons
and thei r l i kel y reacti ons to what we are goi ng to say. I f
we k now any of them per sonal l y i t wi l l mak e the
pr esentati on mor e effecti ve. That i s why i t i s qui te
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adv i s abl e to tr y to meet th e au di en ce befor e th e
pr esentati on.
Thi s i s not enough. Audi ence anal ysi s shoul d conti nue
dur i ng the pr esentati on. The r eacti on of the audi ence
i s wri t l arge on thei r faces as we speak and i l l ustrate.
Thei r body l anguage i mmedi atel y gi ves us the much
needed feedback. For thi s purpose we have to keep our
own eyes and ears open. Thei r smi l es, stares - whether
bl ank or exci ted, si l ence or whi spers or l i p movements
gi ve us ampl e i dea of thei r r eacti ons, and gui de us
through our speech.
(c) Vi si t/have an i dea of the l ocati on: I f possi bl e, the
l ocati on of the presentati on shoul d be vi si ted before the
event. Ther e i s no wi sdom i n taki ng the l ocati on for
granted. Much depends on the si ze of the room, seati ng
ar r angements, r oom temper atur e, l i ghti ng contr ol s,
publ i c addr ess equi pment, audi o-vi sual equi pment,
acousti cs etc. I f, for exampl e, the r oom echoes or
r es ou n ds wi th th e wor ds we s peak mu ch of th e
pr esentati on wi l l be spoi l t. I f the audi ence i s huddl ed
i n a cr amped space and feel uncomfor tabl e i n a hot
I ndi an summer afternoon the whol e event wi l l be a waste
of ti me. I f the audi ence i s l arge and the publ i c address
arrangements are not sati sfactory - as i s often the case -
both th e au di en ce an d th e per s on mak i n g th e
pr esentati on become i r r i tated/bor ed.
(d) Pl an out the presentati on: The next, and perhaps the
most i mportant, step towards maki ng a presentati on i s
to pl an i t out i n wri ti ng i n detai l or at l east i n outl i ne
s h owi n g ex actl y wh at y ou pr opos e to s ay i n th e
begi nni ng, the mi ddl e, and the end. A r ough pl an for
any presentati on may be made as fol l ows:
Begi nni ng:
(i ) I ntr oductor y r emar ks
(i i ) Statement of the objecti ve, gi vi ng reasons why you
are maki ng thi s presentati on
(i i i ) Draw the outl i nes of the presentati on.
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Mi ddl e:
(i ) Break the mai n body of the presentati on i nto short,
cl earl y stated uni ts/secti ons. Not more than fi ve or
si x secti ons can be managed.
(i i ) I l l ustrate the poi nts wi th exampl es.
(i i i ) Put a ti me l i mi t on each of the poi nts.
(i v) Pri ori ti ze the ti me l i mi t. Certai n poi nts may need
more ti me than others.
End:
(i ) Gi ve a summary of the whol e.
(i i ) I f need be, refer to the poi nts made i n the begi nni ng
or i n the mi ddl e for the sake of emphasi s.
(i i i ) Make fi nal remarks and end on a posi ti ve note.
At thi s stage i t i s advi sabl e to consul t the sponsors of
th e ev en t, an d be i n con s tan t tou ch wi th th e co-
presenter. After al l i t i s goi ng to be a team work, and
several mi nds are better than one.
(e) Deci de upon the method of pr esentati on: Havi ng
pl anned out the presentati on you have to deci de upon
the method of presentati on. I n practi ce, three methods
of presentati on have been observed.
(i ) Readi ng: Many speaker s wr i te out thei r enti r e
speeches and r ead them out befor e the audi ence.
The gr eatest advantage of thi s method i s that
accuracy i s best mai ntai ned i n i t. Wi nston Churchi l l
i s reputed for usi ng a wri tten scri pt. But he was a
master orator who woul d frequentl y gl ance up from
the s cr i pt and mai ntai n ey e contact wi th hi s
audi ence. But not many speakers can do that. Most
of us, i n fact, do not read al oud wel l . Most readers
si nk i nto dul l monotones, mi ss punctuati on marks
and fumbl e for wor ds. So, thi s method has mor e
di sadvantages than advantages.
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(i i ) Memor i zed pr esentati on: Many speak er s ar e
known to wri te and memori ze enti re speeches. They
have memor y power ful enough to r emember even
the pauses. But, then, very few have been abl e to
do so effecti vel y. The greatest di sadvantage of thi s
meth od i s th at th e s peak er may for get s ome
i mportant poi nt/part of the scri pt. Tryi ng to l ocate
i t i n the scr i pt, i f i t i s wi th the speaker at the
moment, spoi l s the enti re effect of the presentati on.
That i s why most such speakers memori ze key parts
and use notes to hel p them duri ng the presentati on.
(i i i ) Extemporaneous presentati on: Thi s i s the most
popul ar method used by r eal l y effecti ve speaker s.
They have car eful l y pl anned thei r speeches, but
then they speak as i f they were getti ng the i deas,
coher entl y ar r anged, on the spur of the moment.
Whenever they need any hel p they l ook i nto thei r
notes that they keep handy. They dont waste ti me
i n memor i zi ng the speech as i t i s a str enuous
exerci se. On the other hand, l ooki ng i nto the notes
ser i al l y ar r anged, seems qui te natur al and the
s peech del i v er ed i n th i s way al s o s ou n ds
spontaneous.
(f) Rehear se the pr esentati on: As a necessar y par t of
preparati on rehearsal i s very i mportant. I t i s a pri vate
pr acti ce sessi on to gai n confi dence and wor k towar ds
sel f i mprovement. But i t i s best to rehearse as part of a
team and i nvi te suggesti ons for i mprovement. The best
part of team-rehearsal i s mutual constructi ve cri ti ci sm
that gi ves the speaker the advantage of feedback. I n thi s
way i t goes a l ong way _trai ni ng the speaker to be an
effecti ve communi cator .
Rehear si ng the speech par t of the pr esentati on i s not
al l . I t al so gi ves the speaker a cl ear i dea of where, when,
and how to i ntroduce/bri ng i n vi sual ai ds to support hi s
presentati on. Onl y a rehearsal can ensure coordi nati on
of effort. Moreover, the team can al so check the l ocati on,
seati ng ar r angements, l i ghti ng and acousti cs, the
worki ng of the el ectroni c equi pment and so on.
