Product or Waste?

Importation and
End-of-Life Processing of Computers
in Peru
R A M Z Y K A H H A T *
,
A N D
E R I C W I L L I A M S
,
Center for Earth Systems Engineering and Management,
Department of Civil, Environmental and Sustainable
Engineering, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona 85287,
and School of Sustainability, Arizona State University,
Tempe, Arizona 85287
Received December 17, 2008. Revised manuscript received
April 27, 2009. Accepted June 2, 2009.
This paper considers the importation of used personal
computers (PCs) in Peru and domestic practices in their
production, reuse, and end-of-life processing. The empirical
pillars of this study are analysis of government data describing
trade in used and new computers and surveys and interviews
of computer sellers, refurbishers, and recyclers. The United
States is the primary source of used PCs imported to Peru.
Analysisof shipment value(asmeasuredbytradestatistics) shows
that 87-88% of imported used computers had a price higher
than the ideal recycle value of constituent materials. The ofcial
trade in end-of-life computers is thus driven by reuse as
opposed to recycling. The domestic reverse supply chain of
PCs is well developed with extensive collection, reuse,
and recycling. Environmental problems identied include open
burning of copper-bearing wires to remove insulation and
landlling of CRT glass. Distinct from informal recycling in China
and India, printed circuit boards are usually not recycled
domestically but exported to Europe for advanced recycling or
to China for (presumably) informal recycling. It is notable
that purely economic considerations lead to circuit boards
being exported to Europe where environmental standards are
stringent, presumably due to higher recovery of precious
metals.
1.0. Introduction
Personal computers (PCs) are an important part of society
as reected by increasing ownership rates around the globe.
Rates of PCs ownership in developed countries are high, for
example, 80 PCs per 100 inhabitants in the U.S. in 2006 (1).
Mass adoption of computers is also emerging in the
developing world, with greater increases in major cities.
Computer lifespanis decreasingwithtime, dataontheUnited
States academic and business sectors suggests a lifespan of
6 years from 1985 to 2000, 5.4 years in 2000, and 3 years in
2007 (2, 3). Increasing ownership and decreasing lifetime
combine to lead to a growing volume of unwanted PCs that
nd their way to the different available postconsumer
management options such as storage, reuse, recycle, ex-
portation, incineration, or landlls (4). Unwanted PCs are
computers deemed obsolete or unnecessary by a user and
includes computers that will bereusedviasecondarymarkets
or handled as waste via end-of-life management. Environ-
mental concerns regarding this waste stream include expo-
sure to toxic materials, particularly to informal recycling
practices inthedevelopingworld. Environmental andhuman
health damages produced by informal recycling are indis-
putableas shownbyresearchandmediacoverageof informal
electronic recycling sites located in China, India, Ghana,
Nigeria, and others locations (5-9). In response to this
growing waste stream, governments in different parts of the
world have implemented electronics-related policies includ-
ing takeback and recycling systems (e.g., WEEE in Europe),
mandating content of hazardous materials (e.g RoHS in
Europe) and managing the trade in end-of-life equipment
(e.g., theBasel Convention) (10-12). Thedrivingassumptions
of thesepolicies areprimarilythefollowing: duetothecontent
of toxic materials in computers, landlling of electronics is
an environmental hazard and should be banned. Also,
computers should be designed to contain fewer toxic
materials; informal recycling of computers and other elec-
tronics should be managed by banning exports from the
developed to the developing world; and the recycling of
materials in electronics should be increased.
In a previous article, we argue that while the above
heuristics certainly have value, they do not account for
complexities of electronics, sustainability, and globalization
andthus areunlikelytoappropriatelymanageenvironmental
problems of concern (13). For example, banning the expor-
tation of second-hand computers is unlikely to solve the
environmental problem of informal recycling because do-
mestic generation of e-waste in developing countries is
growingrapidly. Also, theriskof toxics leakingfromelectronic
waste in well-managed landlls is apparently very small so
the benets of landlls bans are unclear (13). Current policies
do not promote reuse, despite evidence that extending the
lifespan of a computer can signicantly reduce life cycle
environmental burdens. Themanufacturingphasedominates
many of the life cycle impacts of a computer, e.g., the energy
consumed to make a computer used at home is four times
higher than the energy consumed in operation (14).
