Career theory for women

Jenny Bimrose Institute for Employment Research, University of Warwick

1) Introduction
Theories that inform current practice in the UK were primarily formulated to explain the
career development of men. Women's career development is, however, generally different
from men. t is often more complex !e.g. conflict "etween wor# and family$ and is often
characterised "y different career stages or patterns !e.g. intervals away from full time
employment to assume care responsi"ilities$. %arious pieces of research !e.g. &'(, )***$
indicate that+
women's la"our mar#et participation is more restricted than men i.e. they are under,
represented in a variety of fields and professions, and enter low paying and low status
-o"s.
women a"ilities and talents are underused i.e. they are less li#ely to advance to higher
levels in their occupational fields.
Bet/ !)**0$ presents an overview of issues relating to women of particular relevance to
careers counselling. (iting numerous research studies, she esta"lishes the importance of
employment for the psychological !as well as economic$ well,"eing of women. 1he charts the
nature of women's participation in the la"our mar#et in 2orth 3merica !similar to the UK$
which has increased dramatically over the past four to five decades, discusses occupational
segregation !hori/ontal and vertical$ and highlights the particular implications for career
theories. 1ince the ma-ority of women are employed in restricted occupational areas and at
lower status levels, Bet/ 4uestions whether career theories which are "ased on the assumption
that occupational choice involves either matching -o"s to a"ilities or 'self,actualising' as part
of career development apply to women at all !)**0 p5$.
n response to the perceived inade4uacies of current theories underpinning the practice of
careers counselling and guidance, approaches specifically designed to respond to the needs of
women are "eing evolved. 6ive such approaches are summarised "elow.
2) Approaches To Careers Counselling For Women
2.1 Gottfredsons Theory of Circumscription and Compromise
7ottfredson's developmental theory of occupational aspirations !)*5)$ is applica"le to "oth
women and men. 1he set out to explain 'how the well,documented differences in aspirations
"y social group !e.g. race, sex, social class$ develop' !)*58, p9:0$. 1trongly influenced "y
John ;olland !she was a student in his research centre$, and a sociologist "y professional
training, 7ottfredson's theory represents an attempt to reconcile the different perspectives of
psychology and sociology !)**<, p)5:$.
The theory is concerned with "oth the content of career aspirations and how they develop.
7ottfredson ac#nowledges the influence of the theories of "oth John ;olland and =onald
1uper. t is similar to these earlier theories in that it proposes that career choice reflects the
process of attempting to implement an individual's preferred self concept and "ecause it
argues that career satisfaction depends on the match or fit with the self,concept !7ottfredson
and >apan, )**?$. t is different from psychological theories !7ottfredson, )**<, p)5)$ since+
it views career development as an attempt to implement primarily a social self and
secondarily a psychological self.
it focuses on how cognitions of self and occupations develop.
it treats vocational choice largely as a process of eliminating options and narrowing
choices.
it considers how individual compromise their goals in coming to terms with reality as
they try to implement their aspirations.
The model contains several "asic tenets, summarised "y Broo#s !)**:, p8?0$ as+
@eople differentiate occupations along dimensions of sex type, level of wor# and field
of wor#.
@eople assess the suita"ility of occupations according to their self,concepts !ie. their
images of who they would li#e to "e$ and the amount of effort they are willing to
expend to enter the occupations. 'ccupations that are compati"le with the self,
concept will "e highly desira"le. those that are not will "e highly undesira"le.
&lements of the self,concept that are vocationally relevant are gender, social class,
intelligence, interests, values and a"ilities. 'ccupational aspirations are circumscri"ed
according to these elements of the self,concept.
%ocationally relevant elements of the self,concept are developed during four stages of
cognitive development+
)st stage+
!rientation to si"e and power
The child develops 'the concept of "eing an adult. 3ges 8,A.
9nd stage+
!rientation to se# role
The child develops a gender self,concept. 3ges <,5.
8rd stage+
!rientation to social e$aluation
s concerned with developing a"stract concepts of one's social class and intelligence.
3ges *,)8.
0th stage+
!rientation to Internal %ni&ue 'elf
nvolves a refinement of one's distinctive values, traits, attitudes and interests. 3ge
)0B.
3s people progress through these 0 developmental stages, they successively re-ect
occupations+
as unsuita"le for their gender.
then as inappropriate for their social class and a"ility level.
and finally on the "asis of personal interests and values.
The result is a /one of accepta"le alternatives, or a 'set or range of occupations that the person
considers as accepta"le alternatives' !)*5), pA05$. t is only under unusual circumstances that
a person will reconsider an occupation re-ected as outside this range.
@eople's occupational preferences are the product of -o",self compati"ility !i.e. with
the /one$ and -udgments a"out the accessi"ility of -o"s. '3ccessi"ility refers to
o"stacles or opportunities in the social or economic environment that affect one's
chances of getting into a particular occupation' !)*5), pA05$. @erceptions of
accessi"ility are "ased on such factors as availa"ility of a -o" in the preferred
geographical area, perceptions of discrimination or favouritism, etc.
