A liquefied natural gas plant (LNG plant) is roughly divided into five processes:

(1) pretreatment, (2) acid gas removal, (3) dehydration, (4) liquefaction and
(5) heavy oil separation.
(1) In the pretreatment process, undesired substances are removed from the gas
taken from a gas field. Then the gas is separated using a slug catcher into oil
and water which are then weighed.
(2)Natural gas taken from a gas field contains environmental pollutants like
hydrogen sulfide (H
2
S) and carbon dioxide (CO
2
). These impure substances are
absorbed and removed from natural gas with an amine absorber (acid gas
removal or AGR). With the use of a sulfur removal unit (SRU), sulfur is
extracted from the hydrogen sulfide in the removed pollutant.
(3)An adsorbent is used to remove water from the natural gas from which impure
substances have been removed so that ice will not form during the subsequent
liquefaction process.
(4)Traces of harmful mercury are removed before liquefaction.
(5)The heavy compounds separation process is the core of an LNG plant in which
natural gas is cooled and liquefied to 160C or less using the principle of
refrigeration. Because gas is cooled and liquefied to an extremely-low
temperature during the process, an enormous amount of energy is consumed.
How much this energy can be reduced is important, so various ingenious
processes have been proposed and commercialized.
Major liquefaction processes are as follows:
1)C3-MR method: The C3-MR method is currently the main method. Propane
and mixed coolants (nitrogen, methane, ethane and propane) are used as the
coolant (APCI), and an improvement on this method called the AP-X method is
also used for large LNG plants.
2)AP-X method: As liquefaction trains get larger, they approach a limit on the
size of heat exchanger that can be produced and transported. This process can
increase LNG production capacity by adding LNG sub-coolers with nitrogen
coolant used according to the C3-MR method, without increasing the size of
the main heat exchanger (APCI).
3)Cascade method: This method sequentially uses propane, ethylene and
methane as the coolant (Phillips).
4)DMR method: This method uses two kinds of mixed coolants (an ethane and
propane mix and a nitrogen-methane, ethane and propane mix) (Shell).
5) SMR method: This method is called the PRICO process and uses only one kind
of mixed coolant (Black & Veatch).
All of these methods require enormous refrigeration compressors. Gas turbines
used for giant power plants are used to drive them, so elaborate engineering
based on experience and high-level knowledge is required to design, produce
and assemble the compressors and gas turbines. We will continue to be the
leader of LNG plants because of our ability to deal with LNG and advanced
technology based on our abundant experience.


https://www.chiyoda-corp.com/technology/en/lng/liquefaction.html

As concern over global warming and environmental problems grows worldwide, there is increasing
demand for natural gas as an energy source with a smaller environmental impact (lower CO
2
emissions)
than oil or coal. With this growth in demand, LNG plants are receiving much attention. Plant production
capacity, which was initially approximately 1 million tons/year, has reached 7.8 million tons/year, and
the capacities of the various process gas compressors used in the plant are also increasing. At the same
time, there is also growing interest in the development of small and mid-sized LNG plants as a means of
making effective use of unused gas fields.
At an LNG plant, the liquid components (condensate) are removed from the natural gas that was
produced from the gas field. The natural gas then passes through acid gas (hydrogen sulfide, carbon
dioxide) removal equipment, mercury removal equipment, dehydration equipment, and NGL removal
equipment, and is then liquefied by liquefaction equipment where its volume is reduced by a factor of
600. Afterwards, the natural gas is stored in an LNG tank. Recently, in addition to the conventional "On-
shore" LNG Plant, new technologies have created Floating LNG (F-LNG) which allows for offshore
liquefaction.
MCO offers the various process gas compressors and drive equipment which are used in these gas
processing and liquefaction processes. These technologies help contribute to the construction of a
cleaner, more reliable gas-based society.
The schematic diagram of LNG plant process flow

(Note) The above diagram is based on APCI C3-MR process, for example.
LNG compressors
Offgas compressors
Offgas compressors are used to recover the gas contained in the liquid after the liquid and gas are
separated in the natural gas that is sent from the gas field wellhead.
Offgas compressors have a high difference between the intake and discharge pressures and handle high-
density gases. For this reason, consideration must be given to shaft vibration issues as well as to
strength.
The photo at right shows an offgas compressor (model 5V-9B) and mechanical drive steam turbine
(model 5BL-4) which were delivered to a LNG plant in Qatar.

Offgas compressor

Regeneration gas compressors
Regeneration gas compressors are used in the acid gas removal equipment. In the same way as with
offgas compressors, there is large variation in the gas molecular weight depending on the operating
conditions, and a broad operating range is required.
The photo at right shows a regeneration gas compressor (model 4V-7) and mechanical drive steam
turbine (model 3BL-5) which were delivered to a LNG plant in Qatar.

Regeneration gas compressor

Main refrigerant compressor
Main refrigerant compressors are used to compress the refrigerant gas to cryogenic heat exchangers in
the cooling circuit in the main liquefaction process.
This type of compressor is required to extremely precise fluid dynamic design to predict the
performance of the compressor in the various operating conditions at site.
The photo shows a main refrigerant compressor (model 11H-4), drive gas turbine and helper motor,
which were delivered to the Indonesia LNG plant.