Policies should also address social and economic impli-
cations of the reverse supply chain. Computer reuse canhave
signicant social value, especially in the developing world,
yet the negative effects of current policies onreuse are rarely
considered. Reusing a computer generates employment in
the refurbishment industry and mitigates the digital divide
in low income communities by increasing accessibility to
affordable computers. UsedPCs have a lower price thannew
PCs. The demand for operative used computers in emerging
countries is considerable and/or growing, allowing the
possibility of a seconduse of the device andthe trade of used
computers from developed to developing countries, pre-
suming this trade is not banned. There is also demand for
used computers within developed countries, for example
donated computers are often reused in schools, libraries,
and nonprot learning organizations (15).
This article examines three important and unresolved
questions regarding international trade and processing of
second-hand computers:
(1) To what degree is the current trade inused computers
driven by reuse versus recycling? If a substantial portion of
the trade is about reuse, this implies higher social and
environmental benets. If the trade is driven by recycling,
in particular informal recycling, benets are lower and there
is an even greater need to manage environmental impacts.
* Corresponding author phone: 1-480-242-5610; fax: 1-480-965-
0557; e-mail: Ramzy.kahhat@asu.edu.

Center for Earth Systems Engineering and Management.

School of Sustainability.
Environ. Sci. Technol. 2009, 43, 60106016
6010 9 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY / VOL. 43, NO. 15, 2009 10.1021/es8035835 CCC: $40.75 2009 American Chemical Society
Published on Web 06/12/2009
It is our viewthat regardless of thesituationwithinternational
trade that informal recycling is an important problem that
must be addressed.
(2) What reuse and recycling systems have evolved in the
developing world as governed by economic forces? While
computer recycling in the U.S. and much of the developed
world runs a net cost and thus must be mandated by policy,
inthedevelopingworldacombinationof lower wages, higher
demand for reused computers, and lower environmental
standards leadto recycling running a prot. This leads to the
emergence of home-growncollectionandrecycling systems,
which are important to understand.
(3) What is the international character of a reverse supply
chain in a developing country? The conventional picture is
a two-point network, export of a computer froma developed
country to a developing, then all reuse and recycling taking
place in the importing country. Given the globalization of
forward supply chains, it is also important to explore if and
how reverse supply chains are also globalizing.
These three questions are addressedthrougha case study
of Peru. PCs ownership in Peru is growing, for example in
the residential sector ownership increased from 8.0 in 2005
to 13.8 PCs per 100 households in 2007 (16). In Limas
residential sector PCs ownership grew from 16.6 in 2005 to
25.9 PCs per 100 households in 2007 (16). There are two
reasons to focus on Peru. One is that previous studies have
focused on Asian countries such as China and India (5-8),
and it is important to study the situation in Latin America.
The second reason to focus on Peru is that its ofcial trade
database contains extensive details on used and new
computers. Most tradestatistics donot distinguishnewversus
used computers, Peru is an important exception. Existing
work characterizing electronics reuse and recycling in Peru
(or indeedany Latin-Americancountry) is lacking. The main
previous work is a recent study funded by the Swiss Federal
Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research (EMPA) has
done a preliminary assessment on the current and future
fate of unwanted computers and cell phones in Peru (17).
We build on this study by focusing on the above three
questions, in particular the rst and third, not addressed in
the EMPAreport. In addition to the ofcial government data
from the Peruvian Customs Agency, we perform a non-
probabilisticsurveyinmaincomputer sales andservices areas
in Lima as well as interviews of main actors in computer
end-of-life management such as collectors, dismantlers,
recyclers, and exporters.
Toclarify howwe address the above three questions using
the three analytical tools (trade database, survey, and
interviews): The rst question of import for reuse versus
recycling is explored through analysis of the trade database
with corroboration, to the degree possible, with survey and
interviews. For the second question we use the survey and
interviews to construct a qualitative description of the
network of processes involved in the collection, reuse and
recycling of computers in Peru. We do not at this juncture
attempt a quantitative analysis of material ows, economic
andsocial benets, andenvironmental impacts. For the third
question we use the interviews and trade database to clarify
what used computers and components are exported from
Peru for what purpose.