Because the -o"s people view as suita"le for themselves are not always availa"le, they
must compromise. The typical pattern of compromise is the following+ people first
sacrifice interests, then prestige, and finally sex type. n other words, given two
choices , one that fits one's interests "ut not one's sex type, and one that does not fit
one's interests "ut is viewed as sex,appropriate , the latter will "e chosen.
7ottfredson's explanation of why women are in lower,status, lower,level positions is that
these occupations are compati"le with their self,concepts and views a"out accessi"ility. ;er
)**< formulation of the theory is 'the same in most respects as the )*5) version' !)**<,
p)58$. t differs 'in providing a clearer definition and account of compromise, more
discussion of cultural change andCor race and gender differences, and more guidance on
counseling applications' !7ottfredson, )**<, p)58$.
Implications for practice:
i$ ndividual career counselling should encourage "oth exploration and realism. n particular+
why certain options seem to "e out of the 4uestion or why some compromises are
more accepta"le or accessi"le than others.
"y encouraging clients to re,examine the full range of occupations in the economy
!challenging circumscription$.
helping clients develop strategies for enhancing the individual's competitiveness in
o"taining the preferred option and succeeding at it.
ii$ (areers education programmes should span stages 9 !ages <,5$ through to 0 !ages )0B$
and should+
"e sensitive to the mental capa"ilities of the age group.
introduce students to the full "readth of options in a managea"le way.
display for youngsters their circumscription of alternatives so that its rationale can "e
explored.
"e sensitive to the dimensions of self and occupations along which circumscription
and compromise ta#e place !sex type, social class, a"ility, and vocational interests$ so
that their role, positive or not, can "e explored where appropriate.
iii$ &xploration and constructive realism can do much to free individuals from unnecessary
circumscription and compromise. (aution should "e exercised in assuming the role of change
agent on "ehalf of the client.
7ottfredson and >apin !)**?$ discuss the results of field testing an instrument referred to as
'Dapping %ocational (hallenges !D%($' !)**?, p089$ which is "ased on the premises of the
7ottfredson's theory of circumscription and compromise !)*5), )*58 and )**<$. t is
descri"ed as an example of 'theory,"ased assessments and interventions to counteract
inappropriate circumscription' )**?, p089$ which aims to increase awareness of choices
which have "een re-ected "y clients as unaccepta"le, since circumscription is a 4uestion of
'deciding what one wants to avoid' !7ottfredson and >apan, )**?, p09*$. 6indings include
that high school and middles girls and "oys agreed in their ratings of gender difference for
different types of wor# !p085$, that 'one group of seventh grade girls lin#ed their avoidance
of careers currently dominated "y men to their fears a"out encountering sexual harassment on
the -o" !p08*$ and 'assessed and expressed interests are often discrepant !p00:$.
2.2 Astins (eed)*ased 'ociopsychological +odel
3stin's !)*50$ primary intent was to construct a theory that would descri"e more ade4uately
the career,choice process of women, as well as explain recent changes in women's career
aspirations. t is also applica"le to men. 1he attempted to develop a model of career choice
and wor# "ehaviour that attempted to com"ine "oth personal !psychological$ and social
forces as well as their interaction. ;er need,"ased sociopsychological model contains four
#ey constructs+
motivation.
expectations.
sex,role sociali/ation.
structure of opportunity.
Thus , "oth psychological and sociological varia"les are included in the model.
+oti$ation,
3ll humans are motivated to expend energy to satisfy 8 primary needs , survival
!primarily physiological survival$, pleasure !intrinsic satisfactions from wor#$ and
contri"ution !need to "e useful to society and "e recognised for one's contri"utions$.
These 8 needs are the same for men and women , though they can "e satisfied in
different ways.
-#pectations,
(oncerned with the individual's perceptions re+ #ind of wor# that will satisfy needs
and the types of wor# that are accessi"le and that the person is capa"le of performing.
They differ for men and women "ecause of the sex,role sociali/ation process and the
structure of opportunity !e.g. distri"ution of -o"s, sex typing of -o"s, discrimination$.
=uring the sex,role sociali/ation process, a person is rewarded and reinforced for
gender,differentiated "ehaviour. The result is that the individual internali/es social
norms and values regarding appropriate sex,role "ehaviours and choices.
'e#)role socialisation and structure of opportunity,
nteracting with the sex,role sociali/ation process is the opportunity structure, which
is different for men and women, and is not static. 1ocial changes modify the
opportunity structure for all. Thus, the interactive relationship "etween sex,role
sociali/ation and the opportunity structure is what accounts for the changes in
women's aspirations and choices in recent years.
The sociali/ation process pro"a"ly sets limits to changes win the structure of opportunity,
whereas the structure of opportunity ultimately influences the values that are transmitted
through the sociali/ation process (Astin, 19!, p1""#
3stin's contri"ution represents the first invited theoretical statement on women's career
development !6it/gerald et al, )**A, p5A$, yet it has had limited impact on practice to date.