Main refrigerant compressor
End flash gas compressor / Boil off gas compressor
End flash gas compressors are used to compress the low-pressure vapor which is produced after
liquefaction facility or at LNG tank to fuel gas for gas turbine or other process.
When the vapor is produced at LNG tank only, Those are called Boil off compressor.
This type of compressor is required to design for low intake temperatures of approximately -162.
This means that the compressor must be made of materials to endure the low temperature conditions.
The photo shows end flash gas compressors (model 11H-7, 5V-8B) and their drive variable speed electric
motor, which were delivered to a LNG plant in Australia.

End flash gas compressor

Fuel gas supply compressors
Fuel gas supply compressors allow the gas remaining after LNG was produced from the raw gas to be
used as plant fuel gas for the main drive gas turbines and other systems.
This type of compressor is characterized by low intake temperatures of -60C or below. This means that
the compressor must be made of materials with refrigeration system specifications.
The photo at right shows the train of compressors (2 connected units, models 9H-7C, 5V-8B) for
supplying gas as fuel for large-size gas turbines, and their drive motor, which were delivered to a LNG
plant in Qatar. These are used to drive the processes involved in liquefaction of natural gas.

Fuel gas supply compressors

https://www.mhicompressor.com/en/business/compressor/compressor_07.html

Natural Gas and LNG Technology

Natural Gas

Origins and Properties of Natural Gas

Natural gas is formed from plankton, water-dwelling micro-organisms that include algae and protozoa.
As these micro-organisms died and accumulated on the ocean floors, they were slowly buried and their
remains were compressed under layers of sediment. Over millions of years, the pressure and heat
exerted by the overlying sediments chemically transformed this organic material into natural gas.

Natural gas is a mixture of various gases, the main ingredient being methane CH4. Methane (C1) is
colorless at ambient temperature, odorless, non-toxic but a serious greenhouse gas.

Natural gas is almost always considered a non-renewable energy source. However there are some
renewable sources of methane in the form of landfill sites from which the gas can be recovered.

Because oil and natural gas are formed by similar natural processes, the two are often found together in
underground reservoirs. After gradually forming in the Earths crust, oil and natural gas slowly flow into
tiny holes of nearby porous rocks that serve as eventual reservoirs.






Because this porous reservoir rock is often filled with water, the oil and natural gas, both of which are
lighter than water and less dense than the surrounding rock, migrate upwards through the crust,
sometimes for long distances. Eventually, some of these upward-moving hydrocarbons become trapped
by an impermeable (nonporous) layer of rock, known as the cap rock. Natural gas is lighter than oil, so it
forms a layer over the
oil. This layer is called a gas cap.

Natural gas has been discovered on all continents except Antarctica. World natural gas proven reserves,
at the end of 2003 total approximately 176 Tcm (trillion cubic meters). The worlds largest natural gas
reserves, totaling 72 Tcm are located in the Middle East. The second largest reserves, 62 Tcm are found
in Europe and Eurasia with 47 Tcm of those reserves located in the Russian Federation. Vast deposits are
also located in other parts of world with Asia Pacific totaling 13.5 Tcm, Africa 13.8 Tcm, South & Central
America 7.2 Tcm, United State total 5.5Tcm and
Canada 1.66 Tcm.

Natural gas can be recovered from three different sources:

On and offshore hydrocarbon reservoirs, which are mainly gas bearing non associated gas.

Condensate reservoirs natural gas liquids (NGL).

Oil producing reservoirs associated gas.

Associated gas may be found either in solution with crude oil or as a gas cap.

Natural Gas Processing

Natural hydrocarbon reservoir (feed) gas, whether associated (with crude) or not varies enormously in
its properties and requires chemical processing to remove undesirable components such as nitrogen,
carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide and water and contaminants such as mercury to obtain saleable
products such as sales/LNG feed gas, liquid petroleum gas (LPG) and condensates.

A simple gas process scheme will remove slugs (hydrocarbon liquids) and solids remove acid gas and
desulfurize or sweeten to remove sulfur compounds and dehydrate the wet gas. Because the
downstream natural gas liquids (NGL) separation operates at cryogenic temperatures, total removal of
water is necessary to prevent equipment from freezing.

After mercury removal, the dry and mercury free natural gas is processed by cryogenic extraction for
recovery of NGLs. The recovered NGLs are further processed into LPG and natural gasoline fractions
(condensate) which may need additional treatment to remove sulfur compounds. The residue gas from
cryogenic extraction process is then compressed and sold either as sales (pipeline) gas (av 85mol%
methane C1) or feed gas for LNG production. The diagram below describes simplistically the gas and
light hydrocarbon process and examples of technologies involved.






Natural Gas Liquids (NGL)

Most natural gas liquids are processed to separate the heavier hydrocarbon liquids from the natural gas
CH4 *(C1) methane+. These heavier hydrocarbon Liquids, or NGLs, traditionally have a higher value than
the gaseous natural gas chain. Principal NGLs include ethane (C2), LPGs such as propane (C3), butanes
(C4) and natural gasoline or plant condensate.

The separation or extraction of NGLs, as described simplistically below, from the natural gas stream is
performed to enhance the ultimate value of the raw natural gas stream. The properties of NGLs can
consist of the following components:

Ethane C
2
H
6
(C
2
) Often use as fuel gas for processing, or added to the pure methane sales of LNG
feedstock gas to improve burning characteristics or as
feedstock in a stream cracker to make ethylene.

Propane C
3
H
8
(C
3
) LPG marketed as propane (preferred fuel intemperate climates) or mixed with
butane as mixed LPG.

