Part I

The Finite Element Method for

One-Dimensional Problems
1
2
The one-dimensional problemis useful for displayingmany of the featuresof theniteele-
ment methodwithout theattendant complicationsthat necessarilyariseinthemulti-dimensional
case. Thefamiliar problemof anaxially loaded, linear elastic bar will providetheprimarymoti-
vatingproblem. A bar isastraight but possibly non-prismatic member whichisloadedalongis
centroidal axisproducingonly axial deformation and a uniaxial stateof stress. Becauseof the
simpledeformation and stressstates, bars arerelatively easy to analyze. In fact, development
of theniteelement method for theanalysisof barsrevealssomeof theessential conceptsthat
are required for more complex structural systems and the simplicity of the 1-d setting makes
thisa worthwhileexercise. In this chapter wewill reviewthenotion of equilibriumfor bars and
introduce two alternativebut equivalent descriptions:
1. Thestrongformwhich istheboundary valueproblem(BVP) that directly expresses the
statical equilibriumof thebar, and
2. The weak form which is the principle of virtual displacements. The weak formcan be
derived fromthe strongformor found fromthe principle of minimumpotential energy.
Although the strongformis perhaps the most familiar description, it is theweak formthat is
thestartingpoint for developingtheniteelement method and, for thisreason, we will devote
someeort to reviewingthis important idea.
It isworthwhilenotingthat theformof thenal equationsfor thebar problemareindentical
to thegoverningequations for many other important one-dimensional problems, including:
Torsion of a circular rod,
One-dimensional heat ow,
Deection of a tensioned exiblestring,
Simpleowin pipes,
Current in a conductor.
Accordingly, the methods developed in this section will also apply directly to these and
many other one-dimensional problems.
Chapter 1
The Axially Loaded Bar P roblem
1.1 P rinciple of V irtual Work for Discrete Systems
Before we start our study of a bar structure let us undertake a brief review of the principle
of virtual work as applied to simple spring systems. We will turn to the analysis of a bar in
Sect. 1.3. Our purpose in this Section is to show that the statement of equilibriumcan be
expressed equivalently either through the statical equationsof equilibrium(strong formof the
problem) or through theprinciple of virtual displacements (weak form). I t is useful to seethis
equivalence in this simplesetting.
1.1.1 Strong Form
Consider the simplespringsystemshown in Fig. 1.1.
d
1
, P
1
d
2
, P
2
k1
k2
2
1
Figure1.1: A simplespringsystem.
Thedeformation of thespringsystemisdescribedin terms of two degreesof freedom, denoted
d
1
andd
2
. Thesearethedisplacements at joints1and2. Wecall thisstructurediscrete, in the
sensethat specicationof thetwo degreesof freedomcompletely denesthedeformation of the
systemwithout any approximation. Associated with degrees of freedom1and2, weintroduce
two external loads denoted F
1
and F
2
, respectively, see Fig. 1.1.
Theconditions of equilibriumcanbefound directly usingthreeconcepts:
1. ForceEquationsof Equilibrium. Let theinternal force(tensionpositive) insprings1and2
bedenotedN
1
andN
2
, respectively. Isolatingjoints1and2asfreebodies, theequations
of equilibriumat joints 1and 2are,
F
1
+N
1
= 0 (1.1)
F
2
N
1
+N
2
= 0 (1.2)
3
CHAPTER 1. THE AXIALLY LOADEDBAR PROBLEM 4
I n order to nd the displacement equations of equilibrium, we need to introduce two
additional ingredients:
2. Constitutive Equation. With the spring constants k
1
and k
2
, we can express the spring
internal forces in terms of thespringstretches
1
and
2
as
N
1
= k
1

1
(1.3)
N
2
= k
2

2
(1.4)
3. Compatibility. The springstretches arerelatedto thedisplacements as

1
= d
2
d
1
(1.5)

2
= 0 d
2
(1.6)
Combining(1.1)-(1.6) wehave nally the displacement equations of equilibrium,
F
1
+k
1
(d
2
d
1
) = 0
F
2
k
1
(d
2
d
1
) +k
2
( d
2
) = 0
or, in matrix form,

k
1
k
1
k
1
k
1
+k
2

d
1
d
2

F
1
F
2

(1.7)
which can besolved for thedispacements in terms of theloads.
1.1.2 Weak Form
Wewill derivetheprincipleof virtual displacements(PVD) for themodel springsystemdirectly
fromtheforceequilibriumequations. Thiswill result inanalternativebut equivalent description
of equiliriumof thespringsystemthat has muchpractical use.
Proposition 1 The force equilibriumequations (1.1) and (1.2) are impliedby requiringthat

