What is metaphysical poetry?

Metaphysical poetry
, a term coined by Samuel Johnson, has its roots in 17th-century England. This type
of poetry is witty, ingenious, and highly philosophical. It topics included loe, life and
e!istence. It used literary elements of similes, metaphors, imagery, parado!es, conceit,
and far-fetched iews of reality.
John "onne is regarded as the #leading poet$ of this highly intellectual form of poetry.
"onne was influenced by the belief that the precision of beauty in the adored %loed
one& behaed as a commemoration of ideal beauty in the eerlasting 'ingdom %heaen&.
(e also used unconentional and collo)uial rhythm and tone, which was highly contrary
to the Eli*abethan poetry style.
AGAIN
+irst we should pay our attention the word ,-etaphysical,.
It is made of . words ,meta, - beyond and ,physical, - our sorroundings means such
artificial world.
Thus the combine sense in association with poetry is - The /oetry that is haing a
particular sense that is beyond this artificial world. It means (eaenly 0 Spritual 0
Intllectual thought.
/osted by Santanu (alder at 1231 4- 5 comments
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Sunday, February 19, 212
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&e'inition o' #le(y
4n elegy is a poetic lament for the dead. Its tone is mournful and formal. The form began
in ancient 8reece where it followed rules of content2 the first section e!pressed grief, the
second praised the dead, and the last offered consolation. The form continues to be used
in modern times. 9hitman wrote :; <aptain7 -y <aptain7: as an elegy for 4braham
=incoln, and <elan memoriali*ed (olocaust ictims in :+ugue of "eath.: -odern elegies
are more li'ely to e!pand meaning beyond the death of a particular indiidual to a more
uniersal cause for grieing.
&e'inition o' !yric )oem
In ancient 8reece, lyric poetry was sung to the accompaniment of a musical instrument
called a lyre, and its sub>ect matter embraced thoughts and sentiment, rather than heroic
deeds or other classical sub>ects. (ousman,s :=oeliest of Trees: proides an e!ample of
the personal insight associated with lyric poetry2 :=oeliest of trees, the cherry now0Is
hung with bloom along the bough04nd stands about the woodland ride09earing white for
Eastertide.0 ?ow, of my threescore years and ten,0Twenty will not come again,04nd ta'e
from seenty springs a score,0It only leaes me fifty more.04nd since to loo' at things in
bloom0+ifty springs are little room,04bout the woodlands I will go0To see the cherry hung
with snow.:
&e'inition o' *onceit
4 conceit is an intricate e!tended metaphor, which compares two e!tremely incongruous
ideas and arries at a surprisingly apt parallel. -ost often found in 17th century literature,
one of the most famous conceits is seen in "onne,s :The +lea,: in which he argues that
because a flea has bitten both the lady and her loer, their blood is already mi!ed and
intimacy has been achieed. (e preents her from 'illing the flea, saying2 :;h stay7 three
lies in one flea spare09here we almost, yea more than married are.0This flea is you and
I, and this0;ur marriage-bed and marriage-temple is.: <onceits often employ hyperbole
and parado!.
&e'inition o' +de
4n ode is a long lyric poem, usually written in stan*as and formal in tone. ;riginally
intended to be chanted to musical accompaniment, the ode is often written in an intricate
meter. -ost odes are meditations on arious themes, such as Shelley,s :;de to the 9est
9ind,: 8ray,s :The 6ard,: and @eats, :;de on a 8recian Arn.: 9hile often studied, the
ode has not been a popular form since the early 11th century.
&e'inition o' *ouplet
4 couplet is two lines of poetry that generally rhyme, hae the same rhythm, and are
usually about the same length. Bhymed couplets written in iambic pentameter are called
heroic couplets. Entire poems can be made up of a series of couplets %:4 Cisit from St.
?icholas:&, couplets may help comprise part of a poetic form %for e!ample,
Sha'espearean sonnets always end with a couplet&, or a couplet might stand by itself as a
complete poem. /oetic epigrams are also considered to be couplets. 4lthough couplets
are most often associated with English and +rench erse, they are also popular in <hinese
and Tamil poetry.
&e'inition o' Sonnet
"eriing from the Italian word for :little song,: the sonnet arose as a form in the 1Dth
century and gained in popularity throughout the -iddle 4ges and Benaissance. 4 sonnet
has fourteen lines, a strict rhyme scheme, and, in English, is written in iambic pentameter.
The English or Sha'espearean Sonnet has a rhyme scheme of a-b-a-b, c-d-c-d, e-f-e-f, g-
g, where the first 1. lines comprise D )uatrains and the last . lines form a couplet.
4lthough Italian in origin, the /etrarchan Sonnet is also popular in English. The rhyme
scheme is most often a-b-b-a, a-b-b-a, c-d-c-d-c-d, forming an octae and sestet. The
topic of the sonnet is traditionally contrasting ideas, emotions, beliefs, actions,
/osted by Santanu (alder at 1525E 4- 5 comments
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"hursday, February 1,, 212
Aristotle-s &e'inition o' "ra(edy.
From the )oetics
Aristotle-s Ideas About "ra(edy
4ristotle was one of the greatest philosophers of 4ncient 8reece. 4 philosopher loo 's for
ideal form s, and tries toe!plain the nature of reality. The search for ideal forms led
4ristotle to e!plore many sub>ects. (is analysis of the ideal form of tragic plays became a
guideline for later playwrights in 9estern ciili*ation. +or centuries, European
playwrights li'e 9illiam Sha'espeare tried to write plays that would match the ideals of
4ristotleFs model."rama was not inented by 4ristotle. In fact, he used e!amples from
the wor's of famous 8ree' playwrights such as Sophocles to illustrate his main ideas.
The 8ree's belieed that tragedy was the highest form of drama, and 4ristotleFs ideas
about tragedy we re based on this belief.
Aristotles Definition of Tragedy.
/A tra(edy is the imitation o' an action that is serious
an d also, a s ha0in( ma(nitude, complete in itsel'1 in
appropriate and pleasurable lan(ua(e1...in a dramatic
rather than narrati0e 'orm1 2ith incidents arousin( pity
and 'ear,2here2ith to accomplish a catharsis o' these
emotions.3
1. /the imitation o' an action that is serious and also, as ha0in( ma(nitude, complete
in itsel'13
This means that a good tragedy deals with one issue that is ery #serious.$ Gou canFt hae
a tragedy about something
triial li'e brea'ing a fingernail. #-agnitude$ here means great importance. The issue
has to be serious and ery,
ery important. ThatFs why a lot of tragedies deal with someoneFs death. #<omplete in
itself$ means that the play
must stic' to the one issueH otherwise, the audience will get lost in the p lot.
2. /in appropriate and pleasurable lan(ua(e43
4ncient 8ree' tragedy had a chorus whose role was to comment on the action of the play.
The chorus sometimes
sang their part. 4ristotle said that the language should be easy to listen to. It should hae
rhythm and also good
harmony for th e lines th at were sung.
5. /in a dramatic rather than narrati0e 'orm13
To narrate a story is simply to tell the story, li'e telling a friend wh at happened oer the
w ee'end. In a play, the story
must be dra mati*ed or a cted out.
6. /2ith incidents arousin( pity and 'ear,3
In a tragedy, the eents or episodes in the play should lead the audience to feel ery sorry
for the main character--the
tragic hero. The audience should also feel afraid for the he ro as he moes toward a
destructie end.
7. /2here2ith to accomplish a catharsis o' these emotions.3
4s the play moes along, the eents should build up the emotions of pity and fear. 4
catharsis is a purging, or
cleansing of th e emotions --a release o f tension. In a trage dy, this is often a moment o f
reelation w hen the tragic
hero #falls flat on his face,$ and the audience can finally #e!plode.$
Aristotles Elements of Tragedy
Aristotle said that tragedy has six main eleme nts:
1. )lot1 2. *haracter1 5. "hou(ht1
6. &iction1 7. Melody1 ,. Spectacle.
These will be described from least important to most important.
The last four elements %Thought, "iction, -elody, and Spectacle& are the least important,
but 4ristotle felt they must
be done well for the play to succeed.
"hou(ht is the power of saying w hateer can be sa id and should be said at each
moment of the plot. "o the lines
spo'en by the actors ma'e senseI 4re they saying what should be s aid at each particular
moment in the playI
&iction is the actual composition of the lines that are recited. Thought deals with
what is said, and d iction deals w ith
how it is said. There are many ways to say something. 4 good playwright composes lines
that say something
e!tremely well. In a good play, some lines are so well constructed that the audience can
leae the play )uoting the
lines e!actly.
Melody and Spectacle are accesso ries. The 8 ree's sometime s used mus
ical accomp animent. 4ris totle said the m usic
%melody& h as to blend in with the p lay approp riately. Spectac le refers to the staging of
the play . 4gain, as with
melody, the spectacle should be appropriate to the theme of the play.
<haracter
*haracte r is the secon d most impo rtant elemen t of tragedy. Ea ch charac ter has
an es sential )uality or nature tha t is
reealed in the plo t. The moral purpose of each character must be clear to the audience.
The chara cters sh ould hae
four main )ualities.
A. No matter 2ho they are 8hero or sla0e9, the characters must be (ood in some 2ay.
:. "he characters should act appropriately 'or their (ender and station in li'e.
*. "he characters ha0e to ha0e belie0able personalities.
&. #ach character must act consistently throu(hout the play. In other 2ords,
nothin( should be done or said
that could be seen as /actin( out o' cha racter.3
)lot
4ristotle felt that the action of the play %its plot& was the most important of the si!
elements.
(e said, #4ll human hap piness or mis ery ta'es the fo rm of action... .<haracte r gies us
)ualities, but it is in our
actions--what we do--that we are happy or miserable.$
1. There must be Anity of /lot. This has a lready bee n described in the definitio n which
tal's about #one complete
action.$ 4ny eents or episodes must be necessary to the main issue and must also be
probable or belieable.