2.0. Legality of the Second-Hand Computer Trade from
U.S. to Peru
It is important to rst clarify the legality of trade in used
computers to Peru. Trade is governed through both inter-
national and national regimes. At the international level, the
pertinent global treaty is the Basel Convention, a multilateral
environmental agreement addressing trade of wastes clas-
siedas hazardous (12). The Basel Conventionrequires prior
notication between signatories when trading wastes clas-
sied as hazardous. There is also a proposed amendment to
the Convention, the so-called Basel Ban, which forbids
international trade in all the materials categorized by the
Convention as hazardous. This amendment has not been
ratied and seems unlikely to be in the near future. Many
categories of e-waste (not intended for reuse) are classied
as hazardous waste targeted for prior notication. Products
intended for reuse, however, are exempt from control. The
Convention does not however, suggest how to establish the
reusability of a given trade ow in practice, a nontrivial
challenge (12). Peru is a signatory of the Basel Convection
but is exible in the denition of what consists of products
for reuse, essentially exempting themfromprior notication.
Perualsohas domestic policies whichregulate the import
of hazardous waste. PeruvianCustoms has alist of prohibited
and restricted items that includes hazardous solid waste
under the Basel Convection, such as pharmaceutical waste
(18). Used computers and parts are not however included in
this list. In general Peru has a policy of allowing the entry of
waste if it will be reuse as input in the productive activity of
the country. The importationof waste will not be authorized
however unless proper recycling or reuse which avoids
negative impacts to human and environment is guaranteed
(19). Furthermore, it is worth noting that the Peruvian
Customs databaseincludes categories for used, nonfunctional
computer equipment, a clear indication that their import is
considered legal.
As will be seeninSection4.0, many of the usedcomputers
imported to Peru come from the U.S. To check the legal
status on the U.S. side of such exports, domestically the only
relevant legislation is the cathode ray tube (CRT) rule
associated with the Resource Conservation and Recovery
Act (20). As long as exporters in the U.S. le a notication
with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, CRT moni-
tors can be exported for reuse. The U.S. signed but has not
ratiedthe Basel Conventionandthus has not implemented
mechanisms for prior notication. As with importation to
Peru, the Basel Convention has not specied a framework
of the convention to distinguish between exempted elec-
tronics intended for reuse and hazardous e-waste which
requires notication. It is our understanding that as long as
U.S. exporters abide by the EPAs CRT rule, export of used
computers is legal on the U.S. side.
3.0. Materials and Methods
3.1. Government Level Data Collection. Government level
trade data regarding imports of new and used computers
was collected and analyzed for the years 2003-2007. The
database was developedby PeruvianCustoms andmanaged
by the Peruvian National Superintendency of Tax Admin-
istration, SUNAT (21). This publicly available database
includes tracking of trade in different Information, com-
munication, and technology (ICT) devices. The database
includes information on the characteristics of equipment,
entry port, shipment port, condition(newor used; functional
or nonfunctional), quantity, weight, cost insuranceandfreight
price (CIF) for shipments of nonmobile personal computers
(nmPC) and mobile personal computers (mPCs); laptops or
notebooks. While the database contains disaggregated data
regarding characteristics of the equipment such as type,
speed, and brand of processor, this data is not distinguished
by separate elds. Hence, we disaggregated such data by
hand according to the following categories: brand, type, and
speed of processor.
