Chapter 1

Functions, Limits and Continuity

Definition:

Let A and B be two non-empty sets. A function from the set A to the set B is a
rule which associates to each element x in A,a unique element y in B which we
write as y = f(x). The set A is called domain of the function f, the set B is called
the codo main of f. y = f(x) is called the value of f at x and the set ( ) { } A x x f : is
called the range of f. The graph of the function f is the set ( ) ( ) { } D x x f x / ,
where D is the domain of f. We draw the curve through these points.

Functions whose domain and codomain are both subsets of R (The set of real
numbers), are called real valued functions of a real variable. If domain is not
stated then we take largest subset of R for which f(x) is defined as the domain of
the function f.

The set { } b x a R x : is denoted by [a,b] or by b x a and called closed
interval [a,b] and the set { } b x a R x < < : is denoted by (a,b) or by a<x<b and
called open interval (a,b).

Example 1: A function f:R R defined by ( )
0 1
1
1
.... a x a x a x a x f
n
n
n
n
+ + + =

is
called a polynomial of degree n where a
n

0 1 1
, ...... a a a
n
are any real numbers and n
is a +ve integer.

Example 2:

F(x) = x
2
is a function whose domain is R and whose range is the set of all non
negative real numbers. The graph can be drawn by ploting the points ( ) ( ) x f y x = ,
in the xy plane. We make the following table.

x 0 1 2 3 4 -1 -2 -3 -4
y 0 1 4 9 16 1 4 9 16

Then we draw the graph through these (x,y) points.

The graph is symmetric about y-axis since f(-x) = f(x)
The graph is shown in the adjoining figure.

Example 3:

The function F: R R

Defined by
( ) 0 = = x if x x x F

0 < = x if x

is called the modulus function or absolute value function. Domain = R and range
is { } 0 :
0
=
+
x R x R

The graph of this function passes through the origin and symmetric about y-axis
since f(-x)=f(x) we make the following table

x 0 1 2 4 -1 -2
y 0 1 2 4 1 2

Graph is given in the adjoining figure.

Greatest Integer Function

For a real number x, we denote [x] the greatest integer less than or equal to x.
The function f(x) = [x], x R is called the greatest integer function. The domain of
this function is R and the range is the set of all integers.

The graph is shown as following: To draw the graph we make the following
table.

x y = [x]
1 2 < x -2
0 1 < x -1
1 0 < x 0
2 1 < x 1
3 2 < x 2

Odd Functions:

A function f is called an odd function if f(-x) = -f(x). ( ) x x x f 4 3
3
+ = is an odd
function

Even function

A function f is called an even function if ( ) ( ) ( ) 3 2 ,
2 4
+ + = = x x x f x f x f is an
even function.

Rational Function:

A function f(x) defined as ( )
( )
( )
,
x Q
x P
x f = where P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials is
called a rational function. Domain ( ) { }. 0 = x Q R x

Limit of a Function:

Let f(x) be a real valued function defined in an open interval containing a except
possibly at a. When x approaches to a (x comes near a), f(x) approaches a real
number L i.e. the difference between f(x) and L can be made as small as we
please by taking x sufficiently close to a. Then L is called the limit of f(x) as x-
approaches a and we write as
( ) L x f Lim
a x
=

Left hand Limit

Let f(x) be defined on an open interval (c-h, c). A real number l is called left hand
limit of f(x) at c if for all x sufficiently close to c, but x<c, the value of f(x) can be
made as close to l as we want and we write as

( ) l x f Lim
c x
=



Right Hand Limit

Let f(x) be defined on an open interval (c,c+h).
A real number l is called right hand limit of f(x) at x = c if for all x (x>c)
sufficiently close to c, f(x) can be made as close as we want to the number l .

We write ( ) l x f Lim
c x
=
+


Limit of f(x) exists if l l = and limit does not exist if l l

Some Properties of Limits

1. C x Lim K K Lim
C x C x
= =

,

Theorem: Let f(x) and g(x) be two functions such that ( )
1
L x f Lt
C x
=

and
( )
2
L x g Lim
C x
=

. Then

(a)
( ) ( ) [ ]
2 1
L L x g x f Lim
C x
+ = +

(b) ( ) ( ) [ ]
2 1
L L x g x f Lim
C x
=

(c) ( ) [ ]
1
L x f Lim
C x
=

(d) ( ) ( ) [ ]
2 1
L L x g x f Lim
C x
=

(e)
( )
( )
0 ,
2
2
1
=

L
L
L
x g
x f
Lim
C x


Example 1:
Evaluate

(i) ( ) 4 2
2
3
+ +

x x Lim
x


(ii)
4
8
2
2
+
+

x
x
Lim
x


(iii)
16
12
2
2
4

x
x x
Lim
x


(iv)
x
x x
Lim
x
+

1 1
0


Solution

(i) ( ) 19 4 3 2 3 4 2
2 2
3
= + + = + +

x x x Lim
x


(ii)
2
4 2
8 4
4
8
2
2
=
+
+
=
+
+

x
x
Lim
x


(iii)
16
12
lim
2
2
4

x
x x
x
. It is of the form
0
0
.

In this case we factorize the given function and cancel the common factor then
we evaluate the limit.

( ) ( )
( ) ( ) 8
7
4 4
3 4
4
3
lim
4 4
3 4
16
12
4 4
2
2
4
=
+
+
=
+
+
=
+
+
=

x
x
x x
x x
Lim
x
x x
Lim
x x x


(iv) |

\
| +

form is it
x
x x
Lim
x
0
0
.
1 1
0


|
|

\
|
+ +
+ + +
=

x x
x x
x
x x
Lim
x
1 1
1 1 1 1
0


( ) ( )
[ ] x x x
x x
Lim
x
+ +
+
=

1 1
1 1
0


[ ] x x x
x
Lim
x
+ +
=

1 1
2
0


1
1 1
2
0
=
+ +
=

x x
Lim
x


Example 2:

Evaluate

(i)
x
x
Lim
x 0

(ii) [ ] x Lim
x 4


Where [x] is the greatest integer less than or equal to x.

Solution:

( ) 1 1 .
0 0 0
= =

= =
x x x
Lim
x
x
Lim
x
x
Lim hl l

( ) 1 1 .
0 0 0
= = = =
+ + + x x x
Lim
x
x
Lim
x
x
Lim hl r

Since left hand limit of the function at 0 is not equal to the right hand limit of the
function at 0. Hence
x
x
Lim
x 0
does not exist.

(ii)
[ ] 3
4
=

x Lim
x
since x is coming near to 4 but x is less than 4.

[ ] 4
4
=
+
x Lim
x
since x is coming near to 4 but x is more than 4. Hence
[ ] x Lt
x 4
doesnt exist since left hand limit is not equal to right hand limit.
Similarly [ ], x Lim
n x
where Z n , doesnot exist.

Some Important Limits

(a)
1

n
n n
a x
na
a x
a x
Lim

(ii) 1
sin
0
=

x
x
Lim
x


(iii)
( )
1
1 log
0
=
+

x
x
Lim
x


(iv)
1
1
0
=

x
e
Lim
x
x


(v) e
n
Lim
n
n
= |

\
|
+

1
1

(vi) a
x
a
Lim
x
x
log
1
0
=

A real number L is called limit of f(x) as x tends to if f(x) can be made as close
to L as we want by making x sufficiently large. We write
( ) . L x f Lim
x
=



To evaluate these limits we take
y
x
1
= in the function and ( ) x f Lim
x

becomes
|
|

\
|

y
f Lim
y
1
0
. In the case of rational function. We divide numerator and
dominator by highest power.

Example

10 5
5 7 4 3 2
2 3 4
2 3 4
+ +
+ + + +

x x x
x x x x
Lim
x


2
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 2
10 5 1
1
5 7 4 3
2
4 2
4 3 2
=
+ +
+ + + +
=
+ +
+ + + +
=

x x x
x x x x
Lim
x

Exercise 1.1

Evaluate the following limits

1.
2
9
2
3
+

x
x
Lim
x


2.
5 6
20 9
2
2
5
+
+

x x
x x
Lim
x


3.
( ) x a a x
a x a
Lim
x
+
+
0


4.
2
2
5 5
2

x
x
Lim
x


5.
x
x
Lim
x
9 sin
10 sin
0


6.
x
x
Lim
x
2
tan
cos 1+

7.
x
e e
Lim
x x
x
2 3
0

8.
[ ] x
x
Lim
x 0


9.
2
2 2
0
4 4
x
x x
Lim
x
+

Continuous Function

Let f be a real valued function of a real variable x. Let c be any point in the
domain of f. Then f is said to be continuous at x = c if ( ) x f Lim
c x
exists and
( ) ( ) c f x f Lim
c x
=

(i.e. the limit of the function at c is equal to the value of the

function at c). If f is not continuous at c then f is called discontinuous at x = c and
c is called a point of discontinuity of f.

Definition

A real function is continuous on an interval [a, b] or in (a,b) if it is continuous at
every point of the interval. At the end point a of a closed interval [a,b] f is
continuous if ( ) ( ) a f x f Lim
a x
=
+


At the point b,f, is continuous if ( ) ( ) b f x f Lt
b x
=



A polynomial function f(x) =
0 1
1
1
..... a x a x a x a
n
n
n
n
+ + + +

is continuous for all

R x .

Theorem 1.2: Let f and g be two real continuous functions then

(i) f + g is continuous
(ii) f-g is continuous
(iii) f is continuous, where is any real number.
(iv) fg is continuous
(v)
f
1
is continuous for all x such that ( ) 0 x f
(vi)
g
f
is continuous for all x such that ( ) 0 x g
(vii)
f
g
is continuous for all x such that ( ) 0 x f .

Example 1:

x x x e x x
x
, 1 , , cos , sin
2
+ + are continuous for all R x since for any real
number x
0


0
0 0 0
, cos cos sin sin
0 , 0
x x
x x x x x x
e e Lim x x Lim x x Lim = = =



0 0
2
0
2
0 0
, 1 1 x x Lim x x x x Lim
x x x x
= + + = + +

. Limits of each function is equal to
value of that function at x
0
and x
0
is any point. So all these functions are
continuous for all R x .

Example 2:

f(x) = [x] is not continuous at x = n where n is an integer.

[ ] 1 , ] [ = =
+
n x Lim n x Lim
n x n x
so ( ) x f Lim
n x
doesnt exist. Hence f(x) = [x] is not
continuous at x = n.

Example 3:

( ) 3
3 2
6
2
2

= x if
x x
x x
x f


3
5
= if x = 3.

Determine whether the function is continuous at x = 3 ?

Solution :

f(x) is continuous at x = 3 if limit of the function at x = 3 exists and is equal to
f(3). =

3 2
6
2
2
3
x x
x x
Lt
x
( )( )
( )( ) 1 3
2 3
3
+
+

x x
x x
Lim
x


( )
3
5
3
4
5
1
2
3
= =
+
+
=

f
x
x
Lim
x
so the function is not continuous at x = 3.

Example 4:

Show that the function defined as

( )
0 0
0 ,
= =
=
x if
x
x
x
x F


is not continuous at x = 0.

Solution:

( ) 1 1
0 0 0 0
= = = =
+ + + + x x x x
Lim
x
x
Lim
x
x
Lim x f Lim

Since x is approaching zero from right (i.e. x > 0) to |x| = x.

( ) 1 1 ) (
0 0 0 0
= =

= =
x x x x
Lim
x
x
Lim
x
x
Lim x f Lim

Since x is approaching zero from left (i.e. x < 0) so |x| = -x. ( ) x f Lim
x 0
does
not exist. Hence f(x) is not continuous at x = 0.

Example 5:

Show that
( )
x
x f
1
=
is not continuous at x = 0.
Since ( ) = =
0
1
0 f . So f(x) is not continuous at x = 0.

Example 6:

Show that the function f defined as

( )
1 1 2
1 1 2
> + =
=
x if x
x if x x f

is not continuous at x = 1

Solution

( ) ( ) 1 1 2
1 1
= =

x Lim x f Lim
x x


( ) ( ) 3 1 2
1 1
= + =
+ +
x Lim x f Lim
x x


So ( ) x f Lim
x 1
does not exist.

f(x) is not continuous at x = 1.

Example 7:

For what value of K the following functions are continuous at x = 0.

(i)
( ) 0
sin
2 = x if
x
x
x f
= K if x = 0

( ) 2
sin 2
0 0
= =

x
x
Lim x f Lim
x x


f(x) is continuous at x = 0 if ( ) ( ) 0
0
f x f Lim
x
=

So 2 = K or K =2.

(ii) ( ) ( ) 0 1 2
2
< + = x x K x f
0 4
2
= x if x

( ) ( ) K x K Lim x f Lim
x x
2 1 2
2
0 0
= + =



( ) ( ) 4 4
2
0 0
= =
+ +
x Lim x f Lim
x x


( ) x f Lim
x 0
exists if l.h.l. = r.h.l or 2K = 4 or K = 2.

Exercise 1.2

Determine whether following functions (1 to 4) are continuous at indicated points
?

1. ( ) 2 2 4 3
2 3
= + + = x at x x x x f

2. ( )

=
>

= 1
1 3 4
1 4 5
2 3
2
x at
x if x x
x if x
x f

3. ( )

=
=

= 0
0 , 0
0 ,
1
sin
3
x at
x if
x if
x
x
x f

4. ( ) 1
1
1
2

+

= x if
x
x
x f
At x = -1
= -2 if x = -1

5. Find the point of discontinuity of the functions

(i) ( )
8 6
8 3
2
+
+
=
x x
x
x f

(ii) ( ) x x f cot =

Q.6 For what values of K the function f(x) defined as

( )
2 ,
2
4
8
2
3
= =

=
x if K
x
x
x
x f


is continuous at x = 2 ?