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(g) Consi der personal aspects: I t i s an absol ute necessi ty
to an al y ze on es el f befor e goi n g on to mak e a
presentati on. As has been sai d so succi nctl y, the speaker
hi msel f i s essenti al l y a par t of the message. The
audi ence, fi rst see the speaker, then l i sten to the spoken
wor ds . Hen ce th e i mpor tan ce of a pr es en tabl e
appear an ce can n ot be ov er emph as i zed. Si n ce a
presentati on i s a formal occasi on, the speaker must be
for mal l y dr essed, but cer tai nl y not over dr essed. I f the
speaker i s wel l pr epar ed and pr oper l y dr essed for the
occasi on he wi l l not onl y l ook but al so feel confi dent.
And confi dence i s the pri mary characteri sti c of effecti ve
or al r epor ti ng/pr esentati on.
Confi dence i s cl earl y refl ected i n a cl ear, strong and wel l
modul ated voi ce. I t may r equi r e endl ess, hour s of
pr epar ati on. But usual l y two or thr ee r ehear sal s ar e
enough to gai n confi dence whi l e wor ki ng as par t of a
team. Whi l e rehearsi ng al one, the best way i s to l ook at
onesel f i n a mi rror. Rehearsi ng i n front of a ful l l ength
mi r r or i s of i mmense hel p i n i mpr ovi ng ones body
l anguage. One can al ways trai n onesel f i n establ i shi ng
effecti ve/appeal i ng eye contact, acqui r i ng the cor r ect
an d con fi den t pos tu r e, an d l ear n i n g mean i n gfu l
gestures. There i s al so i mmense scope for i mprovement
i n faci al expressi ons and manner of wal ki ng. The way
one wal ks befor e ones audi ence at once conveys an
i mpr essi on-that of confi dence or other wi se.
Th or ou gh n es s i n th e s u bj ect of th e pr es en tati on ,
si ncer i ty and fr i endl i ness towar ds the audi ence ar e
i ndi spensabl e. I t i s not onl y the questi on of the speakers
confi dence, but al so that of the audi ences confi dence i n
the speaker . Hence, these qual i ti es must not onl y be
l ooked forward to, but al so be careful l y cul ti vated; day
after day, and i n every possi bl e way. I n a presentati on
on e h as to wi n th e au di en ce. Ev er y effecti v e
presentati on i s an event of tri umph.
(h) Over comi ng ner vousness: Ever yone i s not bor n a
confi dent speaker . But ever yone does r un the r i sk of
becomi ng nervous when asked to face an audi ence. The
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ver y consci ousness of bei ng asked to speak befor e an
audi ence especi al l y a sel ect and wel l i nformed audi ence,
mak es many a speak er ner vous. Hi stor y i s ful l of
numberl ess exampl es of great speakers who, after one
or two i ni ti al stages of nervousness, trai ned themsel ves
to overcome thi s state. Feel i ng sel f consci ous even i n
the face of audi ence known to us, havi ng a dry mouth
and sweaty pal ms, br eathl essness and pal pi tati on,
ex per i enci ng di ffi cul ty i n fi ndi ng the r i ght wor d,
forgetti ng what we real l y want to say or feel i ng that the
mi nd i s goi ng bl ank, fumbl i ng for words or pl ayi ng wi th
a button-al l these are wel l known si gns of nervousness.
They can be easi l y overcome by (a) repeated rehearsal s
of a thoroughl y prepared speech, (b) breathi ng deepl y,
(c) l ooki ng strai ght at the audi ence seated al l over the
pl ace, (d) br eathi ng deepl y agai n (e) tal ki ng sl owl y,
gi vi ng yoursel f as wel l as the audi ence ti me to rel ax, (f)
movi ng about sl owl y and gr aceful l y i n fr ont of the
audi ence and (g) poi nti ng at the vi sual ai ds whenever i t
i s needed to make a poi nt.
(i ) Usi ng vi sual ai ds: A presentati on i s meant pri mari l y,
to convey i nfor mati on that i s the fi r st and for emost
functi on of communi cati on. And i n or der to make thi s
functi on effecti ve the communi cator s/speaker s maki ng
pr esentati ons have to r el y on vi sual ai ds l i ke char ts,
chal k boar ds, fi l m sl i des, tr anspar enci es, di agr ams,
maps, pi ctures etc. There i s qui te a l arge range of vi sual
ai ds i n use. They can al so be devi sed accordi ng to the
need/pur pose of the message. So i t must be cl ear that
there i s no one vi sual ai d to sui t al l purposes. That i s
why we shoul d have fl exi bl e atti tude towards vi sual ai ds.
Whatever the vi sual ai d used i n the pr esentati on, i t
shoul d be posi ti oned i n such a way that i t i s easi l y vi si bl e
to the audi ence. I t shoul d al so be made sur e that the
speaker, whi l e speaki ng and movi ng, does not obstruct
the vi ew.
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Guidelines Ior the Use oI Visuol Aids
Vi sual ai ds are used to convey the key part of the message,
i .e., they are meant to emphasi ze the most vi tal poi nts of the
pr es en tati on . As ev er y pr es en tati on i s a u n i qu e
communi cati on event, no hard and fast rul es can be l ai d down
for the use of vi sual ai ds i n al l presentati ons. Much depends
on the i ndi vi dual s choi ce. However, some i nstructi ons i n thi s
regard can serve wel l for al l speakers.
(i ) As has been sai d above, i t has to be made certai n that
everyone i n the audi ence i s abl e to see the vi sual ai d.
(i i ) The speaker must expl ai n the vi sual ai d i f there i s any
l i k el i hood that the audi ence may not i mmedi atel y
under stand i t.
(i i i ) The vi sual ai ds must be fi tted wel l i nto the presentati on.
They must be an essenti al par t of the pl an of the
pr esentati on.
(i v) Pr oper emphasi s must be l ai d on the vi sual ai d. The
speaker must poi nt to i t wi th bodi l y acti on and wi th
wor ds.
(v) Someti mes a l ong sti ck or poi nter shoul d be used to draw
the audi ences attenti on to a seri al number or a chart,
or a ci ty /l ocati on on a map. So a poi nter must be kept
handy.
(vi ) The speaker must l ook at the audi ence more than at the
vi sual ai d.
(vi i ) I f the speaker i s usi ng sl i des he must make sure that
they are cl earl y numbered i n the correct sequence and
ar e kept r i ght way up. Any confusi on i n thei r or der /
arrangement wi l l si mpl y damage the presenters i mage.
(vi i i ) No vi sual ai d shoul d be kept on for too l ong.
(i x) The speaker shoul d use pi ctur es, dr awi ngs and col our
for i nter est. One must r emember pi ctur e i s wor th a
thousand wor ds. .
(x) A sl i de shoul d carry onl y essenti al i nformati on.
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(xi ) The content of the i nfor mati on on the sl i de shoul d be
kept l i mi ted to twenty fi ve words or the equi val ent i n
fi gur es.
