PHCKO-HHAHHHCKH HOPAuJA - HPOFHEMH H HEPCHEKTHBH, Oxpn, 12-15 IX 2013

HILLY- MOUNTAIN - AREAS PROBLEMS AND PERSPECTIVES, Ohrid, 12-15 IX 2013

VK: 551.435.8(497.775)
KARST IN MARIOVO EXTENSION,
CHARACTERISTICS AND IMPORTANCE
Marjan TEMOVSKI
Doctorate student, University of Nova Gorica, Slovenia,
Vlado Stojanoski 37a, Prilep, Macedonia, temovski_m@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
This paper will present the general characteristics of karst in Mariovo, a hilly mountainous area in the
southern part of Republic of Macedonia, its extension, surface morphology as well as speleogenesis and karst
waters. Previous results will be combined with new research on surface karst, caves and karst waters in this area.
Karst rocks present 16% of Mariovo area, where due to complex geological and geomorphological characteristic
some specific karst features developed. Number of caves has been explored in the past few years, most of which
have been studied, giving new insight in to the general karst development. Also new karst springs were
documented, such as Gugjakovski Izvori (the largest spring along the river course of Crna Reka), which give
further insight to the karst hydrogeology of the area. The importance of karst areas in Mariovo is mostly due to a
number of specific karst features, mostly connected to thermal speleogenesis, such as Provalata Cave where
sulfuric acid was involved in its formation. This cave is also the first dated cave in Macedonia, and only the
second
40
Ar/
39
Ar dated sulfuric acid cave in Europe. Mariovo, especially the eastern part (where karst is found)
is now mostly depopulated area, leaving karst to have no immediate impact on people today, although some
agriculture is still present. Nevertheless, projected future dam Galite is covering karst areas along Crna Reka
valley, and proper understanding of karst in this area will be important for future management of this artificial
reservoir. Also, given the scarce water resources in Mariovo, large springs such as Gugjakovski Izvori are an
important resource.
Keywords: Mariovo, karst, caves, karst springs
INTRODUCTION
Mariovo is a geographical and historical region in the southern part of Republic of
Macedonia (Stojmilov, 1984). It is hilly to mountainous area, with a long and complex
geomorphological and geological evolution. Most of the area is part of one large
morphological unit Mariovo Basin, while the eastern border is located further to the east
along Blanica River and along mountain ridges in the eastern part of Dren Mountain.
Karst areas in Mariovo occupy 16% of the area mostly located in the central and eastern
parts. Previous studies on karst terrains in this area have been very scarce, mostly due to the
generally harsh, hardly accessible and depopulated terrains. Small notes on the karst in
Mariovo are given by Manakovik & Andonovski (1984) as part of the geomorphology of
Mariovo. They only address the extension of carbonate rocks, and describe some karst surface
features such as karren and dry valleys. Kolcakovski et al. (2004) published first results about
cave Provalata (named Gulabinka in the paper), giving morphometric information and noting
the presence of gypsum deposits. Although contributing the presence of gypsum to
dissolution of the marble by hydrothermal waters enriched with H
2
S, they consider the cave as
fossil ponor cave. Speleological exploration in this area was also carried by cavers, locating
and mapping generally caves which were previously known to the local population. In the
western part caving clubs SK Zlatovrv from Prilep and Ursus Speleos from Skopje have
explored Pesti Cave and caves Melnicka Pestera 1 & 2, while SD Peoni Irom Skopje has
explored Provalata Cave and cave ivovska Propast (Propast Provala). In the eastern part,
cavers from PSD Orle from Kavadarci have also documented some caves, mostly in the 1960s
and 1970s, describing location, general size and also mapping some of them.
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During the last couple of years detailed karst studies were carried out in the area as part of
a research on the karst evolution in the lower part of Crna Reka river basin, taking mainly
speleogenetic approach to understand karst evolution, considering the scarce karst surface
features. Some of the results were already published by Temovski (2013) and Temovski et al.
(2013). This paper aims to given an overview of the general characteristics of karst and caves
in Mariovo, and stress the importance of karst features.
Figure 1. Map of karst in Mariovo
MATERIALS AND METHODS
As was noted, due to lack of surface information, the approach used to understand the
evolution of the karst is trough the evolution of the caves in the area. This generally includes
morphological analyses based on cave maps and field observations, combined with sediment
analyses and in some cases dating of cave sediments. Detailed cave maps of known caves, as
well as newly found passages and caves were produced by detailed in-scale field mapping in
1:100 scale. Field data (sketches, measurements) were later processed in Therion cave
mapping software (Budaj & Mudrak, 2008), to produce cave maps in plan, profile and 3D
projection. Distribution and stratigraphy of cave sediments and deposits were described.