Q.7 Let f(x) be a function defined as ( )
( )
2
2
sin 1
x
x
x f

when
2

x and
( ) . 2 = f Find so that f(x) is continuous at 2 = x .


Chapter 2

Trigonometric Functions


2.1 Let be any number. Construct the angle whose measure is radians
with vertex at the origin of a rectangular coordinate system and initial side
along the positive x-axis. Let P (x,y) be any point on the terminal side OA
of the angle. Let OP = r.

(i) Since of is denoted by sin and defined as
r
y
Hypo
perp
= = sin

(ii) Cosine of is denoted by cos defined as
r
x
Hypo
Base
= = cos

(iii) Tangent of is denoted by tan and defined as
x
y
Base
perp
= = =

cos
sin
tan

(iv) Cotangent of is denoted by cot and defined as
y
x
Perp
Base
= = =

tan
1
cot

(v) Secant of is denoted by sec and defined as
x
r
Base
Hypo
= = =

cos
1
sec

(vi) Cosecant of is denoted by cosec and defined as
y
r
perp
Hypo
ec = = =

sin
1
cos

2.2 Trigonometric Identities : The following identifies can be easily proved.

(i) 1 sin cos
2 2
= +
(ii)
2 2
sec tan 1 = +
(iii)
2 2
cos cot 1 ec = +

2.3 Sign of Trigonometric Function

In I quadrant x and y are +ve so all trigonometric functions are positive. In
II quadrant x is ve and y is positive so sin and cosec are +ve other t-
functions are negative. In third quadrant both x and y are negative so tan
and cot are positive other t-function are negative. In IV quadrant x is
+ve and y is ve so cos and sec are positive other functions are
negative.

2.4 We can prove the following results

(a) ( ) ( ) ( ) tan tan , cos cos , sin sin = = =

( ) ( ) ( ) ec ec cos cos , sec sec , cot cot = = =

(b)

cot
2
tan , sin
2
cos , cos
2
sin = |

\
|
= |

\
|
= |

\
|

sec
2
cos , cos
2
sec , tan
2
cot = |

\
|
= |

\
|
= |

\
|
ec ec

(c)

sin
2
cos , cos
2
sin = |

\
|
+ = |

\
|
+

tan
2
cot , cot
2
tan = |

\
|
+ = |

\
|
+

sec
2
cos , cos
2
sec = |

\
|
+ = |

\
|
+ ec ec

(d) ( ) ( ) ( ) tan tan , cos cos , sin sin = = =
( ) ( ) ( ) = = ec cos , sec sec , cot cot ec cos =

(e) ( ) ( ) cos cos , sin sin = + = +
( ) ( ) cot cot , tan tan = + = +
( ) ( ) ec ec cos cos , sec sec = + = +

(f) ( ) ( ) ( ) tan 2 tan , cos 2 cos , sin 2 sin = = =
( ) ( ) ( ) ec ec cos 2 cos , sec 2 sec , cot 2 cot = = =

(g) ( ) ( ) ( ) tan 2 tan , cos 2 cos , sin 2 sin = + = + = +
( ) ( ) ec ec cos 2 cos , sec 2 sec = + = +

2.5 Values of traiogonometric function at different angles. Values of t functions
are given in the following table.

0
6

sin 0
2
1

2 / 1 2 / 3 1
cos 1 2 / 3 2 / 1
2
1
0
tan 0 3 / 1 1 3


Important Formulae

1. sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
Taking B = A, we get
sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A

2. sin (A-B) = sin A cos B cos A sin B

3. cos (A+B) = cos A cos B sin A sin B
Taking B = A, we get
cos 2A = cos
2
A sin
2
A = 2 cos
2
A-1=1-2sin
2
A

4. cos (A-B) = cosA cos B + sin A sin B

5. ( )
B A
B A
B A
tan tan 1
tan tan
tan

+
= +

6. ( )
B A
B A
B A
tan tan 1
tan tan
tan

=

7. ( ) ( ) B A B A B A + = sin sin cos sin 2

8. ( ) ( ) B A B A B A + = sin sin sin cos 2

9. ( ) ( ) B A B A B A + + = cos cos cos cos 2

10. ( ) ( ) B A B A B A + = cos cos sin sin 2

11.
2
cos
2
sin 2 sin sin
D C D C
D C
+
= +

12.
2
sin
2
cos 2 sin sin
D C D C
D C
+
=

13.
2
cos
2
cos 2 cos cos
D C D C
D C
+
= +

14.
2
sin
2
sin 2 cos cos
C D D C
D C
+
=

15.
3
sin 4 sin 3 3 sin =

16. cos 3 cos 4 3 cos
3
=


Inverse Trigonometric Functions

x y
1
sin

= iff y x sin = where [ ] 1 , 1 x and .

2
,
2
(

y Domain of the function is
[ ] 1 , 1 and range is

( ) ( )
4
2
1
sin ,
6 2
1
sin ,
2
1 sin ,
2
1 sin ,
2
,
2
1 1 1 1

= |

\
|
= |

\
|
= =
(

,

3 2
3
sin
1

=
|
|

\
|

Other Inverse functions are defiend in the similar way and their domains and
ranges are given by the following table.

Functions Domain Range
cos
-1
x 1 1 x y 0
tan
-1
x < < x
2 2

< < y
sec
-1
x ( ) ( ) < < x U x 1 1 |

\
|
< |

\
|
<

y U y
2 2
0
cosec
-1
x ( ) ( ) < < x U x 1 1 |

\
|
< |

\
|
<
2
0 0
2

y U y
cot
-1
x < < x < < y 0

Properties of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

(i) ( ) ( )
2 2
, 1 1 , sin sin , sin sin
1 1

= =

x x x
Similar properties are satisfied by other inverse trigonometric
Functions.

(ii) ( ) 1 , cos
1
sin
1 1
> = |

\
|

x x ec
x
and

( ) 1 1 ,
1
cos sin
1 1
|

\
|
=

x
x
ec x

Similar properties are satisfied by other inverse trigonometric
functions.

(iii) ( ) 0 ,
2
cot tan ,
2
cos sin
1 1 1 1
= + = +

x x x x x



( ) 0
2
cot tan
1 1
< = +

x if x x



1
2
cos sec
1 1
= +

x if x ec x



(iv) 1 0 , 0
1
tan tan tan
1 1 1
< > <

+
= +

xy y x if
xy
y x
y x

1 , 0 , 0
1
tan
1
> > >

+
+ =

xy y x
xy
y x


1 , 0 , 0 ,
1
tan
1
> < <

+
+ =

xy y x
xy
y x


(v)
|
|

\
|
+

=

xy
y x
y x
1
tan tan tan
1 1 1


(vi) 1
1
2
sin
1
2
tan tan 2
2
1
2
1 1

+
=

=

x if
x
x
x
x
x

0
1
1
cos
2
2
1

=

x if
x
x


(vii) ( )
2 2 1 1 1
1 1 sin sin sin x y y x y x + = +


If 1 , 0 , 0
2 2
< + > > y x y x
( )
2 2 1
1 1 sin x y y x + =


If 1 , 0 , 0
2 2
> + > > y x y x

(viii) ( ) 1 , 0 , ) 1 1 sin sin sin
2 2 1 1 1
=

y x x y y x y x


(ix) ( ) 1 , 0 1 1 cos cos cos
2 2 1 1 1
= +

y x if y x xy y x

( ) 0 , 1 1 1 cos 2
2 2 1
=

y x y x xy


(x) ( ) 1 , 1 1 1 cos cos cos
2 2 1 1 1
+ =

y x y x xy y


Chapter 3


3.1 Definition: The derivative of the function y = f(x) at x is denoted by ( ) x f or
dx
dy
or y or
dx
df
and defined as ( )
( ) ( )
x
x f x x f
Lt x f
x

+
=
0
, provided the limit
exists. Then f is called differentiable function.

The derivative of f at x = a is defined as ( )
( ) ( )
x
a f x a f
Lt a f
x

+
=
0

provided the limit exists.

Derivative by Definition: Example 1: Let f(x) = x
n
where n is any real
number.

( )
( ) ( ) ( )
x
x x x
Lt
x
x f x x f
Lt x f
n n
x x

+
=

+
=
0 0
1
=
n
nx


Example 2:

Let ( ) x x f y sin = =

( )
( ) ( )
x
x f x x f
Lt
x
y
Lt x f
dx
dy
x x

+
=

= =
0 0


( )
x
x x x
Lt
x

+
=

sin sin
0


2
2
sin
2
cos
2
sin
2
cos 2
0 0 0 x
x
Lt
x
x Lt
x
x x
x
Lt
x x x
|

\
|
|

\
|
+ =

\
|
+
=



x cos =
Similarly ( ) x x
dx
d
sin cos =

3.2 Rules of Derivative

1. If C is a constant then 0 =
dx
dC


2. If u is a differentiable function and c is a constant, then ( )
dx
du
c cu
dx
d
=

3. If u and v are differential functions of x, then ( )
dx
dv
dx
du
v u
dx
d
+ = +

If u
1
, u
2
u
n
are differentiable function of x, then

( )
dx
du
dx
du
dx
du
u u u
dx
d
n
n
+ + + = + + + ...... .....
2 1
2 1



4. If u and v differentiable functions of x then ( ) .
dx
dv
u v
dx
du
uv
dx
d
+ =

5. If u and v are differentiable functions of x and ( ) 0 x v then
2
.
v
dx
dv
u v
dx
du
v
u
dx
d

=
|

\
|



3.3 Higher Order Derivatives

If y = f(x) then ( ) x f
dx
dy
= is the first order derivative of y with respect
to x.
|

\
|
=

= =
dx
dy
dx
d
dx
y d
y
dx
y d
2
2
is called the second order derivative of
y with respect to x. Similarly third order derivatives
|
|

\
|
= =
2
2
3
3
dx
y d
dx
d
y
dx
y d
and
( ) ( )
( )
1
=
n n
y
dx
d
y where
( ) n
y is the nth order
derivatives of y with respect to x.

3.4 Formulas of derivative of functions

(i) ( )
1
=
n n
nx x
dx
d


(ii) ( )
x x
e e
dx
d
=

(iii) ( )
x
x
dx
d 1
ln =

(iv) ( ) a a a
dx
d
x x
ln =

(v) ( ) x x
dx
d
cos sin =

(vi) ( ) x x
dx
d
sin cos =

(vii) ( ) x x
dx
d
2
sec tan =

(viii) ( ) x ec x
dx
d
2
cos cot =

(ix) ( ) x x x
dx
d
tan sec sec =

(x) ( ) x ecx ecx
dx
d
cot cos cos =

(xi) ( )
2
1
1
1
sin
x
x
dx
d

(xii) ( )
2
1
1
1
cos
x
x
dx
d

(xiii) ( )
2
1
1
1
tan
x
x
dx
d
+
=

(xiv) ( )
2
1
1
1
cot
x
x
dx
d
+
=

(xv) ( )
1
1
sec
2
1

x x
x
dx
d


(xvi) ( )
1
1
cos
2
1

x x
x ec
dx
d


3.5 Chain Rule:

If y is a differential function of u and u is a differential function of x i.e. y
= f(u) and u = g(x), then

dx
du
du
dy
dx
dy
. =

Similarly if y = f(u) , u = g (v) and v = h (x),
then
dx
dv
dv
du
du
dy
dx
dy
=

Examples

Find
dx
dy
if 4 sin tan 4
1 5 10
+ + + + =

x x x x y

using the formula ( ) ( )
9 10 1
10 , x x
dx
d
nx x
du
d
n n
= =



( ) ( ) ( ) x x
dx
d
x x
dx
d
x
dx
d
2
4
5 5
sec tan . 5 . 4 4 4 = = = from (7) of 3.4

( )
2
1
1
1
sin
x
x
dx
d

from (6) of 3.4

( ) ( ) 0 4 0 = =
dx
d
c
dx
d


( ) 4 sin tan 4
1 5 10
+ + + + =

x x x x
dx
d
dx
dy


( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
dx
d
x
dx
d
x
dx
d
x
dx
d
x
dx
d
+ + + + =
1 5 10
sin tan 4 (4)

2
2 4 9
1
1
sec 20 10
x
x x x

+ + + =

2. Find
dx
dy
if
x
e y
1
tan

= we write y = e
u
where u = tan
-1
x. y is a function of u
and u is a function of x. Using chain rule
dx
du
du
dy
dx
dy
= (1)
y = e
u


x u and e
du
dy
u 1
tan

= =

2
1
1
x dx
du
+
= substituting the value of
du
dy
and
dx
du
in (1)

2
tan
2
1 1
1
1
x
e
x
e
dx
dy
x
u
+
=
+
=

3. Find
dx
dy
if ( )
2 2
ln a x x y + + = . We take
2 2
a x x u + + = then ( ) u y ln =
where
u du
dy
x a x u
1
,
2 2
= + + = and
( ) ( ) 1 1 2
2
1
2 2
2
1
2 2
+
+
= + + =

a x
x
x a x
dx
du


2 2
2 2
a x
a x x
+
+ +
= . Hence using chain rule, we get

2 2 2 2
2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2
1 1
.
1
a x a x
a x x
a x x a x
a x x
u dx
dy
+
=
+
+ +
+ +
=
+
+ +
=