2. A (ood plot has )eripety or &isco0ery;;sometimes
both.
)eripety is the change from one state of things at the beginning of the play to the
e!act opposite
state by the end of the play. This could be something li'e the change from being rich to
being poor, or from
being powerful to being powerless, or from being a ruler to being a beggar. The change
that ta'es place in a
tragedy should ta'e the main ch aracter %and possibly othe r characters& from a state of
happ iness to a state of
misery.
&isco0ery is a change fro m ignorance to 'nowled ge. This often happens to the
tragic hero who starts out
#clueless$ and slowly learns how he himself created the mess he ends up in at the end of
the play.
D. <hange by itself is not enough. The character inoled in the change must hae
specific characteristics to arouse
the tragic emotions of pity and fear. Therefore, 4ristotle said that there are three forms of
plot that should be
aoided.
4. 4 totally good man must not pass from happiness to misery.
This will ma'e the audience angry that bad things happened to him. They wonFt pity him
so much as be angry for him.
6. 4 bad man must not pass from misery to hap piness.
This wonFt appeal to the audience at all because they wonFt want to see eil rewarded.
<. 4 bad man can not pass from happin ess to misery.
The audience wonFt feel sorry for him because they will beliee he got what he desered.
The true tragic hero cannot be too good or too bad, but he must end up in misery.
4ristotle concluded that the be st tragedy centers on a basically good man who cha nges
from happiness to misery because of some great error. +or e!ample, he might hae a
good )uality, li'e pride, that gets out of hand.
E. The plo t of a tragedy als o inoles som e horrible o r eil deed. Th e tragic hero eith
er does it consciou sly, does it out of ignorance, or mediates it %ma'es it easy for the deed
to happen&. +or the audience to be horrified by the eil deed, the eil has to be done to
someone important to the tragic hero. If the hero 'ills his enemy, the deed wonFt seem so
bad. ;n the other hand, if the hero 'ills someone he doesnFt care about, the audience
wonFt care much either. To ma'e it really horrible for the audience, 4ristotle suggested
that the eil deed should be done to a family member.
/osted by Santanu (alder at J2D1 /- 5 comments
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"he #pic4 &e'inition
"he #pic
"efinition2-- 4 long narratie poem on a great and serious sub>ect, related in an eleated
style, and centered on a heroic or )uasi-diine figure on whose actions depends the fate
of a tribe, a nation, or the human race. The traditional epics were shaped by a literary
artist from historical and legendary materials which had deeloped in the oral traditions
of his nation during a period of e!pansion and warfare %Beowulf, The Odyssey, The Iliad&.
#pic *on0entions, or characteristics
common to both types include4
1. The hero is a figure of great national or een cosmic importance, usually the ideal
man of his culture. (e often has superhuman or diine traits. (e has an imposing
physical stature and is greater in all ways than the common man.
.. The setting is ast in scope. It coers great geographical distances, perhaps een
isiting the underworld, other wortlds, other times.
D. The action consists of deeds of alor or superhuman courage %especially in battle&.
E. Supernatural forces interest themseles in the action and interene at times. The
interention of the gods is called :machinery.:
3. The style of writing is eleated, een ceremonial.
K. 4dditional conentions2 certainly all are not always present&
1. ;pens by stating the theme of the epic.
.. 9riter ino'es a -use, one of the nine daughters of Leus. The poet prays
to the muses to proide him with diine inspiration to tell the story of a
great hero.
D. ?arratie opens in media res. This means :in the middle of things,:
usually with the hero at his lowest point. Earlier portions of the story
appear later as flashbac's.
E. <atalogs and geneaologies are gien. These long lists of ob>ects, places,
and people place the finite action of the epic within a broader, uniersal
conte!t. ;ftentimes, the poet is also paying homage to the ancestors of
audience members.
3. -ain characters gie e!tended formal speeches.
K. Ase of the epic simile. 4 standard simile is a comparison using :li'e: or
:as.: 4n epic or (omeric simile is a more inoled, ornate comparison,
e!tended in great detail.
7. (eay use of repetition and stoc' phrases. The poet repeats passages that
consist of seeral lines in arious sections of the epic and uses homeric
epithets, short, recurrent phrases used to describe people, places, or
things. 6oth made the poem easier to memori*e.
4ristotle described si! characteristics2 :fable, action, characters, sentiments, diction, and
meter.: Since then, critics hae used these criteria to describe two 'inds of epics2
Serious #pic
fable and action are grae and
solemn
characterrs are the highest
sentiments and diction presere the
sublime
erse
*omic #pic
fable and action are light and
ridiculous
characters are inferior
sentiments and diction presere the
ludicrous
erse
9hen the first noelists began writing what were later called noels, they thought they
were writing :prose epics.: "aniel "efoe, (enry +ielding, and Samuel Buichardson
attempted the comic form. Get what they wrote were true noels, not epics, and there are
differences.
"he #pic
oral and poetic language
public and remar'able deeds
historical or legendary hero
collectie enterprise
generali*ed setting in time and place
rigid traditional structure according
to preious patterns
*omic #pic
written and referential language
priate, daily e!periencer
humani*ed :ordinary: characters
indiidual enterprise
particulari*ed setting in time and
place
structure determined by actions of
character within a moral pattern
An extended narrative poem,
usually simple in construction, but grand in scope,
exalted in style, and heroic in theme, often giving expression to the ideals of a nation or
race.
Sideli(ht4 (omer, the author of The Iliad and The Odyssey, is sometimes referred to as
the :+ather of Epic /oetry.: 6ased on the conentions he established, classical epics
began with an argument and an inocation to a guiding spirit, then started the narratie in
medias res. In modern use, the term, :epic,: is generally applied to all lengthy wor's on
matters of great importance. The Bhapsodoi, professional reciters, memori*ed his wor'
and passed it on by word of mouth as part of an oral tradition.
/osted by Santanu (alder at 12E1 4- 5 comments
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Monday, February 15, 212
#NG!IS< *I=I! WA$ AN& $#S"+$A"I+N
#n(lish *i0il War4 A 'e2 2ords
The war was an iolent struggle for power between /arliament and the 'ing that at first
seemed to hae been settled in faor of /arliament, but in the end created a constitutional
monarchy.
In 1KE. when both /arliament and @ing declared they had control of the army. 9hen
some members of the army chose to obey the 'ing while others chose to obey /arliament,
the ciil war began. It ended in 1KE1 with the e!ecution of <harles I by
/arliamentMemdashHthe seeming ictory of /arliament. Get, within a few years, ;lier
<romwell was dictator %he called himself the =ord /rotector&, and he ruled England for
most of the 1K35s. 6y the time he died, the English ruling class was ready to do almost
anything to restore the monarchy, and <harles II returned to England in 1KK5. (is return
was nearly bloodless.
The conflict between 'ing and /arliament has a ery long history, going bac' almost to
the beginnings of /arliament itself. +or this essay, howeer, I choose to begin with a few
words about James I.
English <iil 9ar
6ac'ground to the <onflict
James CI of Scotland became James I of England. James was an autocratic 'ing, a
belieer in diine right, and was innately suspicious of /arliament. (e came from
Scotland where he,d been oershadowed and, he felt, bullied. (e came to England
determined to be a true 'ing.
(e was well-educated and was at first well-recieed. Soon enough, howeer, he offended
/arliament with his autocratic behaior. /arliament protested, but James usually mollifed
and tempori*ed, and managed to aoid serious crises.
James, maneuering merely delayed a confrontation. 4fter he died in 1K.3, the members
of /arliament were determined to assert their claims. 6ut they met with a new 'ing who
was eery bit as autocratic as the old one.
*harles I 81,27;1,699
<harles managed to do >ust about eerything wrong, een when it wasn,t his fault. +or
e!ample, his father arranged a marriage with a Spanish princess. 6ecause she was both
Spanish and <atholic, she was instantly despised by the /arliamentary party. -oreoer,
<harles began to rely increasingly on +rench adisors at court, worsening the situation.
<harles was a failure in war with Spain, his ministers were widely hated, and he was een
more arrogant with /arliament than his father had been, scolding them in letters and
ignoring their pleas. The /arliament he called in 1K.J turned out to ma'e so many claims
that he ordered it ad>ourned. 9hen the spea'er of the (ouse rose to announce the 'ing,s
command, two members of /arliament forcibly held him down while others gae
impassioned speeches and passed resolutions. 9hen they were )uite done, they ad>ourned
themseles. <harles was so outraged by this behaior, he went eleen years before calling
another /arliament.
4ll of these problems could hae been resoled e!cept for one final and crucial failure,
the one sort of failure neer allowed a 'ing2 he lost in war. In his battles with England,s
mortal enemy, Spain, <harles failed where good Nueen 6ess had so spectacularly
succeeded. In 1KD1, the Scots rose in rebellion, too, and <harles finally had to turn to
/arliament to raise money.
$eli(ion and the Scottish >uestion
-uch of the conflict between 'ing and /arliament centered around religion. <harles was
widely belieed to faor <atholics, if not himself secretly one. <ertainly his behaior
toward /rotestants in England lent credence to the rumors.
;ne of the chief issues concerned the 6oo' of <ommon /rayer, a boo' of prayers
recogni*ed by the 4nglican <hurch as the only one legal. The /uritans led the criticism of
this leel of state control oer religious practice. 4nother sore point was access to public
office, for only 4nglicans were allowed to hold goernment office.
9hen <harles determined to force the 4nglican prayer boo' on the fiercely <alinist
Scots, it spar'ed open rebellion. In 1KD1, rather than submit, the Scots formed an army
and inaded England. <harles suddenly found that he could sae his 'ingdom only by
turning to /arliament. 4fter eleen years, the new members of /arliament had a long list
of grieances.
