Hanoi towards 2030 - Substance flow analysis

supporting the planning process

Viet Anh NGUYEN
1
,

Jan-Olof DRANGERT
2
,

Manh Khai NGUYEN
3
, Thi Ha
NGUYEN
4
, Hans Bertil WITTGREN
5
and Celeste ZIMMERMANN
6
1
Associate Professor and Vice Director, Institute of Environmental Science and
Engineering (IESE), Hanoi University of Civil Engineering, Vietnam.
vietanhctn@gmail.com
2
Associate Professor and Managing Director, Vatema AB, Stockholm, Sweden
3
Associate Professor and Vice Dean, Faculty of Environmental Science, Hanoi
University of Science,
Vietnam
4
Associate Professor and Head of Department, Environmental Technology
Department,
Hanoi University of Science, Vietnam
5
Associate Professor and Project Manager, Urban Water Management AB,
Linkping, Sweden
6
Master of Science, Division of Water and Environmental Studies,
Linkping University, Sweden

ABSTRACT

Vietnam is rapidly urbanizing and Hanoi is becoming a megacity. The current
population of Greater Hanoi, 6.6 million, is expected to increase by almost 50 %
until 2030. Challenges faced by the city in terms of, e.g., water and wastewater
management, food and energy supply, as well as social infrastructure, are typical
for developing cities. The Master Plan of Hanoi city to 2030, with a vision to 2050,
has just been completed (2011). It is therefore the right time to conduct a study on
sustainable development solutions for the city, so as to propose efficient
preparation of detailed sector development plans. In the present study, substance
flow analysis of the crucial plant nutrient of phosphorus, and of organic waste
(measured as COD), is employed to analyze the outcome of different scenario
assumptions concerning, e.g., population increase and development of new
satellite cities, changes in food habits, and different technologies for management
of organic waste products. Furthermore, the database with associated flow
calculations, supplemented with a user interface, is intended as a decision support
tool. This project has scanned what options there may be for a sustainable Hanoi
and the outcomes can be fed into the decision making process for the city
development at various levels.

Keywords: decision support tool, organic matter, phosphorus, substance flow
analysis, scenario.

1. INTRODUCTION

Limited global resources and increasing emissions push planners and societies to
develop more sustainable cities. Phosphorus (P) is an essential nutrient for plant
growth and food security, and it requires a holistic system approach to coordinate
October 2013, Hanoi, Vietnam


New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia
P-flows between urban and rural areas. Agriculture dominates the ecological
footprints of phosphorus use and misuse, while urban demands from changing
diets and detergents impact flows and emissions to the environment.

In this article the future of phosphorus flows in the Greater Hanoi area in Vietnam
is analyzed from two perspectives. The linear flows with little or no recovery and
recycling of urban nutrients in agriculture and, alternatively, short loop flows
where most P-containing matter is recovered and brought back to soils for food
production. Both scenarios build on estimates in the Master Plan of Hanoi city to
2030, with a vision to 2050 (Ministry of Construction - MOC, 2011). A
preliminary survey shows that P flows in Greater Hanoi is dominated by pig and
rice production and detergents. These three flows are singled out for the analysis
of some scenarios.

2. MATERIALS & METHODS

As defined by Brunner and Rechberger (2004), Material Flow Analysis (MFA) is
a systematic assessment of the flows and stocks of materials within a system
defined is space and time. In industrialized countries it has been used to help
identify and respond to emerging environmental problems (Montangero and
Belevi, 2008), however it is also being increasingly applied in developing
countries, particularly in the context of environmental sanitation.

2.1 System definition

The system boundary of this study is the geographical limits of Greater Hanoi,
and the substances in focus are phosphorus and COD. This is an extension of the
work done by Montangero in central Hanoi (Montangero, 2007). The work
published in this paper is limited to the results regarding phosphorus (P).

In MFA, processes are physical or conceptual spaces in which substances are
transformed, transported or stored. In this study, 19 different processes were
defined, and each was assigned a number from 1 to 25 (Table 1). As we modeled
the numbering system after Montangero (2007) and some of the processes were
not used in our system, some numbers are left blank. Additionally, some
processes were further divided into sub-processes, which are indicated by a lower
case letter following the process number.