4. If
|
|

\
|
+
+
=

1
4
tan
2
2
1
x
x
y , then find
dx
dy
. We take u w and w
x
x
= =
+
+
1
4
2
2
and

( )
1
4
, tan
2
2
1
+
+
= = =

x
x
w and w u u y

,
2
1
2
2
1
,
1
1

=
+
= w
dw
du
u du
dy


( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
2
2
2 2
2
2
2 2 2 2
1
4 2 1 2
1
1 4 1 4
+
+ +
=
+
+ + +
(

+
=
x
x x x x
x
x
dx
d
x x x
dx
d
dx
dw


( )
2
2
1
6
+

=
x
x


( )
2
2
2
1
6
.
2
1
.
1
1
.
+

+
= =
x
x
w u dx
dw
dw
du
du
dy
dx
dy


Putting values of u, w in terms of x, we get

( )
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
6
1
4
2
1
1
4
1
1
+

+
+

+
+
+
=
x
x
x
x
x
x



( )
2
2 2
2
2
2
1
3
4
1
5 2
1
+

+
+
+
+
=
x
x
x
x
x
x


( ) ( )( ) 1 4 5 2
3
2 2 2
+ + +

=
x x x
x


Example 5:

If y = x
4
e
x
lnx using product rule we get

( ) ( ) ( ) x
dx
d
e x e
dx
d
x x x
dx
d
x e
dx
dy
x x x
ln ln ln
4 4 4
+ + =

( )( ) ( )
x
e x e x x x x e
x x x
1
ln 4 ln
4 4 3
+ + =
x x x
e x x e x x e x
3 4 3
ln ln 4 + + =

Example 6:

If
x x
x x
y
cos
sin
3
2
+
+
= , find
dx
dy
. Function is in the form
( )
( ) x v
x u
,

so by quotient rule

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
2
3
3 2 2 3
cos
cos sin sin cos
x x
x x
dx
d
x x x x
dx
d
x x
dx
dy
+
+ + + +
=

( )( ) ( )( )
( )
2
3
2 2 3
cos
sin 3 sin cos 2 cos
x x
x x x x x x x x
+
+ + +
=

( )
2
3
2 2 3 4
cos
1 sin sin 3 cos 2 cos
x x
x x x x x x x x x
+
+ + + +
=

( )
2
3
4 2 3
cos
1 sin 2 cos 2 cos
x x
x x x x x x x
+
+ +
=

Theorem: If f(x) is differentiable at a point x = c, then f(x) is continuous at x = c.

Proof: Since f(x) is differentiable at x = c then

( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
c x
c f x f
Lt
x
c f x c f
Lim c f
c x x

+
=
0
is a finite number.

Consider

( ) ( ) [ ]
( ) ( )
( )
( ) 0 0 = =

=

c f
c x
c x
c f x f
Lim c f x f Lt
c x c x


( ) ( ) c f x f Lt
c x
=

. Hence f(x) is continuous at x = C.

Properties of ( ) x f

The derivative of y = f(x) is the slope of the tangent line to the curve at (x,y). If
( ) x f is positive, then f(x) is an increasing function of x and if ( ) x f is negative,
then f(x) is decreasing function of x. If ( ) 0 > x f on an interval I then the curve y
= f(x) is concave upward on I. If ( ) , 0 < x f on I then curve y = f(x) is concave
downward on I. If f(x) is differentiable at a point then f(x) is continuous at that
point. Converse of this theorem is not true. A continuous function may not be
differentiable. If f(x) is not continuous at x = c then f(x) is not differentiable at x =
c. If ( ) 0 = c f and ( ) , 0 < c f then f(x) has a local maximum at x= c. If ( ) 0 = c f
and ( ) 0 > c f then f(x) has a local minimum at x = c.

Derivative of Implicit Functions . Consider the equation y + sin y = x
2
. We cannot
solve this equation for y and we cannot write as y = f(x). So y is defined as a
function of x implicitly.

Example

Find
dx
dy
, if . 5 2
2 2
xy y x = + y is defined as a function of x. implicitly. Differentiating
both sides of this equation with respect to x.

y
dx
dy
x
dx
dy
y x 5 5 4 2 + = +
or
( ) x y
dx
dy
x y 2 5 5 4 =

x y
x y
dx
dy
5 4
2 5

=

Derivative of functions in parametric forms.

If x = f (t) and y = g(t), then
( )
( ) t g
t f
dt
dx
dt
dy
dx
dy

= = (Provided ( ) 0 t g ).

Example

Find
dx
dy
if x = a (1 cos t) and y = asint. t a
dt
dy
cos = and t a
dt
dx
sin =

. cot
sin
cos
t
t a
t a
dt
dx
dt
dy
dx
dy
= = =

Example of second derivative

If x B x A y 3 sin 3 cos + = prove that 0 9
2
2
= + y
dx
y d


x B x A y 3 sin 3 cos + =

x B x A
dx
dy
3 cos 3 3 sin 3 + = Again differentiating

( ) x B x A x B x A
dx
y d
3 sin 3 cos 9 3 sin 9 3 cos 9
2
2
+ = =

or

0 9 9
2
2
2
2
= + = y
dx
y d
or y
dx
y d


Derivative by Substitution:

Example 1:

If ,
1
1
cos
2
2
1
x
x
y
+

=

find
dx
dy
by simplifying the function.

We take tan = x

( )

2 cos cos
sin cos
sin cos
cos
tan 1
tan 1
cos
1
2 2
2 2
1
2
2
1
= =
|
|

\
|
+

=
|
|

\
|
+

=

z y

( )
2
1
1
2
tan 2
x dx
dy
x
+
=
=











Chapter 4

Integration

4.1 If a function f(x) is the derivative of a function F(x) then F(x) is called an
integral of f(x) with respect to x and write as ( ) ( ) ( )

= x F x F dx x f . is also
called antiderivative of f(x) . If ( ) [ ] ( ) x f x F
dx
d
= , then for any constant C, we
have ( ) [ ] ( ) [ ] ( ) x f
dx
dC
x F
dx
d
C x F
dx
d
= + = +

( ) ( )

+ = C x F dx x f . Then function f(x) is called integrand. The function

F(x) is called particular integral of f(x) w.r.t. x . C is an arbitrary constant
and called the constant of integration.

Example:

+ = =
|
|

\
|
+ C
x
dx x x C
x
dx
d
6 6
6
5 5
6



4.2 Fundamental Integration Formulae.

1. ( )

= = C dx C
dx
d
0 0

2. ( )

+ = = = C x dx dx x
dx
d
1 1

3.

+
= =
|
|

\
|
+
+ +
. 1 ,
1
1 ,
1
1 1
n
n
x
dx x n x
n
x
dx
d
n
n n
n


4.
( )
( )
( )( )
( )
( )
n
n n
b ax
a n
a b ax n
n a
b ax
dx
d
+ =
+
+ +
=
(

+
+
+
1
1
1
1


( )
( )
( )

+
+
+
= +
+
C
n a
b ax
dx b ax
n
n
1
1


5. [ ] [ ]
x
x
dx
d
x
dx
d 1
log log = = if x>0,

( ) [ ] ( )
x x
x
dx
d 1
1
1
log = = = if x < 0

+ = 0 log
1
x C x
x


6. 0 ,
1
log
+
+
=
(

+
b ax
b ax a
b ax
dx
d

+
=
+

a
b ax
b ax
dx
log


7.
x
x x
a
a
a a
a
a
dx
d
= =
(

log
log
log

+ = C
a
a
dx a
x
x
log


8. ( )

+ = = C e dx e e e
dx
d
x x x x


9. [ ]

+ = = C x dx x x x
dx
d
sin cos cos sin

10. ( )

+ = = C x dx x x x
dx
d
cos sin sin cos

11. ( )

+ = = C x xdx x x
dx
d
tan sec sec tan
2 2


12. ( )

+ = = C x x ec x ec x
dx
d
cot cos cos cot
2 2


13. ( )

+ = = C x dx x x x x x
dx
d
sec tan sec tan sec sec

14. ( )

+ = = C ecx xdx ecx x ecx ecx

dx
d
cos cot cos cot cos cos

15. ( ) ( )

+ =

=

C x
x
dx
x
x
dx
d
1
2 2
1
sin
1 1
1
sin .
Similarly

+ |

\
|
=

C
a
x
x a
dx
1
2 2
sin

16. ( )

+ =
+

+
=

C x
x
dx
x
x
dx
d
1
2 2
1
tan
1 1
1
tan .

Similarly

+ |

\
|
=
+

C
a
x
a x a
dx
1
2 2
tan
1


17. ( ) ( )

+ =

=

C x
x x
dx
x x
x
dx
d
1
2 2
1
sec
1 1
1
sec


Some Properties of Integration

1. If f(x) and g(x) are any integrable functions, then
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

= dx x g dx x f dx x g x f similarly if ( ) ( ) ( ) x f x f x f
n
.... , ,
2 1

are any n integrable functions, then

( ) ( ) ( ) [ ]

= dx x f x f x f
n
.....
2 1
( ) ( )

dx x f xdx f dx x f
n
.......
2 1
.

2. ( ) ( )

= dx x f a dx x af

3. If ( ) ( )

+ = C x g dx x f

Then ( )
( )

+
+
= + C
a
b ax g
dx b ax f

Examples

1. 1. ( )
( )

+
+
= + C
x
dx x
7
4 7 sin
4 7 cos

2. 2. ( ) ( )
( )

= C
x
dx x x
6
6 3 sec
6 3 sec 6 3 tan

3. Evaluation of

xdx and xdx
n n
cos sin

1.

+
(

= C
x
x dx
x
xdx
2
2 sin
2
1
2
2 cos 1
sin
2

since x x
2
sin 2 1 2 cos =

2. ( )
(

+
= = dx
x
x xdx
2
2
2 4
2
1 6 cos
3 cos 3 cos

Since 1 cos 2 2 cos
2
=

( )

+ + = dx x x 1 6 cos 2 6 cos
4
1
2


dx x
x
(

+ +
+
= 1 6 cos 2
2
1 12 cos
4
1



+ + = dx dx x x
8
3
6 cos
2
1
12 cos
8
1

C x
x x
+ + + =
8
3
12
6 sin
96
12 sin


3.

|

\
|
= dx x x dx x 3 sin
4
1
sin
4
3
sin
3


Since
3
sin 4 sin 3 3 sin =
( ) C x x C
x
x + + = + |

\
|
= 3 cos
12
1
cos
4
3
3
3 cos
4
1
cos
4
3


4. ( )

|

\
| +
= = dx
x
dx x dx x
3
3
2 6
2
1 2 cos
cos cos

( )

+ + + = dx x x x 1 2 cos 3 2 cos 3 2 cos

8
1
2 3


dx x
x
x x
|
|

\
|
+ + |

\
| +
+ + = 1 2 cos 3
2
4 cos 1
3 2 cos
4
3
6 cos
4
1
8
1


Since x x x cos 3 cos 4 3 cos
3
=

C x
x x x x
+ + + + +

=
16
5
2
2 sin
8
3
4
4 sin
16
3
2
2 sin
32
3
6 32
6 sin


C
x
x x
x
+ + + + =
16
5
2 sin
64
15
4 sin
64
3
192
6 sin


4.5 Evaluation of

nxdx mx dx nx mx cos cos , cos sin and

dx nx mxsin sin

1. ( ) ( ) [ ]

+ + = dx x n m x n m dx nx mx sin sin
2
1
cos sin

( ) ( )
C
n m
x n m
n m
x n m
+
(

+
+
=
cos cos
2
1


2. ( ) ( ) [ ]

+ + = dx x n m x n m dx nx mx cos cos
2
1
cos cos

( ) ( )
C
n m
x n m
n m
x n m
+
(

+
+
+
=
sin sin
2
1


3. ( ) ( ) [ ]

+ = dx x n m dx x n m nxdx mx cos cos
2
1
sin sin

( ) ( )
C
n m
x n m
n m
x n m
+
(

+
+

=
sin sin
2
1


4.