"he !on( )arliament
The parliament that was summoned in 1KE5 sat for thirteen years, becoming a power
within the goernment in its own right. 9ith the Scots occupying most of northern
England, and with Ireland in full reolt as well, <harles had no choice but to agree to
/arliament,s demands. The political reforms went down smoothly enough, but when
/arliament turned to religious reform, splits began to show clearly.
;n one side was the 'ing and those who supported him--the Boyalist party, also called
the <aaliers. ;n another side were the Independents, who wanted to do away with the
4nglican <hurch altogether. 4nother group was the /resbyterians, who wanted to reform
the 4nglican <hurch along the lines of the Scottish national church. 6oth these were what
we would call /uritans.
4lso among the /uritans was an een more e!treme group called the =eellers. They
called for annual sessions of /arliaments, payment for members, and the right to ote for
all householdersH in short, an end to priilege based on birth.
Beligion and politics were thus completely tangled together in England in the 1KE5s. 6y
late 1KE1, many of the most pressing political reforms had been enacted by /arliament,
and <harles may hae had an opportunity to calm the situation. 6ut <harles I was not the
man for moderation.
*i0il War
In -arch 1KE. <harles, belieing that /arliament had gone too far when it issued the
8rand Bemonstrance, moed to arrest John /ym and four other leaders. <harles himself
entered /arliament with solders and a warrant, but /ym and the others were gone, haing
been tipped off in adance.
They fled to =ondon where they were hidden by /uritan loyalists, who dominated the city
goernment. The @ing demanded the return of /ym, but the citi*ens refused. =ondon, at
least, was in rebellion.
That summer /arliament, fearing military action, tried to sei*e control of the army by
issuing orders for soldiers to report to /arliamentary, rather than royal, representaties.
The @ing countered by ordering the bill ignored and raised his own army in 4ugust.
Some turned out for the @ing, some for /arliament, and the war was on.
War 2ith the ?in(
Those loyal to /arliament were called BoundheadsH those loyal to the 'ing were
<aaliers. The Independents dominated the /arliamentary army. Boyalist strength lay in
the north and westH Boundhead strength was in the south and especially in =ondon.
/arliament was now free of the 'ing and it passed numerous reforms, though /ym and the
radicals want to go een further. The /resbyterians and royalist sympathi*ers still acted as
a chec' against the e!tremists.
6attle of Edgehill2 The first real battle between 'ing and /arliament came in ;ctober
1KE. at Edgehill. It was an inconclusie battle, but it showed both that /arliament was
not strong enough to defeat the 'ing, and that <harles was unable to ta'e =ondon.
January 1KED, /arliament sent out a delegation to negotiate peace, but <harles was
feeling stronger and refused to tal'. 6ut there was a peace party within /arliament that
was willing to compromise with the 'ing in order to bring the ciil war to an end.
6oth sides were sei*ing the estates of their enemies to finance the war effort, creating
een more political chaos. The @ing gained seeral ictories in 1KED, which all the more
inclined him not to negotiate or compromise with the rebels.
Marston Moor
In "ecember 1KED, John /ym died, but before he did he had struc' a deal with the Scots.
This was always <harles, great worry, that the rebels would ally with the Scots. So, >ust
when he was feeling stronger, <harles found himself isited with a new calamity.
January 1KEE the Scots inaded England again, .5,555 strong. 4 royalist army, led by
/rince Bupert, went north to meet them and on . July 1KEE, the 6attle of -arston -oor
occurred. It was a day-long confrontation with only s'irmishing for most of it.
Toward the end of the day, ;lier <romwell led a caalry charge that swept through the
<aaliers, around bac', and then charged again into their flan's. <romwell,s charge
brought a complete ictory for the Boundheads.
Gor' fell soon after, giing the Boundheads the two largest cities in the realm. <harles
found himself ery much on the run.
"he Ne2 Model Army
Increasingly, the issue that faced /arliament was what to do with the 'ing. The moderates
did not want to bring the @ing to a final battle, fearing what it might mean. They wanted
a negotiated settlement, not the death of their 'ing.
The radicals wanted it all -- these were the Independents and ;lier <romwell was
emerging as their leader.
In 1KEE, /arliament passed Self-"enying ;rdinance, intended to get soldiers out of
/arliament, for the Boundhead army was largely officered by -/s. <romwell was
specifically e!empted because eeryone recogni*ed he was the rebels, most effectie
general. 4ll other -/s were to lay down their military commands and a new army was
formed.
/arliament,s army was now a national army, leied from all those areas under Boundhead
control. It was a /uritan army, too, with /uritan preachers in eery unit. /arliament had
managed to get politics out of the army, but not religion.
Final =ictory
The first test for the ?ew -odel 4rmy came soon enough. 4t ?aseby, 1E June 1KE3,
Boundhead and <aaliers again met. 4gain, <romwell was ictorious with his caalry
charge. The Boundheads had demonstrated superior discipline.
?aseby mar's the real ictory of /arliament. <harles duc'ed and ran for another year, but
surrendered finally in -ay 1KEK, not to /arliament but to the Scots. The Scots, howeer,
turned the 'ing oer to /arliament in +ebruary 1KE7.
/arliament had won its ictory. The English 'ing was now a captie. The )uestion now
was2 what ne!tI
"he Army "a@es +0er
/arliament had won, but really it was the army that had won, and that army was deeply
tied to radical religious moements all oer England. The radical ministers within the
army were agitating for een more change and stronger measures, and the soldiers had
proed there really wasn,t anyone in England with the strength to oppose them. 9orse,
/arliament was bro'e and couldn,t pay the soldiers, giing them cause for grieances.
/arliament was still being led by men of more moderate persuasion, or at least by men
who sought some sort of settlement with the 'ing. 4fter long negotiation, in -ay 1KE7,
<harles agreed in principle to accept both presbyterianism and parliamentary control of
the army for a limited number of years. In e!change, /arliament ordered the current army
to disband.
The army refused. ;lier <romwell too' charge of the army and set a guard oer <harles
to preent the @ing from further negotiating with /arliament behind the army,s bac'. The
captain guard on his own remoed <harles in the night to (ampton <ourt, giing the
radical army direct possession of the 'ing.
$adical <i(h "ide
6ecause of their attempts to negotiate secretly with the 'ing, the 4rmy in June demanded
the arrest of 11 -/s %-embers of /arliament&. /arliament refused, and the 4rmy
marched on =ondon.
The Independents in /arliament went oer to the 4rmy, which was now camped outside
the city. 4t this >uncture there occurred a igorous discussion of what should be done.
The 4rmy was in the position of acting against both @ing and /arliament, and the real
issue was whether the cause of reform >ustified such radical action.
/utney "ebates2 The debates that now occurred, in the fields of /utney, deeloped in no
formal order, but we hae a number of accounts that let us 'now the the tenor of the
discussion. The debates show us one of the first true popular debates oer the nature of
soereignty, and the issues laid out here will be debated again in the 4merican
Beolution and the +rench Beolution.
The =eellers, the strongest of the radical groups, demanded an end to @ing, =ords and
<ommons, and rule by /arliament. The new /arliament would be elected annually, so
that the oice of the people should not be silenced for too long, and election would be by
manhood suffrage, poor and serants e!cepted. That is, the right to ote was to be
e!tended to the wor'ing class of England. They demanded also reduction of tithes,
abolition of restraint on trade, and liberty of conscience.
6ut other, smaller groups, went een further. -ost notorious were the "iggers, who
adocated the abolition of priate property and an end to goernment. The rumblings
from the 4rmy were attac'ing the ery bases of society.
<romwell decided the whole business was becoming dangerous and ordered the =eellers
bac' to their regiments. Some resisted and <romwell himself attac'ed them, arresting
three and e!ecuting one. 9ith <romwell,s attac', the /utney "ebates came to an end.
There would be no apocalyptic reform in England.
6ut, haing decided against the more radical elements in the 4rmy, the )uestion of what
to do ne!t, and especially what to do with the 'ing became een more pressing. 9ith his
actions since ?aseby, <romwell had emerged as the real leader of /arliament.
"he Ad0entures o' *harles I
In ?oember 1KE7, <harles escaped from (ampton <ourt. (e fled to Isle of 9ight where
he opened negotiations with /arliament and with the Scots. The Stuarts came from
Scotland, and <harles always belieed he would receie better treatment at the hands of
the Scots than of /arliament.
In January 1KEJ, <romwell, fed up with the 'ing,s behaior, denounced <harles to
/arliament. -ore of the moderates left at this time, as it became clear that the sentiment
was to depose the 'ing in some manner. /arliament was increasingly dominated by the
radicals, led by ;lier <romwell and cronies.
?ot all England supported the /uritans, of whateer stripeH many were still loyal to the
'ing, belieing the nation ought not be ruled by a /arliament. Boyalist uprisings in @ent
and 9ales in 4pril 1KEJ, although put down )uic'ly, show that <harles still had his
supporters.
That summer, the Scots inaded again, but now it,s <romwell and /arliament, rather than
the 'ing, who fight and defeat them %in 4ugust 1KEJ&. <harles made the mista'e of
>oining the Scottish army and was again captured.
#Aecution o' the ?in(
6y "ecember 1KEJ the =eellers dominated =ondon, 'eeping the more moderate
members away by force and threat of force. /arliament now consisted of only about 75
members, all Independents under <romwell,s leadership, trying to steer a course between
@ing and presbyterians and =eellers.
This is the /arliament that finally brought the @ing to trial for treason. The trial began .5
January 1KE1 and too' only a few days. <harles conducted himself with a calm dignity
that impressed een his enemies.