Butanes C
4
H
10
(C
4
) LPG marketed as butanes (i/n) preferred fuel in tropical climates or mixed with
propane as mixed LPG or gasoline blending or petrochemical feedstock.

Pentanes C
5
H
12
(C
5
) and heavier Represents only 0.8%mol of NGL and not normally separated from
plant condensate.

Natural Gasoline (plant condensate) Does not contain middle distillates and heavier components of
field condensate. Marketed as light naphtha and traded as feedstock for olefins stream crackers.
Worldwide natural gasoline production is 1.1 million bcd.

Field Condensate Heavier and comes from free gas (not associated) and resembles crude oil in some
respect with a density of API 43 -72. Traded as a light substitute for crude oil, lighter and paraffinic
condensate is used as steam cracker feedstock or as an addition or an alternative to refinery naphthas
and gasoils. Worldwide field condensate production is 2.5 Mbcd.




http://www.mcilvainecompany.com/industryforecast/LNG/overview/Chpt.%204%20Natural%20Gas%20
and%20LNG%20Tech.htm

Midstream facilities
Raw natural gas from the well consists of methane as well as many other smaller fractions of heavier
hydrocarbons, and various other components. The gas has to be separated into marketable fractions
and treated to trade specifications and to protect equipment from contaminants.

5.1 Gathering
Many upstream facilities include the gathering system in the processing plant. However, for distributed
gas production systems with many (often small) producers, there is little processing at each location and
gas production from thousands of wells over an area instead feed into a distributed gathering system.
This system in general is composed of:
Flowlines: A line connecting the wellpad with a field gathering station (FGS), in general equipped
with a fixed or mobile type pig launcher.
FGS is a system allowing gathering of several flowlines and permits transmission of the combined
stream to the central processing facility (CPF) and measures the oil/water/gas ratio. Each FGS is
composed of:
Pig receiver (fixed/mobile)
Production header where all flowlines are connected
Test header where a single flow line is routed for analysis purposes (GOR Gas to oil ratio,
water cut)
Test system (mainly test separator or multiphase flow meter)
Pig trap launcher
Trunk line pipeline connecting the FGS with the CPF. Equipped with a pig receiver at the end.

5.2 Gas plants
5.2.1 Gas composition
When gas is exported, many gas trains include additional equipment for further gas processing to
remove unwanted components such as hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide. These gases are called
acids and sweetening/acid removal is the process of removing them.

Natural gas sweetening methods include absorption processes, cryogenic processes, adsorption
processes (PSA, TSA and iron sponge) and membranes. Often hybrid combinations are used, such as
cryogenic and membranes.

Gas treatment may also include calibration. If the delivery specification is for a specific calorific value
(BTU per scf or MJ per scm), gas with higher values can be adjusted by adding an inert gas, such as
nitrogen. This is often done at a common point such as a pipeline gathering system or a pipeline onshore
terminal.

Raw natural gas from the well consists of methane as well, as many other smaller fractions of heavier
hydrocarbons and various other components.

Component Chemical
Formula
Boiling Point
at 101 kPa
Vapor pressure
at 20 C approx.
Methane CH
4
-161,6 C Tcri t82.6 C
@ 4,6 MPa
Ethane C
2
H
6
-88.6 C 4200 kPa
Propane C
3
H
8
-42.1 C 890 kPa
Butane n-C
4
H
10
0.5 C 210 kPa
Higher order HC
Alkenes
Aromatics


C
n
H
2n

e.g. C
6
H
6



Acid gases
Carbon dioxide
Hydrogen sulfide
Mercaptans ex.
Methanethiol
Ethanethiol

CO
2

H
2
S
CH
3
SH
C
2
H
5
SH

78 C
-60.2 C

5.95 C
35 C

5500 kPa

Other Gases
Nitrogen
Helium

N
2

He

-195.79 C
-268.93 C

Water H
2
O 0 C
Trace pollutants
Mercury
Chlorides

Data source: Wikipedia, Air Liquide Gas Encyclopedia

Natural gas is characterized in several ways dependent on the content of these components:
Wet gas is raw gas with a methane content of less than 85%.
Dry gas is raw or treated natural gas that contains less than 15 liters of condensate per 1,000
SM3. (0.1 gallon per 1000 scf).
Sour gas is raw gas with a content of more than 5.7 mg hydrogen sulfide (H
2
S) per scm (0.25
grains per 100 scf); this is about 4 ppm.
Acid gas has a high content of acidic gases such as carbon dioxide (CO
2
) or H
2
St. Pipeline natural
gas specification is typically less than 2% CO2. Acid gas fields with up to 90% CO
2
exist, but the
normal range for sour raw gas is 20-40%.
Condensates are a mixture of hydrocarbons and other components in the above table. These
are normally gaseous from the well but condense out as liquid during the production process
(see previous chapter). This is a refinery and petrochemical feedstock.
Raw gas is processed into various products or fractions:
Natural gas in its marketable form has been processed for a specific composition of
hydrocarbons, sour and acid components, etc., and energy content. Content is typically 90%
methane, with 10% other light alkenes.
Natural gas liquids (NGL) is a processed purified product consisting of ethane, propane, butane
or some higher alkenes separately, or in a blend. It is primarily a raw material for petrochemical
industry and is often processed from the condensate.
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) refers to propane or butane or a mixture of these that has been
compressed to liquid at room temperature (200 to 900 kPa depending on composition). LPG is
filled in bottles for consumer domestic use as fuel, and is also used as aerosol propellant (in
spray cans) and refrigerant (e.g., in air conditioners). Energy to volume ratio is 74% of gasoline.
Liquefied natural gas (LNG) is natural gas that is refrigerated and liquefied at below -162 C, for
storage and transport. It is stored at close to atmospheric pressure, typically less than 125 kPa.
As a liquid, LNG takes up 1/600 of the volume of the gas at room temperature. Energy to volume
ratio is 66% of gasoline. After transport and storage it is reheated/vaporized and compressed for
pipeline transport.
Compressed natural gas (CNG) is natural gas that is compressed at 2-2,2 MPa to less than 1% of
volume at atmospheric pressure. Unlike higher alkenes, methane cannot be kept liquid by high
pressure at normal ambient temperatures because of a low critical temperature. CNG is used as
a less costly alternative to LNG for lower capacity and medium distance transport. Methane for
vehicle fuel is also stored as CNG. Energy to volume ratio is typically 25% of gasoline.