= xdx x dx x x 4 sin 7 cos 2
2
1
7 cos 4 sin

( )

+
(

+ = = C
x x
dx x x
3
3 cos
11
11 cos
2
1
3 sin 11 sin
2
1


5. [ ]

= dx x x x dx x x x 4 cos 3 cos 2 cos 2
2
1
4 cos 3 cos 2 cos

[ ] [ ]

+ = + = dx x x x x dx x x x 4 cos cos 2 4 cos 5 cos 2
4
1
4 cos cos 5 cos
2
1


( ) C x
x x x
dx x x x x +
(

+ + + = + + + =

sin
3
3 sin
5
5 sin
9
9 sin
4
1
3 cos 5 cos cos 9 cos
4
1


6.
( )( )

+ +
=
+
x x
x x x x x x
dx
x x
x x
2 2
2 2 4 4 2 2
2 2
6 6
cos sin
cos sin cos sin cos sin
cos sin
cos sin


( ) ( )
C x x x
dx x ec x dx x x
+ =
+ = + =

3 cot tan
3 cos sec 1 cot tan
2 2 2 2



4.6 Integration by substitutions

1.
( )
( )

dx
x g
x g
we take ( ) ( ) du dx x g u x g = =

( )

+ = + = = C x g C u
u
du
ln ln

2. ( ) [ ] ( )

dx x g x g
n
we take ( ) ( ) du dx x g u x g = =

( ) [ ]
C
n
x g
C
n
u
du u
n n
n
+
+
= +
+
= =

+ +
1 1
1 1



Example 1:

u x Taking dx
x
x
=

sec log
sec log
tan


dx
du
x x
x
= tan sec
sec
1
or tanx dx = du


+ = = C u
u
du
x
dx x
ln
sec log
tan


C x + = sec log ln

Note : ( ) x x log ln =


Example 2:

( )
du
x
dx
u x Taking dx
x
x
=
+

=
+

2
1
2
4
1
1
tan .
1
tan


Given integral

+
|
|

\
|
= + = =

C
x
C
u
du u
5
1 5
4
5
tan
5



Example 3:

( )
( )

+
x
x
xe
dx x e
2
cos
1
Taking u e x
x
=

( ) du dx xe e
x x
= + Given integral

( ) ( )

+ = + = = C xe C u du u
x
tan tan sec
2


Example 4:

( )

+ =

= C x dx
x
x
dx x cos log
cos
sin
tan
C x + = sec log

Example 5:


+ = = C x
x
x
x sin log
sin
cos
cot

Example 6:

( )

+
+
= dx
x x
x x x
dx x
tan sec
tan sec sec
sec

C x x + + = tan sec log since derivative of g(x) = secx + tanx
= secx (secx + tan x)

Similarly

+ = C x ecx dx ecx cot cos log cos

Example 7:

(a)

xdx x
8 3
sin cos 3 is odd convert all the terms in sinx and except one cos x

( ) dx x x x cos sin sin 1
8 2

= let sin x = t cosx dx = dt.

( ) ( )

+ = = = C
t t
dt t t dt t t
11 9
1
11 9
10 8 8 2


( ) C x
x
C x x + = + =
2
9
11 9
sin 9 11
99
sin
sin
11
1
sin
9
1


Note: Consider

xdx x
m n
cos sin where atleast one out of m and n is odd
integer then we use this method.

(b)

= dx x x xdx x sin cos sin cos sin
4 4 4 5


( )
dt dx x
t x
dx x x x
=
=
=

sin
cos
sin cos cos 1
4
2
2


Given integral

( ) ( )
c
x
x
x
c
t t t
dt t t t dt t t
+ + =
+ +

=
+ = =

9
cos
cos
7
2
5
cos
9 7
2
5
2 1
9
7
5
9 7 5
8 6 4 4
2
2


Example 8:

dx
x
e
x
2
sin
1
1


du
x
dx
u x
=

2
1
1
sin

+ = + = =

C e C e du e
x u u
1
sin


Example 9:

Let I=

+
=

+
dx
e e
e e
dx
e
e
x x
x x
x
x
1
1
2
2
Let u e e
x x
=




( ) du dx e e
x x
= +



C e e C u
u
du
I
x x
+ = + = =

ln ln


Example 10:

( )
( )

+
+
dx
b x
a x
cos
sin


x + b = u
dx = du

( )

+
= du
u
b a u
cos
sin


( ) ( )

+
= du
u
b a u b a u
cos
sin cos cos sin

( ) ( )

+ = du b a du u b a sin tan cos
( ) ( ) C u b a u b a + + = sin sec ln cos
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )( ) C b x b a b x b a + + + + = sin sec ln cos

Example 11:

dx
x
x x
2
sec tan


Let u x = tan
( )
du dx
x
x
=
2
sec
2

Given integral

( )

+ = + = = C x C u du u
2 2
tan 2


Example 12:

= =
+
du a dx au x Let
a x
dx
.
2 2



+ =
+
=
+
=

C u
a u
du
a a u a
adu
1
2 2 2 2
tan
1
1
1


C
a
x
a
+ |

\
|
=
1
tan
1


4.7 Integration by Partial Fraction

If the integrand is a rational function of the form ( )
( )
( ) x Q
x P
x f = where P(x) and Q(x)
are polynomials such that degree of P(x) < degree of ( ) x Q . Such a rational
function is called proper rational function. If the degree of P(x) > degree of Q(x)
then by dividing we can write f(x) = a pro polynomial + a proper rational function.

Method of resolving a proper rational function into partial fractions:

We resolve Q(x) into factors. For each linear factor ax+b corresponding term will
be
b ax
A
+
in the partial fractions. If (ax+b)
r
is a factor of Q(x) then corresponding
terms in the partial fractions are
( )
terms r
b ax
B
b ax
A
.....
2
+
+
+
+


If C bx ax + +
2
is a factor of Q(x) then corresponding term is
c bx ax
B Ax
+ +
+
2
If
c bx ax + +
2
is a factor of ( ) x Q of multiplicity r, then corresponding terms are
( )
r
C bx ax
D cx
c bx ax
B Ax
.....
2
2
2
+
+ +
+
+
+ +
+
terms.

We write the function ( )
( )
( ) x Q
x P
x f = as the sum of partial fractions and then find the
constants by equating the coefficient of like terms on both sides or by taking
particular values of x.


Some Standard Forms

1.

+
+

C
a x
a x
a a x
dx
log
2
1
2 2


Let ( ) ( ) a x B a x A or
a x
B
a x
A
a x
+ + =
+
+

1
1
2 2


Taking x = a and x = -a, we get
a
A
2
1
=

a
B B a
2
1
1 2 = =
|

\
|
+

=
a x a x a a x
1 1
2
1 1
2 2



+ =
+

a x
a
a x
a a x
dx
a a x
dx
a a x
log
2
1
log
2
1
2
1
2
1 1
2 2


C
a x
a x
a
+
+

= log
2
1


2.

2 2
1
x a


Let
( )( )
( ) ( )
2 2 2 2
1 1
x a
x a B x a A
x a
B
x a
A
x a x a x a
+ +
=
+
+

=
+
=

( ) ( ) , 1 = + + x a B x a A taking x = a , x = -a

(

+
+

= =
x a x a a x a a
B
a
A
1 1
2
1 1
2
1
,
2
1
2 2


(

+
+

dx
x a
dx
x a a x a
dx 1 1
2
1
2 2


( ) C x a
a
x a
a
+ + + = log
2
1
log
2
1


C
x a
x a
a
+

+
= log
2
1


Examples

1.
( )
( )( )

+
+
2
3 2
1 2
x x
dx x


Let
( )( ) ( )
2 2
3
3 2
3 2
1 2

+
+
=
+
+
x
C
x
B
x
A
x x
x


( ) ( )( ) ( )
( )( )
2
2
3 2
2 3 2 3
+
+ + + +
=
x x
x C x x B x A


( ) ( )( ) ( ) 2 3 2 3 1 2
2
+ + + + = + x C x x B x A x which is an identity, true for all
x. taking x = 3, x = -2 and x = 0 we get 5C = 7, 25A = -3, 9A-6B + 2C=1.

5
14
25
27
1 6 1
5
14
6
25
27
,
5
7
,
25
3
+ = = +

= B or B C A
25
18
=

( )( )
( ) ( )
( )
2 2
3 5
7
3 25
3
2 25
3
3 2
1 2
25
3

+
+

=
+
+
=
x
x x
x x
x
B

( )
( )( )
( )
( )


+

+
+

=
+
+

2 2
3
5
7
3 25
3
2 25
3
3 2
1 2
x
dx
x
dx
x
dx
x x
dx x



( )
( )
C
x
x x +

+ + =
3 5
7
3 log
25
3
2 log
25
3


2.
( )( )

+ +
dx
x x
x
1 1
2


Let
( )( ) 1 1 1 1
2 2
+
+
+
+
=
+ + x
C
x
B Ax
x x
x


( )( ) ( ) 1 1
2
+ + + + = x C x B Ax x equating coefficients of x
2
, x and constant
term on both sides we get A+C = 0 A+B = 1 B+C=0 from first and third
equation we get A-B = 0 or A = B putting in second equation we get
.
2
1
= A

2
1
2
1
= = C and B

Given integral is equal to


+

+
+
+
=
+

+
+
1 2
1
1 2
1
1
2
4
1
1 2
1
1
1
2
1
2 2 2
x
dx
x
dx
x
xdx
x
dx
dx
x
x


( ) C x x x + + + + =

1 log
2
1
tan
2
1
1 log
4
1
1 2


4.8 Evaluation of the integrals of the form

+ + c bx ax
dx
2
we write such
integrals in the form

+
2 2 2 2
c x
dx
or
k x
dx
or in the form

2 2
x a
dx


Example 1:

1.

+ +
=
+ + 9 4 2
1
18 8 2
2 2
x x
dx
x x
dx


( )

+
=
+ +
=
5 2
1
2
2
1
2 2
u
du
s x
dx
where u = x +2

C
x
C
u
+
|
|

\
| +
= +
|
|

\
|
=

5
2
tan
5 2
1
5
tan
5 2
1
1 1


|

\
|
+ =
+

C
a
x
a a x
dx
Since
1
2 2
tan
1


Example 2:

( )


=
+
=
+
2 2 2 2
3 9 2 5 4 u
du
x
dx
x x
dx
where u = x +2

C
x
x
C
u
u
+
+

= +
+

=
5
1
log
6
1
3
3
log
6
1


Note: This integral can be valuated by using partial fractions.

4.9 Evaluation of the integrals of the form
( )

+ +
+
c bx ax
dx e dx
2
we write
( )
2
2
1
K c bx ax
dx
d
K e dx + + + = + then the integral can be evaluated.

Example 1:

Evaluate the integral

( )

+ +
+
4 3
1
2
x x
dx x


Let ( )
2
2
1
4 3 1 K x x
dx
d
K x + + + = +

Or ( )
2
1
3 2 1
1 2 1
= + + = + K K x K x and
2
1
1 3
2 2 1
= = + K K K (by equating coefficients of x and constant on
both sides).

( ) ( )

+ |

\
|
+

+ +
+
=
+ +
+

4
7
2
3
2
1
4 3
3 2
2
1
4 3
1
2 2 2
x
dx
x x
dx x
x x
dx x


C
x
x x +
|
|
|
|

\
|
+
+ + =

2
7
2
3
tan
7
2
2
1
4 3 log
2
1
1 2
(since in the I integral 2x+3 is
the derivative of the denominator.)

C
x
x x +
|
|

\
| +
+ + =

7
3 2
tan
7
1
4 3 log
2
1
1 2


Example 2:

Evaluate

+ + +
+
1 3 3
1 2
2 3
x x x
dx x


Let
( )( ) 1 3 1 1 3 1
1 2
1 3 3
1 2
2 2 2 3
+
+
+
+
=
+ +
+
=
+ + +
+
x
C
x
B Ax
x x
x
x x x
x


or
( )( ) ( ) 1 1 3 1 2
2
+ + + + = + x C x B Ax x . Equating coefficient of x
2
, x and
constant term on both sides, we get

3A+C = 0, A + 3 B = 2 and B + C = 1 B C = 1

10
7
7 10
6 9 3
1 3 0 1 3
=
=
= +
= = +
B
B
B A
B A or B A


10
3
10
7
1
10
1
10
3
10
7
1 3 = = =

= + = C A A

Hence given integral

( )

+
+
+

= dx
x x
dx x
1 3
3
10
1
1
7
10
1
2



+
+
+
+
+
=
1 3
3
10
1
1 20
7
1
2
20
1
2 2
x
dx
x
dx
dx
x
x


( ) ( ) C x x x + + + + + =

1 3 log
10
1
tan
20
7
1 log
20
1
1 2



4.10 Integration by Parts

If u and v are functions of x then the formula for integration by parts is
(

= dx vdx
dx
du
vdx u uvdx , u is called I functions and v is called II function.

Rule 1: If both u and v are integrable functions then take that function as the first
function which can be finished by repeated differentiation.


Rule 2: If the integral contains logarithmic or inverse trigonometric function then
take this logarithmic or inverse trigometric function as the first function and other
function as the II function. If there is no other function then take 1 as the second
function.

Rule 3: If both functions are integrable and none can be finished by repeated
differentiation, then any function can be taken as the I function and other as the II
function. Repeat the rule of integration by parts.

Rule 4: That function is taken as the first function which comes first in the word
ILATE where I = inverse circular function, L = Logarithmic function, A = Algebraic
function, T = Trigonometric function, E = Exponential function.