(e was conicted of treason by a ote of .K to .5, for .E members refused to ote. (e
was beheaded before a large but silent crowd on D5 January 1KE1. (is stoicism and
dignity, at his trial and at his e!ecution, went far to repair public opinion of him.
So did England 'ill its 'ing. It was the first time the public authority e!ecuted a 'ing,
either in England or anywhere else in Europe. It mar's how far political thin'ing had
adanced, and it mar's how strong the non-noble classes had grown. It also showed yet
again, as if anyone needed the demonstration, of how powerful a political force religion
could be.
+li0er *rom2ell
The undisputed leader of /arliament was ;lier <romwell. (e had been born in
(untingdon, East 4nglia in 1311, while Eli*abeth was still )ueen. (is family had done
well out of the "issolution of monasteries, under (enry CIII, but <romwell was not
wealthy.
(e first appeared in /arliament in 1K.7, but his early political career was unremar'able.
(e grew in influence when he sided with (enry /ym and became identified with those
who opposed the 'ing.
(e was a plain-loo'ing, plain-liing man with an obstinate will and a genuine talent for
command and battle. (e came into his own through the army. (e belieed utterly that he
was called by 8od to sae England and protestantism.
$umblin(s
The =eellers were not appeased by the e!ecution of <harles. Their program was aimed
at leelling the edifice of authority, and they saw only that the titles had changed.
:9e were before ruled by @ing, =ords and <ommons, now by a 8eneral, a <ourt
-artial and (ouse of <ommons. 4nd we pray you what is the differenceI:
The radical wing of the moement was getting een more radical -- +ifth -onarchists
and "iggers. These fomented more reolts and <romwell ordered more e!ecutions. (e
acted so decisiely that he pretty well bro'e the =eellers.
Forei(n A''airs
4ugust 1KE1-+ebruary 1K35 <romwell was in Ireland, battling the rebels there. (e
returned in 1K35 to fight off yet another Scottish inasion, this one was led by <harles,
son. <romwell defeated this inasion decisiely at "unbar and too' Edinburgh in
"ecember.
In 4ugust 1K31 the Scots tried it again. <harles II led them again and <romwell defeated
them again, this time near 9orcester on September D. <harles fled to +rance.
In 1K3. war bro'e out with (olland. <romwell won this one the following year. In the
course of this war, the 6ritish nay was further e!panded and deeloped.
)arliament and *rom2el
"uring these years, <romwell found /arliament to be a contrary and difficult body, and
he was as unhappy as <harles had been with it. 6ut he also found himself eery bit as
dependent on it as <harles had been, for he too needed money for the wars.
(e had already as'ed /arliament to disband and it had refused. In 4pril 1K3D, /arliament
proposed to e!pand its membership and to sit permanently.
<romwell entered the (ouse during the debate. (e listened for a while, then rose to his
feet and shouted2
:<ome, come7 I will put an end to your prating. Gou are no /arliament. I say you are
no /arliament. I will put an end to your sitting.:
6efore the stunned -/s could recoer, <romwell had called his troops into the (ouse
and cleared it. ;lier <romwell had sei*ed power.
)arliament o' the Saints
<romwell tried once more, calling a new /arliament, 'nown as the /arliament of Saints,
or the 6are-bones /arliament. It was the most radical yet, though, and he dissoled it
after si! months of s)uabbling.
<romwell had adopted the title of =ord /rotector of the <ommonwealth. 6y 4pril 1K3D
had moed into 9hitehall, the former royal residence, with his family. (e was effectiely
the dictator of England.
"he )rotectorate
Three parliaments were conened during the /rotectorate and <romwell had trouble with
all three. In -arch 1K37, moderates offered <romwell the crown, but he refused it. (e
did, howeer, accept the right to name his successor. (e named his son.
<romwell,s rule as =ord /rotector was plagued with war. There were Boyalist reolts, an
especially serious one occurring in 1K33. There was war with Spain in 1K3K, in addition
to the earlier conflicts with Ireland, Scotland and (olland. The many wars left the
treasury empty, ma'ing it difficult to accomplish much else.
Still, <romwell did manage to hold at bay England,s many enemies. he ac)uired "un'ir'
and Jamaica as a result of his wars. The 6ritish ?ay under <romwell became a regular
military serice. 4nd, of course, /uritans at last found a place in English goernment.
<romwell died D September 1K3J. (is son succeeded him, but Bichard <romwell was not
a strong ruler, and almost immediately the royalists began to wor' for a restoration of the
Stuarts.
English Civil War :The Restoration
Bichard <romwell was unfit for rule. 4ll his generals defected, and his support was gone
within a year of his accession as =ord /rotector. ;n the other hand, <harles II was tactful,
cleer, manipulatie, patient, but completely determined to e!ercise royal rights.
In 1KK5, bac'ed by +rench money and Scottish cooperation, <harles landed in England
with only a few hundred men. Eery town went oer to himH een /arliamentary armies
went oer to him. (is march on =ondon was more li'e a ictory parade. Bichard )uic'ly
abdicated and <harles was crowned 'ing.
<romwell,s /rotectorate had neer been popular. England suffered it because there had
been no one left to oppose the 4rmy and the 4rmy belonged to him. ;nce the general
died, the traditional political forces )uic'ly re-asserted themseles2 'ing and /arliament.
Settlement
Cery soon, /arliament was bac' in its former position. <harles was smart enough not to
oppose /arliament openly. Instead, he manipulated indiidual members behind the
scenes, buying them off with faors. (e coddled and stro'ed and neer allowed any
disagreement to go too far.
In e!change, <harles was able to ensure that English 'ings were firmly in power again,
though a 'ing could neer again rule without /arliament. In 1KJJ James II tried to and he
was run out of the country.
Een as England tolerated the =ord /rotector, though the underlying )uestion of the role
of /arliament was unresoled, so it tolerated <harles. 9hen James succeeded <harles,
the old )uestions arose again. ;nce again a Stuart tried to rule without /arliament and
once again there was rebellion.
"he Glorious $e0olution
The English call the rebellion of 1KJJ the 8lorious Beolution because there was a ma>or
change of goernment effected without bloodshed. James fled England without a fight.
/arliament called in 9illiam, the ruler of (olland, and made him 'ing.
/arliament was now firmly in command of English politics. 9illiam agreed to religious
toleration and to /arliament,s claims to authority. In e!change, he got the title of 'ing and
the resources of England.
The 8lorious Beolution mar's the real end of the English <iil 9ar because only in
1KJJ, and not in 1KK5, were the issues raised by the war -- religious toleration and the
role of /arliament -- finally settled.
9riters li'e John =oc'e lied and wor'ed in this political enironment, and it shaped
their ideas. Their writings in turn profoundly affected the political thought of the
4merican Beolutionaries of the 1775s.
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Saturday, February 11, 212
)eriods +' #n(lish !iterature
Periods Of English Literature -
Historians normally divide English literature into periods for
convenience of discussion. Sometimes the numbers, dates or the
names of the periods seem to vary. The folloing list follos the
idespread practice of listing!
E35-15KK ;ld English %4nglo-Sa!on& /eriod
15KK-1355 -iddle English /eriod
1355-1K55 The Benaissance %Early -odern& /eriod
133J-1K5D Eli*abethan 4ge
1K5D-1K.3 Jacobean 4ge
1K.3-1KE1 <aroline 4ge
1KE1-1KK5 <ommonwealth /eriod
1K55-17J3 The ?eo-classical /eriod
1KK5-1755 Bestoration /eriod
1755-17E3 The 4ugustan 4ge
17E3-17JD The 4ge ;f Sensibility
17J3-1JD5 The Bomantic /eriod
1JD.-1151 The Cictorian /eriod
1JEJ-1JK5 The /re-Baphaelites
1JJ5-1151 4estheticism and "ecadence
1151-1115 The Edwardian /eriod
1115-111E The 8eorgian /eriod
111E- The -odern /eriod
11E3- /ost -odernism
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"he Au(ustan A(e
"he Au(ustan A(e

The eighteenth century in English literature has been called the Augustan Age, the
Neoclassical Age, and the Age of Reason. The term 'the Augustan Age' comes from
the self-conscious imitation of the original Augustan writers, Virgil and Horace, by
many of the writers of the eriod. !ecifically, the Augustan Age was the eriod after
the Restoration era to the death of Ale"ander #oe $%&'() - &*++,. The ma-or
writers of the age were #oe and .ohn /ryden in oetry, and .onathan !wift and
.oseh Addison in rose. /ryden forms the lin0 between Restoration and Augustan
literature1 although he wrote ribald comedies in the Restoration 2ein, his 2erse
satires were highly admired by the generation of oets who followed him, and his
writings on literature were 2ery much in a neoclassical sirit. 3ut more than any
other it is the name of Ale"ander #oe which is associated with the eoch 0nown as
the Augustan Age, desite the fact that other writers such as .onathan !wift and
/aniel /efoe had a more lasting influence. This is artly a result of the olitics of
naming inherent in literary history4 many of the early forms of rose narrati2e
common at this time did not fit into a literary era which defined itself as neoclassic.
The literature of this eriod which conformed to #oe's aesthetic rinciles $and
could thus 5ualify as being 'Augustan', is distinguished by its stri2ing for harmony
and recision, its urbanity, and its imitation of classical models such as Homer,
6icero, Virgil, and Horace, for e"amle in the wor0 of the minor oet 7atthew #rior.
8n 2erse, the tight heroic coulet was common, and in rose essay and satire were
the redominant forms. Any facile definition of this eriod would be misleading,
howe2er1 as imortant as it was, the neoclassicist imulse was only one strain in the
literature of the first half of the eighteenth century. 3ut its reresentati2es were the
defining 2oices in literary circles, and as a result it is often some asect of
'neoclassicism' which is used to describe the era.