Samples from characteristic sediments and deposits were collected for X-ray analysis. Alunite
and jarosite from Provalata Cave were dated by
40
Ar/
39
Ar method. Also stable isotope
analyses were carried on calcite crust (o
13
C, o
18
O) and gypsum deposits (o
34
S) from Provalata
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Cave. Basic physical and chemical analysis of karst waters was done at the Center for Public
Health in Prilep. For detailed descriptions of the analytical methods see Temovski et al.
(2013). Morphometric analyses on karst surface were done on Aster GDEM data, version 2
(Meyer et al., 2012) using Spatial Analyst tool in ESRI ArcGIS 10.1.
KARST EXTENSION
Karst rocks in Mariovo occupy 16% of the total area (Tab.1), which is more than the 12%
area that karst rocks cover in Republic of Macedonia (Temovski, 2012. They are located on
both sides of the border between the Pelagonian Massif and the Vardar Zone, two major
tectonic units in Macedonia, and are generally distributed in two stripes with NNW-SSE
direction, one along the eastern edge of the Pelagonian Massif, and the other in the western
part of the Vardar Zone.
Table 1. Extension of karst rock outcrops in Mariovo (Geological data after Dumurdanov et al., 1976)
Age Rock type Area (km
2
)
% of total
karst area
Precambrian Dolomitic marble 37.6 22.3
Precambrian Calcitic marble
2.1 1.2
Cambrian Calcitic marble 7.3 4.4
Triassic Marbly limestone and dolomite 71.3 42.4
Cretaceous (Turonian) Limestone 0.3 0.2
Cretaceous (Senonian) Limestone 32.6 19.4
Quaternary (Pleistocene) Travertine + carbonate conglomerates 16.9 10.1
TOTAL AREA of karst rocks 168.2 100.0
MARIOVO area (km
2
) 1053.4
Karst rocks in MARIOVO (%) 16.0
Karst rocks include Precambrian dolomitic and calcitic marbles; Cambrian calcitic
marbles; Triassic marbly limestones and dolomites; Cretaceous (Turonian and Senonian)
limestones; and Pleistocene travertines (Dumurdanov et al., 1976). Triassic limestones and
dolomites have the largest surface extension (42.4%), located in the eastern part on Dren,
Kozjak and Kouf mountains, deeply incised by the valleys of Crna Reka and Blanica River
with its tributaries. Precambrian dolomitic marbles are the second largest karst rock outcrop
(22.3%), located in a continuous stripe along the eastern edge of the Pelagonian Massif. To
the east they are covered by Precambrian calcitic marbles, then Cambrian calcitic marbles,
and are separated from the overlying large Senonian limestone series (19.4%) with clastic
rocks (also Senonian). This thick carbonate section (Precambrian, Cambrian and Senonian),
generally dipping to the ENE which has some impermeable layers (Cambrian schists;
Senonian sandstones, shales and conglomerates) continues further to the south in Greece and
to the north in the neighbor Raec Basin. The youngest karst rocks are Pleistocene travertine
deposits (10.1%), part of Mariovo Basin deposits (Mariovo Formation; Dumurdanov et al.,
2003, 2004). They are mostly located as a large outcrop between Manastir and Beite
villages, but travertine deposits can also be found along Crna Reka valley between Vrpsko
and Gugjakovo villages. The travertine deposits are mostly composed of tufaceous limestones
and tufa, at places overlying carbonate breccia-conglomerates composed of marble and
limestone fragments. Also small outcrops of Turonian limestones are found as lenses in the
clastic Turonian series on Kouf Mountain.
The real extension of karst rocks in the area is larger than the surface extension, with some
areas buried by pyroclastic deposits from Kouf/Kozjak volcanism, and others also covered
by older sediments (ex. Turonian clastic deposits overthrusted onto Senonian limestones).
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KARST SURFACE
Karst terrains in Mariovo have mainly fluviokarst surface morphology, with deep allogenic
through valleys, steep dry valleys on valley sides and lack of dolines or bigger karst
depressions as a general characteristic.
Ford & Williams (2007) indicate three main factors which prevent doline development: 1)
very high vertical conductivity through-out the vadose zone; 2) spatially uniform and dense
vertical permeability; and steep (>20) hillsides. The lack of doline development in Mariovo
is a result of a combination of these factors. Morphometric analysis of terrain slope on karst
terrains gave average slope value of 22.8, with most of the small slopes (<20) and also flat
areas (<5) connected to the Manastir-Beite travertine Plateau (in the lower elevations) or
mountain ridges (in the higher elevations). Most of the karst areas have slopes higher than
20, characteristic for the valley sides (Fig.3).