Example 1:

1. dx x x x x dx x x
II I II I
cos 2 cos sin
2 2

+ =

[ ] C xdx x x x x + + =

sin . 1 sin 2 cos

2

[ ] C x x x x x + + + = cos sin 2 cos
2


2. [ ]

= = dx xe e x e x dx e x e x dx e x
x x x
II
x
I
x
II
x
I
2 3 3
2 3 2 3 3


[ ]

+ = + = dx e xe e x e x dx e x e x e x
x x x x x x x
6 3 6 3
2 3 2 3


c e xe e x e x
x x x x
+ + = 6 6 3
2 3


3. dx
x
x
x
x
dx x x
I II


=

2
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
sin
2
sin (1)
taking d dx x cos , sin = =

( )
(

= = =

2
2 sin
2
1
2 cos 1
2
1
sin
1
2
2
2

d d dx
x
x


[ ] [ ] = =
2 1
1 sin
2
1
cos sin
2
1
x x x from (1)

+ + =

C x x x x
x
x x
2 1 1
2
1
1
4
1
sin
4
1
sin
2
sin


4.

xdx x
I
II
log
3

+ = = C
x
x
x
dx
x
x
x
x
16
log
4
1
.
4
log
4
4 4 4 4



5. Evaluate

bxdx e
ax
sin
Let

+ |

\
|
= = bxdx e
b
a
b
bx
e dx bx e I
ax ax ax
cos
cos
sin

I
b
a
bx e
b
a
b
bx e
bxdx e
b
a
b
bx e
b
a
b
bx e
ax
ax
ax
ax ax
2
2
2
sin
cos
sin
sin cos
+

=
(

or bx e
b
a
bx e
b b
a
I
ax ax
sin cos
1
1
2 2
2
+ =
(

+
or [ ] bx a bx b
b a
e
I
ax
sin cos
2 2
+
+
=

6. ( )

dx x
2
log . we take (log x)
2
, I function and 1 as II function

( ) ( )

= =
II
dx
I
x
x x dx
x
x
x x x
log
2 log
log
2 . log
2 2
we take logx, I function and
1, II function.
( ) ( ) [ ] C x x x x x C dx
x
x x x x x + = +
(

log 2 log
1
. log 2 log
2 2


7.

dx
x
x
2
1
1
2
tan Taking tan = x


( )

= =

=

dx dx dx

2 2 tan tan
tan 1
tan 2
tan
1
2
1


(

+
= =

dx
x
x
x x xdx
2
1 1
1
tan 2 tan 2 (Taking 1 = II function).

( ) C x x x + + =
2 1
1 log tan 2

4.11 Some standard forms

1.

+ |

\
|
=

C
a
x
x a
dx
1
2 2
sin , putting

+ |

\
|
= + = =

=

C
a
x
C d
x a
dx
a x
1
2 2
sin , sin

2. ( )

+ + =

C a x x
a x
dx
2 2
2 2
log

We take tan sec , sec a dx a x = =

( )

+ + = = =

1
2 2
tan sec log sec
tan
tan sec
C d
a
d a
a x
dx

1 tan , sec
2
2
= =
a
x
a
x


( ) C a x x C
a
a x x
C
a
x
a
x
+ + = +
|
|

\
|
+
= +
|
|

\
|
+ =
2 2
1
2 2
1
2
2
log log 1 log

3. ( )

+ + + =
+
C a x x
a x
dx
2 2
2 2
log (By taking tan a x = )

4.

+ + =

C
a
x a
x a
x
dx x a
1
2
2 2 2 2
sin
2 2



We denote the given integral by I and integrate by parts taking
2 2
x a
as the I function as 1 as the II function

( ) ( )

=

dx x x a x x a x I 2
2
1
2
1
2 2 2 2





=

+ = dx
x a
a x a
x a x dx
x a
x
x a x
2 2
2 2 2
2 2
2 2
2
2 2


1
1 2 2 2
sin C
a
x
a I x a x + + =



or C
a
x a
x a
x
I +
|

\
|
+ =
1
2
2 2
sin
2 2


similarly we can derive the following results

5. ( )

+ + = C a x x
a
a x
x
dx a x
2 2
2
2 2 2 2
log
2 2


6. ( )

+ + + + + = + C a x x
a
a x
x
dx a x
2 2
2
2 2 2 2
log
2 2


4.12 Integrals of the form

+ +
+ +
c bx ax or
c bx ax
dx
2
2
can be evaluated by
writing in any one of the above forms.
Example 1:

Evaluate the integral

2
2 1 x x
dx


Given integral
( ) ( )

+
=
+ +
=
2
2
1 2 1 2 2 x
dx
x x
dx

+ |

\
| +
= + |

\
|
=

=

C
x
C
u
u
du
2
1
sin
2
sin
2
1 1
2


Example 2:


+
=
+
16
11
2
5
4
1
11 40 16 2
2
x x
dx
x x
dx



|

\
|

=
|

\
|
|

\
|
+
=
2
2
2 2
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
5
4
1
u
du
x
dx
taking u x = +
4
5


1
2
2
2
3
log
4
1
C u u +
|
|

\
|
|

\
|
+ =

1
2
4
9
4
5
4
5
log
4
1
C x x +
|
|

\
|
|

\
|
+ + + =

1
2
4
9
16
25
2
5
4
5
log
4
1
C
x
x x +
|
|

\
|
+ + + + =

1
2
4
11 40 16 5 4
log
4
1
C
x x x
+
|
|

\
|
+ + +
=

( ) C x x x + + + + = 11 40 16 5 4 log
4
1
2

Example 3

( ) ( )

+ + = + + dx x dx x x
2 2 2
2 5 29 10

( )

= + + = u x du u 5 2
2 2


( ) C u u u
u
+ + + + + = 4 log
2
2
2
2
2
2
2 2


( ) C x x x x x
x
+ + + + + + + +
+
= 29 10 5 log 2 29 10
2
5
2 2


Evaluation of the integrals of the form.

4.13
( )

+ +
+
C bx ax
dx q px
2
and ( ) dx C bx ax q px

+ + +
2
. In this type of the integrals,
we write ( )
2
2
1
K C bx ax
dx
d
k q px + + + = +

Example 1:

( )

+ +
+
5 2
2
2
x x
dx x


( )
2
2
1
5 2 2 k x x
dx
d
k x + + + = +

( )
2 1
2 2 k x k + + =


Equating coefficient of x and constant on both sides, we get

1 ,
2
1
, 2 2 ,
2
1
2 1 2 1 1
= = = + = k k k k k . So the given integral

( )
( )

+ +
+
+ +
+
=
2 2 2
2 1 5 2
2 2
2
1
x
dx
x x
dx x


Putting
I in t x x = + + 5 2
2
integral ( ) dt dx x = + 2 2

Putting x+1 = u in the II integral. Given integral

[ ]

+ + + + =
+
+ = C u u t
u
du
t
dt
4 log
2
2
1
2
2 2


Putting values of t and u

[ ] C x x x x x + + + + + + + + = 5 2 1 log 5 2
2 2


Example 2:

( )

+ dx x x x
2
4 5 3

Let ( )
2
2
1
4 5 3 K x x
dx
d
K x + = +

( )
2 1
2 4 K x K + = , equating coefficient of x and constant term on both
sides

1 3 4 ,
2
1
1 2
2 2 1 1 1
= = + = = K K K K or K

Given integral can be written as

( )

+ dx x x dx x x x
2 2
4 5 4 5 2 4
2
1


In I integral we take 5-4x-x
2
= t.

( ) dx x dt t

+ + =
2
2 9
2
1


In II Integral we take x + 2 = u

+ + =
1
2
2
3
9
2
3
2
1
C du u
t


C
u
u
u
t + + + =

3
sin
2
9
9
2 3
1
1 2
2
3
. Putting values of u and t, we get

( ) ( ) C
x
x
x
x x + |

\
| +
+ + |

\
| +
+ =

3
2
sin
2
9
2 9
2
2
4 5
3
1
1 2
2
3
2


( ) C
x
x x
x
x x + |

\
| +
+
+
+ =

3
2
sin
2
9
4 5
2
2
4 5
3
1
1 2
2
3
2


4.14 Evaluation of the integrals of the form

+ + C x b x a
dx
cos sin
. In such
integrals we take t
x
=
2
tan

1
2
1
2
tan
2
2
sec
2
2
sec
2
1
2
2 2
2
+
=
+
= = =
t
dt
x
dt
x
dt
dx or dt dx
x


1
2
1
2
tan
2
tan 2
2
sec
2
tan 2
2
cos
2
sin 2 sin
2
2 2 +
=
+
= = =
t
t
x
x
x
x
x x
x

2
2
2
2
2 2
1
1
2
tan 1
2
tan 1
2
sin
2
cos cos
t
t
x
x
x x
x
+

=
+

= =


Example

Evaluate the Integral


+

+
+
+
+
=
+ +
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
2 . 2
3
1
2
cos sin 2 3
t
t
t
t
t
dt
x x
dx
(Taking t
x
=
2
tan )


+ +
=
+ + +
=
4 4 2
2
1 4 3 3
2
2 2 2
t t
dt
t t t
dt


( )

+ =
+
=
+ +
=
+ +
=

C u
u
du
t
dt
t t
dt
1
2 2 2
tan
1 1 1 2 2


( ) C
x
C t +
(

+ = + + =

1
2
tan tan 1 tan
1 1


4.15 Evaluation of the integral of the form

+
+
dx
x d x a
x b x a
cos sin
cos sin


Example

Evaluate

+
+
dx
x x
x x
cos 4 sin 3
cos 2 sin 2


We write ( ) ( ) Dr
dx
d
K Dr K x x
2 1
cos 3 sin 2 + = +

( ) ( ) x x K x x K sin 4 cos 3 cos 4 sin 3
2 1
+ + =

( ) ( ) x K K x K K cos 3 4 sin 4 3
2 1 2 1
+ + =

Equating coefficient of sinx and cosx, we get

6 12 9 2 4 3
2 1 2 1
= = K K or K K
12 12 16 3 3 4
2 1 2 1
= + = + K K or K K

Adding we get
25
18
1
= K and putting value of K
1
in I equation, we get

25
1
25
4
4 2 4
25
54
2 2 2
= = = K K or K

So given integral =
( )

+

+ dx
x x
x x
dx
cos 4 sin 3
sin 4 cos 3
25
1
25
18


C x x
x
+ + + = cos 4 sin 2 log
25
1
25
18


4.16 Evaluation of the integrals of the form

+ +
+ +
dx
f x e x d
C x b x a
cos sin
cos sin
we write
( ) ( ) r f x e x d
dx
d
q f x e x d p c x b x a + + + + + + = + + cos sin cos sin cos sin p,q,r
can be evaluated by equating coefficient of sinx, cosx and constant term
on both sides.
Given integral
|
|

\
|
+ +
+ + + + =

f x e x d
dx
r f x e x d q px
cos sin
cos sin log . The
last integral can be evaluated by the method of 4.14.


4.17 Definite Integral

Let f(x) be continuous function on the interval [a,b]. We divide the interval
into n sub-intervals each of length
n
a b
h

=

The definite integral ( )

b
a
dx x f

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) [ ] h n a f h a f h a f a f h Lt
h
1 ..... 2
0
+ + + + + + + =

a is called lower limit and b is called upper limit of the definite integral
( )

b
a
dx x f . The definite integral ( )

b
a
dx x f represents the area under the
curve y = f(x) from x = a to x = b (or the area bounded above by the curve
y = f (x) below by x-axis on left by x =a on right by x = b)


Fundamental Theorem of Calculus : If f(x) is a continuous function on [a,b]
and ( ) ( )

+ = , C x F dx x f then ( ) ( ) ( )

=
b
a
a F b F dx x f

Example

]
2
0
2
0
cos cos sin

+ = xdx x x x x

] [ ] 0 sin 0 cos 0
2
sin
2
cos
2
sin cos
2
0
+
(

+ = + =

x x x

( ) [ ] . 1 0 1 0
2
=
(

+ =



To evaluate ( )

b
a
dx x f if we are taking a substitution x = g(t) then find the
values of t corresponding to x=a and x = b. If t = A and t = B when x = a
and x = b respectively, then

( ) ( ) [ ] ( )

=
b
a
B
A
dt t g t g f dx x f

Example

Evaluate

+
2
0
4
sin 1
cos sin 2

dx
x
x x
we take dt xdx x t x = = cos sin 2 sin
2


When x = 0, t = sin
2
0 = 0 and when 1
2
sin ,
2
2
= = =

t x

The given integral ]

=
+
=
1
0
1
0
1
2
tan
1
t
t
dt


( ) ( )
4
0
4
0 tan 1 tan
1 1

= = =



Properties of definite integrals

1. ( ) ( )

=
b
a
a
b
dx x f dx x f

2. ( ) ( ) ( )

< < + =
b
a
c
a
b
c
b c a dx x f dx x f dx x f .

3. ( ) ( )

+ =
b
a
b
a
dx x b a f dx x f

4. ( ) ( )

=
a a
dx x a f dx x f
0 0


5. ( ) ( ) ( )

+ =
a a a
dx x a f dx x f dx x f
2
0 0 0
2

6. ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )

=
=
=
a
a
x f x a f if
x f x a f if dx x f
dx x f
2
0
0
2 0
2 2


7. ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )

=
=
=
a
a
a
function odd an is f e i x f x f if
function even an is f e i x f x f if dx x f
dx x f
. . 0
. . 2
0


Examples

1. ( )

6 7
2
2 /
6 7
cos sin sin 0 cos sin = =

f ce d is an odd function.

2.

+
=
+
2
0
2
0
cos sin
sin
cot 1

x x
dx x
x
dx
n n
n
n
(where n is any real number)

Let

|

\
|
+
|

\
|

|

\
|

=
+
=
2
0
2
0
2
cos
2
sin
2
sin
cos sin
sin

x x
dx x
x x
xdx
I
n n
n
n n
n
Using property (4) of
definite integral.

I
x x
xdx
n n
n
=
+
=

2
0
sin cos
cos

Adding two values of I.

( )
4
2 sin cos
cos sin
2
2
0
2
0

=
= =
+
+
=

I
dx
x x
dx x x
I
n n
n n

Note: If sinx and cosx are replaced by tanx and cotx or by cosecx and
secx respectively in the integral I, then similarly we can evaluate the
integral.