F
1
+N
1

+
2

F
2
N
1
+N
2

= 0 (1.8)
holdfor all
1
and
2
:
Proof. Let
R =

R
1
R
2

F
1
+N
1
F
2
N
1
+N
2

and
=

Then (1.8) may be written as

R = 0
This orthogonality condition must hold for all 2R
2
: The only possible vector R which can
satisfy this condition is R =0 which gives

F
1
+N
1
F
2
N
1
+N
2

0
0

CHAPTER 1. THE AXIALLY LOADEDBAR PROBLEM 5

Thus theweak formof theproblem(1.8) isan equivalent means of writingthe strongform.
Remark 2 I n the orthogonality condition R = 0, the vector R is a vector of equation
residuals and the vector is a vector of arbitrary weights, and the approach is called the
method of weighted residuals.
It is interesting to rearrange(1.8) as follows:
N
1
(
2

1
) +N
2
(
2
) =F
1

1
+F
2

2
(1.9)
If we think of
1
and
2
as virtual displacements, we can dene corresponding compatible
virtual stretches (strains) asfollows

1
=
2

1
(1.10)

2
= 0
2
(1.11)
In this case(1.9) becomes
N
1

1
+N
2

2
=F
1

1
+F
2

2
(1.12)
which, in this form, is called theprincipleof virtual displacements
1
:
internal virtual work =external virtual work, for all virtual displacements.
Thepoint is, (1.12) isequivalent totheforceequationsof equilibrium(1.1) and(1.2), providing
that:
1. (1.12) holdsfor all
1
and
2
; and
2. The virtual strains and virtual displacements are comptatible as given by (1.10) and
(1.11).
Remark 3 The PVD provides the force equations of equilibrium theunknown displacements
d
1
and d
2
have not appeared in the development! We will introduce these as a second and
subsiduary step.
PVD(1): ThePVDcanbeusedto obtainthedisplacement equationsof equilibriumasfollows:
1. Write thePVD
N
1

1
+N
2

2
=F
1

1
+F
2

2
2. Requirethevirtual displacementsto becompatiblewith thevirtual stretches

1
=
2

1

2
=
2
1
ThePVD may beformally stated in thelanguageof structural mechanicsasfollows: amongall kinematically
admissible congurations of a structure, those that satisfy the equations of equilibrium make the virtual work
doneby theinternal stresses(internal virtual work) equal tothevirtual work doneby theapplied loads(external
virtual work) for all kinematically admissible virtual displacements.
CHAPTER 1. THE AXIALLY LOADEDBAR PROBLEM 6
resultingin,
(
2

1
)N
1
+(
2
)N
2
=
1
F
1
+
2
F
2
which, after collectingterms, may bere-written as (our startingpoint),

1
( N
1
F
1
) +
2
(N
1
N
2
F
2
) = 0
Sincethis must hold for all virtual displacements
1
and
2
, it implies that,
N
1
F
1
= 0
N
1
N
2
F
2
= 0
3. Finally, usingthestinessrelationships(1.3) and (1.4) and compatibility conditions(1.5)
and (1.6) leads to,

k
1
k
1
k
1
k
1
+k
2

d
1
d
2

F
1
F
2

asfound in thestrong form.

PVD(2): I nstead of postponingthe substitution of the stiness relationships (1.3) and (1.4)
and compatibility conditions (1.5) and (1.6) until Step 3, we can introduce themdirectly into
thePVD as follows. Thisvariant of theapproach isthe most commonly used.
1. Write thePVD
N
1

1
+N
2

2
=F
1

1
+F
2

2
2. I ntroducethethestinessrelationships(1.3) and(1.4) andcompatibility conditions(1.5)
and (1.6), giving
k
1
(d
2
d
1
)
1
+k
2
( d
2
)
2
=F
1