5.3 Gas processing
Raw natural gas must be processed to meet the trading specifications of pipeline and gas distribution
companies. As part of the purification other components such as NGL is produced, and pollutants
extracted.
The diagram shows an overview of a typical gas plant. Marketable products are listed in blue and the
production process is shown in grey as it is not considered part of the gas plant.


Typical Gas Plant


5.3.1 Acid gas removal
Acid gases such as carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide form acids when reacting with water, and must
be removed to prevent corrosive damage to equipment and pipelines. Hydrogen sulfide is also toxic and
total sulfur content is normally regulated.

The main removal process can be based on several principles:


Absorption allows acidic gases to be dissolved in a solvent, to be released by regeneration in a later
stage. Amine absorption (as shown on the right) is the most common process for acid gas removal.
Monoethanolamine (MEA) dominates for CO2 removal. Solutions with inorganic solvents based on
ammonia are under development. Ill: Wikipedia

A typical amine gas treating process (as shown in the flow diagram) consists of an absorber unit, a
regenerator unit and accessory equipment. In the absorber, a "lean" amine solution absorbs H2S and
CO2 from the upflowing sour gas to produce a sweetened gas stream as a product. The "rich" amine
solution contains the absorbed acid gases and is routed into the regenerator (a stripper with a reboiler).
The stripped overhead gas from the regenerator is concentrated H2S and CO2.

Adsorption relies on the molecules to bind to the surface of certain solids. After a certain time the
material must be regenerated to release the gas. Principles used include pressure swing adsorption
(PSA), temperature swing adsorption (TSA) and electric swing adsorption (ESA).

Cryogenic removal uses a turbo expander: A gas turbine is driven by the expanding gas which then cools
to below the dew point for the gas to be removed.

The inlet gas to the compressor is precooled by the acid gas removed. Cryogenic removal is most often
used when the content of carbon dioxide is high, typically around 50%.

Membrane based removal is based on certain materials that allow the acid gases, but not the
hydrocarbons, to diffuse through the membrane. This procedure can be performed alone or in
combination with absorption liquid.

Sulfur Unit. The H2S-rich stripped gas stream is then fed to a Claus process a multistage process with
two main sections: A thermal section fires H
2
S with air or oxygen to produce SO
2
and elemental sulfur,
which is released when cooled. A catalytic section allows more H
2
S to react with SO
2
with alumina or
titanium dioxide (TiO
2
) to produce water and elemental sulfur (the Claus reaction: 2H
2
S + SO
2
3S +
2H
2
O). The Claus process can recover 95-97% of the sulfur in the feed gases.

A tail gas treatment unit serves to reduce the sulfur content to below 250 ppm, corresponding to a total
sulfur recovery of 99.9%. More complex solutions can reduce total sulfur down to 10 ppm. Some
important processes include SCOT (Shell Claus offgas treatment) which removes SO
2
by combustion with
hydrogen over catalysts to produce H
2
S and water. H
2
S is recycled to the Claus unit. Other solutions are
the Beavon sulfur removal process (BSR), based on amine solvent and catalysts.

5.3.2 Dehydration
Dehydration is either glycol-based scrubbers as described in chapter 4.3.2 or based on pressure swing
adsorption (PSA). Newer processes also use membranes.

5.3.3 Mercury removal
Mercury removal is generally based on molecular sieves. A molecular sieve is a substance containing a
material with tiny pores to achieve a large surface area, such as activated carbon. The surface of the
material allows certain molecules to bind by surface tension. The molecules can later be extracted and
the sieve material regenerated by heating, pressure and/or purging with a carrier gas.
A molecular sieve is commonly cyclic with one active unit and one (or more) units in regeneration.

5.3.4 Nitrogen rejection
Excessive nitrogen is removed by cryogenic distillation and higher concentrations are removed by
absorption with lean oil or another special solvent if a smaller fraction is detected. (See acid gas removal
for both principles). Cryogenic removal also permits production of helium, if present, as a valuable
byproduct.

5.3.5 NGL recovery and treatment
Remaining NGLs are recovered from the gas stream in most modern plants by a cryogenic turbo
expander-based process followed by a fractionating process. This process leads the cooled NGLs though
distillation columns called de-ethanizer, de-propanizer and de-butanizer, to extract ethane, propane and
butane respectively and leave a residual stream of pentane and higher hydrocarbons.