3. dx
x x
x x x
x x
dx x x x
I

|

\
|
+
|

\
|

|

\
|
|

\
|
|

\
|

=
+
=
2
0
2
0
4 4
4 4
2
sin
2
cos
2
cos
2
sin
2
sin cos
cos sin

=
+
|

\
|

=
2
0
4 4
cos sin
sin cos
2

I
x x
xdx x x


Adding two integrals, we get


+
=
+
=
2
0
2
0
4
2
4 4
tan 1
sec tan
2 sin cos
cos sin
2
2

x
xdx x
x x
xdx x
I

Taking dt dx x x t x = =
2 2
sec tan 2 , tan

[ ]

= =
+
=
0
0
1
2
0
2 4
tan
4 1
2
1
2
2

t
t
dt
I

16
2

= I

4.

|

\
|
+ +
|

\
|
+
|

\
|
+
=
+
=
3
6
3 3
3
3
6
3 3
3
6 3
cos
6 3
sin
6 3
sin
cos sin
sin

x x
dx x
x x
xdx
I

Using property (iii)


=
+
=
|

\
|
+
|

\
|

|

\
|

=
3
6
3
6
3 3
3
3 3
3
sin cos
cos
2
cos
2
sin
2
sin

I
x x
xdx
x x
dx x


Adding given integral and the last integral, we get

12
6 6 3
2
3
6

=
= = =

I
dx I


5.

+
=
+
1
1
1
0
6
2
6
2
1
2
1
dx
x
x
x
dx x
Since the function is an even function. Taking
3
2 3
dt
dx x t x = =

( ) [ ]

=
(

(
=
+
=
1
0
1 1
1
0
1
2
0 tan 1 tan
3
2
tan
3
2
1 3
2
t
t
dt



6
0
4 3
2
=
(

=

Chapter 5

Review of two dimensional Geometry

Let OX X and OY Y be two perpendicular straight lines intersecting at O. The line
OX X is taken horizontal and OY Y is taken vertical. XOX is called x-axis and
Y
1
OY is called y-axis. These lines divide the plane in four parts called the
quadrants as shown in the figure. If (x,y) are coordinates of a point P.

In I quadrant both x and y are +ve and in II quadrant x is ve Y is +ve. In III
quadrant both x and y are ve and in IV quadrant x is positive y is negative.
X O is called ve x-axis and OX is called +ve direction of x-axis.

Similarly OY is +ve direction of Y-axis and Y O is ve direction of y-axis Point
(4,3) is in the I quadrant. To plot this point, we take 4 units along +ve x-axis then
take 3 units parallel to +ve y-axis. The point (-4,3) is in II quadrant. We take 4
units along ve x-axis and 3 units parallel to positive y-axis. We plot the point (-
4,3). Similarly we can plot the point (-4,-3) and (4,-3). On x axis y-coordinate is
zero and on y-axis x-coordinate is zero.

5.1 Important Formulae of Coordinate Geometry.

(i) Distance between two points P(x
1
, y
1
) and ( )
2 2
, y x Q is
( ) ( )
2
1 2
2
1 2
y y x x PQ + =

(ii) The coordinates of a point dividing the line segment joining the points
) , (
1 1
y x and ( )
2 2
, y x internally, in the ratio m:n are

|

\
|
+
+
+
+
n m
ny my
n m
nx mx
1 2 1 2
,

(iii) The coordinates of the mid-point of the line segment joining ) , (
1 1
y x and
( )
2 2
, y x are |

\
| + +
2
,
2
2 1 2 1
y y x x


(iv) Slope of a st line is denoted by m and defined as tan = m where is
the angle between +ve direction of x-axis and the st. line

(v) Slope of a st. line which passes through two points ( )
1 1
, y x and ( )
2 2
, y x
is
1 2
1 2
x x
y y

.
(vi) The angle between two lines with slopes m
1
and m
2
is given by
2 1
1 2
1
tan
m m
m m
+

=

(vii) Two lines are parallel if m
1
=m
2
and lines are perpendicular if m
1
m
2
= -1.

(viii) Equation of a st. line

(a) passing through the point (
1 1
, y x ) with slope m is
( )
1 1
x x m y y = .

(b) Passing through two points (x
1
, y
1
) and (x
2
,y
2
) is
( )
1
1 2
1 2
1
x x
x x
y y
y y

=

(c) With slope m and having intercept c on y-axis is y=mx+c. (meets
y axis at(0,c))

(d) Having intercepts a and b on x-axis and y-axis respectively is
. 1 = +
b
y
a
x


(e) Whose perpendicular from origin has length p and makes angle
with +ve direction of x-axis is p y x = + sin cos

(f) Any linear equation ax+by + c = represents a st. line if atleast one
of a and b different from zero.

(ix) Distance of a point P (x
1
, y
1
) from the st. line
2 2
1 1
0
b a
c by ax
is c by ax
+
+ +
= + +

Definition:

A circle is the locus of a point which moves in a plane in such a way that its
distance from a fixed point is constant. The fixed point is called the center and
the constant distance is called radius of the circle.

1. Equation of the circle with radius r centred at (x
0
, y
0
) is
( ) ( )
2 2
0
2
0
r y y x x = + and x
2
+y
2
= r
2
is the equation of the circle
whose centre is at the origin.
2. Any equation of second degree of the form x
2
+ y
2
+ 2 f x + 2 fy + c
=0 represents, a circle if . 0
2 2
+ c f g This equation we can write
as ( ) ( ) c f g f y g x + = + + +
2 2 2 2
so it represent a circle with
radius c f g +
2 2
and center at (-g,-f)

Example:

Find center and radius of the circle x
2
+y
2
2x 6y 6 = 0. We can
write as (x
2
-2x+1) + (y
2
6y + 9) = 6 + 1 + 9 or (x-1)
2
+ (y-3)
2
= 4
2
.
Centre is (1,3) and radius is 4.

Curve Sketching:

An equation of the F(x,y) = C or y = f(x) or x = g(y) represents a curve in the xy-
plane. We draw the graph of this curve using some properties of the graph.

1. Symmetry (a) The curve will be symmetrical about x-axis if the equation
doesnt change by taking-y for y. For example y
2
= 4ax is symmetrical
about x-axis. If all the powers of y in the equation are even then the curve
will be symmetrical about x-axis.
2. The curve will be symmetrical about y-axis if the equation does not
change by taking -x for x in the equation. x
2
= 8y is symmetrical about y-
axis.
3. The curve will be symmetrical in opposite quadrants if the equation does
not change by taking x for x and y for y. The curve xy=4 is symmetrical
in opposite quadrants.

5.2. Intercepts on the axes:

We find the points where the curve meets the axes. To find the points on x-axis
we take y = 0 in the equation then solve.

For example y
2
= x (x-1) (x-2) meets the x-axis at the points (0,0) (1,0) and (2,0)

Similarly to find the points where the curve meets to y-axis. We put x = 0 in the
equation then we solve the equation for y. If (0,0) satisfies the equation of the
curve then the curve passes through the origin.

Region: We find the value of x and y for which both x and y are real. For example
consider the curve y
2
= x-4 if 4 x then y will be real.

Asymptotes: If the distance between the graph of a function and some fixed line
approaches zero as the distance of the point (x,y) on the curve from origin tends
to , then the line is called an asymptote to the curve. If we write
( )
( ) x f
x f
y
2
1
= then
we shall get vertical asymptotes by solving f
2
(x) = 0. If we write
( )
( ) y g
y g
x
2
1
= then
we shall get horizontal asymptotes by solving g
2
(y) = 0 .

Example : Find all asymptotes of the curve 0 4 .
4
1
2
2
=

= x
x
y or 2 = x are
vertical asymptotes. As . , 2 y x Solving for x, we get
( ) axis x y so
y
y
x =
+
= 0 ,
4 1
2
is horizontal asymptote.

Regions of rising and region of falling

The curve y = f(x) is rising (f is increasing) if ( ) 0 > x f and the curve is falling (f is
decreasing) if ( ) . 0 < x f To draw the graph the regions of rising and falling should
be known.

Extreme Values : These points are very useful for curve sketching. At these
points curve changes from rising to falling or falling to rising. f(x) has local
maximum if ( ) ( ) 0 , 0 < = x f x f , has local minimum if ( ) 0 0 = f and ( ) 0 > x f .

Concavity of the curve : The curve will be concave upward if ( ) 0 > x f and
concave downward if ( ) 0 < x f
Point of inflexion: Point of inflexion is that point on the curve where the curve
changes its concavity.

Some additional Points: To draw the graph some additional points on the curve
are also found.

5.3 Parabola

A parabola is the locus of a point which moves in a plane in such a way that its
distance from a fixed point is equal to its distance from a fixed line. The fixed
point is called focus and fixed line is called directrix of the parabola.

(a) y
2
= 4px, p>0 is the parabola whose focus is the point (p,0) and directrix is
the line x = - p
(i) The curve is symmetrical about x-axis
(ii) The curve passes through the origin
(iii) y is real when 0 x
(iv) We consider following points to draw the graph

x 0 p 2p 4p 25p
y 0 p 2
p 2 2
p 4 p 10

So the graph is shown as the following figure (0,0) is
called the vertex of the parabola.


Let p (x,y) be any point on the parabola then using
PF=PD we get (x-p)
2
or (p
2
)+y
2
= =(x+p)
2
or y
2
= 4
px. So we can derive the equations of the parabola
by using definition.
(b) px y 4
2
= is the parabola whose directrix is the
line x = p and focus is at (-p,0). This parabola is
also symmetrical about x-axis. Vertex is at (0,0). y is
real when x<0 so the graph is as in the following
figure.


(c) x
2
= 4 py is the parabola whose vertex is
(0,0) focus is at (0,p) and directrix is the line
y = -p.

(i) Curve is symmetrical about y-axis since power of x is even so by
taking x for x equation does not change.
(ii) x is real when 0 y . So no curve when y<0.
(iii) 0
2
> =
p
x
dx
dy
when x>0 and 0 <
dx
dy
when x<0. The curve is falling when
x<0 and the curve is rising when x>0.
(iv) 0
2
1
2
2
> =
p dx
y d
for all x. So concavity of the curve is upward.

We consider the some points on the curve to plot the graph.

y 0 p 4p 25p
x 0 p 2 p 4 p 10

So the graph is as given in the following figure.


(d) x
2
=-4py is the parabola whose focus is
at (0,-p) and directrix x is the line y=p. Vertex
is at (0,0) . x is real when 0 y symmetrical
about y-axis. The curve is given in the
adjoining figure.

Shifting the origin: If the origin is shifted at
the point (h,k). Call this point 0 (new origin).
We take new axes as the lines through 0
parallel to x-axis and y-axis call them X-axis
and Y-axis. Let (x,y) be the coordinates of a point P with respect to 0 (actual
origin) and let (X,Y) be the coordinates of this point with respect to new origin 0 .

The relations between new coordinates and actual coordinates are given by the
following equations



x = X + h or X = x-h
y = Y+k or Y = y-k

Parabola whose vertex is at (h,k)

We write the equation of four pabalolas and sketch their graphs. We take first
( ) k h, 0 as the origin

(e) Y
2
= 4pX is the equation of the parabola whose focus is at (p,0) with respect
to 0! and directrix is the line X = -p . The equation of the parabola with respect to
actual origin is (y-k)
2
= 4p(x-h) and focus is (p+h,k) and directrix is x-h=-p or x =
h-p.

x
X
y Y
O (2,4)
O
The graph is given in the following figure.














Equations of parabolas in other cases are

(f) ( ) ( ) h x p k y = 4
2

(g) ( ) ( ) k y p h x = 4
2

(h) ( ) ( ) k y p h x = 4
2


Their graphs are given below.







If an equation is quadratic in one variable and linear in other variable, then it
represents a parabola.

Example Sketch the parabola x
2
-4x-4y+20=0

We can write this equation as (x
2
-4x+4) = 4y-16 or (x-2)
2
=
4(y-4) shifting the origin at (2,4), equation becomes (w.r.t
to new origin) X
2
= 4Y. Graph is shown in adjoining figure.



x
X
y Y
O

O
x
X
y Y
O
O
x
X
y Y
O
O
x
X
y Y
O
O

Example 2: y
2
+4x-6y+17=0 or y
2
-
6y+9=-4x-8 or (y-3)
2
= -4(x+2) shifting
the origin at (-2,3), we get Y
2
= -4X.
The graph is shown in given figure
since . 0 X vertex is at X = 0, Y = 0
so x+2=0, y-3=0 or x = -2, y = 3. Focus
is X = -1, Y = 0 or x+2 = -1, y - 3 = 0 or
x = -3, y = 3. Directrix is the line X = p =
1 or x + 2 = 1 or x = -1. The graph is
shown in the adjoining figure.


5.4 Conics

Parabolas, elipses and hyperbolas are called conics since these curves are
sections of cones. A conic is the locus of a point which moves in a plane so that
its distance from a fixed point is in a constant ratio to its distance from a fixed st.
line. The fixed point is called a focus, the fixed line is called a directrix, and the
constant ratio is called the eccentricity of the conic. The eccentricity is denoted
by e. If e = 1, the conic is called a parabola, if e<1, the conic is called an ellipse,
if e>1 then the conic is called a hyperbola.

5.5 Ellipse

An ellipse has two foci and two directrices. Using definition of the ellipse we can
write its equation as 1
2
2
2
2
= +
b
y
a
x
where ( )
2 2 2
1 e a b = .whose center is (0,0) and
foci are ( ) 0 , ae and directrices are a
e
a
x . = is called semi-major axis and b is
called semi- minor axis (a
2
>b
2
). If P(x,y) is any point on the ellipse. Using PF=e
PD, where F is (ae,0) and PD is perpendicular to the directrix x = a/e, we get the
equation of the ellipse.