'Neoclassicism'
The wor0s of /ryden, #oe, !wift, Addison and .ohn 9ay, as well as many of their
contemoraries, e"hibit 5ualities of order, clarity, and stylistic decorum that were
formulated in the ma-or critical documents of the age4 /ryden's An Essay of
Dramatic Poesy $&'':,, and #oe's Essay on Criticism $&*&&,. These wor0s, forming
the basis for modern English literary criticism, insist that 'nature' is the true model
and standard of writing. This 'nature' of the Augustans, howe2er, was not the wild,
siritual nature the romantic oets would later ideali;e, but nature as deri2ed from
classical theory4 a rational and comrehensible moral order in the uni2erse,
demonstrating 9od's ro2idential design. The literary circle around #oe considered
Homer reeminent among ancient oets in his descritions of nature, and concluded
in a circuitous feat of logic that the writer who 'imitates' Homer is also describing
nature. <rom this follows the rules inducti2ely based on the classics that #oe
articulated in his Essay on Criticism4
Those rules of old disco2ered, not de2ised,
Are nature still, but nature methodi;ed.
#articularly influential in the literary scene of the early eighteenth century were the
two eriodical ublications by .oseh Addison and Richard !teele, The Tatler $&*)(-
&&,, and The Spectator $&*&&-&=,. 3oth writers are ran0ed among the minor
masters of English rose style and credited with raising the general cultural le2el of
the English middle classes. A tyical reresentati2e of the ost-Restoration mood,
!teele was a ;ealous crusader for morality, and his stated urose in The Tatler was
>to enli2en 7orality with ?it, and to temer ?it with 7orality.> ?ith The Spectator,
Addison added a further urose4 to introduce the middle-class ublic to recent
de2eloments in hilosohy and literature and thus to educate their tastes. The
essays are discussions of current e2ents, literature, and gossi often written in a
highly ironic and refined style. Addison and !teele heled to oulari;e the
hilosohy of .ohn @oc0e and romote the literary reutation of .ohn 7ilton, among
others. Although these ublications each only ran two years, the influence that
Addison and !teele had on their contemoraries was enormous, and their essays
often amounted to a oulari;ation of the ideas circulating among the intellectuals of
the age. ?ith these wide-sread and influential ublications, the literary circle
re2ol2ing around Addison, !teele, !wift and #oe was ractically able to dictate the
acceted taste in literature during the Augustan Age. 8n one of his essays for The
Spectator, for e"amle, Addison critici;ed the metahysical oets for their ambiguity
and lac0 of clear ideas, a critical stance which remained influential until the twentieth
century.
The literary criticism of these writers often sought its -ustification in classical
recedents. 8n the same 2ein, many of the imortant genres of this eriod were
adatations of classical forms4 moc0 eic, translation, and imitation. A large art of
#oe's wor0 belongs to this last category, which e"emlifies the artificiality of
neoclassicism more thoroughly than does any other literary form of the eriod. 8n his
satires and 2erse eistles #oe ta0es on the role of an English Horace, adoting the
Roman oet's informal candor and con2ersational tone, and alying the standards
of the original Augustan Age to his own time, e2en addressing 9eorge 88 satirically as
>Augustus.> #oe also translated the 8liad and the Adyssey, and, after concluding this
demanding tas0, he embar0ed on The Dunciad $&*=:,, a biting literary satire.
The Dunciad is a moc0 eic, a form of satiric writing in which commonlace sub-ects
are described in the ele2ated, heroic style of classical eic. 3y arody and deliberate
misuse of heroic language and literary con2ention, the satirist emhasi;es the
tri2iality of the sub-ect, which is imlicitly being measured against the highest
standards of human otential. Among the best-0nown moc0 eic oems of this
eriod in addition to The Dunciad are .ohn /ryden's MacFlecknoe $&':=,, and #oe's
The Rape of the Lock $&*&+,. 8n The Rape of the Lock, often considered one of the
highest achie2ements of moc0 eic oetry, the heroic action of eic is maintained,
but the scale is sharly reduced. The hero's rearation for combat is transosed to
a fashionable boat ride u the Thames, and the ensuing battle is a card game. The
hero steals the titular loc0 of hair while the heroine is ouring coffee.
Although the moc0 eic mode is most commonly found in oetry, its influence was
also felt in drama, most notably in .ohn 9ay's most famous wor0, The e!!ar"s
#pera $&*=:,. The e!!ar"s #pera ludicrously mingles elements of ballad and 8talian
oera in a satire on !ir Robert ?alole, England's rime minister at the time. The
2ehicle is oera, but the characters are criminals and rostitutes. 9ay's burles5ue of
oera was an unrecedented stage success and centuries later insired the 9erman
dramatist 3ertolt 3recht to write one of his best-0nown wor0s, Die Drei!roschenoper
$The Threepenny #pera, &(=:,.
Ane of the most well-0nown moc0 eic wor0s in rose from this eriod is .onathan
!wift's The attle of the ooks $&*)+,, in which the old battle between the ancient
and the modern writers is fought out in a library between The 3ee and The !ider.
Although not a moc0 eic, the satiric imulse is also the dri2ing force behind
.onathan !wift's $ulli%er"s Tra%els $&*=',, one of the masterieces of the eriod. The
four arts describe different -ourneys of @emuel 9ulli2er1 to @illiut, where the
omous acti2ities of the diminuti2e inhabitants is satiri;ed1 to 3robdingnag, a land
of giants who laugh at 9ulli2er's tales of the greatness of England1 to @auta and
@agoda, inhabited by 5uac0 scientists and hilosohers1 and to the land of the
Houhynhnms, where horses are ci2ili;ed and men $Bahoos, beha2e li0e beasts. As a
satirist !wift's techni5ue was to create fictional sea0ers such as 9ulli2er, who utter
sentiments that the intelligent reader should recogni;e as comlacent, egotistical,
stuid, or mad. !wift is recogni;ed as a master of understated irony, and his name
has become ractically synonymous with the tye of satire in which outrageous
statements are offered in a straight-faced manner.
The Nature and 9ra2eyard #oets
Neoclassicism was not the only literary mo2ement at this time, howe2er. Two schools
in oetry re-ected many of the recets of decorum ad2ocated by the neoclassical
writers and anticiated se2eral of the themes of Romanticism. The so-called nature
oets, for e"amle, treated nature not as an ordered astoral bac0dro, but rather
as a grand and sometimes e2en forbidding entity. They tended to indi2iduali;e the
e"erience of nature and shun a methodi;ed aroach. Anne <inch, 6ountess of
?inchilsea, was a rural oet in an urban era, and the oems of Miscellany Poems &y
a Lady $&*&C, were often obser2ations of nature, largely free of neoclassical
con2entions. Her contemoraries regarded her as little more than a female wit, but
she was highly raised by the Romantic oets, articularly ?illiam ?ordsworth. A
further influential oet of this school was .ames Thomas, whose oetical wor0 The
Seasons, which aeared in searate 2olumes from &*=' to &*C) and beginning with
'inter, was the most oular 2erse of the century. 8n his treatment of nature, he
di2erged from the neoclassical writers in many imortant ways4 through sweeing
2istas and secific details in contrast to circumscribed, generali;ed landscaes1
e"uberance instead of balance1 and a fascination with the suernatural and the
mysterious, no name -ust a few.
This last was also the ma-or concern of the oets of the 9ra2eyard !chool. <oremost
among them was Edward Boung, whose early 2erses were in the Augustan tradition.
8n his most famous wor0, howe2er, The Complaint( or, )i!ht Thou!hts on Life,
Death, and *mmortality $&*+=-+D,, the melancholy meditations against a bac0dro
of tombs and death indicate a ma-or dearture from the con2entions and con2ictions
of the receding generation. ?hile the neoclassicists regarded melancholia as a
wea0ness, the er2asi2e mood of The Complaint is a sentimental and ensi2e
contemlation of loss. 8t was nearly as successful as Thomas's The Seasons, and was
translated into a number of ma-or Euroean languages.
The Rise of the Novel
The most imortant figure in terms of lasting literary influence during this eriod,
howe2er, was undoubtedly /aniel /efoe. An outsider from the literary establishment
ruled by #oe and his cohorts, /efoe was in some ways an anomaly during a eriod
defined as 'Augustan,' desite the fact that he was a writer of social criticism and
satire before he turned to no2els. He did not belong to the resected literary world,
which at best ignored him and his wor0s and at worst derided him. $8n &*)(, !wift
for e"amle referred to him as >the <ellow that was #illoryed, 8 ha2e forgot his
name.>,
The wor0s of fiction for which /efoe is remembered, articularly Moll Flanders $&*==,
and Ro&inson Crusoe $&*&(,, owe less to the satirical and refined imulse of the
Augustan tradition, and more to a contrary tradition of early rose narrati2e by
women, articularly Ahra 3ehn, 7ary /elari2iere 7anley and .ane 3ar0er. !ince 8an
?att's influential study, The Rise of the )o%el $&(D*,, literary historians ha2e
generally considered Ro&inson Crusoe the first successful English no2el and /efoe as
one of the originators of realistic fiction in the eighteenth century, but he was deely
indebted to his female recursors and robably would ne2er ha2e attemted rose
narrati2e if they had not created an audience for it in the first lace.
The English no2el was a roduct of se2eral differing literary traditions, among them
the <rench romance, the !anish icares5ue tale and no2ella, and such earlier rose
models in English as .ohn @yly's Euphues $&D*(,, !ir #hili !idney's Arcadia $&D(),
and .ohn 3unyan's Pil!rim"s Pro!ress $&':+,. The authors of these wor0s collecti2ely
heled a2e the way for the form of the no2el as it is 0nown today. The true ioneers
of the no2el form, howe2er, were the women writers ursuing their craft in oosition
to the classically refined recets of the writers defining the Augustan Age.