1
+F
2

2
3. Requirethevirtual displacementsto becompatiblewith thevirtual stretches

1
=
2

1

2
=
2
resultingin,
k
1
(d
2
d
1
) (
2

1
) +k
2
( d
2
) (
2
) =F
1

1
+F
2

2
which, after collectingterms, may bere-written as

k
1
(d
2
d
1
) F
1

+
2

k
1
(d
2
d
1
) k
2
( d
2
) F
2

= 0
Sincethis must hold for all virtual displacements
1
and
2
, it implies that,
k
1
(d
2
d
1
) F
1
= 0
k
1
(d
2
d
1
) k
2
( d
2
) F
2
= 0
or

k
1
k
1
k
1
k
1
+k
2

d
1
d
2

F
1
F
2

CHAPTER 1. THE AXIALLY LOADEDBAR PROBLEM 7

d
1
d
2
, P
2 d
3
, P
3
k
2
k
3
k
4
k
1
2
3
1
Figure1.2: A statically indeterminate springsystem.
Remark 4 The PVD applies to both statically determinate and indeterminate systems this
makes the PVD a very practical tool for analysis of complex systems.
Example 5 Consider the one-dimensional, statically indeterminate spring system shown in
Fig. 1.2. UsePVD(1) toobtaintheequationsof equilibriumintermsof displacementsin matrix
form.
Let the actual and virtual displacements at node i be denoted d
i
and
i
, respectively. Let the
internal force (tension positive) in member i be denoted N
i
and let the virtual deformation
(stretching positive) of member i be denoted
i
, then the PVD states that the equilibriumof
the springsystemis expressed as,
N
1

1
+N
2

2
+N
3

3
+N
4

4
=F
1

1
+F
2

2
+F
3

3
which must hold for all compatible virtual displacements such that,

1
=
1

2
=
2

1

3
=
3

2

4
=
1
Usingthese conditions of compatibility in the PVD nowgives,
N
1

1
+N
2
(
2

1
) +N
3
(
3

2
) +N
4
(
1
) =F
1

1
+F
2

2
+F
3

3
Collectingterms we nd,

1
(N
1
N
2
N
4
F
1
) +
2
(N
2
N
3
F
2
) +
3
(N
3
F
3
) = 0
Since this must holdfor all virtual displacements
i
, we have,
N
1
N
2
N
4
F
1
= 0
N
2
N
3
F
2
= 0
N
3
F
3
= 0
which may easily be veried to be the equations of equilibrium(usingfreebody diagrams of the
joints). To obtain the equilibriumequationsin terms of the displacements, wemust nowexpress
the internal forces N
i
in terms of the member stretches
N
i
=k
i

i
CHAPTER 1. THE AXIALLY LOADEDBAR PROBLEM 8
anduse compatibility to relatethe stretches to the displacements

1
= d
1

2
= d
2
d
1

3
= d
3
d
2

4
= d
1
giving
N
1
= k
1
(d
1
)
N
2
= k
2
(d
2
d
1
)
N
3
= k
3
(d
3
d
2
)
N
4
= k
4
( d
1
)
Usingthese stiness relationships in the equilibriumequations above results in:
2
4
k
1
+k
2
+k
4
k
2
0
k
2
k
2
+k
3
k
3
0 k
3
k
3
3
5
8
<
:
d
1
d
2
d
3
9
=
;
=
8
<
:
F
1
F
2
F
3
9
=
;
: (1.13)
In summary, if we consider a general system of N interconnected springs involving M
unknown displacements, the weak form(i.e. PVD) describing the equilibriumof the system
may bestated as follows:
Find the unknown displacement vector d 2 R
M
such that
N
X
i =1

i
k
i

i
=
M
X
i =1

i
F
i
(1.14)
holds for all andsuchthat both
i
and
i
are compatible with d and ; respectively.
1.2 P rinciple of Minimum Potential Energy for Discrete Sys-
tems
With every statement of the principle of virtual work it is possible to associate a quadratic
functional calledthepotential energy such that theexact solutioncorrespondingto thetoPVD
minimizes thepotential energy. Wedenethepotential energy as
(d) =U(d) +V (d) (1.15)
wherethestrain energy U and thepotential of the external load V aregiven by
U(d) =
N
X
i =1
1
2
k
i

