The OSI, or Open System Interconnection, model defines a networking framework to implement protocols in seven layers.

Control is
passed from one layer to the next, starting at the application layer in one station, and proceeding to the bottom layer, over the channel
to the next station and back up the hierarchy.
Application (Layer 7)
This layer supports application and end-user processes. Communication partners are identified, quality of service is identified, user
authentication and privacy are considered, and any constraints on data syntax are identified. Everything at this layer is application-
specific. This layer provides application services for file transfers, e-mail, and other network software services. Telnet andFTP are
applications that exist entirely in the application level. Tiered application architectures are part of this layer.
Presentation (Layer 6)
This layer provides independence from differences in data representation (e.g., encryption) by translating from application to network
format, and vice versa. The presentation layer works to transform data into the form that the application layer can accept. This layer
formats and encrypts data to be sent across a network, providing freedom from compatibility problems. It is sometimes called the
syntax layer.
Session (Layer 5)
This layer establishes, manages and terminates connections between applications. The session layer sets up, coordinates, and
terminates conversations, exchanges, and dialogues between the applications at each end. It deals with session and connection
coordination.
Transport (Layer 4)
This layer provides transparent transfer of data between end systems, or hosts, and is responsible for end-to-end error recovery
and flow control. It ensures complete data transfer.
Network (Layer 3)
This layer provides switching and routing technologies, creating logical paths, known as virtual circuits, for transmitting data
from node to node. Routing and forwarding are functions of this layer, as well as addressing,internetworking, error
handling, congestion control and packet sequencing.
Data Link (Layer 2)
At this layer, data packets are encoded and decoded into bits. It furnishes transmission protocol knowledge and management and
handles errors in the physical layer, flow control and frame synchronization. The data link layer is divided into two sub layers: The
Media Access Control (MAC) layer and the Logical Link Control (LLC) layer. The MAC sub layer controls how a computer on the
network gains access to the data and permission to transmit it. The LLC layer controls frame synchronization, flow control and error
checking.
Physical (Layer 1)
This layer conveys the bit stream - electrical impulse, light or radio signal -- through the network at the electrical and mechanical level. It
provides the hardware means of sending and receiving data on a carrier, including defining cables, cards and physical aspects. Fast
Ethernet, RS232, and ATM are protocols with physical layer components.



Layer
#
Mnemonic
Encapsulation
Units
Devices or
Components
Keywords/Description
7 All data PC
Network services for application processes, such as file, print, messaging,
database services
6 People data
Standard interface to data for the application layer. MIME encoding, data
encryption, conversion, formatting, compression
5 Seem data
Interhost communication. Establishes, manages and terminates
connection between applications
4 To segments
End-to-end connections and reliability. Segmentation/desegmentation of
data in proper sequence. Flow control
3 Need packets router
Logical addressing and path determination. Routing. Reporting delivery
errors
2 Data frames bridge, switch, NIC
Physical addressing and access to media. Two sublayers: Logical Link
Control (LLC) and Media Access Control (MAC)
1 Processing bits
repeater, hub,
transciever
Binary transmission signals and encoding. Layout of pins, voltages, cable
specifications, modulation

The TCP/IP model
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Updated: January 21, 2005
Applies To: Windows Server 2003, Windows Server 2003 R2, Windows Server 2003 with SP1, Windows Server 2003 with
SP2
The TCP/IP model
TCP/IP is based on a four-layer reference model. All protocols that belong to the TCP/IP protocol suite are located in the
top three layers of this model.
As shown in the following illustration, each layer of the TCP/IP model corresponds to one or more layers of the seven-layer
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model proposed by the International Standards Organization (ISO).

The types of services performed and protocols used at each layer within the TCP/IP model are described in more detail in
the following table.

Layer Description Protocols
Application Defines TCP/IP application protocols and how host
programs interface with transport layer services to use
the network.
HTTP, Telnet, FTP, TFTP, SNMP,
DNS, SMTP, X Windows, other
application protocols
Transport Provides communication session management between
host computers. Defines the level of service and status of
the connection used when transporting data.
TCP, UDP, RTP
Internet Packages data into IP datagrams, which contain source
and destination address information that is used to
forward the datagrams between hosts and across
networks. Performs routing of IP datagrams.
IP, ICMP, ARP, RARP
Network
interface
Specifies details of how data is physically sent through
the network, including how bits are electrically signaled
by hardware devices that interface directly with a
network medium, such as coaxial cable, optical fiber, or
twisted-pair copper wire.
Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI, X.25,
Frame Relay, RS-232, v.35


Layer 4. Application Layer
Application layer is the top most layer of four layer TCP/IP model. Application layer is present on the top of theTransport layer.
Application layer defines TCP/IP application protocols and how host programs interface withTransport layer services to use the
network.
Application layer includes all the higher-level protocols like DNS (Domain Naming System), HTTP (Hypertext Transfer
Protocol), Telnet, SSH, FTP (File Transfer Protocol), TFTP (Trivial File Transfer Protocol), SNMP (Simple Network
Management Protocol), SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) , DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol), X Windows, RDP
(Remote Desktop Protocol) etc.
Layer 3. Transport Layer
Transport Layer is the third layer of the four layer TCP/IP model. The position of the Transport layer is betweenApplication
layer and Internet layer. The purpose of Transport layer is to permit devices on the source and destination hosts to carry on a
conversation. Transport layer defines the level of service and status of the connection used when transporting data.
The main protocols included at Transport layer are TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram Protocol).
Layer 2. Internet Layer
Internet Layer is the second layer of the four layer TCP/IP model. The position of Internet layer is between Network Access
Layer and Transport layer. Internet layer pack data into data packets known as IP datagrams, which contain source and destination
address (logical address or IP address) information that is used to forward the datagrams between hosts and across networks.
The Internet layer is also responsible for routing of IP datagrams.
Packet switching network depends upon a connectionless internetwork layer. This layer is known as Internet layer. Its job is to
allow hosts to insert packets into any network and have them to deliver independently to the destination. At the destination side
data packets may appear in a different order than they were sent. It is the job of the higher layers to rearrange them in order to
deliver them to proper network applications operating at the Application layer.
The main protocols included at Internet layer are IP (Internet Protocol), ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol), ARP (Address
Resolution Protocol), RARP (Reverse Address Resolution Protocol) and IGMP (Internet Group Management Protocol).
Layer 1. Network Access Layer
Network Access Layer is the first layer of the four layer TCP/IP model. Network Access Layer defines details of how data is
physically sent through the network, including how bits are electrically or optically signaled by hardware devices that interface
directly with a network medium, such as coaxial cable, optical fiber, or twisted pair copper wire.
The protocols included in Network Access Layer are Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI, X.25, Frame Relay etc.
The most popular LAN architecture among those listed above is Ethernet. Ethernet uses an Access Method called CSMA/CD
(Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection) to access the media, when Ethernet operates in ashared media. An Access
Method determines how a host will place data on the medium.
IN CSMA/CD Access Method, every host has equal access to the medium and can place data on the wire when the wire is free
from network traffic. When a host wants to place data on the wire, it will check the wire to find whether another host is already
using the medium. If there is traffic already in the medium, the host will wait and if there is no traffic, it will place the data in
the medium. But, if two systems place data on the medium at the same instance, they will collide with each other, destroying the
data. If the data is destroyed during transmission, the data will need to be retransmitted. After collision, each host will wait for a
small interval of time and again the data will be retransmitted.