There are twopotential problems withusingthis database
to represent trade in used computers: Accuracy of the data
and the possibility of trade not registered in the database
(black market). To discuss the accuracy of the database, rst
note that the informationrelies onimporters properly lling
VOL. 43, NO. 15, 2009 / ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 9 6011
informs. Intentional andunintentional errors will affect data
quality. Importers are motivated to make intentional errors
if sucherrors result ineconomic savings. Tariffs onimported
computers was between 4 and 7% from 2001 to 2005 and
from 2006 this tariff was reduced to 0 (22). In general tariffs
create a motivation to undervalue shipments, lower tariffs
presumably reduces this motivation. The degree to which
customs checks data is clearly important, thus we engaged
in interviews with customs ofcials to clarify verication
processes. The vericationprocess has three levels: nocheck,
documentation check, and physical shipment check. In the
documentation check data on the form is compared with
previous similar shipments. In a physical check customs
visually inspects the content of a shipment and compares it
with the full description of the equipment as required by
SUNAT. Customs agents do not verify the functionality of
importedcomputers. Incaseof mismatchwhenthecontainer
is physically checked, the importer will be ned. Overall,
15% of total containers undergo a physical check, with rst
time importers undergoing an initial mandatory check. The
remaining inspections are random. Containers with used
merchandise, however, have a higher probability of being
checked (23). While it is difcult to judge how well these
procedures result in accurate trade data, it is reasonable to
assert that Peruvian Customs takes serious efforts to ensure
accuracy.
There could be black market trade in used and new
computers invisible to the ofcial statistics. While the trade
is legal and tariffs are low, Peru has a value-added-tax (VAT)
of 19%, a high value which creates an economic incentive
for rms toengageinunofcial transactions. Inthecomputer
industry it is well-known that the desire to avoid the tax has
ledtoillegal importationof newmicroprocessors, harddrives
and RAM chips. Many locally assembled computers are
knowntocontainillegally importednewparts (17, 24). While
our interviews didnot reveal anillegal trade inusedandnew
computers, as with new parts the desire to avoid the tax
couldleadtoanillegal trade. According toFernandoGrados,
an expert in the Peruvian ICT market, there are no strong
indicators that show an important black market of new and
used computers (24). Quantifying the black market is a
challenging task beyond the scope of our analysis. Our
analysis of imports thus only applies to the ofcial trade in
used and newcomputers. In addition, government data was
also analyzed for exports of scrap printed circuit boards.
3.2. Survey. A survey with a convenience/nonprobabi-
listic sampling was performedinthe twomainPCs shopping
areas in Metropolitan Lima: Wilson area and Leticia Street.
These sites are thought to be representative of Perus
computer assembly, refurbishing and sales activities. Lima
is Perus capital and main urban area, with a population of
more than 8 million, or 30% of Perus total population (25).
Thesurveyquestions arelistedintheSupportingInformation
(S.1).
The Wilson area is Limas main informatics cluster and
the main sector for the local white box industry, or locally
nonbranded assembled computers. It is estimated that
around 60% of Peruvian assembled computers come from
the Wilson area (26). Even though assembly computer
practices may use new or used parts, or a combination of
both, Wilsonarea is mainly dedicatedtothe use of newparts.
In addition, the Wilson area is also known for the used PCs
market, mainly of international origin. Leticia Street is
identied as the market for used computer parts and used
and assembled (using used and new parts) PCs.
3.3. Interviews. Computer end-of-life practices in Lima
were assessed via site visits and interviews. The interviews
were performed in July 2007 and July 2008. We interviewed
the mainactors of the computer end-of-life management on
the capital, suchas collectors, dismantlers, exporters; circuit
boards andcomputer plastics, andsteel andcopper foundries.
A set of questions were prepared for each type of interview.
The average time for each survey was around 20 min. The
interviewquestions are listed inthe Supporting Information
(S.2).
4.0. Importation of Used and New Personal Computers
Figure 1 presents the importation of nmPCs (e.g., desktops)
and mobile computers (mPCs e.g. laptops), classied by
condition; used(functional or not functional) or new, for the
years 2003-2007 (21). Overall, the total amount of imported
computers increased with time. mPCs showed the most
sharply increasing growth, with an annual growth of around
91% between 2006 and 2007. While the importation of new
nmPCs is increasing every year and surpassing the importa-
tion of used computers as shown in 2006 and 2007, used
FIGURE 1. Importation of used and new nonmobile and mobile personal computers to Peru (nonmobile (nm) PCs and mobile (m)PCs)
(21).