A pr esentati on has the potenti al to open up unl i mi ted
possi bi l i ti es for the or gani zati on. I f, for exampl e, a new
product i s to be l aunched, the best vi sual ai d wi l l be ei ther
to di spl ay the product i tsel f or a repl i ca of the product as i s
someti mes done by motor /engi neer i ng/ ai r cr aft compani es.
They ei ther hol d exhi bi ti ons backed up by pr esentati on or
di s pl ay r epl i cas of th ei r pr odu cts at s el ected pl aces .
Screeni ngs of fi l ms on thei r products al so attract audi ence
who ar e, then engaged i n pr esentati ons/questi on-answer
sessi ons. Presentati ons made i n thi s way serve the purpose
to i n for m-ch ar m-con v i n ce- per s u ade- as k for fu r th er
i nformati on-act and so on. I t i s for the organi zati on to deci de
how best to make thei r presentati ons del i ver thei r goods.
A good pr esentati on i s about effecti ve communi cati on
between two or more persons.
Thi s chapter pr i mar i l y deal s wi th the var i ous steps and
stages that one shoul d fol l ow for maki ng a good presentati on.
Th e v ar i ou s s tages i n cl u de pr e-pr es en tati on j i tter s ,
dev el opi n g a pr es en tati on , del i v er i n g a pr es en tati on ,
concl udi ng wi th convi cti on, and managi ng questi ons and
objecti ons.
I t i s i mportant to remember that one mi ght be requi red to
make pr esentati ons on var i ous si tuati ons, besi des the cor e
ar eas. And each ti me a pr esentati on i s made, the speaker
wi l l be under pressure to make i t memorabl e and effecti ve.
The competenci es of the pr esenter that wi l l be tested ar e
the verbal and non-verbal communi cati on ski l l s, knowl edge
of maki ng power poi nt sl i des, abi l i ty to deal wi th i nter -
per sonal ski l l s whi l e handl i ng questi ons and objecti ons on
di ffer ences of opi ni on, and fi nal l y a wor d of thanks on a
cour teous note.
Effecti ve presentati on ski l l s refl ect a managers personal i ty.
When thi ngs are wel l expl ai ned and presented, the i mage of
the manager i s enhanced. Good pr esentati ons speak about
the managers confi dence, l evel of knowl edge, l ogi cal thi nki ng,
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range of i deas, and appl i cati on of i deas to practi cal si tuati ons.
Pr esentati on demands mul ti pl e communi cati on sk i l l s.
Remember the adage Smal l thi ngs make perfecti on, but
perfection is not a small thing!
Therefore, i t i s necessary that you percei ve the presentati on
acti v i ty as an en j oy abl e ex per i en ce an d n ot on e th at
strangul ates you mental l y.
Fre-presentotion 1itters
Mi sconcepti ons about Presentati on
Al though pr esentati ons have become vi tal tool s by whi ch
organi zati ons assess the performance and experti se of thei r
ex ecu ti v es , bes i des oth er meas u r es of per for man ce
assessment, i t i s not an unachi evabl e task. There i s no need
to be mysti fi ed by the pr essur es that the whol e exer ci se
bui l ds up on the speaker. Faci ng peopl e i s not as di ffi cul t an
ex er ci s e as peopl e mak e i t ou t to be. Th e popu l ar
mi sconcepti ons surroundi ng presentati on need to be erased.
The pr e-pr esentati on demands ar e: you have a cl ear i dea
about the whol e task and remove from your mi nd the fears
of maki ng a pr esentati on. The fol l owi ng poi nts ar e wor th
taki ng noti ce of:
Good speakers are born, not made!
Peopl e who speak fl uentl y and smar tl y do not i nher i t
the gi ft of the gab. They have to work hard to become
good speakers. Wi nston Churchi l l spent days to perfect
hi s famous speeches. Good speaki ng i s hard work.
I am an introvert. I feel very nervous:
Thi s i s a common feel i ng when one speaks for the fi rst
ti me before an audi ence. A person who i s never nervous
usual l y does a medi ocr e j ob. I t pays to feel a l i ttl e
ner vous. Pr acti ce makes a man per fect! The Ps of
presentation are Practice, Practice, and more
Practice. The more you practi ce, more you wi l l succeed
i n taki ng control of your nerves.
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I am scared of looking away at the audience. Too
many faces make me forget my matter. I fail to
present my thoughts:
Fai l ure i s the steppi ng-stone to success. When you are
mar r i ed to your matter , you enjoy del i ver i ng i t to the
audi ence. The strange faces become fri endl y faces.
I am not a fluent speaker. How can I make a good
presentation?
Presentati on i s not si mpl y about fl uency and smartness.
Even peopl e who ar e appar entl y unpr omi si ng can be
good speaker s. Peopl e who stutter and stammer sti l l
make good presentati ons i nspi te of the defects!
I have vernacular education background. I find it
difficult to express my thoughts in English!
Presentati ons are a combi nati on of matter and manner.
When you know your matter , the wor ds come to you
natur al l y!
I must make a perfect presentation every time I
present!
Presentati ons must be enjoyed. Perfecti on l i es i n maki ng
your presentati on enjoyabl e to your l i steners. Si nceri ty
and i nvol vement are the i ci ng of the cake!
Speaki ng to a smal l or a l arge group demands that you
(a) handl e your l i steners wel l
(b) know your subject wel l
(c) sharpen your ski l l s of speaki ng.
Presentati on i s al l about how you handl e your l i steners and
over come your fear .
Getting reody Ior o Fresentotion. Whot is o Fre-
sentotion All About?
For maki ng a successful presentati on, one si mpl e thi ng has
to be remembered that gatheri ng a l ot of i nformati on i s not
the onl y thi ng.
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The objecti ve shoul d be to make the poi nts or concepts cl ear
so as to make them compr ehensi bl e to the audi ence. Thi s
does not mean that you have to memori ze the whol e materi al
to be pr esented.
The fol l owi ng thr ee steps ar e necessar y for you to pr epar e
for a presentati on. The i ni ti al steps wi l l equi p you mental l y
to anti ci pate, prepare, and del i ver your presentati on wel l .
1. Devel opi ng a Presentati on-What i s my topi c? What
i s the purpose?