Figure 2. Karst surface on low slope terrains: A View to the north of Trite Stragi-Cetiri Buki mountain ridge; B
view to the south of the same ridge on A; C view to the south of Gola Skrka Cucul mountain ridge; D
view to Manastir Beite Plateau from Pantelejmon. Photos by M. Temovski
While on valley sides steep slopes would prevent development of dolines, on the mountain
ridges which have much smaller slope, dolines should develop. Nevertheless this is not the
case in Mariovo karst, with dolines generally absent even on larger flat areas. The reason why
dolines are not developing here may be the high conductivity in the epikarst due to thick, well
developed vadose zone as a result of a long period of vadose development due to the incision
of river valleys. In the evolution of the valleys in Mariovo there were two phases of incision:
pre-Pliocene incision of valleys (which were partly of completely filled with sediments during
Pliocene) and Quaternary incision after the draining of Mariovo Lake. Even if the Pliocene
deposition filled the lower part of Crna Reka valley and some of the tributaries, the mountain
ridges were not covered by sediments, and maintained continuous vadose development.
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Figure 3. Distribution of slopes in karst terrains
In the large travertine deposits on Manastir-Beite Plateau, which have the largest flat
areas, as small slopes were present since the exposure of the rocks after the draining of the
Mariovo Lake (primary - depositional low slopes), development of dolines would be
expected. Nevertheless this is not the case, with only (spatially) large and very shallow, hardly
detectable, depressions developed on them. Although slopes are favorable for doline
development, the reason for the lack of doline development may be the high primary porosity
of the travertines. This created high vertical conductivity in the vadose zone (after the incision
of Bututica and Crna Reka) preventing development of depressions in the epikarst water table,
and with that preventing focused flow and dissolution necessary for development of dolines.
CAVES
In Mariovo karst 18 caves have been documented (Fig.1; Tab.2), with the longest
(Melnicka Pestera 1) having more than 600m oI explored passages, developed in Pleistocene
carbonate conglomerates, and more than half of the caves being longer than 100m. The
deepest cave is ivovska Propast (-115m), a complex system of shafts developed along three
sets of fractures.
From the studied caves, both hypogenic and epigenic speleogenesis were identified.
Hypogenic speleogenesis was documented in three areas: Melnica (Buturica River), Podot
(Crna Reka) and Kouf karst areas. Caves were developed by dissolution of carbonate rocks
due to cooling effect of rising thermal waters (Dublyansky, 2000). Deeply circulating
meteoric waters were heated as a result of increased geothermal gradient likely connected to
Kouf-Kozjak volcanism. This hydrothermal hypogenic speleogenesis, due to lithological or
geochemical factors, locally is accompanied with specific processes such as ghost-rock
weathering (Quinif, 1999) in the Precambrian dolomitic marbles of Melnica and Podot
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localities, as well as Triassic dolomites in Allchar ore deposit (Kouf), and sulfuric acid
speleogenesis (Egemeier, 1981; Palmer, 2013) as a second phase in Provalata Cave, Melnica.
Table 2. Caves in Mariovo karst
No. Name Synonym Length Depth Rock age Rock type
1 Melnicka Pestera 1 600+ +17 Pleistocene Carbonate conglomerates
2 ivovska Propast
Propast
Provala
-115 Senonian Limestone
3 Provalata Gulabinka 230 -24 Cambrian Marble
4 Vodna Pe 226+ -25 Triassic Marbly limestone
5 Peti 202 -38 Senonian Limestone
6 Kari Podot 199 +12
Precambrian;
Pleistocene
dolomitic marble; alluvium,
tufaceous limestone
7 Peterski Kamen Trlo 173+ +63 Triassic Marbly limestone
8 Galika Petera 120 -20 Triassic Marbly limestone
9 Vodena Petera 106 -3 Triassic Marbly limestone
10 Podot 2 P14 103+ -18 Pleistocene Tufaceous limestone
11 Melnicka Pestera 2 97 -8 Pleistocene Carbonate conglomerates
12 Podot 1 P13 64 -14 Pleistocene Tufaceous limestone
13 Marina Dupka 26 -11 Senonian Limestone
14 Boeva Petera 19 Triassic Marbly limestone
15 Dupkite 1 14 Senonian Limestone
16 Stankova Petera 11 Triassic Marbly limestone
17 Radina Dupka 8 -5 Senonian Limestone
18 Dupkite 2 4 Senonian Limestone
Provalata Cave is a 230m long, 24m deep cave, located in the superimposed valley of
Buturica River in Melnica area. The cave has a ramiform passage pattern, with cupolas and
solution pockets as most common morphological features. Based on characteristics and
distribution of morphology and deposits, two distinct speleogenetic phases were identified in
the cave (Temovski et al., 2013): the first by thermal CO
2
rich waters; the second by sulfuric
acid dissolution; separated by complete infilling of cave passages with pyroclastic-derived
clays.