Table 1: List of processes and sub-processes used in the study
Process Description
1 Inhabitants
2 On-site sanitation (a. Septic tank; b. Biogas latrine; c. Pit latrine; d.
Single or double vault latrine; e. Bucket latrine; f. Open defecation;
g. Urine diversion; h. Blackwater diversion)
3 Combined sewerage & drainage
4 Solid waste collection (a. Food waste collection; b. Sludge
collection; c. Excreta collection; d. Urine collection; e. Blackwater
collection and dewatering)
5 Water supply


New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia
6 Goods Exchange
7 Industry (a. Brewery; b. Distillery; c. Dairy; d. Bakery; e.
Slaughterhouse)
8 Handicraft industry (a. Cassava & arrowroot processing; b. Rice
vermicelli production)
9 (Not in use)
10 Composting
11 Waste site (a. Landfill; b. Open dump)
12 Livestock (a. Pig; b. Poultry; c. Cattle; d. Buffalo)
13 Aquaculture (a. Fish pond)
14 Crop (a. Rice; b. Maize; c. Vegetables; d. Soybean; e. Sweet potato;
f. Fruit)
15 Surface water
16 Soil/Groundwater
17 Atmosphere
18 - 22 (Not in use)
23 Wastewater treatment plant
24 Biogas plant
25 Hazardous waste collection

2.2 Data Collection

The vast amount of data assembled for this study was collected in a variety of
ways including interviews, observations, local documents and literature searches,
and communication with experts. Most of the data is current (2009-2012) but
some data, particularly with respect to the P content of different products, may be
older. Due to the quantity of data assembled, it is not possible to cite references
for every data point included in the database given the limited space of this
publication.

Interviews and observations were the first stage of data collection. A total of 4
field studies were conducted; 3 in villages and 1 in an urban ward. Students at
Hanoi University of Natural Sciences and Hanoi University of Civil Engineering
composed questionnaires in Vietnamese and the local ward or village leader took
them to various families to conduct the interviews. Local experts were also
consulted in some instances. Some information was also made available via
village reports and local industrial information since each commune submits an
annual report and the industries issue yearly production figures. When
information was required that could not be obtained locally through an interview
or a local source, literature searches were conducted. The top priority was finding
data from Hanoi or other nearby provinces, but if that was not available, figures
were taken for Vietnam, South East Asia, or the world, in that order of preference.
Ultimately the data from the various sources were combined to create a single
database with separate information for the rural, urban and industrial sectors of
Greater Hanoi.

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New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia
2.3 Data management

Parameters are the raw data used for calculations. See Table 2 for examples. The
parameters are given identifying names in the following pattern:

y_name: y = a symbol indicating the class of parameter; name = a short
description of the parameter.

or, where applicable, y_P_name (where P indicates it is specific to phosphorus).

Table 2: Samples of the various classes of parameters
Parameter Description Parameter Class
n_inhabitants Number of inhabitants Number (n)
a_market Market area Area (a)
f_faecalsludge Reported faecal sludge emptying
factor
Frequency (f)
m_P_greywater P load in greywater Mass flow (m)
m_SWbakery Solid waste generation from
bakery
Rate of mass change
(m)
q_rain Rain Volumetric flow (q)
q_WWslaughter
housepig
Wastewater generation rate from
pig slaughterhouses
Rate of volumetric
change (q)
c_P_groundwater Concentration of P in groundwater Concentration (c)
r_fattener_pigs Ratio between fatteners and total
number of pigs
Ratio (r)

The mass flows of the substance(s) to and from each process are calculated by
using relevant parameters. The following notation was used to represent the mass
flow of substances between processes:

Pi-ii (where P= phosphorus, i= the initial process, and ii= the receiving process)

For example P1-12a would represent the flow of phosphorus from process 1 to
process 12a.

Parameters are used to write system equations for the mass flow variables. For
example:

P1-12a = m_domesticFW * r_livestock_FW * c_P_domesticFW

multiplies the amount of domestic food waste (kg cap
-1
yr
-1
) with the ratio fed to
livestock (-) and the P content in food (g P kg
-1
) to obtain the P flow in food waste
given to pigs (g P cap
-1
yr
-1
).

Once the mass flows are known, the stock change rate of a given substance in
each process can be determined by finding the difference between the sum of the
inputs and the outputs. In this study the following notation is used to represent the
stock rate of change:



New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia
dM(Xi)/dt =
inputs

outputs
(where X=the substance and i= the process).

For example, dM(P1)/dt would represent the stock change of phosphorus in
process 1.

The database was constantly refined as questions or evidence of missing data
emerged. Flows were re-considered and the system altered to be more
representative of Greater Hanoi as new information came to light. If there seemed
to be problems with the calculations the relevant data was reassessed at a new
literature search was conducted to ensure appropriate data was used. Due to the
wide scope of the project, specific uncertainties for each calculation were not
determined. In the interest of simplicity the guideline of an acceptability of 10 %
error in stock changes (Brunner & Rechberger, 2004) was taken as a reference
point.