Li ke a research project that has to be cri ti cal l y exami ned
for a meani ngful study, si mi l ar l y a pr esentati on topi c
too has to be l ooked i nto depths for a compr ehensi ve
understandi ng of the topi c by the l i stener, who can be
the boss or the cl i ent or the customer. A wri tten report
can run i nto pages but not a presentati on! I n fact, the
word, presentati on has al most become a pejorati ve word
i n man y bu s i n es s h ou s es wh er e th ey th i n k a
pr esentati on that goes beyond 15 mi nutes wastes the
organi zati ons val uabl e/producti ve ti me. Therefore i t i s
ver y i mpor tant to pr acti se the ski l l s of pr eci si on and
conci seness. Al so, the pur pose must be made cl ear at
the ver y outset. I s i t about the sal es fi gur es of the
companys products? I s i t expansi on of the bui l di ng? I s
i t about a pr oduct l aunch? I s your pur pose to sel l /
per suade/i nfor m? I t i s i mpor tant that you ar e cl ear
about the purpose of your presentati on. You must ask
yoursel f at the end of your presentati on, what i s i t that
I want my l i stener s to car r y back wi th them i n thei r
mi nd? Befor e you star t to make sl i des or gather data
for the presentati on, ask yoursel f very speci fi c questi ons
about the pur pose and the r el evance of i t to your
audi ence.
When you si t down to wr i te out your pr esentati on
matter , i t i s i mpor tant that you vi sual i ze the ki nd of
audi ence you are goi ng to address and your presentati on
styl e.
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2. Knowi ng your Audi ence
Who i s my audi ence? Who wi l l he l i steni ng to me, my
own offi ce peopl e or an i nterested busi ness party? How
l ar ge i s the si ze of the audi ence? Si ze of the Gr oup/
Exper ti se of the Gr oup?
A part of the pl anni ng that you wi l l do i s to fi nd out the
detai l s of the composi ti on of the audi ence. Factors l i ke
status of the members, thei r busi ness and professi onal
backgr ound, mar ket potenti al and i mage, the cul tur al
make up of the group and such other rel ated features,
are cruci al for your presentati on. You mi ght experi ence
embarrassment i f i nadvertentl y you happen to commi t
faux pas. Thi s i s ver y i mpor tant par ti cul ar l y i n these
days of gl obal oper ati ons. A l ar ge audi ence r equi r es a
mor e for mal and l ess per sonal i zed appr oach. Other
el ements l i ke age, gender , cul tur e, countr y, val ues,
educati on, and anti ci pated atti tude toward the subject
wi l l have to be taken i nto account. They i nfl uence a
pr esenter s del i ver y styl e.
3. How wi l l I del i ver? What does my audi ence want to
know from me?
I n the fi r st chapter you have l ear nt that one of the
i mpor tan t obj ecti v es of commu n i cati on i s th at
Communication is message perceived and not
message sent. Th i s i s s o tr u e of an effecti v e
pr esentati on. The enti r e focus of the pr esentati on has
to be on the content and the del i ver y that must be
di r ected towar ds the audi ence. The audi ence must
understand what i s sai d so that they can parti ci pate i n
the l i steni ng process and ask questi ons. Therefore, a good
presentati on has to be conceptual i zed wel l , broken down
i n to s epar ate par ts , r es ear ch ed ex ten s i v el y , an d
concl uded convi nci ngl y. Some of these questi ons may
be consi der ed:
How wi l l thi s topi c appeal to my audi ence?
How can I rel ate the topi c to practi cal l i fe?
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How shoul d I del i ver so that I am abl e to hol d thei r
attenti on span?
How much of fi gur es /s tati s ti cs /gr aphi cs /wor d
expl anati ons I must gi ve?
What does my audi ence expect from me?
What does i t need to know?
I t i s essenti al that you brai nstorm thi s cruci al part of your
presentati on. The success of your presentati on wi l l depend
on your abi l i ty to evoke i nterest i n your audi ence through i n
depth study of your matter and an equal l y i ntegrated styl e
of your del i ver y. Substance and styl e must move hand i n
hand. Matter and manner must be beauti ful l y bl ended. As
you pr esent, the audi ence must be sti r r ed i nto thi nki ng
Whats i n i t for me? (WIIFM) (Hol l i day)
dentiIying Your Fresentotion Style
Fi nd out whether you wi l l be addressi ng a bi g group i n a bi g
room. I f the di stance between the speaker and the audi ence
i s l arge, you wi l l have to pay attenti on to the preparati on of
the sl i des and the formal manner of maki ng a presentati on.
I t i s then a speaker-centred styl e where the ful l attenti on of
the audi ence on the speaker shoul d be used. The sl i des wi l l
have to be si mpl e for a l arge audi ence to qui ckl y fol l ow.
I f the gr oup i s a str uctur ed/focused one, you wi l l then be
requi red to adapt your styl e to the speci fi c requi rements of
the gr oup. Al though i t wi l l be a speaker -centr ed styl e, the
sl i des can be more detai l ed, appl i ed i n nature and supported
by graphs and charts.
I f the gr oup i s smal l , e.g. a suppl i er s pr esentati on i s to a
smal l group of buyers, the styl e shoul d be more i nteracti ve
i n nature and audi ence-centred, supported by hand-wri tten
over heads and customer -r el evant vi sual s.
Accor di ng to Mi cki Hol l i day, the thr ee pr esentati on styl es
ar e:
1. The Cool Zone
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2. The Hot Zone
3. The Dul l Zone
Most speakers bel ong to anyone of these three categori es or
they have a combi nati on of the char acter i sti cs. A ski l l ed
pr esenter k eeps the audi ence psychol ogy i n mi nd and
presents the matter from thei r poi nt of vi ew. The styl e hel ps
the presenter to establ i sh a common frame of reference for
parti ci pati on to take pl ace.
A ski l l ed presenter bel ongs to the Cool Zone. The styl e hel ps
hi m/her to capture the attenti on of the audi ence wi th cl ear
per s u as i v e s k i l l s of th i n k i n g. Th e pr es en tati on i s a
str uctur ed one, facts ar e pr esented i n an or der l y manner
and the del i ver y i s under contr ol . The pi tch, vol ume, and
tone ar e al l under contr ol . The thoughtful manner of
presentati on makes i t a customer-fri endl y styl e. The speaker
i s focused, cl ear i n reasoni ng, and the arguments are preci se.
Such a pr esentati on dr aws maxi mum attenti on fr om the
audi ence. Father of the Nati on, M.K. Gandhi ; l ate Pr i me
Mi ni ster, Shri Jawaharl al Nehru; former U.S. Secretary of
State; Henry Ki ssi nger; Pri me Mi ni ster of U.K.; Tony Bl ai r;
Mr. Nel son Mandel a; former I ndi an Fi nance Mi ni sters Mr.