#articularly influential were Ahra 3ehn's tra2el narrati2e #roonoko $&'::, and her
erotic eistolary no2el Lo%e Letters et+een a )o&leman and his Sister $&':C,. 8n
#roonoko, 3ehn ro2ides numerous details of day to day life and a con2ersational
narrati2e 2oice, while with Lo%e Letters she ioneered the eistolary form for a
longer wor0 of fiction, o2er fifty years before Richardson. The olitical rose satires
of 7ary /elari2iere 7anley were racy e"osEs of high-society scandals written in the
tradition of Lo%e Letters, 3ehn's erotic roman , clef- 7anley's no2els The Secret
.istory of /ueen 0arah and the 0araians $&*)D, and The )e+ Atalantis $&*)(, were
widely oular in their day and heled create an audience for rose narrati2es that
was large enough to suort the new breed of the rofessional no2elist.
Eli;a Haywood also began her career writing erotic tales with an ostensibly olitical
or high society bac0ground. Her first no2el, Lo%e in E1cess $&*&(, went through four
editions in as many years. 8n the thirties, her writing underwent a transformation
suitable to the growing moral concerns of the era, and her later no2els show the
influence of her male contemoraries Richardson and <ielding $this desite the fact
that she may ha2e been the author of Anti2Pamela $&*+&,, an early attac0 on
Richardson's first no2el,. Haywood's The .istory of Miss etsy Thou!htless $&*D&, in
articular belongs in a more realistic tradition of writing, bringing the action from
high society into the realm of the middle class, and abandoning the descrition of
erotic encounters.
#articularly interesting among the wor0 of early women no2elists is that of .ane
3ar0er. Her no2el Lo%es *ntri!ues( #r, The .istory of the Amours of os%il and
$alesia $&*&C, tells in first-erson narrati2e the sychologically realistic tale of a
heroine who doesn't get her man. The ortrayal of 9alesia's emotional dilemma,
caught in a web of modesty, social circumstances and the hero's uncertainty and
indecisi2eness, catures intriguing facets of sychological u;;les without ro2iding
easy answers for the readers. 9alesia retreats from marriage, hardly 0nowing why
she does so or how the situation came about, and the reader is no smarter.
7any of the elements of the modern no2el attributed to /efoe -- e.g. the beginnings
of sychological realism and a consistent narrati2e 2oice -- were anticiated by
women writers. /efoe's contribution was in utting them all together and creating
out of these elements sustained rose narrati2es blending hysical and sychological
realism. His most imressi2e wor0s, such as Moll Flanders and Ro1ana $&*=+,,
treated characters faced with the difficulties of sur2i2ing in a world of recogni;ably
modern economic forces. 9i2en his caitalist hilosohy, it is not surrising that
/efoe's rotagonists are self-reliant, resourceful indi2idualists who e"ress his
middle-class 2alues. 8n his attemt to balance indi2idualism and economic realism
with a belief in 9od's ro2idence, /efoe created multi-faceted characters who
combine reentance for ast misdeeds with a celebration of the indi2idual's ower to
sur2i2e in a hostile en2ironment.
Although /efoe and his female contemoraries were loo0ed down uon by the
intellectual establishment reresented by #oe and !wift, later de2eloments in
literary history ha2e shown that it was they who would define the literature of a new
age, and not the so-called Augustans. ?hile the no2el remains the dominant literary
form of the twentieth century, moc0 eic is at best an element used occasionally in
comedy. Ro&inson Crusoe and Moll Flanders are still widely read1 The Rape of the
Lock is mentioned in history boo0s. .onathan !wift roduced an enduring classic as
well with $ulli%er"s Tra%els, but desite his brilliance it is the merchant /aniel /efoe,
a -ournalist who saw writing as >a considerable branch of the English commerce>
$Essay upon Literature, &*=',, who is considered the father of the English no2el.
/osted by Santanu (alder at J2EE 4- 5 comments
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S%!!A:BS :.A. <onours in #n(lish W:SB
9est 6engal State Aniersity
6erunanpu'uria, -ali'apur
6arasat, ?orth .E /arganas
9est 6engal O 7551.K
/art-I /apers
13 mar's O within 355-335 wordsH 15 mar's O E55 wordsH J mar's D55 wordsH 3 mar's
.55 wordsH . mar'sPwithin 35-K5 words.
/aper I 2 ;ld English, -iddle English, Eli*abethan and Jacobean =iterature and /hilology
+ull -ar's2 155
E!amination Time2 E hours.
?umber of Nuestions to be answered during the e!amination
"etailed <ourse2
SE<TI;? 1.
;ld English /oetry- 6ac'ground of the age, culture, structure of the epic, style, theme. 4
passage from 6eowulf %see appendi! I&. The idea is to use an e!tract and from there wor'
into the conte!t and analyse how that shapes the writing.
?on-epic, secular, elegiac poetry, theme, style, social picture, language,style 2 "eorFs
=ament %see appendi! I&
<hristian poetry- <aedmonFs hymnH <ynewulf, The +ates of the 4postlesH "ream of the
Bood %see appendi! I&
;ld English /rose with e!tracts from 4elfric, 9ulfstan, 4lfred and the ;ld English
<hronicle. %E!tracts not proided for the current session&
SE<TI;? ..
-iddle English =iterature O The ?orman con)uest and transition, the romance tradition,
the alliteratie reial %See 4ppendi! I&, the 6lac' "eath, =angland, 8ower, =ydgateH
<haucer, 8eneral bac'ground, literary career, an e!tract from the /rologue %see appendi!
I &-etrical Bomances, -alory, <a!ton. /rose, 9yclif and -andeille.
SE<TI;? D.
Eli*abethan0 Jacobean 4ge. The historical, political, socio-cultural bac'ground,
literary0intellectual details. The generic0social history of poetry and poetic forms %to be
tied up with the poems of the period that are being taught&.
SE<TI;? E.
The following poems are for detailed study2
Sidney, =oing in truth
Spenser, ;ne day I wrote her name upon the strand
Sha'espeare, Sonnet 1J, 7D, 11K
"onne, The 8ood -orrow
-arell, To (is <oy -istress
Caughan, The Betreat
SE<TI;? 3.
Eli*abethan0Jacobean /rose, The phenomenal growth of English prose from late medieal
religious prose, through the translations from =atin that culminated in the issue of @ing
JamesFs 6ible. ;ther categories of prose, secular romances, narraties, traelogues to be
tied up with a close reading of 6acon,s essays ;f Traail 0 ;f Studies and short e!tracts
from 6urton and 6rowne. %See appendi! IH online ersions are aailableH the e!tracts to
be used hae been selected&
SE<TI;? K.
Scansion2 1 passage out of 1 to be scanned from the prescribed poems of /aper I and II
SE<TI;? 7.
/hilology
Jespersen2 =atin, 8ree', Scandinaian, +rench influences,
?atie Besources
<.=.9ren2 <hapter CI Sec 1M .
<hapter CII2 Section D
)aper II 4 *i0il War, $estoration, and #i(hteenth
*entury !iterature
+ull -ar's2 155
E!amination Time2 E hours.
?umber of Nuestions to be answered during the e!amination
"etailed course2
SE<TI;? 1
(istory, /olitics and socio-cultural bac'ground, and its impact on literature. /oetry with
special reference to the change and the emergence of new forms and styles, erse satire,
neoclassical norms. The impact of science and empirical thin'ing, democratic social and
political trends, secular interests and dominant intellectual discourses that were reflected
on writing during the period.
SE<TI;? .
-ilton, /aradise =ost, 6oo' 1
SE<TI;? D
4le!ander /ope, Bape of the =oc', <antos 1 to D
SE<TI;? E
/recursors of the Bomantics2 8ray, Elegy 9ritten in a <ountry <hurchyardH <owper, the
Solitude of 4le!ander Sel'ir'H 6la'e, the Tyger, The =amb.
SE<TI;? 3
Bhetoric 2 1 passage %from the poems prescribed in /aper I and II&
Becommended reading2
6;;@S on (IST;BG ;+ E?8=IS( =ITEB4TABE %to be used for other papers as
well&
4ndrew Sanders, The Short ;!ford (istory of English =iterature, ;A/, ?ew "elhi,
Third Edition, .55E, +irst Indian edition .553.
6ibhash <houdhury, English Social 4nd <ultural (istory2 4n Introductory 8uide 4nd
8lossary, /rentice (all of India, ?ew "elhi, .553.
"aid "aiches, 4 <ritical (istory of English =iterature, 1175
6oris +ord ed. The ?ew /elican 8uide to English =iterature
4lbert 6augh, 4 =iterary (istory of England
Beference boo's for sections 1and .2
-alcolm 8odden and -ichael =apidge, ed., The <ambridge <ompanion to ;ld English
=iterature, <A/, 1111.
@ein <rossley-(olland, The 4nglo-Sa!on 9orld, 4n 4nthology, ;!ford 9orldFs
<lassics Series
-ichael Swanton, English =iterature 6efore <haucer, =ongman =iterature in English
Series
Beference boo' for section 72
4.<. 6augh, 4 (istory of the English =anguage
/art-II /apers

"etailed <ourse2
SE<TI;? 1.
6eginnings of drama , the deelopment in the Eli*abethan and Jacobean ageH changes in
theatre and drama after the Bestoration and the opening of the theatresH mid and late
eighteenth century drama, nineteenth century oeriew of drama.
SE<TI;? .
E!tracts from Eeryman, Tamburlaine, Eeryman in his (umour, The Shoema'er,s
(oliday, The "uchess of -alfi, The -an of -ode, /rometheus Anbound. %See4ppendi!
