Introduction to Biomedical Engineering 607

Chapter 17 Exercise Solutions

17-1
Any three of the following reasons would suffice: Noninvasive potential, electrical immunity, chemical passivity,
small size and weight, potential for high sensitivity, high bandwidth, and the potential for multiplexing.
Any three of the following reasons would suffice: Lack of specificity in-particular for noninvasive approaches,
inherently low signal-to-noise ratios due to weak signals from the body, greater analytical capabilities are
typically required for post processing the signals, and there can be an unpredictable nature of photon absorption
and scatter in the tissue.

17-2
Light polarization is changed by manipulating the E field of the light and this manipulation typical translates into
a rotation or birefringence based on the sample being tested. For instance some molecules within the body are
chiral and will rotate the light while some tissues are bi-refingent causing ellipticity of the light. When used with
appropriate optics these changes are converted to a change in light intensity.
Luminescence (fluorescence or phosphorescence) is an absorption re-emission process in which the light is
absorbed at one energy (wavelength) by the sample and re-emitted at a different energy (wavelength). The
emitted light is typically lower in energy and thus higher in wavelength.
Light absorption due to the sample is the process by which the light is absorbed (typically in the infrared region
for sensing) and transformed into heat and thus less light is projected onto the detector. Many biological samples
have specific absorption peaks that occur as a function of wavelength.
Light scatter occurs when the sample components simply deflect the light at the same wavelength (elastically) in
which it was incident on the sample while Raman scatter is in-elastic scatter and the light comes off the sample at
a shifted wavelength depending on the sample under investigation.

17-3
Using Snells Law:
ni sin(ui) = nt sin(ut) thus 1.33sin(45)=1.5 sin(utg) or utg = 38.8 degrees
Reverse the transmission: 1.5sin(45)=1.33 sin(utw) or utw = 52.9 degrees
Yes, this makes sense since when you pass from a higher index material to a lower one the beam will tend
to bend away from the normal while the opposite is true if you pass from a lower index material to a higher one.

17-4
The following formulas must be used starting with Snells Law (ni sin(ui) = nt sin(ut))
R

= [(ni cosui nt cosut) / (ni cosui + nt cosut)]

2
and
Rp = [(-ni cosut + nt cosui) / (ni cosut + nt cosui)]
2

Note: In the above formulation the following if statement is required to accommodate for when total
internal reflection is reached (i.e. ut = 90 degrees).
for n=1:158,
if ut(n)>=pi/2;
ut(n)=pi/2;
R

(n)=1;
Rp (n)=1;
end
end
As can be seen total internal reflection is
reached at 41.8 degrees and all the light
is reflected. In addition the parallel
component goes to zero at 33.7 degrees at what is known as Brewsters angle (the point at which only E normal is
reflected.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
R-parallel
R-perpendicular
Copyright 2011 by Elsevier-Academic Press, Inc.
608 Introduction to Biomedical Engineering



17-5
For this problem:
at r = 0
I(z) = Io Exp[ - z] , Q(z) = a I(z)

for 0< z< 0.0065 cm
= a + s = 0.1+10 = 10.1 [cm
-1
] , Io = 1 given
I(z) = Exp[-10.1 z], Q(z) = 0.1 Exp[ -10.1 z]
I( 0.0065) = 0.936
Q ( 0.0065) = 0.1* 0.936 = 0.0936

for 0.0065< z< 0.0365 cm
= a + s = 0.5+10 = 10.5 [cm
-1
] , Io = I (0.0065) = 0.936
I(z) = 0.936 Exp[-10.5 (z - 0.0065)],
Q(z) = 0.5*0.936 Exp[ -10.5 (z - 0.0065)] = 0.468 Exp[-10.5 (z - 0.0065)]
I( 0.0365) = 0.683
Q ( 0.0065) = 0.468
Q ( 0.0365) = 0.5* 0.683 = 0.3415

for 0.0365< z< 0.0445 cm
= a + s = 20+20 = 40 [cm
-1
] , Io = I (0.0365) = 0.683
I(z) = 0.683 Exp[-40 (z - 0.0365)],
Q(z) = 20*0.683 Exp[ -40 (z - 0.0365)] = 13.66 Exp[-40 (z - 0.0365)]
I( 0.0445) = 0.496
Q ( 0.0365) = 13.66
Q ( 0.0445) = 20* 0.496 = 9.92