Manmohan Si ngh, and Mr. P. Chi dambaram and others who
possess the qual i ti es of a cool zone speaker bel ong to thi s
categor y. Peopl e fr om the wor l d of academi cs gener al l y
bel ong to thi s category. Some of the promi nent academi ci ans
who have l eft i ndel i bl e i mpressi on on peopl es mi nds are l ate
Pr esi dent of I ndi a, Shr i Radha Kr i shnan; Nobel Laur eate,
Amartya Sen, to name a few. Speakers l i ke Dr, Pri tam Si ngh
(both hot and col d zones) and Professor Y.K. Bhushan, have
i nspi red students and the academi a wi th thei r tal ks. Hol l i day
descr i bes such speaker s as anal yti cal , l ogi cal , pr agmati c,
thoughtful , del i berate, rati onal , restrai ned, i ntel l ectual , and
i nsi ghtful .
The Hot Zone Speaker can bl ow the roof off a bui l di ng,
says Hol l i day. Loud voi ce, r hetor i cal styl e, dr amati c body
movements, and voi ce i nfl ecti ons descr i be such a speaker .
Because they are dri ven by passi ons, thei r pi tch keeps goi ng
up and down, the l oudness of the voi ce matchi ng the pi tch
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l evel , suppor ted by body, movi ng hands, dar ti ng eyes, and
shi fti ng postur es. Some audi ence may enjoy such speaker s
but other s may al so get put off because of the dr amati c
movements. Most pol i ti cal speaker s, some of them pl ayi ng
to the gal l er y, adopt thi s styl e of speaki ng. The adjecti ves
that Hol l i day uses for these speakers are emoti onal , dri ven,
sur pr i si ng, i nsti ncti ve, char i smati c, cr eati ve, i mpul si ve,
dari ng and di sjoi nted.
However , most speaker s oper ate between the col d and the
hot zones.
The Ni ghti ngal e of I ndi a, Saroji ni Nai du; Late Pri me Mi ni ster
I ndi r a Gandhi , for mer Br i ti sh Pr i me Mi ni ster , Mar gar et
Thatcher ; Pr esi dent Roosevel t and Pr esi dent Ei senhower ,
and many more bel ong to thi s category. Vari ati on i n the styl e
of del i ver y pr ompted by the content and mood behi nd the
thoughts make the speakers al ternate the two styl es.
The Dull Zone Speaker, as the name suggests, makes
presentati on a bori ng experi ence. The l ack of pi tch vari ati on,
unpr omi si ng body l anguage and i ncompati bi l i ty wi th the
audi ence make the speaker a nervous wreck. Nervous body
l anguage, tremors i n the voi ce, poor eye contact, rushi ng off
wi th matter hurri edl y, al l put together, make the speaker a
dul l one. I t i s equal l y pai nful for the audi ence to si t through
th e pr es en tati on . Hol l i day cal l s th em cau ti ou s ,
accommodati n g, compr omi s i n g, pr edi ctabl e, n eu tr al ,
noncommi ttal , ambi val ent, and bori ng.
Busi ness executi ves pr efer the Cool Zone styl e because
busi ness deal s wi th concrete i nformati on supported by facts
and appl i ed knowl edge. There cannot be any room for feel i ngs
and emoti ons i n busi ness pr esentati ons. A contr ol l ed tone,
thoughtful approach and fact based research defi ne a busi ness
pr esentati on.
I t i s i mpor tant to under stand that speech i s a par t of
presentati on. Speech i s how you use words and the way you
express them. Presentati on i s essenti al l y a mul ti medi a form,
for whi ch you use vi sual ai ds, synchroni ze your body l anguage
wi th y ou r s peech an d th e v i s u al s for an effecti v e
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presentati on. I n a way, presentati on i s a total i mage of your
abi l i ty to handl e al l these vari ants.
Freporotion ond Froctice
Once you have gathered knowl edge about the requi si tes of
pr esentati on, i t i s ti me for you to star t pr epar i ng and
pr acti ci ng your matter .
How shoul d one go about wi th the ki nd of preparati on that
i s needed for a good pr esentati on? The pr epar ati on shoul d
al ways begi n wi th an i n-depth background research. But the
sources needed for the research cannot be i denti fi ed unl ess
you are cl ear about the objecti ves of your presentati on.
Presentati on Structure
A presentati on general l y has a few i mportant poi nts around
whi ch the text revol ves. The i dea of maki ng a presentati on
i s to hel p your audi ence to recal l your matter. Onl y you can
hel p your audi ence to remember the maxi mum by organi zi ng
the matter wel l . What you requi re to do i s to structure the
matter i n a manner that wi l l gi ve the ri ght message to your
audi ence. Essenti al l y a pr esentati on, l i ke a good r epor t or
an essay, has thr ee par ts to i t, the i ntr oducti on, the body,
and the concl usi on. The i ntroducti on must begi n on the note
of the Bi g I dea. Later i n uni t you wi l l study about the val ue
of focusi ng on the i mpor tant matter to ensur e that the
l i stener s car r y back wi th them the bi g i dea that i nter ests
the recei ver of the message. The bi g i dea i s the essence or
the central theme that can be remembered for a l ong ti me.
As Hunsaker and Al essandra say, How you transl ate your
mater i al -y ou r mes s age-i n to ben efi ts for th e au di en ce
deter mi nes i ts effecti veness. You need to str uctur e your
presentati on so that i t supports your one Bi g I dea. Of course,
your presentati on wi l l contai n more than one i dea but they
shoul d al l r ei nfor ce the pr i mar y focus. Any of the thr ee
orders can be fol l owed for an effecti ve presentati on:
The chr onol ogi cal /hi stor i cal or der
The sequenti al or der
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Any other order that makes sense.
I t i s al so i mpor tant to i nter weave your poi nts to hi ghl i ght
the Bi g I dea. Once you have structured your matter, you need
to fi nd out how you ar e goi ng to r el ate the matter to your
audi ence. The audi ences attenti on span needs to be kept i n
tact. Thi s i s not an easy task al ways!
What you can do is to adopt different styles for different
groups
I f the group i s smal l and i nformal , use a narrative styl e,
i nter sper sed wi th anecdotes, a bi t of humour , i n a
l i ghter vei n. Often a factual del i ver y can make the
pr es en tati on v er y dr y an d mon oton ou s . At s u ch
moments, a rel evant story or an anecdote from l i fe or a
metaphori cal i dea can add sparkl e to the presentati on.
I f i t i s a busi ness presentati on to a smal l , knowl edgeabl e
group, a deductive approach can be used to save ti me.
Bu t th en , for s u ch pr es en tati on s , too mu ch of
compactness al so may not i nterest the audi ence. I f there
are detai l ed facts and fi gures to be gi ven, a better way
i s to gi ve away hand-outs whi ch the audi ence can read
at l ei sure. The actual presentati on shoul d be kept l i vel y
and i nter acti ve.
You may al so use a descri pti ve styl e that enabl es you to
descri be the detai l s of the topi c (sal es/marketi ng/market
sur vey, etc.). Whi chever styl e you choose, you must
make i t a poi nt to get accepted by your audi ence.