In the first phase (Pliocene-Early Pleistocene?) phreatic morphologies (passages, cupolas)
were formed by dissolution of marbles due to cooling of rising thermal carbonated waters;
later covered with thick calcite crust after shift to shallower phreatic environment. These
passages were then completely filled with clay deposits originating from the pyroclastic
sediments of Mariovo Formation (Early Pleistocene). Incision of Buturica River after draining
of Mariovo Lake lowered the water table and allowed removal of clay sediments. Introduction
of H
2
S in the thermal waters (likely connected to the nearby coal basin) started the second
(sulfuric acid) speleogenetic phase, with rapid dissolution of calcite crust and marble host
rock due to condensation corrosion by sulfuric vapors and producing replacement gypsum
deposits. At contact with clay deposits, sulfuric acid produced alunite, jarosite and
natroalunite, which were dated with
40
Ar/
39
Ar method to 1.6 Ma (alunite) and 1.46 Ma
(jarosite). This allowed to fix the timing of the draining of Mariovo Lake, sometime between
1.8 Ma (last layers of tephra found in the travertine layers deposited in lacustrine environment
as end part of Mariovo formation; and volcanic activity in Kozjak Mt. dated to 4.0 0.2 to 1.8
0.1 Ma, Kolios et al., 1999), and 1.6 Ma (maximum age of cave alunite formed after
draining of Mariovo Lake and incision of Buturica River).
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Figure 3. Speleogenetic phases in Provalata Cave (modified after Temovski et al., 2013)
Kari Podot Cave is 200m long horizontal cave, located in Kari Podot terrace (Podot
locality in Crna Reka valley), developed in Precambrian dolomitic marbles and Pleistocene
alluvial and travertine deposits. Its development is connected to ghost-rock weathering in the
dolomitic marbles by slowly rising thermal waters, with backflooding of Crna Reka providing
the necessary high energy waters removing the dolomitic sand alterite, with some redeposition
of dolomitic sand with silicate sands and clays also inside the cave (Temovski, 2013).
Melnicka Pestera 1 is more than 600m long horizontal cave developed in carbonate
conglomerates in Peta Hill, Melnica. It has a branchwork plan pattern, with irregular passage
outlines typical of a high porosity host rocks. Its widespread small scale morphology of
cupolas and pockets, as wall as calcite (and aragonite) crust covering such morphologies in
the upper parts of the cave and having overprinted secondary pockets, combined with the
thermal karstification documented in the nearby Gumnite locality, as well as Provalata Cave,
suggest possible origin due to hydrothermal speleogenesis accompanied with condensation
corrosion.
Hydrothermal speleogenesis is documented also in Kouf area, with two thermal springs
discharging at the contact of carbonate rocks with impermeable schist rocks. In the Allchar
ore deposit, hydrothermal speleogenesis has played important role in creating porosity in the
dolomite and limestone rocks which was later used as host for the deposition of ore minerals.
In dolomite rocks this was accompanied with ghost-rock weathering (sanding
decalcification as described by Percival & Radtke, 1994).
Most of the karst terrains in the studied area have normal epigenic cave development,
receiving allogenic or autogenic recharge from the adjacent surface. Epigenic speleogenesis in
Mariovo karst is connected mostly to lowering of base level (per descensum speleogenesis)
due to incision of Crna Reka and its tributaries in Pleistocene, following the draining of
Mariovo Lake; with epigenic caves also developed due to rise of base level (per ascensum
speleogenesis) connected to periods of river aggradation in Pleistocene and/or Pliocene filling
of paleo-valleys.
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Figure 6. Maps of some of the largest caves in Mariovo (SK Zlatovrv, 2011, 2013; SD Peoni, 2005)
Some examples include the cave levels in Podot 1 and 2 caves in the Podot terrace, located
opposite of Kari Podot Cave in travertine deposits, developed due to base level control by the
position of Crna Reka. They indicate the former position of the large springs Gugjakovski
Izvori, located now at the contact with alluvial deposits in the riverbed of Crna Reka. Mixing
of cold waters with the thermal waters may have also contributed to their development. Peti
Cave is an old cave, located high in the Crna Reka valley, with vadose morphology and
paragenetic development due to clay deposition, covered by thick flowstone and dripstone
speleothems. Vodna Pe is a fossil outlet (spring) cave located high in Crna Reka valley, with
rising phreatic passages and widespread paragenetic morphology, with later vadose
development. Its development is connected to base level rise due to aggradation in Crna Reka
valley. Considering their (Vodna Pe, Peti) position high in the valley, their development is
likely connected to the Pliocene filling of the paleo Crna Reka valley. ivovska Propast is an
interesting example of the continuous vadose development in the higher karst areas which
were not covered by Pliocene or Pleistocene deposits. It is a complex system of shafts with
total depth of -115m, developed along three sets of fractures with: NNW-SSE, N-S, and
WSW-ENE direction.