6012 9 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY / VOL. 43, NO. 15, 2009
nmPCs do not show a clear and denite trend. Moreover,
theshares of usednmPCs if comparedwiththetotal imported
nmPCs were 53, 59, 56, 48, and 39% for 2003, 2004, 2005,
2006, and 2007, respectively. This decreasing trend share
could be a result of lower prices of new computers and a
recent economic boom in Peru (24).
The U.S. was identied as the main source, with shares
ranging from57 to76%, the remainder largely due toimports
from Panama, Norway, Mexico, and Korea. In the case of
Panama however it is reasonable to expect that used
computers had a different origin, probably the U.S. To verify
this assumption we interviewed two of the main importers
of used computers to Peru that according to the Peruvian
Customs database imported used nmPCs from Panama.
According to the interviews, all their imported used nmPCs
came from the U.S. and not from Panama. A more detailed
discussion of trends can be found in the Supporting
Information (S.3).
The distributionof brands of importedusedPCs is similar
to market share of new PCs in the U.S. (discussed further in
the Supporting Information, S.3) (27). It is important to note
however that the national assembly industry dominates the
Peruvian nmPCs market. According to Durand-Chaud,
275,000 new nmPCs were sold in the rst half of 2008, from
which 80% were assembled in Peru and 68% came from the
Peruvian unbranded assembly sector. The market for mPCs
however is dominatedby brandedcomputers: while 156 000
new mPCs were sold in the rst half of 2008, only 3% came
fromthePeruviannonbrandedassembledmPCindustry(28).
Detailed information regarding computer assembly and
sales can be found in the Supporting Information (S.4)
5.0. Characterization of Used nmPCs Imported to Peru
An important and open question regarding trade in end-
of-life computers is the degree to which traded equipment
is reusable and of reasonable quality versus waste intended
for recycling(ofteninformal andenvironmentallydamaging).
In this section we address this question through detailed
analysis of the types and shipment value (cost, insurance,
and freight) of computers imported. The trade database
allows such analysis as it tracks individual shipments
information including value, number of units, and main
processor.
The distribution of processor types in imported nmPCs
shipments for the years 2003-2007 is shown in Figure 2. As
expected, there is a trend toward more recent technology.
One can use the original introduction years of these proces-
sors in the U.S. to estimate the lifetime that used imported
nmPCs had in the original country. Pentium III and IV
processors entered the market between 1999-2003 and
2000-2007, respectively. Assuming average adoption 6
months after appearance in market, and 6 months for the
computer to reach Peru after disposal, the result is a rst
lifespan of 3-7 years for Pentium III and less than 6 years
for Pentium IV processors.
Figure 3 shows the per unit shipment value (CIF)
distribution for used nmPCs with Pentium III and IV
processors for 2006 and 2007.
5.1. Reuse versus Recycling. These trade statistics de-
scribeprices andcharacteristics of importedusedcomputers.
How can this data inform the question of whether these
computers wereimportedfor reuseversus recycling? Webase
our approach on this premise: to justify the trade any
computer importedfor recyclingmust generate income from
the recovered materials at least equal to the price paid. The
economic value of materials ina computer canbe estimated
by combining the bills of materials for a machine with
materials prices. We undertake such an analysis; the results
are shown in Table 1. In 2006 and 2007 the total value of
recyclable materials ina nmPCcontrol unit were US$ 16 and
18, respectively (14, 29-31). Note that this is the upper bound
on recoverable value, in practice recycling processes do not
recover 100%of recyclable materials contained, inparticular
plastics. Inaddition, recyclingincurs costs, not includedhere,
thus this is anupper boundonrecoverable value. Examining
the distribution of shipment values (CIF), 87-88% of all
imported used computers had a price higher than the total
value of recyclable materials contained. We can safely assert
that these computers are destined for reuse. In addition,
nonideal recovery rates and expenses associated with
recycling imply that an additional unknown fraction of
computer with shipment value less than US$16 and 18 are
also reused. A low shipment value of exported e-waste is
possibleindicationof exportationfor recyclingpurposes (32).
For this reason and according to our assessment, Perus
ofcial importationof nmPCs is mainly tosatisfy the demand
of computers in the country and not to feed the computer
recyclingindustry. Notehowever that as mentionedinSection
3.1 that illegal trade may exist with different reuse versus
recycle characteristics.