II&
"rama for detailed study2
SE<TI;? D. -arlowe-- Edward II or Sha'espeare -- -acbeth
SE<TI;? E. Sha'espeare-- Twelfth ?ight
SE<TI;? 3. Sheridan O The School for Scandal or 8oldsmith-- She Stoops to <on)uer
SE<TI;? K. =iterary terms used in connection with drama.

/aper IC2 The Bise and "eelopment of the ?oel and
/rose from the Eighteenth century to the Cictorian 4ge
+ull -ar's2 155 E!amination Time2 E hours.
?umber of Nuestions to be answered during the e!amination
"etailed <ourse2
SE<TI;? 1
Bise and deelopment of the noel from the eighteenth century to the Cictorian 4ge
SE<TI;? .
Eighteenth <entury, Bomantic and Cictorian /rose a general surey with special
reference to the periodical essay and the familiar essay.
=amb, ,"ream <hildren,H 4ddison, QSpectator /aperF 1.
SE<TI;? D
Jane 4usten, /ride and /re>udice or <harlotte 6ronte, Jane Eyre
SE<TI;? E
<harles "ic'ens, (ard Times0;lier Twist or Thomas (ardy, Beturn of the ?atie0 +ar
+rom the -adding <rowd.
4//E?"IR II %e!tracts specifically mentioned in the syllabus for /art II&
Eeryman,
http200www.luminarium.org0medlit0eeryman.htm
This is an interesting website on the medieal morality play
http200dar'wing.uoregon.edu0Srbear0eeryman.html
This contains the entire -iddle English te!t of Eeryman
http200www.enotes.com0eeryman-te!t0eeryman-te!t
This contains the modern English te!t of Eeryman
"eath.
I am "eath that no man fear,%113&
+or eery man I arrest and no man spare,
+or it is 8odFs commandment
That all to me should be obedient.
Eeryman.
"eath, thou comest when I had thee least in mind7
In thy power it lieth to sae me yet HP
Thereto of my goods will I gie thee, if thou wilt be 'ind,P%1.5&
Gea, a thousand pounds shalt thou get7P
4nd defer this matter till another day.
"eath.
Eeryman, it may not be in any way.
I set no store by gold, siler, riches, or such gear,%1.3&
?or by pope, emperor, 'ing, prince, or peer.
+or, if I would receie gifts great,
4ll the world I might get,
6ut my custom is clean the contrary way.
I gie thee no respite. <ome hence, nor delay7%1D5&
Eeryman.
4las, shall I hae no longer respite7
I may say "eath gieth no warning7
To thin' on thee, it ma'eth my heart sic',
+or all unready is my boo' of rec'oning.
6ut if I might hae twele years of waiting,%1D3&
-y accounting-boo' I would ma'e so clear
That my rec'oning I should not need to fear.
9herefore, "eath, I pray thee, for 8odFs mercy,
Spare me till I be proided with a remedy7
"eath.
It aaileth thee not to cry, weep, and pray,%1E5&
6ut haste thee lightly, that thou mayest be on thy >ourney,
4nd ma'e proof of thy friends, if thou can,
+or, 'now thou well, time waiteth for no man,
4nd in the world each liing creature
6ecause of 4damFs sin must die by nature.%1E3&
Tamburlaine the 8reat, 6oo' I Scene II
Enter T4-6AB=4I?E, TE<(E==ES, T(EBI"4-4S, ASA-<4S4?E,
LE?;<B4TE, 4?I//E, two -;;BS drawing 64J4LET( in a cage, and L46I?4
following him.
T4-6AB=4I?E. 6ring out my footstool. TThey ta'e 64J4LET( out of the cage.U
64J4LET(. Ge holy priests of heaenly -ahomet, That, sacrificing, slice and cut your
flesh, Staining his altars with your purple blood, -a'e heaen to frown, and eery fi!ed
star To suc' up poison from the moorish fens, 4nd pour itV11DW in this glorious tyrant,s
throat7
T4-6AB=4I?E. The chiefest god, first moer of that sphere Enchas,d with thousands
eer-shining lamps, 9ill sooner burn the glorious frame of heaen Than it shouldV11EW
so conspire my oerthrow. 6ut, illain, thou that wishest thisV113W to me, +all prostrate
on the low disdainful earth, 4nd be the footstool of great Tamburlaine, That I may rise
intoV11KW my royal throne.
64J4LET(. +irst shalt thou rip my bowels with thy sword, 4nd sacrifice my heartV117W
to death and hell, 6efore I yield to such a slaery.
T4-6AB=4I?E. 6ase illain, assal, slae to Tamburlaine, Anworthy to embrace or
touch the ground That bears the honour of my royal weightH Stoop, illain, stoop7
stoopHV11JW for so he bids That may command thee piecemeal to be torn, ;r scatter,d
li'e the lofty cedar-trees Struc' with the oice of thundering Jupiter.
64J4LET(. Then, as I loo' down to the damned fiends, +iends, loo' on me7 and thou,
dread god of hell, 9ith ebon sceptre stri'e this hateful earth, 4nd ma'e it swallow both
of us at once7 TT4-6AB=4I?E gets up on him into his chair.U
T4-6AB=4I?E. ?ow clear the triple region of the air, 4nd let the -a>esty of (eaen
behold Their scourge and terror tread on emperors. Smile, stars that reign,d at my natiity,
4nd dim the brightness of yourV111W neighbour lampsH "isdain to borrow light of
<ynthia7 +or I, the chiefest lamp of all the earth, +irst rising in the east with mild aspect,
6ut fi!ed now in the meridian line, 9ill send up fire to your turning spheres, 4nd cause
the sun to borrow light of you. -y sword struc' fire from his coat of steel, Een in
6ithynia, when I too' this Tur'H 4s when a fiery e!halation, 9rapt in the bowels of a
free*ing cloud, +ighting for passage, ma'eTsU the wel'in crac', 4nd casts a flash of
lightning toV.55W the earth2 6ut, ere I march to wealthy /ersia, ;r leae "amascus and
th, Egyptian fields, 4s was the fame of <lymene,s brain-sic' son That almost brentV.51W
the a!le-tree of heaen, So shall our swords, our lances, and our shot +ill all the air with
fiery meteorsH Then, when the s'y shall wa! as red as blood, It shall be said I made it red
myself, To ma'e me thin' of naught but blood and war.
L46I?4. Anworthy 'ing, that by thy cruelty Anlawfully usurp,st the /ersian seat, "ar,st
thou, that neer saw an emperor 6efore thou met my husband in the field, 6eing thy
captie, thus abuse his state, @eeping his 'ingly body in a cage, That roofs of gold and
sun-bright palaces Should hae prepar,d to entertain his graceI 4nd treading him beneath
thy loathsome feet, 9hose feet the 'ingsV.5.W of 4frica hae 'iss,dI
TE<(E==ES. Gou must deise some torment worse, my lord, To ma'e these capties
rein their laish tongues.
T4-6AB=4I?E. Lenocrate, loo' better to your slae.
LE?;<B4TE. She is my handmaid,s slae, and she shall loo' That these abuses flow not
fromV.5DW her tongue.-- <hide her, 4nippe.
4?I//E. =et these be warnings, then, for you,V.5EW my slae, (ow you abuse the
person of the 'ingH ;r else I swear to hae you whipt star' na',d.V.53W
64J4LET(. 8reat Tamburlaine, great in my oerthrow, 4mbitious pride shall ma'e thee
fall as low, +or treading on the bac' of 6a>a*eth, That should be horsed on four mighty
'ings.
T4-6AB=4I?E. Thy names, and titles, and thy dignitiesV.5KW 4re fled from 6a>a*eth,
and remain with me, That will maintain it ,gainst a world of 'ings.-- /ut him in again.
TThey put him into the cage.U
64J4LET(. Is this a place for mighty 6a>a*ethI <onfusion light on him that helps thee
thus7
T4-6AB=4I?E. There, whilesV.57W he lies, shall 6a>a*eth be 'eptH 4nd, where I go,
be thus in triumph drawnH 4nd thou, his wife, shaltV.5JW feed him with the scraps -y
seritors shall bring thee from my boardH +or he that gies him other food than this, Shall
sit by him, and stare to death himself2 This is my mind, and I will hae it so. ?ot all the
'ings and emperors of the earth, If they would lay their crowne before my feet, Shall
ransom him, or ta'e him from his cage2 The ages that shall tal' of Tamburlaine, Een
from this day to /lato,s wondrous year, Shall tal' how I hae handled 6a>a*eth2 These
-oors, that drew him from 6ithynia To fair "amascus, where we now remain, Shall lead
him with us wheresoe,er we go.-- Techelles, and my loing followers, ?ow may we see
"amascus, lofty towers, =i'e to the shadows of /yramides That with their beauties
graceV.51W the -emphian fields. The golden statureV.15W of their feather,d bird,V.11W
That spreads her wings upon the city-walls, Shall not defend it from our battering shot2
The townsmen mas' in sil' and cloth of gold, 4nd eery house is as a treasuryH The men,
the treasure, and the town areV.1.W ours.
T(EBI"4-4S. Gour tents of white now pitch,d before the gates, 4nd gentle flags of
amity display,d, I doubt not but the goernor will yield, ;ffering "amascus to your
ma>esty.
T4-6AB=4I?E. So shall he hae his life, and all the rest2 6ut, if he stay until the
bloody flag 6e once adanc,d on my ermilion tent, (e dies, and those that 'ept us out so
longH 4nd, when they see me march in blac' array, 9ith mournful streamers hanging
down their heads, 9ere in that city all the world contain,d, ?ot one should scape, but
perish by our swords.
LE?;<B4TE. Get would you hae some pity for my sa'e, 6ecause it is my
countryV.1DW and my father,s.