Tracing of the ellipse 1
2
2
2
2
= +
b
y
a
x
. It is symmetrical about both axes. If x>a or x<-
a, y is not real. The curve lies between the lines x = -a and x =a. Similarly if y>b
x
X
y Y
O
O
(-2,3)
or y < -b, x is not real. So curve lies between the lines y = - b and y = b. We
consider some points on the ellipse. If
. 0 , ,
4
7
,
4
3
,
2
,
2
, , 0 = = = = = = = = y a x b y a x
b
y
a
x b y x so we can
draw the graph of the ellipse.




If the larger number a
2
is below y
2

and smaller b
2
is below x
2
then
major axis will be along y axis
and foci will be on y-axis and
directrices will be perpendicular
to y-axis. So faci are ( ) ae , 0 and
directrices are
e
a
y = . The
graph of the ellipe ( )
2 2
2
2
2
2
1 b a
a
y
b
x
> = + is given in the
adjoining figure.

Graphs of 1
4 9
2 2
= +
y x
and 1
9 4
2 2
= +
y x
are as given
below.



If the center of the ellipe is at (h,k) then the equation of the ellipse can be written
as

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
. 1 1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
=

a
k y
b
h x
or
b
k y
a
h x

e
a
y =
e
a
y =

Graphs of these ellipse are shown as above.

Example 1: Draw the graph of ellipse x
2
+ 2y
2
2x 8y - 7 = 0. We can write the
equation as (x
2
-2x+1) + 2 (y
2
-4y+4) = 7+ 1 + 8 or (x-1)
2
+ 2 (y-2)
2
= 16 or
( ) ( )
1
8
2
16
1
2 2
=

+
y x
. Shifting the origin at
(1,2) .Equation become . 1
8 16
2 2
= +
Y X
The
graph is as in the adjoining figure.








5.6 Hyperbola

Hyperbola is a conic for which e>1. A hyperbola has two foci and two directrices.
Let F(ae,0) be a focus and corresponding directrix be x = a/e. Let P (x,y) be any
point on the hyperbola then by definition of the hyprebola.

PF = e PD (perpendicular distance from focus to the directrix)

x
X
y Y
O
O
x
X
y Y
O
O
x
X
y Y
O
O
Or ( ) |

\
|
= +
e
a
x e y ae x
2 2


Or x
2
+ a
2
e
2
- 2xae + y
2
= e
2
x
2
-2aex+a
2


Or (e
2
-1) x
2
-y
2
= a
2
(e
2
-1)

Or
( )
1
1
2 2
2
2
2
=

e a
y
a
x


Or 1
2
2
2
2
=
b
y
a
x
where ( ) 1
2 2 2
= e a b

Note: We can drive the equation of the hyperbola by taking second focus (-ae,0)
and the corresponding directrix x = -a/e and using PF = ePD.

Tracing of the hyperbola 1
2
2
2
2
=
b
y
a
x


The curve meets x-axis at (a,0) and at (-a,0) and does not meet y-axis the curve
is symmetrical about both axes.
We can write the equation as 1
2
2
2
2
=
a
x
b
y
if a<x<a, y is not real so no curve
when a<x<a. We consider some points on the curve.

x a 3a/2 3a 10a
y 0
b
2
5

b 2 2 b 99


We draw right branch of the hyperbola by considering these points. Using
symmetry we draw left branch of the hyperbola. The points (a,0) and (-a,0) are
called vertices of the hyperbola. Two foci are ( ) 0 , ae and directrices are
e
a
x = .
x-axis on which faci of the hyperbola lie is the axis of the hyperbola. Asymptotes
are 0 =
b
y
a
x
. The graph is given below.




1
2
2
2
2
=
b
x
a
y
is the hyperbola whose focis lie on y-axis and
whose graph is given in the adjoining figure.


y-axis is the axis of the hyperbola. Foci are ( ) ae , 0 and
directrices are
e
a
y = , vertices are at (0,a) and (0,-a).
Graphs of 1
6 4
2 2
=
y x
and 1
4 6
2 2
=
x y
are as shown in the following figure.




If the center of the hyperbola is at (h,k).

Equations of the hyperbolas are 1
2
2
2
2
=
b
Y
a
X
and 1
2
2
2
2
=
b
X
a
Y
with respect to the
new origin. First equation is the hyperbola whose axis is X-axis and second
equation is the hyperbola whose axis is Y-axis.

These equations w.r. to actual origin becomes

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
=

b
h x
a
k y
and
b
k y
a
h x


The graphs are as given below



Example 1: Trace the hyperbola 16x
2
9y
2
= 144 and find its foci and directrices.
The equation can be written as

( ) 1 16 , 9 . 1
16 9
2 2 2 2 2
2 2
= = = = e a b b a
y x
or

3
5
,
9
25
9
16
1
2
= = + = e e

5
9
3
5
3
, 5
3
5 . 3
= = = =
e
a
ae . So
faci are ( ) 0 , 5 and directrices
are .
5
9
= x The graph is as
given by the adjoining figure.

X
x
Y
y
o
o
o
o
X
x
y Y
Note : For the hyperbola 1
9 16
2 2
=
x y
graphs is as shown in
the adjoining figure.

Example 2: Sketch the hyperbola

3x
2
-y
2
18x + 4y 25 = 0. We can write the equation as 3(x
2
6x + 9) (y
2
4y
+ 4) = 25 + 27 4 or 3 (x-3)
2
(y-2)
2
= 48 or
( ) ( )
1
48
2
16
3
2 2
=

y x


or shifting the origin at (3,2), the equation becomes

1
48 16
2 2
=
Y X



The graphs is shown in the adjoining
figure a
2
= b
2
(e
2
-1) or 16 = 48 (e
2
-1) or
3
2
3
4
2
= = e e

3
8
3
2 . 4
= = ae

Foci are 0 ,
3
8
= = Y X

Or 0 2 ,
3
8
3 = = y x
coordinates of foci are
|
|

\
|
2 ,
3
8
3 center is 0(3,2)
and vertices are 0 , 4 = = Y X or
( ) ( ) 2 , 1 , 2 , 7 0 2 , 4 3 = = or y x are the vertices.
Directrices are 3 2 3 3 2 = = = x or
e
a
X
Note : Graph of
( ) ( )
1
48
3
16
2
2 2
=

x y
is as given in the adjoining figure.



Axis of the hyperbola is Y axis or X = 0 or x 3 = 0 or x = 3. Centre is (3,2).
Vertices are (3,6), (3,-2).

5.7 Sketching of the Curves

Example 1 : Sketch the curve
x
x
y

=
2
2

(i) The curve passes through the origin
(ii) Extent : when x<0, y is not real so when x > 2, y is not real. So no
curve when x<0 or x>2.
(iii) Symmetry: If we take y = -y in the equation, then the equation doesnot
change. Hence the curve is symmetrical about x-axis.
(iv) The st. line x = 2 is an asymptate to the curve since as x 2, then
y .
(v) We consider some points on the curve and draw the graph.

x 0
2
1

1
2
3

1.99 2
y 0
3
1

1
3 199










Example 2: Sketch the curve
( )
2
2
2
16
2
x
x x
y

=
(1) Curve is symmetrical about x-axis.
(2) y is not real when 4<x<0 or x > 4 so no curve when 4<x<0 or x
>4.
(3) Curve meets x-axis when x = 0 or x = 2.
(4) When x 4 and x -4 then y . So 4 = x are asyplotes
(5) We consider some points on the curve to draw the graph.

x 0 1 2 3 4 4 - -5 -10 -20
y 0
15
1

0
7
3

3
5 7

42
5
12

6
5
2
11

The graph is as given below



Example 3 Sketch the graph of y = x
3
3x
2
45x + 47

1. Curve is not symmetric in any way.
2. ( ) ( )( ) ( ) 1 6 6 6 , 3 5 3 15 2 3 45 6 3
2
2
2 2
= = + = = = x x
dx
y d
x x x x x x
dx
dy

3. Intervals of rising and falling: 0 >
dx
dy
when x<-3 or x>5. The curve
rises (f(x) increases) when x<-3 or x>5. The curve falls (f(x)
decreases) when 3 < x < 5 since 0 <
dx
dy
when 3<x<5. Curve has
local maximum at x = -3 and local minimum at x = 5.
4. Concavity
2
2
dx
y d
< 0 when x < 1 and
2
2
dx
y d
>0 when x > 1. So curve is
concave upward when x > 1 and concave downward when x < 1. At
x = 1, the curve has point of inflection where curve changes its
concavity.

5. The curve has no asymptotes. We consider some points to draw
the graph.


x y
dx
dy

2
2
dx
y d

Conclusions

X<-3 +ve -ve Rising concave down
-3 128 0 -ve Concave down local max
0 47 -ve -ve Falling concave down
1 0 -ve 0 Point of inflection
5 -128 0 +ve Concave up local minimum
6 -115 +ve +ve Rising, concave up
10 297 + +ve

The graph is shown in the following figure



5.8 Polar Coordinates

We fix an origin 0 and initial ray OX (positive x-axis). Then each point P in the
plane can be located by assigning to it polar coordinates ( ) , r where r is the
directed distance from 0 to P and is the directed angle from initial ray OX to
OP. is positive when measured counter-clockwise and negative when
measured clockwise. The angle associated with given point is not unique. The
point P, 4 units from the origin on the ray
4

= has polar coordinates

|

\
|
4
, 4

. It
has also polar coordinates
|

\
|
|

\
|
+ |

\
|
4
5
, 4
4
2 , 4
4
7
, 4

or or , set of all polar

coordinates is given by } . ..... 2 , 1 , 0 ,
4
3
2 , 4
4
2 , 4 = |

\
|
+ |

\
|
+ n n n

Relations between polar coordinates and Cartesian coordinates : Let (x,y) and
( ) , r be Cartesian and polar
coordinates of a point P respectively.
Then
r
y
r
x
= = sin , cos

sin , cos r y r x = =
|

\
|
= + =

x
y
y x r
1 2 2 2
tan ,

Using these relations we can change
any equation in polar coordinates into
Cartesian coordinates and any equation in Cartesian coordinates in polar
coordinates.

Equation of a line in polar coordinates:

Let ( )
0 0
, p P be the foot of perpendicular from
origin to a line L and let ( ) , r P be any point on
the line L. Then from the right triangle
( ) ( ) p r or
r
p
P OP = =
0 0 0
cos cos ,

Which is the equation of the line L. If
p r = = cos , 0
0
or x = p. if
2

= we get p y or p r = = sin

Equation of a circle Whose center is the point
( )
0 0
, r and radius is a.

Let ( ) , r P be any point on the circle.

Applying the laws of cosines to triangle OP
0
P, we get

( )
0 0
2
0
2 2
cos 2 + = rr r r a (1)

If the circle passes through the origin, then r
0
= a, then equation (1) becomes

( )
0
cos 2 = a r (2)

If the center lies on x-axis then = 0
0
and equation becomes

cos 2a r =

Which we can also obtain from Cartesian equation (x-a)
2
+ y
2
= a
2
or x
2
+ y
2

2ax =0 by putting . sin , cos r y r x = =

If the center lies on y-axis, then
2
0

= and equation (2) becomes

|

\
|
=
2
cos 2

a r or
|

\
|
=

2
cos 2a r or sin 2a r = . Which can be obtained from
the Cartesian equation x
2
+ (y-a)
2
= a
2
or x
2
+ y
2
2ay= 0 by taking
sin , cos r y r x = = . If center is at the origin and radius is a then the equation of
the circle is r = a.

Equation of a conic in polar coordinates. Equation of a conic whose one focus is
at the origin and corresponding directrix is the line x = K. Let ( ) , r P be any point
on the conic.



PD = MN = ON- OM = K- cos r .

Using focus-directrix equation
( ) cos r K e r or PD e PF = =

Or
cos 1 e
eK
r
+
=
M N
The equation represents a parabola if e = 1. an ellipse if e<1, a hyperbola if e>1.

Equation of the conic whose one focus is at the origin and whose corresponding
directrix is x = -K is given by
cos 1 e
eK
r

=
If the directrix is the line y = K and corresponding focus is at the origin, then the
equation of the conic is
sin 1 e
eK
r
+
= and if the directrix is the line y=-K and
corresponding focus is at the origin, then equation of the conic is
sin 1 e
eK
r

=

Exercise 5.1 : Sketch the following curves

(a) 4
4
cos = |

\
|

r

(b) 5
3
sin = |

\
|
+

r

(c) cos 8 = r

(d) sin 6 = r

(e)
cos 2
8
+
= r

(f)
sin 1
4

= r

(g) r = 6

(a) Comparing with ( ) p r =
0
cos we recognize that given equation
represents a st.line. The foot of perpendicular from origin to the line is
|

\
|
4
, 4


(b) Given equation we can write as 5
3 2
cos =
(

\
|
+

r 5
6
cos = |

\
|

r or
5
6
cos = |

\
|

r which is a line. Foot of perpendicular from the origin to the

line is
|

\
|
6
, 5


(c) cos 8 = r is the equation of the circle with radius 4 whose center lies on x-
axis and which passes through the origin.
(d) sin 6 = r is the equation of the circle whose radius 3, center lies on y-axis
and which passes through the origin.
(e)

cos
2
1
1
4
cos 2
8
+
=
+
= r comparing this equation with
cos 1 e
eK
r
+
= , we
get 8 4 ,
2
1
= = = K eK e . So given equation represents the ellipse whose
one focus is at the origin and corresponding directrix is the line x = 8. So
graph is as given below. Distance between focus and corresponding
directrix 8
1
8 = |

\
|
= = e
e
a or ae
e
a
or 8
2
1
2 = |

\
|
a
3
16
= a
3
16
2
1
.
3
16
. 2 2 = = ae , distance beaten two foci
Polar coordinates of second focus are
|

\
|
,
3
16
. Center is mid point of the
two foci center is
|

\
|
,
3
8
. Distance between F
1
=0 and second directrix
3
40
2
1
2
3
16
= |

\
|
+ = + = ae
e
a
second directrix is
3
40
= x .