6. Computer Recycling System in Lima
6.1. Collection. As in many other developing country cities
in the world, Lima has an informal collection system for
reusable and recyclable waste. The case of computers is no
exception. In the residential sector, unwanted computers
are scavenged by informal collectors before waste is taken
by the municipal collectionsystem. Moreover, insome cases
unwantedcomputers, are soldby residents toinformal street
buyers. After collection, the most common path followed is
FIGURE 2. Distribution of used nmPCs by type of processor for 2003-2007 (21).
VOL. 43, NO. 15, 2009 / ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 9 6013
that informal collectors offers their merchandise to an
informal market dedicated to all kinds of reusable and
recyclable merchandise. Inthis market computers and parts
are bought by a second group of collectors specializing in
electronics. Subsequently, products are offered in a special-
ized market for computer and parts reuse and recycling.
For business, government, and academic sectors, end-
of-life of computers usually take a different path, mainly
auctions or donations. However, the path described for the
residential sector also occurs. Donations are usually made
to employees or charitable institutions. Auctions are held in
different locations of the capital where computers are offered
to employees and the public. Buyers (reusers, recyclers, or
informal brokers) gather at these auctions tobuy computers,
computer parts, monitors and others, for future reuse or
recycling.
6.2. Dismantling. Collectedcomputers endupeither with
reuse rms or recyclers. If the device is deemed not worth
reselling or refurbishing, it is passed on to the dismantling
channel. Dismantlingis donebyhandandparts areseparated
and evaluated for sale to reuse or recycle sectors. Parts
separable tosingle materials suchas copper, steel, aluminum
and plastics are sold for recycling. Table 2 summarizes the
paths taken by computer main parts and materials.
6.3. Recycling Processes. In the case of computers,
copper, steel, andaluminumparts are recycleddomestically,
usually in local foundries.
Some metal buyers andfoundries will not accept unclean
metals, such as wires with plastic insulation attached. For
copper cables, removal of the insulation is often done by
open burning under similar practices as reported in China,
India, and Ghana (5, 6, 9, 33, 34). This informal recycling is
usually done far from the city perimeter. It is important to
note that open burning of insulated copper cables generates
high emissions to the air of polychlorinated dibenzodioxins
and dibenzofurans, negatively impacting the environment
andhumanhealth(33, 34). Highemissions of thesepollutants
have been conrmed in laboratory simulations (35).
Some plastics found in computers cases, keyboards and
CRT monitors are exported to China, after having been
compacted locally.
Printed circuit boards are usually exported to China or
Europe. In Lima, there are two formal companies currently
involvedinthe formal export of printedcircuit boards toone
of the two destinations. Circuit boards shipped to Europe
reportedly go to the Aurubis smelter in Germany. Circuit
boards exportedto China are presumably informal recycled,
though we could not verify this. It is important to note the
existence of both exportation paths implies that formal and
informal recycling of circuit boards is economically com-
petitive. For an entire computer informal recycling has a
decided economic advantage over formal recycling, but the
situation apparently changes at the circuit board level. This
is presumably due to the higher rates of material recovery
FIGURE 3. The quantity of imported used PIII and PIV nmPCs versus computer value as measured by CIF (cost, insurance and freight)
shipment value (21).
TABLE 1. Total Weight and Value of Materials with Recyclable Value Found in a Desktop Computer (W/O Monitor) in 2006 and
2007 (14, 29-31)
material weight (kg)
average price per material/
part 2006 (US$/kg)
average price per material/
part 2007 (US$/kg)
economic value
2006 (US$)
economic value
2007 (US$)
aluminum 0.44 2.57 2.64 1.13 1.16
copper 0.67 6.72 7.12 4.50 4.77
gold 0.00025 19,400 22,400 4.88 5.64
lead 0.027 1.30 2.60 0.04 0.07
nickel 0.02 24 37 0.44 0.68
palladium 0.00011 10,382 11,489 1.15 1.27
plastics 0.65 0.25 0.25 0.16 0.16
silver 0.001 370 430 0.37 0.43
steel 6.12 0.44 0.52 2.72 3.19
tin 0.05 9 15 0.42 0.71
16 18
6014 9 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY / VOL. 43, NO. 15, 2009
possible with advanced metallurgical techniques (36). The
interviews also reveled that depending on the gold content
circuit board are sometimes recycled domestically for gold
recovery using hydro-metallurgical processes.