2.4 Visualization and user interface

The software STAN (Vienna University of Technology, 2012) was used to
visualize the results. Weighted arrows are used to indicate the amount of mass in
each flow. Diagrams were created for each process individually, as well as
representations of larger parts of the system comprised of several processes.

To facilitate user interaction with the database, a user interface was constructed.
This allowed the user to vary the values of selected parameters to observe the
effects on the system. The interface is in a rudimentary form, but is continually
being improved with the hope that it can serve as a resource for city planners and
policy makers.

3. RESULTS

The results presented below concern phosphorus (P) flows in Greater Hanoi (GH)
related to a 2010 population of 6 617 900 inhabitants (HSO, 2011), and a
projected population of 9 135 500 inhabitants in 2030 (MOC, 2011). Focus is on
the large P flows associated with inhabitants consumption of rice, pork and
detergents. The waste flows associated with these processes serve as planning
support for future improved P management in GH.

First, assumptions and results for the Present situation are presented, and then
assumptions regarding two scenarios, Scenario 2030 Master Plan Linear and
Scenario 2030 Master Plan Loops. Both these scenarios involve an almost 50 %
increase in population. Finally, the Present situation and the two Scenarios
2030 are compared in terms of P flows.

3.1 Present situation

Current rice and pork consumption amounts to 137 kg and 24 kg cap
-1
yr
-1

respectively (VDD & UNICEF, 2011; The Pig Site, 2010), with a decreasing
trend for rice and an increasing trend for pork that mirrors the enhanced economic
development in Vietnam. Together with detergents, these two food items account
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New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia
for 66 % of the P use by GH inhabitants (Figure 1, 1. Inhabitants). Other food
items taken together account for 34 % and include fish and seafood, other red
meat (excluding pork), poultry meat, vegetables, fruits, other cereals (excluding
rice), tubers, milk, eggs, and miscellaneous food items. Among these, fish and
seafood account for the largest fraction (9 %), and, like pork, have an increasing
consumption trend. The improved human nutritional status in Vietnam is reflected
in the amount of protein that has increased from 45 g (1991) to 72 cap
-1
d
-1
(2008),
and thereof from animal origin from 10 g to 27 g cap
-1
d
-1
in the same period
(FAO, 2013).

More than 90 % of urban inhabitants, and between 50 and 60 % of rural
inhabitants, have flush toilets connected to septic tanks (Nguyen V. A. et al.,
2011). In urban and peri-urban districts, these septic tanks are mostly connected to
the city sewer (WSP, 2012). Only blackwater enters the septic tanks, which seems
to be a remnant from earlier direct collection of excreta. Greywater is usually
discharged directly to sewers or waterways. Besides flush toilets, pit latrines or
double vault latrines are the most common solutions in rural areas.

Today, three wastewater treatment plants treat 7 % of the effluent coming from
core city area, while the remainder is discharged to waterways. Septic tanks are
desludged on average only every 6th year. Only 10 % of collected sludge is
collected by the urban environment company (URENCO) and brought to the
landfill or composted (Nguyen V. A. et al., 2011). The remainder is collected by
other service providers who usually discharge the sludge illegally to fish farms,
landfills, or waterways, due to a lack of treatment infrastructure and poor
inspection. New high-rise office and apartment building connect their blackwater
to big septic tanks in the ground. Septic tank effluent and greywater is discharged
into combined sewer, not being treated in most of cases. Much of the polluted
effluent is used for irrigation in downstream areas. In the core city, 97 % of the
over hundred lakes are eutrophic, of which 68 % are hyper-eutrophic (Hoang T. T.
H. et al., 2012).

Pig production and rice farming dominate P flows in agriculture. Farmers in the
Red River Delta typically grow three crops per year, spring rice from February to
June, summer rice from June to September, and a winter crop (often maize) from
October to January. The potential land area for growing winter crops is about
60 % of the rice area, but only 40 % of the rice area is currently cultivated with
winter crops (Tran T. S. et al., 2004). Good lowland farmers routinely produce 15
to 18 tonnes of grain per ha each year in a system that is traditionally community-
based, very labor-intensive, and involving much recycling of nutrients (Bray
1998). Farms are small, 0.1 0.5 ha and the population exceeds 2 000 people per
km
2
in several provinces. Rice is mainly for local consumption (about 80 %). The
area planted with rice has remained about the same since a few decades, while a
substantial increase in yields is due to improved fertilization and expansion of
irrigated areas from 65 % to 75 % of rice fields (1990 to 2000) (Tran T. S. et al.,
2004). Most other crops such as tubers, vegetables, maize etc. has also
experienced substantial increases in productivity (FAO, 2013).