2
(1.16)
V (d) =
M
X
i=1
d
i
F
i
(1.17)
Let usnowshowthat theexact solution correspondingtotheto PVD, denoted d
ex
; minimizes
thepotential energy .
CHAPTER 1. THE AXIALLY LOADEDBAR PROBLEM 9
Proposition 6 The exact solution corresponding to the to PVD, denoted d
ex
; minimizes the
potential energy ; that is
(d
ex
) = min
d2R
M
(d)
Proof. Select any vector 2 R
M
and consider
(d
ex
+) = U(d
ex
+) +V (d
ex
+)
=
N
X
i =1
1
2
k
i

i
ex
+
i

M
X
i =1
((d
ex
)
i
+
i
) F
i
=
N
X
i =1
1
2
k
i

i
ex

2
+
N
X
i =1
1
2
k
i

2
+
N
X
i =1
k
i

i
ex

i

M
X
i=1
(d
ex
)
i
F
i

M
X
i =1

i
F
i
= (d
ex
) +
N
X
i =1
1
2
k
i

2
+
N
X
i =1

i
k
i

i
ex

M
X
i =1

i
F
i
(1.18)
However, by thePVD, (1.14),
N
X
i =1

i
k
i

i
ex

M
X
i=1

i
F
i
= 0
for any choiceof : Also
N
X
i =1
1
2
k
i

2
>0
for any choiceof : It follows that
(d
ex
+) < (d
ex
)
and therefored
ex
istheminimizing vector of (d)
This iscalledtheprinciple of minimumpotential energy (PMPE). Since the exact solution
minimizes ; weconcludethat must bestationary at d
ex:
Proposition 7 The condition of stationarity of ;
lim
! 0
[ (d
ex
+) (d
ex
)] = 0
is identical to the PVD.
Proof. From(1.18), it follows that
(d
ex
+) (d
ex
) =
N
X
i=1

i
k
i

i
ex

M
X
i =1

i
F
i
+O

where
O

=
N
X
i =1
1
2
k
i

2
Hence
lim
! 0
[ (d
ex
+) (d
ex
)] =
N
X
i =1

i
k
i

i
ex

M
X
i =1

i
F
i
(1.19)
andso the condition of stationarity returns the PVD.
CHAPTER 1. THE AXIALLY LOADEDBAR PROBLEM 10
Observealso that the potential energy isnegative, asfollows.
Proposition 8 The potential energy is negative, that is (d
ex
) <0
Proof. Recall that
(d
ex
) =
N
X
i =1
1
2
k
i

i
ex

M
X
i =1
(d
ex
)
i
F
i
Since the PVD must hold for all 2 R
M
; it must hold also for the choice of =d
ex
: In this
special case, the PVD reads
N
X
i =1
k
i

i
ex

2
=
M
X
i=1
(d
ex
)
i
F
i
Hence
(d
ex
) =
N
X
i =1
1
2
k
i

i
ex

M
X
i =1
(d
ex
)
i
F
i
=
N
X
i =1
1
2
k
i

i
ex

2
< 0
Thisconditionis depictedinFig. 1.3. ThePMPE statesthat theexact solution isthesolu-
tion which minimizes thepotential energy. This requiresthepotential energy to bestationary.
Theconditionof stationarity wascomputedabovebyevaluatinglim
! 0
[ (d
ex
+) (d
ex
)]
and setting the result to zero. This operation iscalled therst variation of and is denoted
; so that
:= lim
! 0
[ (d
ex
+) (d
ex
)]
A convenient approach for computingtherst variation is to use thedirectional derivative, as
follows
=

d
d
(d
ex
+ )

=0
In fact, let us re-evaluate usingthedirectional derivative,
=

d
d
(d
ex
+ )

=0
=

d
d
U(d
ex
+ )

=0
| {z }
U
+

d
d
V(d
ex
+ )

=0
| {z }
V
=
"
d
d
N
X
i =1
1
2
k
i
(
i
ex
+
i
)
2
#
=0

"
d
d
M
X
i 1
((d
ex
)
i
+
i
)F
i
#
=0
=
"
N
X
i =1
k
i
(
i
ex
+
i
)
d
d
(
i
ex
+
i
)
#
=0

"
M
X
i 1
d
d
((d
ex
)
i
F
i
+
i
F
i
)
#
=0
=
N
X
i=1

i
k
i

i
ex

M
X
i 1

i
F
i
CHAPTER 1. THE AXIALLY LOADEDBAR PROBLEM 11
F
u
eqm
u
eqm
Strain
energy
U
Potental energy of
external force V
T otal potential
energy
zero slope
displacement u
Figure 1.3: Principle of minumumpotential energy: the equilibriumdisplacement minimizes
thetotal potential energy.
which isthesame as (1.19). Let usconsider someexamples which apply the PMPE to nding
theequilibriumequations.
Example 9 Consider onceagainthespringsystemshowninFig. 1.1. Wewill usetheprinciple
of minimumpotential energy to obtain the equations of equilibrium. For this springsystemwe
can immediately write the strain energy of thetwo springs from(1.16) as,
U(d) =
2
X
i =1
1
2
k
i