The final step is to remove mercaptans (smelly organic gases, e.g., CH3SH) if present, in a sweetening
process based on molecular sieves adsorption or catalytic oxidization such as Merox mercaptan
oxidization or Sulfrex, where the main difference is the type of catalyst.

5.3.6 Sales gas specifications
The exact sales gas specification is specified by pipeline operators and distributors. Typical standard
sales gas requirements use the following parameters:

Volume is measured in standard cubic meters (scm) defined as 1 m3 at 0 Cand 101.325 kPa or standard
cubic feet (scf) as 1 ft3 at 60 F (16 C) and 14.73 PSIA.

Calorific value specifies the total amount of energy per unit generated during combustion of the gas.
The value is used to calculate the amount of energy delivered. Several values are listed:
Gross calorific value or gross heat of combustion is the heat released when a specific quantity of
fuel in mixture with air is ignited and the end products have returned to the initial temperature,
normally 25 C. EU specifications are typically 38.8 MJ (10.8 kWh) 5% per scm. In the US 1030
BTU 5% per scf.
Net calorific value or net heat of combustion is the net heat generated when the water vapor in
the gas does not condense (water forms during combustion) and can be 10% lower.
Wobbe index measures the heating effect that a burner is exposed to during combustion. A higher value
means a greater thermal load on the burner. Different gases with the same Wobbe index will impose the
same load on the burner. An excessively high value is a safety hazard, as it can lead to burner
overheating and to excess production of carbon monoxide during combustion.

Calorific value and Wobbe index can be adjusted by blending gas from different sources as well as by
addition or removal of nitrogen (N
2
).

Methane number is a value similar to octane value for gasoline, and is important when the gas is used
for internal combustion engines (as CNG).

Hydrogen sulfide and overall sulfur content: Both hydrogen sulfide (H
2
S) and total sulfur must be
reduced. H
2
S is toxic as well as corrosive for the pipeline, as it forms sulfuric acid (H
2
SO
4
) and should be
kept as low as possible. Typical maximum values are 5 mg per scm of H
2
S and total sulfur at 10 mg per
scm.

Mercury should be kept below 0.001 ppb (parts-per-billion) which is its detectable limit. The goal is to
limit emissions and to prevent damage to equipment and pipelines by mercury amalgamation, which
makes aluminum and other metals brittle.

Dew point is a temperature below which some of the hydrocarbons in the gas can condense at pipeline
pressure, forming liquid slugs that can damage the pipeline. The gas must also be clear of all water
vapor to prevent the formation of methane hydrates within the gas processing plant or within the sales
gas transmission pipeline.
Particles and other substances must be free of particulate solids and all liquids to prevent erosion,
corrosion or other damage to the pipeline and satisfy limits on carbon dioxide, nitrogen, mercaptans,
etc.

Additives: When the natural gas is intended for domestic use, tetrahydrothiophene (THT) is added so
that the otherwise odorless natural gas can be detected in the event of a gas leak. The sulfurous-
smelling substance added is equal to a sulfur content of 4-7 mg per scm.
http://oilandgasproductionhandbook.blogspot.com/2014/01/midstream-facilities.html

Processing Natural Gas

Source: Duke Energy Gas Transmission Canada
Natural gas, as it is used by consumers, is much different from the natural gas that is brought from
underground up to the wellhead. Although the processing of natural gas is in many respects less
complicated than the processing and refining of crude oil, it is equally as necessary before its use by end
users.
The natural gas used by consumers is composed almost entirely of methane. However, natural gas
found at the wellhead, although still composed primarily of methane, is by no means as pure. Raw
natural gas comes from three types of wells: oil wells, gas wells, and condensate wells. Natural gas that
comes from oil wells is typically termed associated gas. This gas can exist separate from oil in the
formation (free gas), or dissolved in the crude oil (dissolved gas). Natural gas from gas and condensate
wells, in which there is little or no crude oil, is termed nonassociated gas. Gas wells typically produce
raw natural gas by itself, while condensate wells produce free natural gas along with a semi-liquid
hydrocarbon condensate. Whatever the source of the natural gas, once separated from crude oil (if
present) it commonly exists in mixtures with other hydrocarbons; principally ethane, propane, butane,
and pentanes. In addition, raw natural gas contains water vapor, hydrogen sulfide (H
2
S), carbon dioxide,
helium, nitrogen, and other compounds. To learn about the basics of natural gas, including its
composition, click here.
Natural gas processing consists of separating all of the various hydrocarbons and fluids from the pure
natural gas, to produce what is known as pipeline quality dry natural gas. Major transportation
pipelines usually impose restrictions on the make-up of the natural gas that is allowed into the pipeline.
That means that before the natural gas can be transported it must be purified. While the ethane,
propane, butane, and pentanes must be removed from natural gas, this does not mean that they are all
waste products.
In fact, associated hydrocarbons, known as natural gas liquids (NGLs) can be very valuable by-products
of natural gas processing. NGLs include ethane, propane, butane, iso-butane, and natural gasoline.
These NGLs are sold separately and have a variety of different uses; including enhancing oil recovery in
oil wells, providing raw materials for oil refineries or petrochemical plants, and as sources of energy.
While some of the needed processing can be
accomplished at or near the wellhead (field
processing), the complete processing of natural gas
takes place at a processing plant, usually located in a
natural gas producing region. The extracted natural
gas is transported to these processing plants through
a network of gathering pipelines, which are small-
diameter, low pressure pipes. A complex gathering
system can consist of thousands of miles of pipes,
interconnecting the processing plant to upwards of
100 wells in the area. According to the American Gas
Associations Gas Facts 2000, there was an estimated
36,100 miles of gathering system pipelines in the
U.S. in 1999.
In addition to processing done at the wellhead and at centralized processing plants, some final
processing is also sometimes accomplished at straddle extraction plants. These plants are located on
major pipeline systems. Although the natural gas that arrives at these straddle extraction plants is
already of pipeline quality, in certain instances there still exist small quantities of NGLs, which are
extracted at the straddle plants.