The flow chart in Figure 1 is a simplified system that accounts for the main flows
and connects urban and rural flows within GH.

Figure 1: Current important

In Fig. 1, I and E represent import and export. Black arrows
mainly within GH. Grey arrows
the GH area. Numbers given
sum of output. If it is 0,
between known input and output flows, i. e.,
In 2 (known) Out 1 (known)
Livestock - pigs, inputs and output

The total feed need for pigs (input to 12a. Livestock
data regarding sows with piglets and fatteners.
from rural inhabitants, and 20 % of the food waste from urban inhabitants
of 267 ton P yr
-1
) is assumed to be
assumed to be used as pig feed (247
covered by import of commercial feed.

Of all pig manure, 66 %
paddy rice area and total crop are
application of 40 kg P ha
2011). This amount of
Delta, where farmers harvest two rice crops per year and apply
crop
-1
(Tran T. S. et al.
commercial fertilizers are
input to 14a. Crop - rice


The flow chart in Figure 1 is a simplified system that accounts for the main flows
rban and rural flows within GH.

important phosphorus flows (ton P yr
-1
) in Greater Hanoi
In Fig. 1, I and E represent import and export. Black arrows represent
Grey arrows represent import flows to and export flows from
Numbers given at the bottom of process boxes show sum of input
0, an unknown flow has been calculated as a difference
between known input and output flows, i. e., Out 2 (unknown) = In 1 (known) +
Out 1 (known). In two process boxes, 1. Inhabitants and 12a.
pigs, inputs and outputs have been calculated independently
The total feed need for pigs (input to 12a. Livestock - pigs) is calculated from
data regarding sows with piglets and fatteners. Eighty per cent of the food waste
from rural inhabitants, and 20 % of the food waste from urban inhabitants
assumed to be given to pigs. All maize produced in GH
assumed to be used as pig feed (247 ton P yr
-1
). The remaining required
covered by import of commercial feed.
% is applied on rice fields according to the ratio between
paddy rice area and total crop area (HSO, 2011). This results in an average
application of 40 kg P ha
-1
yr
-1
to a paddy rice area of 204 662 ha in GH (HSO,
amount of manure is in line with observations from the Red River
where farmers harvest two rice crops per year and apply 20-25 kg P ha
et al., 2004). The authors also report that 32 kg P ha
are applied annually. These figures are used to
rice.


The flow chart in Figure 1 is a simplified system that accounts for the main flows

) in Greater Hanoi
represent flows
import flows to and export flows from
sum of input -
flow has been calculated as a difference
Out 2 (unknown) = In 1 (known) +
Inhabitants and 12a.
ntly.
calculated from
of the food waste
from rural inhabitants, and 20 % of the food waste from urban inhabitants (a total
All maize produced in GH is
required feed is
to the ratio between
in an average
ha in GH (HSO,
is in line with observations from the Red River
25 kg P ha
-1

The authors also report that 32 kg P ha
-1
of
to calculate
October 2013, Hanoi, Vietnam


New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia
It is assumed that about 1/3 of the pig manure is first used for biogas production
prior to applying the slurry on crops (the biogas process is not shown in Figure 1).
The assumption is that no P loss occurs in the biogas process. Therefore, potential
losses will appear in the flow Excess to soil/water from the 14a. Crop - rice
process. This unknown flow is calculated as the difference between the known
other flows to and from the process.

Based on Swedish figures that the slaughter-weight of fatteners is 73.7 % of the
live weight, and that pork meat is 59 % of the slaughter-weight (Carlsson et al.,
2009) gives that 737 ton P yr
-1
is contained in pork meat. The P content of solid
waste from 7e. Slaughterhouse is calculated as the difference between known
flows.

The (net) export of pork from GH is calculated as the difference between the
production of pork from 7e. Slaughterhouse and the input of pork for
consumption to 1. Inhabitants.

The P flow with rice from 14a. Crop - rice to 6. Goods exchange - rice is
calculated given a total rice yield of 1 125 016 ton yr
-1
(HSO, 2011), which
corresponds to 5.5 ton ha
-1
yr
-1
, and assuming a P content in rice (excluding bran)
of 1.15 g P kg
-1
(USDA, 2012). Export (net) of rice is calculated in the same way
as pork export.