Microprocessors canfollowtwopaths; exportation, mainly
to China, or domestic recycling, for gold recovery. The use
of acids, cyanide, and/or and mercury to extract gold and
other precious metals is common in this recycling activity
andif improperlyhandledwill severelyaffect theenvironment
and human health (8, 37).
6.4. Solid Waste Management. After recycling there are
residuals suchas CRTglass whichendupas solidwaste. This
waste is disposed typically in open dumps or unlined and
poorly managed landlls. While the risk of toxics leaching
frome-waste inwell managedsanitary landlls is apparently
small (13), the situation could be very different for unlined
and/or poorly managed landlls often found in developing
countries. It is important to study the risk when e-waste is
put into such landlls.
Finally, there are also formal IT end-of-life management
options, though still on a small scale. Businesses sometimes
contract recycling companies to handle IT equipment, who
ensure practices such as data destruction and environmen-
tally sound end-of-life management including disposal of
residuals into industrial landlls (17).
A gure showing life paths for computers is included in
the Supporting Information (S.6).
7. Discussion
A main result of this study is that the ofcial trade in used
computers is oriented toward reuse as opposed to recycling.
Therecouldbeillegal trade, however, theextent andcharacter
of whichareas yet unknown. Thenatureof theusedcomputer
trade in other countries such as China and India is also still
uncertain. We have shownhowtouse ofcial trade statistics,
when available, to characterize if trade is reuse versus
recycling oriented. More work is needed both to learn from
ofcial statistics from other countries as well as nd new
ways to characterize illegal trade.
A second result is that even without explicit recycling
legislation, aninformal systemhas emergedwhichis efcient
inthe sense that computers are extensively collected, reused
andrecycled. This generates employment as well as increases
the accessibility to technology to low income families and
small businesses. There are three environmental challenges
identied. The rst, openburningof wires, is almost certainly
a major problem. The second, disposal of wastes such as
CRT glass (containing lead and other toxics) into landlls
which may not be sufciently secure to prevent leaching is
potentially an environmental risk and the third, hydro-
metallurgicrecoveryof goldfrommicroprocessors andcircuit
boards.
A third result, based on trade statistics and interviews, is
new evidence that some computer parts are exported (re-
exported) for recycling in Europe and China. It is crucial to
note that Europeansmelters are apparently competitive with
informal recycling. Further researchis neededtounderstand
this owandto understandwhy inChina andIndia informal
recycling of circuit boards is prevalent.
Our broad conclusion is that there are opportunities and
costs in the trade and processing of used computers. The
high degree of reuse is encouraging, as are the employment
and accessibility benets. The trade from Peru to Europe
highlights the possibility of an international reverse supply
chain in which difcult process steps such as recovery of
precious metals from circuit boards are done safely and
efciently. On the other hand, the currently unregulated
system also presents problems such as open burning and
potential leaching of toxics from landlls. These need to be
addressed. As we have argued elsewhere (13, 38) end-of-life
management of computers can be viewed not only as an
environmental problembut alsoas anopportunitywithsocial
andeconomic benets for developingcountries suchas Peru.
Integrated regulatory frameworks should be considered
which aim to protect the environment while maintaining
social and economic advantages.
Acknowledgments
This work was supportedinpart by the U.S. National Science
Foundation via Grant CBET-0731067 in the Environmental
Sustainability program. We thank Sandra Roca Servat, Hugo
Destaillats, Witman Esquivel, Zachary Pirtle, interviewees
(electronic dismantlers, collectors and recyclers, foundries,
and exporters), survey participants, and the manuscript
reviewers for their valuable help and/or comments on this
paper.
Supporting Information Available
Additional discussion of the methodology and result, survey
questionnaire and interview questions. This material is
availablefreeof chargeviatheInternet at http://pubs.acs.org.
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