The actual practice of processing natural gas to pipeline dry gas quality levels can be quite complex, but
usually involves four main processes to remove the various impurities:
Oil and Condensate Removal
Water Removal
Separation of Natural Gas Liquids
Sulfur and Carbon Dioxide Removal
Scroll down, or click on the links above to be transported to a particular section.
In addition to the four processes above, heaters and scrubbers are installed, usually at or near the
wellhead. The scrubbers serve primarily to remove sand and other large-particle impurities. The heaters
ensure that the temperature of the gas does not drop too low. With natural gas that contains even low
quantities of water, natural gas hydrates have a tendency to form when temperatures drop. These

A Natural Gas Processing Plant
Source: Duke Energy Gas Transmission Canada
hydrates are solid or semi-solid compounds, resembling ice like crystals. Should these hydrates
accumulate, they can impede the passage of natural gas through valves and gathering systems. To
reduce the occurrence of hydrates, small natural gas-fired heating units are typically installed along the
gathering pipe wherever it is likely that hydrates may form.

Oil and Condensate Removal
In order to process and transport associated dissolved natural gas, it must be separated from the oil in
which it is dissolved. This separation of natural gas from oil is most often done using equipment installed
at or near the wellhead.
The actual process used to separate oil from natural gas, as well as the equipment that is used, can vary
widely. Although dry pipeline quality natural gas is virtually identical across different geographic areas,
raw natural gas from different regions may have different compositions and separation requirements. In
many instances, natural gas is dissolved in oil underground primarily due to the pressure that the
formation is under. When this natural gas and oil is produced, it is possible that it will separate on its
own, simply due to decreased pressure; much like opening a can of soda pop allows the release of
dissolved carbon dioxide. In these cases, separation of oil and gas is relatively easy, and the two
hydrocarbons are sent separate ways for further processing. The most basic type of separator is known
as a conventional separator. It consists of a simple closed tank, where the force of gravity serves to
separate the heavier liquids like oil, and the lighter
gases, like natural gas.
In certain instances, however, specialized equipment
is necessary to separate oil and natural gas. An
example of this type of equipment is the Low-
Temperature Separator (LTX). This is most often used
for wells producing high pressure gas along with light
crude oil or condensate. These separators use
pressure differentials to cool the wet natural gas and
separate the oil and condensate. Wet gas enters the
separator, being cooled slightly by a heat exchanger.
The gas then travels through a high pressure liquid
knockout, which serves to remove any liquids into a
low-temperature separator. The gas then flows into
this low-temperature separator through a choke
mechanism, which expands the gas as it enters the separator. This rapid expansion of the gas allows for
the lowering of the temperature in the separator. After liquid removal, the dry gas then travels back
through the heat exchanger and is warmed by the incoming wet gas. By varying the pressure of the gas
in various sections of the separator, it is possible to vary the temperature, which causes the oil and

Gas Processing Engineers
Source: ChevronTexaco Corporation
some water to be condensed out of the wet gas stream. This basic pressure-temperature relationship
can work in reverse as well, to extract gas from a liquid oil stream.