The P flow with food waste from 1. Inhabitants is calculated from an annual
generation of 37 kg cap
-1
yr
-1
(Co Loa Commune Peoples Committee, 2009; Co
Loa Interview, 2011-10-11) and a P content of 2 g P kg
-1
(Diaz et al., 1996). For
excreta and greywater, P loads are assumed to be 0.86 g P cap
-1
d
-1
(Nguyen V. A.,
2007) and 0.4 g P cap
-1
d
-1
(Bsser, 2006), respectively.

3.2 Scenario 2030 - Master Plan with linear P flows to water bodies and
landfills

The assumptions of the Master Plan 2030 deal with population increase, pattern of
new suburbs, full coverage of water and sanitation, etc. No goals for sustainability
or environmental issues are provided. Therefore, this scenario calculation takes
into account an anticipated population increase of 42 % from 2010 to 9.14 million
inhabitants 2030 (Prime Minister Decision 1239/QD-Ttg, 2011). As a result, other
factors vary accordingly: a 42 % increase in all flows in and out from the process
1. Inhabitants, and associated changes in import to/export from 6. Goods
exchange. For rice, the population increase result in that some import will be
required to meet demand. In reality, such import may be avoided by increased
productivity and/or increased area for paddy rice cultivation. For pork, production
remains higher than local consumption, and there is still capacity to export pork
meat from GH.

3.3 Scenario 2030 P loops to recover and apply P on agricultural soils

This scenario is derived from the following desired functional criteria: no P in
detergents, all organic solid waste generated in Greater Hanoi to be segregated,


New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia
composted or digested to biogas, and the residues applied to farmland. The
available nutrients in human excreta are used for cereal production. No
eutrophication of rivers and lakes, and reduced import of commercial fertilizers.

In the Scenario 2030 - Master Plan Loops the same population size as in the
previous scenario is assumed. Pork consumption per capita is assumed to double
from 24 to 48 kg cap
-1
yr
-1
, and rice consumption to decrease with the same
amount, from 137 to 113 kg cap
-1
yr
-1
. For pork, this corresponds to an annual
increase in consumption by 3.5 %, and for rice an annual decrease by 1 %. In the
past 10-year period, both the consumption increase for pork and the decrease for
rice have been larger, so the above assumption may be considered conservative.
Detergents will be phosphate-free. Furthermore, P-rich waste flows will be
recycled: (i) human excreta to arable land after proper treatment for hygienic
purposes; (ii) solid waste from slaughterhouses to arable land, probably as a
slurry after biogas production, and; (iii) food waste will continue to be recycled as
pig feed, as is currently common in rural areas, but, in the context of increasing
urbanization, also be used for biogas production and the resulting slurry recycled
to arable land.

3.4 Comparison of Present situation and the two scenarios for 2030

The calculations of flows in the two scenarios are presented in Table 3, and builds
on the flow chart in Figure 1. The figures in the column Present situation repeats
the data in Figure 1. The column Scenario 2030 Master Plan Linear presents
revised data due to the population increase.

The column Scenario 2030 Master Plan Loop presents data resulting from
recycling measures and changed diet. The total input of P to 1. Inhabitants will
decrease primarily due to the phasing out of P in detergents, and consequently the
P flow with greywater will decrease dramatically. The P flows associated with
food waste and excreta will increase somewhat, since the P-content of pork is
higher than that of rice. However, even without changes in pork production, the
increased consumption still allow for some export, and the decrease in rice
consumption results in that no import is be needed.

The demand of P inputs for rice production is shown in the lower four rows of
Table 3. The loops scenario can reduce demand for commercial fertilizers by
about 4 300 ton P yr
-1
. in comparison with the linear scenario. This reduction is
possible thanks to recycled P from food waste (336 ton P yr
-1
) and human excreta
(3 026 ton P yr
-1
) from Inhabitants and waste from slaughterhouses (949 ton P
yr
-1
) can replace imported commercial fertilizers.