How to find the Material and Which Sources to follow?
A good presentati on al ways demands the ri ght sources that
have to be tapped for background research. Thi s i s a tedi ous
part of the work. I n todays ti me of i nformati on expl osi on or
i nformati on overl oad, one i s fl ooded wi th i nformati on/data..
From arti cl es i n journal s, magazi nes, newspapers, books to
the I nter net, one has oppor tuni ti es to expl or e var i ous
sour ces.
The vari ous sources are:
News paper agen ci es /docu men tati on ar ch i v es for
newspaper cutti ngs
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Docu men tati on ar ch i v es , pu bl i c l i br ar i es /col l ege
l i br ar i es/i nsti tute l i br ar i es for var i ous ar ti cl es
Bi bl i ography secti on i n wel l -wri tten books for rel evant
r efer ences
Company r epor ts, gover nment r epor ts by per sonal l y
appr oachi ng them
Pr ofessi onal jour nal s
I ntervi ews wi th professi onal s/fri ends/personal contacts
Other sources such as I nternet, CD-ROMs, vi deos, audi os
How many slides to use? Are there any rules to follow?
A presentati on i s a mul ti -medi a work. Sl i des are a part of a
good presentati on. The questi on i s about the number of sl i des
that can be used. Often, a presentati on i s marred by too many
sl i des. I t i s as though the pr esenter has deci ded to hi de
behi nd the sl i des and has al l owed the sl i des to do the tal ki ng
for hi m/her.
1. The number of sl i des wi l l depend on the matter that
y ou wi s h to pr es en t. Bu t each s l i de mu s t be a
comprehensi ve one. I t must contai n onl y the mi ni mum
text i n support of what you have to say. Si x-ei ght words
per sl i de seem a good number because they wi l l not
cl utter the sl i de. Pl ease r emember , the audi ence has
come to l i sten to you, not for a vi sual demonstrati on!
2. Let your sl i des be a combi nati on of powerful vi sual s and
powerful verbal , one supporti ng the other. The el aborate
expl anati on of your matter shoul d be spoken by you and
not i ncl uded i n the sl i de. Many poor sl i de mak er s
i ncl ude too many words/l ong sentences i n the sl i de. Thi s
must be avoi ded.
Accordi ng to Anthony Jay and Ros Jay, The verbal sl i de
i s a sl i de consi sti ng of whol e statements, someti mes
several of them numbered sequenti al l y on a si ngl e sl i de.
I t i s a ki l l er.
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3. Avoi d abstr act nouns/too many adjecti ves/adver bs and
passi ve constr ucti ons.
4. Use acti on or i ented wor ds/ver bs. They l end power to
your thoughts.
5. Ensure that the font si ze i s readabl e-not too smal l .
6. Use a consi stent styl e-bul l et poi nts, font si ze and col ours
(Ti mes New Roman and Ari al ).
7. Use Caps onl y for the headi ngs.
8. Use di agrams/charts/graphs wherever possi bl e, but keep
them si mpl e.
Getting Storted
Practi ce Before You Present
Befor e you actual l y go to make your pr esentati on, i t i s
n eces s ar y th at y ou pr acti ce or r eh ear s e y ou r matter
ser i ousl y. Synchr oni zi ng wi th your vi sual ai ds i s a cr uci al
r equi r ement because other wi se a l ot of your val uabl e ti me
as wel l as that of the audi ence wi l l be wasted. The practi ce
sessi ons wi l l gi ve you a chance to smooth over the di ffi cul t
edges. These coul d be pronunci ati ons of di ffi cul t words (many
speakers do not pay attenti on to thi s aspect of presentati on
at al l ), emphasi zi ng key words or i deas, pausi ng at speci fi c
pl aces for r epeti ti on of i mpor tan t i deas , an d mos t
i mpor tantl y, vi sual i zi ng the audi ence and thei r r esponses
and prepari ng to gi ve answers to anti ci pated questi ons.
A part of your practi ce sessi on shoul d be devoted to the way
you woul d establ i sh eye contact wi th your audi ence, smi l e
and keep a pl easant face and si mul taneousl y handl e the
del i very. I f al l thi s i s not done natural l y, your del i very wi l l
soon project a sti ff body l anguage, wooden voi ce qual i ty, and
gener al l y an uni nter esti ng styl e. Al l these poi nts wi l l go
agai nst you. Therefore, a few poi nts need to be kept i n mi nd:
l . Rehear se for confi dence,
2. Rehear se for spontanei ty,
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3. Rehearse for synchroni zati on wi th your vi sual ai ds,
4. Rehearse for i nteracti on wi th your audi ence,
5. Rehearse for i nvi ti ng questi ons and answeri ng them.
Take Care of How You Dress/Look
I t i s n eces s ar y to l ook wel l tu r n ed ou t for mak i n g a
presentati on. Looki ng wel l doesnt mean dressi ng up to ki l l
the audi ence. I t means the speaker must be wel l gr oomed
for the pr esentati on. I mpr essi ons al ways have a l asti ng
i mpact on an audi ence and that too the fi rst few seconds. Al l
corporate presentati ons must meet the corporate standards
reasonabl y wel l . Try to bui l d an i dea about your dress, your
gestures, and your speaki ng face. The expressi ons on your
face are of great i mportance to your audi ence.
What i s i mpor tant i s that your audi ence shoul d be abl e to
i denti fy wi th you. A busi ness/corporate worl d make demands
on appropri ate dress, manners, posture and gestures and a
pl eas ant di s pos i ti on. Of cour s e, i f y ou ar e to mak e a
presentati on to a group of soci al workers or factory workers,
you may make the necessary changes i n your dress code. The
end vi ewers must be abl e to i denti fy themsel ves wi th you.
Wri ti ng Down the Presentati on
You may choose to wr i te out the enti r e speech or just the
outl i ne. I n the begi nni ng, when you are not used to maki ng
pr es en tati on s , y ou may h av e to wr i te ou t th e en ti r e
manuscr i pt. However , i t i s essenti al that you wr i te down
the detai l ed sub-heads or l engthy matter and practi ce i t wel l .
Putti ng i t al l together: Cl ari fy your topi c; make sure that
you know exactl y what i t i s you wi l l be speaki ng about.
Devel op a compr ehensi ve pl an that pi npoi nts i ssues and
desi r ed outcomes.
I denti fy your theme: Thi s i s the message around whi ch you
wi l l weave your content, the thr ead that connects al l your
poi nts. The theme must connect al l the pi eces of the content,
must fl ow l ogi cal l y from concept to concept.
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Choose your wor ds wel l : The wor ds must accur atel y
express your thoughts. Do not use di ffi cul t words or jargon
to communi cate.