17-6
Biological Tissue with a=0.1 cm
-1

| ( r ) = |o exp( -r/o) / ( 4 t D r)
log [| ( r)/ |o]= -r/o - [ log 4 + log t + log D + log r ]

D=1/3t'
o = \ D/a

s'= 1, 10, 50, 100 cm
-1

r varies from 0.1-2cm

The MATLAB program to plot the logarithm of relative intensity versus radius for the four different scattering
coefficients follows:

% program to calculate and plot the fluence rate at %
% different distances 'r' away from the istropic source %
z
z
I
Q
Copyright 2011 by Elsevier-Academic Press, Inc.
Introduction to Biomedical Engineering 609

% for scattering = 1,10,50,100 %
clear all;
s=['+','*','^','o'];
for j=1:4
if j==1
musprime=j;
elseif j==2
musprime=10;
elseif j==3
musprime=50;
else musprime=100;
end;
mua=0.1;
i=1;

for r=0.1:0.1:2
mutprime=mua+musprime;
D=1/(3*mutprime);
delta=sqrt(D/mua);
phi(i)=exp(-r*delta*0.001)/(4*pi*D*r*0.001);
distance(i)=r;
i=i+1;
end;
figure(1)
x(j)=plot(distance, log(phi), s(j));
title('plot of relative intensity versus distance for u_s''=1,10,50,100');
xlabel('distance r in m');
ylabel('log(phi(r)/phiinitial)');
hold on;
end;
hold off
legend(x,'u_s''=1','u_s''=10','u_s''=50','u_s''=100');



0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
plot of relative intensity versus distance for u
s
'=1,10,50,100
distance r in m
l
o
g
(
p
h
i
(
r
)
/
p
h
i
i
n
i
t
i
a
l
)
u
s
'=1
u
s
'=10
u
s
'=50
u
s
'=100
Copyright 2011 by Elsevier-Academic Press, Inc.
610 Introduction to Biomedical Engineering


17-7
If heat conduction is ignored, then temperature rise can be estimated as

A T ~ Q A t / C = Fl / C
The fluence Fl = C A T = C ( Tab - To)

Tab = 150
o
C = (150+273)
o
K
Assume initial temperature To = 37
o
C = (37+273)
o
K
a = 30/cm
water thermal properties
k = 0.609 [W/ m
o
K]
C = 4180 [J/ kg
o
K]
= 1000 [ kg / m
3
]

Fl = 472.34 [J / cm
2
]

17-8
The equation for velocity is:
v = (of/f) (c/(2n cos(u))) = (of*)/(2n cos(u)))

Thus
v = [(63*10
3
)(632.8*10
-9
)]/[2 (cos(60)) (1.33)] = 2.997 cm/s

This is reasonable for an averaged sized vessel (33 cm/s in the aorta, 0.3 mm/s capillaries).

17-9
(a) Assume u=0 then 2(nt na) L cos(u) = m or 2(1.33-1)L=20(780*10
-9
)
Thus
L = 23.64 micrometers and yes it will have a long enough range since the tissue is only
20 micometers thick and with the system we can measure 23.64 micrometers.

Using the same equation as in (a) but solving for mmin and mmax for both 2 and 20 micrometers yields:

mmin = [2(0.33)(2*10
-6
)]/780*10
-9
= 1.69 or rather 1 fringe

mmax = [2(0.33)(20*10
-6
)]/780*10
-9
= 16.9 or rather 17 fringes

Thus the system must be able to discern between 1 and 17 fringes without being redundent in order to quantify
the 2 micrometer slices across the 20 micrometer range.

17-10
The Michelson is as good as the Fabry-Perot only for a system with low reflectivity, in which only the first two
beams of the Fabry-Perot contribute to the interference. A Fabry-Perot, however, is in general designed for high
reflectivity and works better because you get multiple beam interference and thus narrower peaks.