2
=
1
2
k
1

2
+
1
2
k
2

2
(1.20)
The potential of theexternal loads can be written from(1.17) as,
V (d) =
2
X
i =1
d
i
F
i
= F
1
d
1
F
2
d
2
(1.21)
The potential energy of the springsystemis then,
(d) = U(d) +V (d)
=
1
2
k
1

2
+
1
2
k
2

2
F
1
d
1
F
2
d
2
(1.22)
The PMPE states that the springsystemis in equilibriumwith displacement values d
1
and d
2
when is stationary withrespect to all virtual displacements
1
and
2
, that is = 0. Now,
(d) =U(d) +V (d)
CHAPTER 1. THE AXIALLY LOADEDBAR PROBLEM 12
and
U(d) =

d
d
U(d+ )

=0
=

d
d

1
2
k
1

1
+
1

2
+
1
2
k
2

2
+
2

=0
=
1
k
1

1
+
2
k
2

2
V (d) =

d
d
V(d+ )

=0
=

d
d
( F
1
(d
1
+
1
) F
2
(d
2
+
2
))

=0
= F
1

1
F
2

2
Setting = 0 wehave
=
1
k
1

1
+
2
k
2

2
F
1

1
F
2

2
= 0
which is the PVD. Usingcompatibility we have

1
= d
2
d
1

2
= d
2
and

1
=
2

1

2
=
2
andthePMPE nowgives,
0 = (
2

1
) k
1
(d
2
d
1
) + (
2
) k
2
( d
2
) F
1

1
F
2

2
= (
1
)

k
1
d
2
+k
1
d
1
F
1

+(
2
)

k
1
d
2
k
1
d
1
+k
2
d
2
F
2

Since this must hold for all arbitrary

1
and
2
, we have,
k
1
d
2
+k
1
d
1
F
1
= 0
k
1
d
2
k
1
d
1
+k
2
d
2
F
2
= 0
or

k
1
k
1
k
1
k
1
+k
2

d
1
d
2

F
1
F
2

which the same as (1.7).

Remark 10 Noticethat therst variation can be usedlikean ordinary derivative. For exam-
ple, in theabove example we can write
U(d) =
1
2
k
1

2
+
1
2
k
2

2
U(d) = k
1

1
+k
2

2
CHAPTER 1. THE AXIALLY LOADEDBAR PROBLEM 13
and
V (d) = F
1
d
1
F
2
d
2
V (d) = F
1

1
F
2

2
so that can be immediately written as
=
1
k
1

1
+
2
k
2

2
F
1

1
F
2

2
which is a very convenient approachin practice.
Example 11 Returnnowtotheone-dimensional, staticallyindeterminate, springsystemshown
in Fig. 1.2 andanalyzedusingthe PVD in Section 5. We will nowderive the equilibriumcon-
ditions usingthe PMPE. Thestrain energy of the springs is,
U =
1
2
k
1

2
+
1
2
k
2

2
+
1
2
k
3

2
+
1
2
k
4

2
andthepotential of the external loads is,
V = F
1
d
1
F
2
d
2
F
3
d
3
The PMPE requires,
0 =
= U + V
=

k
1

1
+

k
2

2
+

k
3

3
+

k
4

4
F
1

1
F
2

2
F
3

3
I ntroducingthe compatibility conditions between displacements and stretches,

1
= d
1

2
= d
2
d
1

3
= d
3
d
2

4
= d
1
andsimilarly between virtual displacements and virtual stretches,

1
=
1

2
=
2

1

3
=
3

2

4
=
1
leads to the sameresults as Eq. (1.13), i.e.,
2
4
k
1
+k
2
+k
4
k
2
0
k
2
k
2
+k
3
k
3
0 k
3
k
3
3
5
8
<
:
d
1
d
2
d
3
9
=
;
=
8
<
:
F
1
F
2
F
3
9
=
;
:
With this introduction to thePVD and the PMPE applied to springmodels complete, let
us nowturn to theanalysis of bars.