Eeryman in his (umour, /rologue and 4ct IC Scene C
The Shoema'er,s (oliday, 4ct II Scene II
The "uchess of -alfi, 4ct II Scene III
The -an of -ode, 4ct IC Scene II %up to the e!it of Sir +opling&
/rometheus Anbound, 4ct I , the first speech of /rometheus

/art-III /apers
/4/EB C2 ?ineteenth and Twentieth <entury /oetry
+ull -ar's2 155
E!amination Time2 E hours.
?umber of Nuestions to be answered during the e!amination
"etailed <ourse2
SE<TI;? 1. 6ac'grounds of Bomantic, Cictorian and -odern /oetry -- trends,
traditions, techni)ues and a general oeriew of poets and their wor's. Social, political
and intellectual deelopments that left an impact on poetry. E )uestions of 3 mar's each.
3!EX.5
SE<TI;? .. B;-4?TI< /;ETBG
;ne long )uestion of 15 mar's and . short e!planation0comment )uestions of 3 mar's
each. 15Y%.R3&X.5
9illiam 9ordsworth2 The =ucy /oems, Tintern 4bbey
Samuel Taylor <oleridge2 @ubla @han0<hristabel 6oo' I
/ercy 6. Shelley2 ;*ymandias, To a S'ylar'0;de to the 9est 9ind
John @eats 2 ;de to a ?ightingale, To 4utumn, 9hen I hae fears that I may cease to be.
6yron2 9hen 9e Two /arted In Silence and Tears
SE<TI;? D. CI<T;BI4? /;ETBG
;ne long )uestion of 15 mar's and . short e!planation0comment )uestions of 3 mar's
each. 15Y%.R3&X.5
4lfred Tennyson2 The =ady of Shalott, Alysses
Bobert 6rowning2 +ra =ippo =ippi0 4ndrea del Sarto
-atthew 4rnold2 To -arguerite0"oer 6each
E.6. 6rowning2 4urora =eigh , Selections
SE<TI;? E. -;"EB? /;ETBG
;ne long )uestion of 15 mar's and D short e!planation0comment )uestions of 3 mar's
each. 15Y%DR3&X.3
T.S. Eliot2 The =oe Song of J. 4lfred /rufroc'0 Journey of the -agi
9.6. Geats2 Sailing to 6y*antium
9ilfred ;wen2 "ulce et "ecorum est
9. (. 4uden2 Song IR from QTwele SongsF
"ylan Thomas2 4nd "eath Shall (ae no "ominion
/hilip =ar'in2 <hurch 8oing
Ted (ughes 2 The Thought +o!
Seamus (eaney2 "igging
SE<TI;? 3. S(;BT NAESTI;?S +B;- SE<TI;?S .,D and E. +ie )uestions to be
answered of D mar's each. 3!DX13
/4/EB CI2 -odern "rama
+ull -ar's2 155
E!amination Time2 E hours.
"etailed <ourse2
SE<TI;? 1. 6ac'grounds and deelopment of 6ritish and Irish "rama, trends in
European "rama, changes in theatre and production. E )uestions of 3 mar's each. 3!EX.5
SE<TI;? .. 4ny two of the following plays will be offered.
+rom each play one 13 mar' )uestion will hae to be answered and three 3 mar'
e!planation0comment0character or scene )uestions. 13Y %D!3&XD5 YD5XK5
8.6. Shaw2 <andida 0-a>or 6arbara
J.-.Synge2 Biders to the Sea0 The /layboy of the 9estern 9orld
/inter 2 The <areta'er
SE<TI;? D.
;ne Anseen poem 0 prose e!tract for substance and critical appreciation. 15Y15X.5

/4/EB CII2 -odern +iction and the Short Story
+ull -ar's2 155
E!amination Time2 E hours.
?umber of Nuestions to be answered during the e!amination
"etailed <ourse2
SE<TI;? 1. 6ac'ground for modern 6ritish and European fiction. The deelopment of
the noel and the short story forms in the twentieth century. E )uestions of 3 mar's each.
3!EX.5
SE<TI;? .. 4ny one of the following noels will be offered. +rom each noel one 13
mar' )uestion will hae to be answered and three 3 mar' e!planation0comment0character
or techni)ue )uestions. 13Y D!3XD5
".(. =awrence2 Sons and =oers
8eorge ;rwell2 11JE
Cirginia 9oolf2 To The =ighthouse
James Joyce2 The /ortrait of an 4rtist as a Goung -an
SE<TI;? D.
4ny four of the following short stories will be offered. ;ne 13 mar' )uestion will hae to
be answered from a short story and three 3 mar' e!planation0comment0character or
techni)ue )uestions. 13Y %D!3&XD5
Josef <onrad 2 QThe 6lac' -ateF +rom Tales of (earsay
http200www.readboo'online.net0stories0<onrad0D50
James Joyce2 Q<ounterpartsF from "ubliners
http200www.readprint.com0wor'-J7J0<ounterparts-James-Joyce
Cirginia 9oolf2 Q@ew 8ardensF
+rom2 -onday or Tuesday. by Cirginia 9oolf. ?ew Gor'2 (arcourt, 6race and <ompany,
Inc., 11.1.
http200digital.library.upenn.edu0women0woolf0monday0monday-57.html
".(. =awrence2 QThe 9hite Stoc'ingF
http200en.wi'isource.org0wi'i0TheZ9hiteZStoc'ing
E.-. +orster2 QThe -achine StopsF
http200archie.ncsa.illinois.edu0pra>lich0forster.html
8raham 8reene2 Q4cross the 6ridgeF
SE<TI;? E2 =iterary essay O one out of E topics 2 .5 mar's
/4/EB CIII2 Indian 9riting in English0 4merican
=iterature
+ull -ar's2 155
E!amination Time2 E hours.
?umber of Nuestions to be answered during the e!amination
"etailed <ourse2
Indian 9riting in English %;ption 1&
SE<TI;? 1
+amiliari*ation with modern =iterary Theory2 E!3X .5
StructuralismH /ostmodernismH +eminist <riticismH -ar!ist <riticismH /ostcolonialism.
Becommended Beading2 /eter 6arry, 6eginning Theory, Indian Edition, .55J.
SE<TI;? .
?oel2 4ny one noel will be taught. 15Y%.!3&X .5
B.@. ?arayan 2 The English Teacher
Ba>a Bao2 @anthapura
Sunetra 8upta2 -emories of Bain
@iran "esai 2 The Inheritance of =oss
SE<TI;? D
Short Stories2 4ny four will be taught 15Y%.R3&X.5
-ul' Ba> 4nand2 QThe TerroristF
6habani 6hattacharya2 Q8lory at TwilightF
4nita "esai2 QThe 4ccompanistF
Sashi "eshpande2 Q-y 6eloed <harioteerF
Temsula 4o2 QJourneyF from These (ills <alled (ome
Bus'in 6ond2 Q-y +atherFs Trees at "ehraF
SE<TI;? E
/oetry2 15Y%.!3&X .5
(enry =ouis Ciian "ero*io2 4 passage from The +a'eer of Jungheera
4urobindo 8hosh2 The Tiger and the "eer
Toru "utt2 Sita
Saro>ini ?aidu2 /ardah ?ashin
4.@. Bamanu>an2 Ecology
/arthasarathy2 +rom The E!ile
Jayanta -ahapatra2 (unger
@amala "as2 The ;ld /layhouse
4run @ol'at'ar2 4n ;ld 9oman
?issim E*e'iel2 /oet, =oer, 6ird 9atcher
SE<TI;? 3
"rama2 15Y %.!3&X.5
-ahesh "attani2 6raely +ought The Nueen0 Tara
4merican =iterature %;ption .&
SE<TI;? 1
+amiliari*ation with modern =iterary Theory2 E!3X .5
StructuralismH /ostmodernismH +eminist <riticismH -ar!ist <riticismH /ostcolonialism.
Becommended Beading2 /eter 6arry, 6eginning Theory, Indian Edition, .55J.
SE<TI;? . %4ny one noel will be taught & 15Y %.!3&X .5
-ar' Twain 2 The 4dentures of (uc'leberry +inn %1JJ3&
+. Scott +it*gerald 2 The 8reat 8atsby %11.3&
John Steinbec'2 The 8rapes of 9rath %11D1&
(arper =ee2 To @ill a -oc'ingbird %11K5&
4lice 9al'er 2 The <olour /urple %11J.&
SE<TI;? D
Short Story2 4ny four will be taught 15Y%.!3&X.5
?athaniel (awthorne 2 QThe 4mbitious 8uestF
http200en.wi'isource.org0wi'i0TheZ4mbitiousZ8uest
Edgar 4llan /oe2 QThe <as' of 4montilladoF
http200www.literature.org0authors0poe-edgar-allan0amontillado.html
;. (enry 2 QThe <actusF
http200classiclit.about.com0library0bl-ete!ts0ohenry0bl-ohenry-cactus.htm
9.9. Jacobs 2 QThe -on'ey,s /awF
http200www.americanliterature.com0Jacobs0SS0The-on'eys/aw.html
@ate <hopin2 QBegretF
http200englishlibrary.org0storyZregret.html
9illa <ather 2 Q;n the 8ullFs BoadF
http200www.americanliterature.com0SS0SS13.(T-=
SE<TI;? E
/oetry2 15Y %.!3&X .5
9alt 9hitman2 <rossing 6roo'lyn +erry
Emily "ic'inson2 6ecause I <ould not Stop for "eath
Bobert +rost2 "esert /laces
E.E. <ummings2 somewhere I hae neer traelled
=angston (ughes2 The ?egro Spea's of Biers
4llen 8insberg2 4 Supermar'et in <alifornia
Sylia /lath2 "addy
8wendolen 6roo's2 4 Sunset of the <ity
SE<TI;? 3
"rama2 15Y %.!3&X .5
Edward 4lbee, 9hoFs 4fraid of Cirginia 9oolfI0 Tennessee 9illiams, The 8lass
-enagerie