17-11
Given a molecule in some state which absorbs an incident photon, it will rise to a higher state and then
immediately emits a scattered photon with less energy than originally absorbed then this difference goes to
exciting the molecule to a higher vibrational energy level with a higher wavelength than the incident wavelength
and these are known as the stokes bands. If the initial state is excited, the molecule after absorbing and emitting a
Copyright 2011 by Elsevier-Academic Press, Inc.
Introduction to Biomedical Engineering 611

scattered photon may drop to an even lower state than the initial state, meaning some of the vibrational energy of
the molecule has been converted to radiant energy and thus the shift in wavelength is below the incident
wavelength and these are known as anti-stokes bands. Typically, since the Stokes bands are at higher energies,
they are used for sensing. The main challenges for Raman sensing are high tissue auto-fluorescence backgrounds
in the presence of very low Raman scattered signals as well as the confounding effect of water and other analytes
in the medium.

17-12
Assume the eye can be treated as a plain test cell (i.e. ignoring index of refraction mismatch problems), then the
following equation can be used:


| |
100
C
L
o
o
= = 100(15*10
-3
)/[(.8*10
-1
)(41.89)] = .448 g/dL = 448 mg/dL

This is reasonable but considered high since normal is around 90 mg/dL. Thus assuming this is a fasting glucose
level then the patient would be considered diabetic.

17-13
Using the following equation the concentrations can be determined:

A = ln(T) = ln(Io/I) = z = z E ci Ci

z = 2 cm
1 = 0.293 cm
-1

2 = 0.1704 cm
-1

3 = 0.1903 cm
-1


c11 = 1.533 mM
-1

cm
-1

c21 = 0.702 mM
-1

cm
-1

c31 = 0.721 mM
-1

cm
-1


c12 = 0.444 mM
-1

cm
-1

c22 = 0.702 mM
-1

cm
-1

c32 = 1.123 mM
-1

cm
-1


Unknowns: b, Coxy, Cdeoxy




Thus z = z E ci Ci or = E ci Ci

Solving three equations with three unknowns in MATLAB yields:

e=[1.533, 0.444, 1; 0.702,0.702,1;0.721,1.123,1]

e = 1.5330 0.4440 1.0000
0.7020 0.7020 1.0000
0.7210 1.1230 1.0000

u=[0.2930, 0.1704, 0.1903]'

u = 0.2930
0.1704
0.1903

cdo_co_ub=e\u

cdo_co_ub = 0.1600 or rather : Cdeoxy = 0.1600 mM
0.0400 Coxy = 0.0400 mM
0.0300 b = 0.0300 cm
-1

Copyright 2011 by Elsevier-Academic Press, Inc.
612 Introduction to Biomedical Engineering


This does make sense from a physiologic point of view since the blood filled tissue has a hemoglobin
concentration of 0.2 mM, with 20% oxyhemoglobin and 80% deoxyhemoglobin. In addition, the background
absorption is reasonable and low at 0.03 cm
-1
.

17-14
The analytical solution of the heat conduction equation is

u (, t) = (1/ B ) { 2B t
0.5
ierfc[ / 2 t
0.5
] - exp[ -B] + 0.5(exp[ -B] erfc[B t
0.5
- / 2 t
0.5
]
- exp[ -B] erfc[B t
0.5
+ / 2 t
0.5
] )}


u = (T - To)/ (Tab - To)
= ( Io C / k L) z
B = ( kL / Io C) a
= C ( Tab -To) / L
t = ( Io C / k L) (Io/ L) t

water thermal properties
k = 0.609 [W/ m
o
K]
C = 4180 [J/ kg
o
K]
= 1000 [ kg / m
3
]
L = 2.26 x 10
6
[J /kg]

at surface z = 0, so above equation can be reduced as

T = To + (Io/ k a ) {(2/t
0.5
) ( k a/ C) ( C t/ k )
0.5

+ erfc [( k a/ C) ( C t/ k )
0.5
] - 1}

Fl = C A T = Q A t = 472.34 [J / cm
2
] , a = 30/ cm ( from exercise 10)
A t = 1 ms
Q = a Io
so Io = 472.34/ (0.001* 30) = 15744.7 [W / cm
2
]