Water Removal
In addition to separating oil and some condensate from the wet gas stream, it is necessary to remove
most of the associated water. Most of the liquid, free water associated with extracted natural gas is
removed by simple separation methods at or near the wellhead. However, the removal of the water
vapor that exists in solution in natural gas requires a more complex treatment. This treatment consists
of dehydrating the natural gas, which usually involves one of two processes: either absorption, or
adsorption.
Absorption occurs when the water vapor is taken out by a dehydrating agent. Adsorption occurs when
the water vapor is condensed and collected on the surface.
Glycol Dehydration
An example of absorption dehydration is known as Glycol Dehydration. In this process, a liquid desiccant
dehydrator serves to absorb water vapor from the gas stream. Glycol, the principal agent in this process,
has a chemical affinity for water. This means that, when in contact with a stream of natural gas that
contains water, glycol will serve to steal the water out of the gas stream. Essentially, glycol dehydration
involves using a glycol solution, usually either diethylene glycol (DEG) or triethylene glycol (TEG), which
is brought into contact with the wet gas stream in what is called the contactor. The glycol solution will
absorb water from the wet gas. Once absorbed, the glycol particles become heavier and sink to the
bottom of the contactor where they are removed. The natural gas, having been stripped of most of its
water content, is then transported out of the dehydrator. The glycol solution, bearing all of the water
stripped from the natural gas, is put through a specialized boiler designed to vaporize only the water out
of the solution. While water has a boiling point of 212 degrees Fahrenheit, glycol does not boil until 400
degrees Fahrenheit. This boiling point differential makes it relatively easy to remove water from the
glycol solution, allowing it be reused in the dehydration process.
A new innovation in this process has been the addition of flash tank separator-condensers. As well as
absorbing water from the wet gas stream, the glycol solution occasionally carries with it small amounts
of methane and other compounds found in the wet gas. In the past, this methane was simply vented out
of the boiler. In addition to losing a portion of the natural gas that was extracted, this venting
contributes to air pollution and the greenhouse effect. In order to decrease the amount of methane and
other compounds that are lost, flash tank separator-condensers work to remove these compounds
before the glycol solution reaches the boiler. Essentially, a flash tank separator consists of a device that
reduces the pressure of the glycol solution stream, allowing the methane and other hydrocarbons to
vaporize (flash). The glycol solution then travels to the boiler, which may also be fitted with air or water
cooled condensers, which serve to capture any remaining organic compounds that may remain in the
glycol solution. In practice, according to the Department of Energys Office of Fossil Energy, these
systems have been shown to recover 90 to 99 percent of methane that would otherwise be flared into
the atmosphere.
To learn more about glycol dehydration, visit the Gas Technology Institutes website here.
Solid-Desiccant Dehydration
Solid-desiccant dehydration is the primary form of dehydrating natural gas using adsorption, and usually
consists of two or more adsorption towers, which are filled with a solid desiccant. Typical desiccants
include activated alumina or a granular silica gel material. Wet natural gas is passed through these
towers, from top to bottom. As the wet gas passes around the particles of desiccant material, water is
retained on the surface of these desiccant particles. Passing through the entire desiccant bed, almost all
of the water is adsorbed onto the desiccant material, leaving the dry gas to exit the bottom of the
tower.
Solid-desiccant dehydrators are typically more
effective than glycol dehydrators, and are usually
installed as a type of straddle system along
natural gas pipelines. These types of dehydration
systems are best suited for large volumes of gas
under very high pressure, and are thus usually
located on a pipeline downstream of a
compressor station. Two or more towers are
required due to the fact that after a certain period
of use, the desiccant in a particular tower
becomes saturated with water. To regenerate
the desiccant, a high-temperature heater is used
to heat gas to a very high temperature. Passing
this heated gas through a saturated desiccant bed
vaporizes the water in the desiccant tower,
leaving it dry and allowing for further natural gas
dehydration.

Absorption Towers
Source: Duke Energy Gas Transmission Canada


Separation of Natural Gas Liquids
Natural gas coming directly from a well contains many natural gas liquids that are commonly removed.
In most instances, natural gas liquids (NGLs) have a higher value as separate products, and it is thus
economical to remove them from the gas stream. The removal of natural gas liquids usually takes place
in a relatively centralized processing plant, and uses techniques similar to those used to dehydrate
natural gas.
There are two basic steps to the treatment of natural gas liquids in the natural gas stream. First, the
liquids must be extracted from the natural gas. Second, these natural gas liquids must be separated
themselves, down to their base components.
NGL Extraction
There are two principle techniques for removing NGLs from the natural gas stream: the absorption
method and the cryogenic expander process. According to the Gas Processors Association, these two
processes account for around 90 percent of total natural gas liquids production.
The Absorption Method
The absorption method of NGL extraction is very
similar to using absorption for dehydration. The main
difference is that, in NGL absorption, an absorbing oil
is used as opposed to glycol. This absorbing oil has
an affinity for NGLs in much the same manner as
glycol has an affinity for water. Before the oil has
picked up any NGLs, it is termed lean absorption oil.
As the natural gas is passed through an absorption
tower, it is brought into contact with the absorption
oil which soaks up a high proportion of the NGLs. The
rich absorption oil, now containing NGLs, exits the
absorption tower through the bottom. It is now a
mixture of absorption oil, propane, butanes,
pentanes, and other heavier hydrocarbons. The rich
oil is fed into lean oil stills, where the mixture is heated to a temperature above the boiling point of the
NGLs, but below that of the oil. This process allows for the recovery of around 75 percent of butanes,
and 85 90 percent of pentanes and heavier molecules from the natural gas stream.
The basic absorption process above can be modified to improve its effectiveness, or to target the
extraction of specific NGLs. In the refrigerated oil absorption method, where the lean oil is cooled
through refrigeration, propane recovery can be upwards of 90 percent, and around 40 percent of ethane
Gas Processing Plant with Absorption Towers
Source: Duke Energy Gas Transmission Canada