IMPORTANCE
Mariovo karst although it is located in a depopulated, not easily accessible, hilly to
mountainous area, it still represents a significant part of the area, having a great scientific
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importance, as well as representing a valuable natural heritage and yielding important water
resources.
Both hypogenic and epigenic karst features have great scientific importance. The close
proximity of Provalata Cave to Mariovo coal deposits, which might be the potential source of
H
2
S for the second (sulfuric acid) speleogenetic phase registered in the cave, presents an
opportunity for further studies which might contribute to better understanding of the sulfuric
acid speleogenesis and the possible various hypogenic speleogenetic environments that can
occur. Also, the ghost-rock weathering process identified in the Precambrian dolomitic
marbles, as well as in the Triassic dolomitic, here connected to hydrothermal speleogenesis,
contributes further to the understanding of the ghost-rock weathering and phantom cave
development in hypogenic settings. Especially the dolomitic marbles with the Kari Podot
Cave present a possibility for more detail studies of this process and its importance on
increasing porosity on otherwise less karstifiable rocks. Caves in the area can also be used for
paleogeographic reconstructions of the Macedonian Neogene-Quaternary lake system, as was
the case with the evolution of Provalata Cave, used to determine the possible timing of the
draining of Mariovo Lake.
Specific cave minerals such as alunite, jarosite, natroalunite documented in Provalata cave
are first such minerals identified from Macedonian caves. Alunite and jarosite were also used
for
40
Ar/
39
Ar dating, the first dating of a cave in Republic of Macedonia, and the second
40
Ar/
39
Ar dating of sulfuric cave in Europe, after Kraushhle in Austria (Temovski et al.,
2013). Together with the cave fauna, which is still not studied, they represent an important
natural heritage.
Considering that lack of water resources is one of Mariovos major problems, and most of
the water resources in the area are connected to karst terrains, karst springs in Mariovo such
as Gugjakovski Izvori, the largest spring along the river course of Crna Reka, represent a
major water resource. Therefore further studies, protection and proper management of karst
areas in Mariovo is necessary, especially connected to future revitalizations of the area, and
construction of the artificial reservoir Galite.
CONCLUSIONS
Karst terrains represent 16% of the total surface area in Mariovo, and are characterized
with mostly fluviokarst surface features, with developed karst underground. The fluviokarst
surface is generally characterized with deep allogenic through valleys (Crna Reka, Blanica,
Buturica), steep dry valleys on valley sides and lack of dolines or bigger karst depressions.
Karst evolution in the area has been strongly influenced by the incision of river valleys Pre-
Pliocene, and in Pleistocene, while during the Pliocene and Early Pleistocene the lower areas
were covered by lacustrine and fluvial deposits, as well as pyroclastic deposits connected to
the Kozjak-Kouf volcanism to the south. Epigenic cave development has been connected
with the changes of base level due to incision or aggradation in the river valleys and Mariovo
basin. Hypogenic caves were formed by hydrothermal speleogenesis due to cooling effect of
rising deeply circulating meteoric waters, heated due to increased geothermal gradient likely
connected to Kouf-Kozjak volcanism. At places, due to lithological or geochemical factors,
hydrothermal hypogenic speleogenesis is accompanied with specific processes, such as ghost-
rock weathering in the Precambrian dolomitic marbles of Melnica and Podot localities, as
well as Triassic dolomites in Allchar ore deposit (Kouf), and sulfuric acid speleogenesis in
Provalata Cave, Melnica. Mariovo karst has great scientific importance due to the specific
processes, such as sulfuric acid speleogenesis and ghost-rock weathering, as well as
possibilities to study the paleogeography of the Macedonian Neogene-Quaternary lake
system, and the per-ascensum model of speleogenesis connected to the aggradations in river
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valleys. Specific minerals, such as alunite, jarosite, natroalunite in Provalata Cave, which is
the first dated cave in Republic of Macedonia, as well as cave fauna yet to be studied, are a
significant natural heritage, while karst waters represent an important water resource in an
area with a general lack of water resources.
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