(f)
sin 1
4

= r comparing with 4 , 1 ,
sin 1
= =

= K e
e
eK
r

. So given equation
represents a parabola whose focus is at the origin and directrix is the line
y = -4. Axis of the parabola is y axis. Vertex is
|

\
|
2
, 2

or Cartesian
coordinates are (0, -2)
F1=0
X=8
(g) r = 6 is the equation of the circle whose center is at the origin and whose
radius is 6. If we put sin , cos r y r x = = in 36
2 2
= + y x . We get
6 36 36 sin cos
2 2 2 2 2
= = = + r or r or r r

5.9 Curve Tracing in Polar Coordinates

To draw the graph of ( ) f r = we consider some points on the curve and values
of for which the curve passes through the pole (origin). We find symmetry and
slope of the curve and maximum and minimum values of r.

Symmetry

The curve will be symmetrical

(a) about x-axis if the equation doesnot change by taking = or by taking
= = , r r
(b) About y-axis if the equation doesnot change by taking = or by
taking = = , r r
(c) About the origin if the equation does not change by taking r r = or by
taking + = .

Example

Sketch the curve ( ) cos 1 = a r , where a> 0. The curve is symmetrical about x-
axis.

0 sin > =

a
d
dr
if r . 0 < < increases as varies from to 0

We consider some points on the curve and then draw the graph.

0
6

3
2


r 0
|
|

\
|

2
3
1 a
2
a

a
2
3a

2a






Considering these points we draw the portion of the curve which lies above x-
axis. Using symmetry about x-axis. We draw portion of the curve which lies
below x-axis. The curve is called cardioid. Similarly ( ) cos 1+ = a r is also cardioid
which passes through origin when = and r = 2a (maximum) when = 0. So
graph of this curve is given in the adjoining figure.




( ) sin 1 = a r and ( ) sin 1+ = a r are also cardioids symmetrical about y-axis
since taking = equation doesnot change. We consider some points on the
curve ( ) sin 1 = a r


2

4
3


6
7

2
3

r 0
|

\
|

2
1
1 a
a
2
3a

2a

The graph is given below. We draw the graph of the portion which lies in II and III
quadrant using these points. Then using symmetry, we complete the graph.

The graph of the curve ( ) sin 1+ = a r can be drawn similarly. For this r = 0 when
2
2
2 2
3

= = |

\
|
= = when a r and or

Example 2: 0 , 2 cos 4
2 2
> = a a r is a constant.

Curve is symmetrical about x-axis since equation doesnot change by taking
= . It is also symmetrical about the origin since equation does not change by
taking r = -r. when

2 ,
2 4
< varies from

to
2
so 2 cos is ve r is not
real. So no curve when
2 4

< . We consider some points on the curve. We

shall consider only +ve values of r and then we use symmetry.

0
12

r 2a
3 2 a
2 a
0


We get half loop in the I quadrant we complete the loop by
using the symmetry about x-axis. Then using symmetry in
opposite quadrants we complete the graph. The curve is
called lemmiscate.

2 sin 4
2 2
a r = is also called lemmiscate. This curve is symmetrical about the
origin. When ve r = <
2
,
2

so no curve when

< <
2
. We consider
some points and we take +ve values of r and then use symmetry.

0
12

12
5

2

r 0
2 a
2 2 a
2a
3 2 a
2 a
0

Using these points we get a loop in I quadrant. Using symmetry we complete the
graph.

Example 3: 2 sin a r = taking = = , r r . The equation does not change. So
the curve is symmetrical about y-axis. If we take + = , equation does not
change so it is symmetrical about the origin. We consider some point on the
curve.

0
12

12
5

2

r 0
2
a

2
3a

a
2
3a

2
a

0

Considering these points we get a loop in I quadrant using symmetry we
complete the graph. Graph contains four loops of equal size.



5.11 Three Dimensional coordinate geometry

To plot a point in space we take three mutually perpendicular lines.
OY Y OX X , and OZ Z called x-axis, y axis and z-axis respectively. Let (x,y,z) be
the coordinates of a point p in space then z is perpendicular distance PM from P
to XY-plane. Draw perpendicular MN from M to x-axis. So PM is z, MN is y and
ON is x. The plane containing x-axis and y-axis is called xy-plane. The plane
containing y axis and z-axis is called yz-plane and the plane containing x-axis
and z-axis is called xz plane. These three planes divide the three-dimensional
space into eight octants.

Distance between two points. : Let P
1
(x
1
, y
1
, z
1
) and P
2
(x
2
, y
2
, z
2
) be any two
points. The distance
2 1
P P between P
1
and P
2
is given by

( ) ( ) ( )
2
1 2
2
1 2
2
1 2 2 1
z z y y x x P P + + =

The distance OP from origin 0 to P(x,y,z) is given by

2 2 2
z y x OP + + =


Sphere

A sphere is the locus of a point P which moves in the space in such a way so that
its distance from a fixed point is constant. The fixed point is called the centre of
the sphere and the constant distance is called the radius of the sphere.

Equation of a sphere

Let P
0
(x
0
, y
0
, z
0
) be the centre and a be the radius of the sphere and let P(x,y,z)
be any point on the sphere then P
0
P = a or ( ) ( ) ( ) a z z y y x x = + +
2
0
2
0
2
0

squiring on both sides, we get the equation of the sphere whose centre is (x
0
, y
0
,
z
0
) and whose radius is a. So required equation is (x-x
0
)
2
+ (y-y
0
)
2
+ (z-z
0
)
2
= a
2
.
If the centre is at (0,0,0), then its equation becomes x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
=a
2
. Section of
the sphere by the plane z = 0 is the circle x
2
+ y
2
=a
2
. Any equation of the from x
2

+ y
2
+ z
2
+ 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0 can be written as (x+u)
2
+ (y + v)
2
+ (z + w)
2
=
u
2
+ v
2
+ w
2
-d. So this equation represents a sphere with centre (-u, -v, -w) and
with radius d w v u + +
2 2 2
, provided u
2
+ v
2
+ w
2
-d > 0

Ellipsoid. The surface 1
2
2
2
2
2
2
= + +
c
z
b
y
a
x
is called ellipsoid. It meets the coordinate
axes at ( ) ( ) 0 , , 0 , 0 , 0 , b a and at ( ) c , 0 , 0 respectively. It lies within the rectangular
box defined by c z b y a x , , . If . a x > say x = 2a then from the equation
of the ellipsoid, we get 3
2
2
2
2
= +
b
z
b
y
which is not possible since r.h. side cannot
be negative.

So there is no surface when a x so a x > . . Similarly c z b y , . If
2
c
z = , then
we get the ellipse . 1
4
3
4
3
2
2
2
2
= +
b
y
a
x
Hence sections by the planes ( ) c d d z < = are
ellipses. Similarly sections by the planes x = d (|d| < a) and the planes y = d (|d|
<b) are ellipses. The shape of an ellipsoid is like an egg. The sections by the
coordinate planes are ellipses for example section by z = 0 (xy-plane) is the
ellipse . 1
2
2
2
2
= +
b
y
a
x


Cylinders

An equation in any two of the three variables x,y,z defines a cylinder parallel to
the axis of third variable. Any curve f(x,y) = C in the xy-plane defines a cylinder
parallel to the z-axis whose equation is also f(x,y) = C. Similarly f(y,z) = C is a
cylinder parallel to x-axis which intersects the curve f(y,z) = C in the yz-planes.

Example 1

x
2
+ y
2
= a
2
is a circle in xy plane. In three dimension x
2
+ y
2
= a
2
represents the
cylinder parallel to z-axis which passes through the circle x
2
+ y
2
= a
2
. The
cylinder is symmetrical about z-axis so z-axis is the axis of the cylinder. Sections
by any plane perpendicular to z-axis (z = k) is the circle x
2
+ y
2
= a
2
. If we use
polar coordinates then the circle x
2
+ y
2
= a
2
becomes r = a. So equation of
cylinder is also r = a parallel to z-axis through the circle r = a shown in the
adjoining figure. Similarly y
2
+ z
2
= a
2
also represents the cylinder parallel to x-
axis (x-axis is the axis of the cylinder) through the circle y
2
+ z
2
= a
2
in yz-plane.
Sections by the planes perpendicular to x-axis are circles.

Example 2:

1
9 16
2 2
= +
y x
is the equation of the ellipse in xy-plane but in the three dimension
1
9 16
2 2
= +
y x
defines the cylinder parallel to z-axis whose base curve is the ellipse
1
9 16
2 2
= +
y x
.

Example 3:

y = x
2
is a parabola in xy plane but in three dimension y = x
2
is the cylinder
parallel to z-axis whose base is the parabola y = x
2
. You can visualize this
cylinder by the following process. Take ten pieces of wire of equal size and bend
each of them into parabolic arc as shown in the figure. Put these 10 parabolic
arcs one on the other. Now these parabolic arcs are made complete parabolas
and imagine infinite no. of parabolic wires putting second on the first, third on the
second and so on.

In this way we get the image of the cylinder

Example 4:

(x-a)
2
+ y
2
= a
2
or x
2
+ y
2
2ax = 0 is the circle in xy-plane whose centre is at
(a,0) and radius is a, its equation in polar coordinates is cos 2a r = . In three
dimension ( ) cos 2
2 2 2
a r or a y a x = = + becomes the cylinder parallel to the z-
axis which passes through the circle (x-a)
2
+ y
2
= a
2
.

Paraboloid

2
2
2
2
b
y
a
x
c
z
+ = is the equation of an elliptic paraboloid. If c>0 then 0 z and there
is no surface when z<0. (0,0,0) satisfy the given surface so (0,0,0) is on the
surface.

Sections of the surface by the planes z = k are ellipses and we get bigger and
bigger ellipses if k increases. Surface is like big cup whose bottom is at (0,0,0)
opens toward +ve z-axis. If c<0 then no surface when z>0. Then the paraboloid
opens downward, towards ve side of z-axis. If b
2
= a
2
then sections by the
planes perpendicular to z-axis will be circles. So
c
z
a
y
a
x
= +
2
2
2
2
are called circular
paraboloids z = x
2
+ y
2
is a circular paraboloid. x
2
+ y
2
= 4-z is the paraboloid
whose vertex is at (0,0,4). For this paraboloid 4 z . No surface when z > 4.
Taking sections by the planes z = 3, z = 2, z = 1, z = 0, z = -1, z = -2, we get
larger and larger circles. The paraboloid opens downward. The section by 3 = x
plane perpendicular x-axis is the parabola y
2
= 1-z.

So the sections by the planes perpendicular to x-axis are parabolas. Similarly
sections by the planes perpendicular to y-axis are parabolas.

Cones :

The elliptic cone
2
2
2
2
2
2
c
z
b
y
a
x
= + has vertex at (0,0,0) section by the planes
c z c z c z 3 , 2 , = = = are ellipses and we are getting larger and larger ellipses
if c varies from 0 to . Sections by the planes perpendicular to x-axis ( x = k) are
hyperbolas. If x = a then from the equation of the surface, we get
1
2
2
2
2
=
b
y
c
z
which is a hyperbola. Similarly sections by the planes perpendicular
to y-axis are hyperbolas. z-axis is the axis of the cone.

Direction Cosines

Let , , be the angles between a line and coordinate axes respectively. Then
cos , cos , cos are called direction cosines of the line. We can prove that
1 cos cos cos
2 2 2
= + + . Let a,b,c be numbers proportional to the direction
cosines of a line L then a,b,c are called directions ratios of the line L.

We have
2 2 2
2 2 2
cos cos cos cos cos cos
c b a
c b a
+ +
+ +
= = =

or
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
cos , cos , cos
C b a
c
c b a
b
c b a
a
+ +
=
+ +
=
+ +
=

Plane

Any linear equation 0 = + + + d cz by ax represents a plane in three dimension.
Equation of a plane through ( )
0 0 0
, , z y x is ( ) ( ) ( ) 0
0 0 0
= + + z z c y y b x x a where
a,b,c are direction ratios of the perpendicular to the plane. x = 0 is yz plane. x =
a is the plane perpendicular to x-axis whose distance from the origin is a.

St. line

Two planes 0 ,
1 1 1
= + + + d z c y b x a and 0
2 2 2 2
= + + + z c y b x a represents a st.
line. Equation of the st. line through the point ( )
0 0 0
, , z y x whose direction ratios
are a,b,c (or equation of a st. line through ( )
0 0 0
, , z y x parallel to the vector
ck bj ai + + ) is

c
z z
b
y y
a
x x
0 0 0

=

Equation of a st.line through two points ( )
1 1 1
, , z y x and ( )
2 2 2
, , z y x is
1 2
1
1 2
1
1 2
1
z z
z z
y y
y y
x x
x x