Pipes and Absorption Towers
Source: Duke Energy Gas Transmission Canada
can be extracted from the natural gas stream. Extraction of the other, heavier NGLs can be close to 100
percent using this process.
The Cryogenic Expansion Process
Cryogenic processes are also used to extract NGLs from natural gas. While absorption methods can
extract almost all of the heavier NGLs, the lighter hydrocarbons, such as ethane, are often more difficult
to recover from the natural gas stream. In certain instances, it is economic to simply leave the lighter
NGLs in the natural gas stream. However, if it is economic to extract ethane and other lighter
hydrocarbons, cryogenic processes are required for high recovery rates. Essentially, cryogenic processes
consist of dropping the temperature of the gas stream to around -120 degrees Fahrenheit.
There are a number of different ways of chilling the gas to these temperatures, but one of the most
effective is known as the turbo expander process. In this process, external refrigerants are used to cool
the natural gas stream. Then, an expansion turbine is used to rapidly expand the chilled gases, which
causes the temperature to drop significantly. This rapid temperature drop condenses ethane and other
hydrocarbons in the gas stream, while maintaining methane in gaseous form. This process allows for the
recovery of about 90 to 95 percent of the ethane originally in the gas stream. In addition, the expansion
turbine is able to convert some of the energy released when the natural gas stream is expanded into
recompressing the gaseous methane effluent, thus saving energy costs associated with extracting
ethane.
The extraction of NGLs from the natural gas stream produces both cleaner, purer natural gas, as well as
the valuable hydrocarbons that are the NGLs themselves.
Natural Gas Liquid Fractionation
Once NGLs have been removed from the natural gas stream, they must be broken down into their base
components to be useful. That is, the mixed stream of different NGLs must be separated out. The
process used to accomplish this task is called fractionation. Fractionation works based on the different
boiling points of the different hydrocarbons in the NGL stream. Essentially, fractionation occurs in stages
consisting of the boiling off of hydrocarbons one by one. The name of a particular fractionator gives an
idea as to its purpose, as it is conventionally named for the hydrocarbon that is boiled off. The entire
fractionation process is broken down into steps, starting with the removal of the lighter NGLs from the
stream. The particular fractionators are used in the following order:
Deethanizer - this step separates the ethane from the NGL stream.
Depropanizer - the next step separates the propane.
Debutanizer - this step boils off the butanes, leaving the pentanes and heavier hydrocarbons in
the NGL stream.
Butane Splitter or Deisobutanizer - this step separates the iso and normal butanes.
By proceeding from the lightest hydrocarbons to the heaviest, it is possible to separate the different
NGLs reasonably easily.
To learn more about the fractionation of NGLs, click here.

Sulfur and Carbon Dioxide Removal
In addition to water, oil, and NGL removal, one of the most important parts of gas processing involves
the removal of sulfur and carbon dioxide. Natural gas from some wells contains significant amounts of
sulfur and carbon dioxide. This natural gas, because of the rotten smell provided by its sulfur content, is
commonly called sour gas. Sour gas is undesirable because the sulfur compounds it contains can be
extremely harmful, even lethal, to breathe. Sour gas can also be extremely corrosive. In addition, the
sulfur that exists in the natural gas stream can be extracted and marketed on its own. In fact, according
to the USGS, U.S. sulfur production from gas processing plants accounts for about 15 percent of the total
U.S. production of sulfur. For information on the production of sulfur in the United States, visit the
USGS here.
Sulfur exists in natural gas as hydrogen sulfide (H
2
S),
and the gas is usually considered sour if the
hydrogen sulfide content exceeds 5.7 milligrams of
H
2
S per cubic meter of natural gas. The process for
removing hydrogen sulfide from sour gas is
commonly referred to as sweetening the gas.
The primary process for sweetening sour natural gas
is quite similar to the processes of glycol dehydration
and NGL absorption. In this case, however, amine
solutions are used to remove the hydrogen sulfide.
This process is known simply as the amine process,
or alternatively as the Girdler process, and is used in
95 percent of U.S. gas sweetening operations. The
sour gas is run through a tower, which contains the
amine solution. This solution has an affinity for sulfur, and absorbs it much like glycol absorbing water.
There are two principle amine solutions used, monoethanolamine (MEA) and diethanolamine (DEA).
Either of these compounds, in liquid form, will absorb sulfur compounds from natural gas as it passes
through. The effluent gas is virtually free of sulfur compounds, and thus loses its sour gas status. Like the
process for NGL extraction and glycol dehydration, the amine solution used can be regenerated (that is,
the absorbed sulfur is removed), allowing it to be reused to treat more sour gas.
Although most sour gas sweetening involves the amine absorption process, it is also possible to use solid
desiccants like iron sponges to remove the sulfide and carbon dioxide.

Gas Sweetening Plant
Source: Duke Energy Gas Transmission Canada
Sulfur can be sold and used if reduced to its elemental form. Elemental sulfur is a bright yellow powder
like material, and can often be seen in large piles near gas treatment plants, as is shown. In order to
recover elemental sulfur from the gas processing plant, the sulfur containing discharge from a gas
sweetening process must be further treated. The process used to recover sulfur is known as the Claus
process, and involves using thermal and catalytic reactions to extract the elemental sulfur from the
hydrogen sulfide solution.
For more information on sulfur recovery and the Claus process, click here.
http://naturalgas.org/naturalgas/processing-ng/
In all, the Claus process is usually able to recover 97
percent of the sulfur that has been removed from the
natural gas stream. Since it is such a polluting and
harmful substance, further filtering, incineration, and tail
gas clean up efforts ensure that well over 98 percent of
the sulfur is recovered.
To learn more about the environmental effects of sour
gas treatment and flaring, click here.

Gas processing is an instrumental piece of the natural gas
value chain. It is instrumental in ensuring that the natural
gas intended for use is as clean and pure as possible,
making it the clean burning and environmentally sound
energy choice. Once the natural gas has been fully
processed, and is ready to be consumed, it must be
transported from those areas that produce natural gas,
to those areas that require it.
Click here to learn about the transportation of natural gas.
http://naturalgas.org/naturalgas/processing-ng/


http://www.linde-india.com/userfiles/image/File/Natural%20Gas%20Processing%20Plants.pdf



Elemental Sulfur Production in a Gas
Treatment Plant
Source: Duke Energy Gas Transmission
Canada