If heat conduction is ignored

T = To + (Q / C) t = To +113000 t

with conduction without conduction

T [
o
C] T [
o
C]

t [s] t [s]

Copyright 2011 by Elsevier-Academic Press, Inc.
Introduction to Biomedical Engineering 613

17-15
Given:
Pulsed Laser Coagulation T= Tinitial + mt
Tinitial=37C
m=1000 C /s
R is the universal gas constant = 2 cal/gm-C

Required:
T_c ( critical temperature at which point omega=1)

Assumptions:
The temperature curve is linear.
Values of ln A and E are approximated to pig tissue values of 102.72 and 74000 respectively.

Equation:
t
O(z, t) = 0} exp ( ln A - E/(RT(z,t))) dt
t
1 = 0} exp ( ln A - E/(R(Tinitial +mt)) )dt
t
1 = 0} exp ( 102.72 - 74000/(2*(37 +1000t))) dt (1)

Now, estimating values of t, the trapezoidal rule is used to evaluate the integral on the RHS of equation 1 until it
equals the LHS.

The value of t at which the value of omega is 1 was found to be 0.07 s
The value of the critical temperature is 37 + 0.07*1000 = 37 + 70 = 107C

In the constant temperature case for the same duration, the critical temperature was found to be 96.75C.

Hence, the value of critical temperature is found to be LESS in the constant temperature case as compared to the
linear heating case.

17-16
B = (2/t
0.5
) B tab
0.5
+ exp[ B
2
tab ] erfc[B tab
0.5
]

plot B tab
0.5
vs B

B


B tab
0.5

Copyright 2011 by Elsevier-Academic Press, Inc.
614 Introduction to Biomedical Engineering


for the large values of B , the slope is 1.11 ~ 2/t
0.5


a = 100/cm
Io = 1000 w/cm
2

Tab = 150
o
C = (150+273)
o
K
Assume initial temperature To = 36
o
C = (36+273)
o
K
water thermal properties
k = 0.609 [W/ m
o
K]
C = 4180 [J/ kg
o
K]
= 1000 [ kg / m
3
]
L = 2.26 x 10
6
[J /kg]

B = ( kL / Io C) a
= C ( Tab -To) / L
tab = ( Io C / k L) (Io/ L) t

Plug values into B, and tab

B =0.329, =0.213 then B = 0.07

The numerical value of B tab
0.5
is 0.295, so the time for the onset of ablation t = 7.05 [ms].

17-17
A 0.5 m photon has the following energy:
hv = h c/ = 6.62610
34
J/s 310
8
m/s / 0.510
6
m = 3.9710
19
J

Eout = Ein exp(100 5)

exp(500) may overflow on a calculator

Set
x = exp(500)
log10(x) = 500 log10e = 500/ln10 = 217.1
x = 10
217
10
0.1
= 1.2510
217


Ein = hv exp(500) = hv x = 3.9710
19
1.2510
217
= 5.0 10
198
J

Eearth = mc
2
= 610
24
(310
8
)
2
= 5.410
41
J << Ein

17-18
P = 10 mW
1
3[ (1 )]
a s
D
g
=
+
=0.033 cm
a
eff
D

= =1.74 cm
-1

r = 5 cm
( ) exp( )
4
eff
P
r r
Dr
|
t
= =8x10
-4
mw/cm
2


Copyright 2011 by Elsevier-Academic Press, Inc.
Introduction to Biomedical Engineering 615

17-19
P = 10 mW
1
3[ (1 )]
a s
D
g
=
+
=0.033 cm
a
eff
D

= =1.74 cm
-1

r = 5 cm
( ) exp( )
4
eff
P
r r
Dr
|
t
= =8x10
-4
mw/cm
2

2
( )4 r r | t =0.25 mW

17-20
The phase is related to the average path length of detected photons.









Copyright 2011 by Elsevier-Academic Press, Inc.