Emphasi ze the i mportant poi nts: The key concepts must
be cl eared i n the al l otted ti me whi ch must i ncl ude the
Transi ti on (l i nk i deas, through theme)
Anchor (grab attenti on, draw parti ci pati on)
Benefi ts (constantl y noti ng i n real -worl d terms WI I FM)
Avoi d pretense: A put-on accent or behavi our i s a sure way
to mar your presentati on. You need to be yoursel f!
Edi t ruthl essl y: Ti me bound presentati ons need conci seness
and pr eci si on of expr essi on. Super fl uous wor ds/phr ases/
sentences/paragraphs must be removed.
Delivering the Fresentotion
Once you have vi sual i zed that your presentati on i s goi ng to
be successful because you have researched and practi ced your
matter wel l , you shoul d be abl e to stand before your audi ence
confi dentl y and rari ng to go ahead wi th your presentati on.
However , no matter how wel l pr epar ed you ar e wi th your
pr esentati on, the fi r st few mi nutes have to be under your
fi r m contr ol to avoi d havi ng butter fl i es i n your stomach.
Hence, the fi rst few mi nutes as you focus your attenti on on
the audi ence, l et your mi nd take control of the ji tters. And
how do you do that? Here are a few ti ps:
The I ntroducti on
Open your pr esentati on wi th wor ds of thanks both for the
chai rperson and the audi ence. Be courteous and si ncere i n
doi ng so (For a formal or l arge gatheri ng). I n case you are
i ntr oduced wi th fl ower y l anguage or exagger ati on to the
extent of causi ng embarrassment, defl ate the comments by
bei ng a l i ttl e humorous and wi thout embarrassi ng the person
who i ntr oduced you.
By now the audi ence has begun to scan you. The expectati on
has set i n. Announce the topi c cl earl y and conci sel y. Come
str ai ght to the poi nt because the audi ence does not l i ke
wasti ng ti me.
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Body Language
Del i ver your speech not si mpl y thr ough wor ds but al so
through your body. I t i s very cruci al to work on yoursel f for
an effecti ve del i ver y that i s a combi nati on of ver bal , vocal
and the vi sual . The fol l owi ng ti ps wi l l hel p you to enhance
your body l anguage i n a presentati on:
Stand str ai ght, hol d your head hi gh, and keep your
shoul ders strai ght and not droopi ng.
A str ai ght standi ng postur e wi l l mak e your spi ne
strai ght and hel p you to pul l your stomach i n. Thi s i n
turn wi l l hel p you to breathe wel l . A deep breath hel ps
you to r el ease your tensi on, acti vate your mi nd and
enabl e you to focus on your matter . I t makes you feel
r el axed and confi dent.
The correct standi ng posture makes you di stri bute the
wei ght of your body equal l y on both l egs and not one.
Standi ng fi r ml y enhances your statur e and gi ves you
tr emendous sel f-confi dence.
I t al so hel ps you to use your hands wel l . An open pal m
gesture i ntegrates wel l wi th an open body l anguage.
The common errors that you shoul d not commi t:
Do not put your face down
Avoi d al l awkward gestures (crossed arms, ti l ted body,
eyes down, and no smi l e)
Sti ff body (Gi ve your body a bi t of movement to add a
l i ttl e vari ety to your speech and l et the audi ence be a
part of your presentati on)
Tal ki ng too fast/too sl ow
Bad voi ce
Note on voi ce and tone: Use a wel l -control l ed tone of voi ce.
I f i t l acks confi dence, peopl e wont gi ve much cr edence to
your i deas. I f your voi ce i s too gruff (cocky, deep and harsh,
unfri endl y), peopl e wi l l turn you off.
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Quolities oI o SkilIul Fresenter
A speaker needs to have a few basi c qual i ti es i n order to be a
good pr esenter . The del i ver y of a pr esentati on i s as much
i mportant as the content of the presentati on. A good del i very
or i gi nates i n a gr oomed, tr ai ned mi nd. The fol l owi ng
qual i ti es are expected of a good presenter:
Sel f-contr ol -not feel i ng ner vous
Poi se i n good command of body l anguage
Awar eness of peopl e, ti me and pl ace ful l knowl edge
of the audi ence, ti me and the venue
Tact the abi l i ty to bl end wi th the audi ence and the
matter
Deci si veness bei ng cl ear about the matter
Persuasi veness the abi l i ty to make the audi ence see
your poi nt of vi ew
Enthusi asm never l osi ng si ght of the objecti ve of the
pr esentati on and hence keepi ng up the spi r i t of the
pr esentati on
Honesty not faki ng knowl edge or i nformati on
Fl exi bi l i ty not bei ng ri gi d i f there i s a di fferent poi nt
of i nterpretati on from the audi ence.
Copturing ond Mointoining Attention
Al l pr esentati ons hav e a br oad fr amewor k . The mai n
objecti ves ar e to i nfor m, per suade, i nspi r e, and convi nce.
Many speakers try to bl end thei r presentati on wi th a bi t of
fun or humorous remarks to break the monotony.
As you del i ver your matter , use i l l ustr ati ons, facts and
fi gur es, and r efer ences to conti nual l y move towar d your
pr edeter mi ned concl usi on.
Begi n confi dentl y by speaki ng sl owl y and l ess l oudl y
than you usual l y do. Keep your voi ce under control . The
pi tch and the rate are cruci al because they can ti l t your
presentati on ei ther way agai nst you or i n your favour.
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Watch th e ton e of y ou r v oi ce. Do n ot s peak i n a
demeani ng manner. A good presenter does not tal k down
at the audi ence. She/he tal ks to an audi ence. The i dea i s
to car r y the audi ence wi th onesel f. A soft, mumbl i ng
voi ce/preachy tone, wi l l make you l ose your credi bi l i ty.
Del i ver wi th confi dence and humi l i ty no one l i kes to
l i s ten to an ar r ogan t s peak er . No matter h ow
knowl edgeabl e you are, you need to make your audi ence
feel comfortabl e wi th you and your message.
I t i s i mportant that you choreograph yoursel f wel l wi th
the vi sual ai ds and the audi ence. How do you do thi s?
I f you speak, you shoul d not onl y smi l e and sustai n your
focus on your audi ence, but al so know how to manage
your thoughts, the ai ds and the del i very. Use a poi nter
or a l aser torch to poi nt out the text that you wi sh to be
read by the audi ence.
Do not memor i ze your matter . I f you for get, you wi l l
tend to pani c over i t l eadi ng to nervous body l anguage.
Focus on the key poi nts, l earn to devel op them on the
s pot, an d s tr i n g y ou r th ou gh ts for a h ar mon i ou s
pr esentati on.