Table 3: Comparison of P flows for the present situation and the two scenarios for
2030 (ton P yr
-1
).
P flows Present
situation
Scenario 2030
- MP Linear
Scenario 2030
- MP Loops
Inhabitants In
Pork 243 345 691
Rice 1 039 1 476 1 219
October 2013, Hanoi, Vietnam


New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia
Detergents 968 1 374 0
Other food 1 165 1 654 1 654
Inhabitants Out
Food waste 491 698 715
Excreta 2 077 2 951 3 026
Greywater 1 141 1 621 246
Goods exchange, pork Out
Pork (to Inhabitants) 243 345 691
Pork (Export) 494 392 47
Slaughterhouse Out
Solid waste 949 949 949
Livestock, pigs In
Food waste 267 379 379
Goods exchange, rice In
Rice (Import) 0 182 0
Goods exchange, rice Out
Rice (to Inhabitants) 1 039 1 476 1 219
Rice (Export) 255 0 74
Crop, rice In
Commercial fertilizer
(Import)
6 549 6 549 2 238
Biogas slurry (from
Inhabitants, Food waste)
0 0 336*
Excreta (from Inhabitants) 0 0 3 026
Biogas slurry (from
Slaughterhouse, Solid
waste)
0 0 949
* The difference between total generation of food waste, 715 ton P yr
-1
, and food
waste fed to pigs, 379 ton P yr
-1
.

A further 1 374 ton P yr
-1
can be saved by using P-free detergents. The loops
scenario represents a win-win situation with reduced nutrient pollution of surface
and groundwater by discharges of P from wastewater outlets and landfills. This
environmental debt in the case of linear flows is a hidden cost in todays
discussion, but must be included in a sustainability calculation.

In addition to those savings it is reasonable to assume that increased food
efficiency in pig production and better P management in crop production can
decrease the two largest P flows in Figure 1: import of commercial feed and the
excess of P to soil/water, where the latter is probably lost to water to a large
degree.

4. DISCUSSIONS

Up to now, trends to manage P-containing matter in urban flows have become
more and more linear. Previous recycling of P-rich human excreta and food waste
to enrich agricultural soils has been replaced by waste discharges to water bodies


New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia
and landfills. The huge increase in use of P in agriculture has been met by
imported commercial fertilizers and animal feed. The previously strong nutrient
link between urban and rural areas in Greater Hanoi is fading away.

Anticipated global scarcity of virgin P and nutrients more generally points to the
need to reduce wastage and increase recycling (Cordell et al., 2009). A ban on P
in detergents will reduce demand in GH by more than 1 000 ton P yr
-1
, which is of
the same magnitude as 20 % of the imported commercial fertilizers in 2010. The
detergent manufacturers can easily introduce alternative washing compounds, e.g.,
polycarboxylates as have been done in other countries (EU, 2012). A great benefit
is that eutrophication of water bodies will be reduced when there is less P in the
greywater fraction.

The population increase requires new homes to be constructed, and these could be
affordably built to facilitate recovery of nutrients. The infrastructure could be
designed to transfer recovered P to farmland. Retrofitting existing houses would
take longer and gradually be achieved as retrofitting is due anyway. The economic
value of P, and more so of nitrogen, in the now wasted nutrient resources can pay
for the transport of recovered nutrients to farmland (Jnsson et al., 2012).

By sorting food and other organic waste and turn it to compost material, recycling
human waste and slaughterhouse waste to farmland, and banning P in detergents,
some 5 700 ton P yr
-1
can be saved in 2030. Thereby, toxic emissions from
producing mined P and transport it to Vietnam will be reduced accordingly (Wissa,
2006).

The potential option to save on P by not shifting to a diet with more meat and
dairy products would require other policy measures. Firstly, a shift requires that
consumers have the information that meat and milk are P-inefficient methods to
access building blocks for the human body. Secondly, the environmental costs
accruing from leakages are high. Such negative factors must be balanced with
positive aspects such as improved status and time-saving through access to easy-
to-prepare meat-based food.

This article has presented some examples of calculations that can be made based
on the decision support tool currently under construction. Work will proceed by
completing the data base concerning both P and COD, and by development of a
user interface to allow user-friendly access to calculation of different scenarios.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The Paper was prepared based on the study results under the Sida PDC project coded
AKT-2010-071: Contributions towards more equitable and sustainable South Asian
Cities - The case of Hanoi towards 2030. Contributions to the study were made by the
paper authors, and the other team members including Karin Tonderski, Nguyen Thi
Anh Tuyet, Do Hong Anh, Nguyen Phuong Thao, Nguyen Tuan Linh, Bui Thi Thuy,
Hoang Minh Trang, Ngo Van Anh, Nguyen Minh Phuong, Pham Hoang Giang,
Nguyen Phuong Hong. Special thanks are delivered to all research team members,
October 2013, Hanoi, Vietnam


New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia
leaders and staff of related organizations who were involved in the study, providing
valuable expertise and information.

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