An i ntroducti on, body, concl usi on shoul d be the format
of your pr esentati on.
I f you jump-start confi dentl y and cl earl y, your audi ence
wi l l l ove i t and be wi l l i ng to l i sten to you for the rest of
the pr esentati on.
A good presentati on has a mi x of humour and real stuff
s o th at th e au di en ce i s made to ex per i en ce th e
seri ousness wi thout getti ng bored of the facts and the
techni cal matter .
Once you are confi dent of your matter, you wi l l prefer
to stay i n the cool zone, for the matter fl ows from your
mi nd i n a systemati c manner. A structured presentati on
hel ps the audi ence to understand the content.
The audi ence wi l l al so l ook for what i s new i n the
presentati on. The presenter must keep WI I FM (Whats
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i n i t for me?) i n mi nd. When the presenter del i vers from
the audi ences poi nt of vi ew, connecti vi ty wi th the
audi ence i s on a hi gher l evel . Ful l knowl edge of the
audi ence and thei r expectati ons hel p the pr esenter to
tai l or the presentati on wel l . The fol l owi ng questi ons are
i mpor tant for consi der ati on:
What does the audi ence need to know?
What are the possi bl e benefi ts for the audi ence? What
questi ons mi ght the audi ence have?
Closing o Fresentotion
A wel l -structured presentati on has to reach the peak before
i t begi ns to cl i mb down for an end. Thi s i s wher e you wi l l
sei ze the opportuni ty to make the concl usi on memorabl e. I t
i s a part where you cl i nch the purpose of your speech. The
audi ence shoul d be abl e to see cl earl y how the i ntroducti on,
the mi ddl e, and the concl usi on are beauti ful l y ti ed up to form
a chai n. To progressi vel y move toward thi s achi evement i s
not easy. I t i s an i ntense task and i t has to be done wel l . A
good presenter does not bl ow away hi s/her chance.
The concl usi on i s an i mpor tant par t of the pr esentati on
because i t i s the part that the audi ence wi l l carry back wi th
them and remember the message for qui te some ti me. A qui ck
recap of the poi nts that you have devel oped throughout can
be revi ewed. The i mpact i s al l the more i ntense when i t i s
packed wi th an anecdote or an anal ogy.
At the end, do not forget to thank the audi ence for l i steni ng
to you. The audi ence wi l l l i ke to be thanked.
Hondling Questions. 'Thinking On Feet Skill
An i nsi ghtful and i ntel l i gent pr esenter al ways anti ci pates
questi ons fr om the audi ence. Thi nki ng on feet means the
presenter shoul d be abl e to handl e the questi ons cal ml y and
confi dentl y . A r esponsi v e audi ence not onl y pr acti ces
CARESS but al so notes down the questi ons that they woul d
l i ke to ask. Often, there may be hosti l e or resi stant l i steners
and they are l i kel y to ask i ntri gui ng or ambi guous questi ons.
These need to be handl ed wel l . Never al l ow your sel f to be
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ruffl ed. Here are a few ti ps for handl i ng questi ons from the
audi ence:
Encourage the audi ence to ask questi ons be forthri ght
about i t and do not mumbl e, A confi dent presenter enjoys
answer i ng questi ons. Say, I woul d l ove to answer i f
anybody has any questi ons to ask.
Li sten to the questi ons ver y wel l an exhausti ng
presentati on may l eave the presenter ti red and hence a
l i ttl e di sor i ented. But the task of pr esentati on i s sti l l
not over ti l l the l ast questi on has been answered.
Somebody who has ask ed a good questi on must be
compl emen ted. I t en cou r ages oth er s to as k al s o.
Successful handl i ng of questi ons establ i shes a good
rapport between the presenter and the audi ence.
Those who ask questi ons for the sake of aski ng onl y
shoul d be tactful l y handl ed. I f questi ons are repeated,
tactful l y edi t the questi ons and cl ub them wel l wi th the
previ ous questi ons and remi nd the audi ence about the
answer you had made.
Do not l et onl y a few members to domi nate the questi on-
answer sessi on. Encourage others al so to ask questi ons.
A si ncer e attempt at answer i ng questi ons i s al ways
appreci ated by the audi ence.
A Quick Recap of Things that You Should Not Commit
in Public Speaking
Content poorl y researched matter
Speech tal ki ng too r api dl y/monotone/l ack of speech
cl ar i ty/over accentuati on/wr ong pr onunci ati on
Voi ce hi gh pi tch, tal k i ng down at the audi ence,
speaki ng i n a mumbl i ng/muffl ed tone, l ack of voi ce
modul ati on, wr ong i ntonati on/i nfl ecti on
Face unsmi l i ng face/poker face, poor/no eye contact
Gestur es fi dgeti ng behavi our /hands i n pocket, ar ms
crossed across the chest, ti l ti ng body wei ght
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Language poor grammar, l ong sentences, usi ng sl ang
col l oqui al expr essi ons
Styl e l ack of confi dence, i ndi r ect communi cati on,
beati ng about the bush, no proper i ntroducti on, body and
concl usi on of the speech, but r epeti ti on, and tal ki ng
much wi thout actual l y sayi ng anythi ng!
Summory
A good pr esentati on needs a car eful pr epar ati on and must
not be taken l i ghtl y. Practi ce and more practi ce onl y can dri ve
away al l the fears that one associ ates presentati on wi th. From
per fecti ng body l anguage to wr i ti ng out the s cr i pt, a
presentati on requi res good research, wel l -made vi sual sl i des,
use of cor r ect l anguage, use of pr oper voi ce and tone,
adapti n g th e r i gh t pr es en ti n g s ty l e (th e cool zon e),
synchroni zi ng onesel f wi th the vi sual ai ds and the audi ence,
captur i ng and mai ntai ni ng attenti on, and deal i ng wi th
di ffi cul t members who may be i n the habi t of aski ng hosti l e
ques ti ons . By h an dl i n g th e qu es ti on -an s wer s es s i on
asserti vel y and courteousl y, you hel p yoursel f to carry back
pl easant memori es about the audi ence as much as you hel p
the audi ence to thi nk warml y about your presentati on. The
purpose of maki ng a presentati on seems to be then ful fi l l ed.
keview Questions
1. What are the steps to be fol l owed for maki ng a successful
pr esentati on?
2. What ar e the gui del i nes i n or der to make use of the
Vi sual Ai ds?
3. Di scuss the three steps that are necessary to prepare a
Pr esentati on?
4. Accordi ng to Mi kki Hol l i day, El aborate the three styl es
of Pr esentati on?
5. What are the qual i ti es of a ski l l ful presenter?

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Course Code: BBCG-101

Course Name: Business Communication

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