6it/gerald et al !)**A, p5<$ suggest that it may "e '"est thought of as a general conceptual
framewor# rather than an articulated theoretical statement', since its value lay in the way in
which it directs our attention to important factors influencing women's career development
3stin's most important contri"ution, they contend, is the attention she focused on the
structure of opportunity
.
Implications for practice:
3stin's model suggests some general diagnostic directions that can "e pursued "y counsellors.
6or example, women's indecision may result from lac# of clarity a"out which of the three
needs is the more important to satisfy, or a"out which occupations would satisfy these needs.
3 client may feel conflict "etween internali/ed views of sex,role appropriate occupations and
changes in the occupational structure !for example, one woman may feel restricted "y the
occupational structure, another may feel changes are placing pressure on her to expand her
view of sex,role appropriate occupations$.
2.. Career self)efficacy theory /0ac1ett and *et")
'ne nota"le example of an attempt to develop theoretical approaches that are more relevant
for women and girls is ;ac#ett and Bet/'s career self,efficacy theory !)*5)$. They argued for
a need to move "eyond 'listings of "arriers' to women's choices and achievements to an
investigation of the mechanisms which are effective in em"edding society's "eliefs and
expectations in women's vocational "ehaviour and achievement !;ac#ett and Bet/, )*5),
p89?$.
3 study of twenty occupations was designed to 'investigate the usefulness of self,efficacy
theory to the understanding of vocational "ehaviour and, in particular, to the understanding of
women's career development'!Bet/ and ;ac#ett, )*5), p0::$. The results of this study
indicated that there exists 'significant and consistent sex differences in self,efficacy with
regard to traditional and nontraditional occupations' !Bet/ and ;ac#ett, )*5), p0:?$. 1o,
women demonstrated more career self,efficacy in relation to -o"s that are traditionally female
!li#e dental hygienist, social wor#er, secretary$ and men were more efficacious in relation to
traditionally male -o"s !li#e accountant, mathematician and engineer$. Bet/ and ;ac#ett
found from this research that the self,efficacy approach to career development for women
!and men$ provides a potentially useful framewor# for further study, and could have
important implications for practice !)*5), p0):$.
Their "asic premise is that low expectations of self,efficacy regarding various career areas,
particularly those which have historically "een male dominated, are a ma-or mediator of
gender differences in occupational choice and su"se4uent vocational "ehaviour !6it/gerald et
al, )**A, p*A$. ;ence, career self,efficacy theory represents an attempt to apply a theory from
one realm !social learning theory$ to another. The #ey concept in the theory, self,efficacy, was
defined "y Bandura !)*5<, p8*)$ as+
peoples -udgements of their capa"ilities to organise and execute courses of action re4uired to
attain designated types of performances. $an%ura (19&, p'91#
6eatures of career self,efficacy theory which distinguish it from Krum"olt/'s social learning
theory are that it+
places a strong emphasis on thin#ing processes !compared with "ehaviour$.
focuses on the strength of the individual's "elief that they can successfully accomplish
something.
considers that "elief is more powerful than interests, values or a"ilities.
emphasises that an individual's "elief system affects their "ehaviours !rather than the
"ehaviours themselves.
focuses more on choice than social learning theory.
pays less attention !so far$ to the implications for practice.
The theory proposes that career "ehaviour is a result of interaction "etween self,efficacy,
outcome expectations and goals. These are "riefly descri"ed "elow+
a) 'elf)-fficacy,
This refers to a changing set of "eliefs a"out oneself. The way in which individual's view
their a"ilities and capa"ilities affects academic, career and other choices. f an individual has
a low sense of self,efficacy, they may not persist in a difficult tas#. They may "elieve they
will "e una"le to do the tas# well, and they may feel discouraged or overwhelmed "y the tas#.
n fact, research indicates !>ent, Brown and >ar#in, )*5<$ that there's only a moderate
relationship "etween an individual's view of their own a"ility and o"-ective measures.
Judgements of 'self,efficacy' influence whether "ehaviour will "e initiated, the degree of
effort that will "e expended, and how long the "ehaviour will "e maintained in the face of
o"stacles.
e.g. a woman's "elief's a"out her general capa"ilities, her confidence in her self,assessment of
her a"ilities and her carpentry s#ills would affect the choice of "eginning and continuing in a
-o" as a carpenter, as well as the choice of maintaining the -o" in the face of friends, perhaps
family and colleagues pressures to find a -o" more suita"le for her gender.
Bandura !)*??, )*5<$ , proposed that self,efficacy expectations vary on three dimensions+
(evel
i.e. degree of difficulty of tas# that an individual feels capa"le of performing.
)tren*th
i.e. confidence the person has in hisCher estimates.
+enerality
i.e. range of situations in which the person feels efficacious.
2) !utcome -#pectations,
The varia"le that interacts with self,efficacy expectations is 'outcome expectations'. That is,
an individual's estimate of the pro"a"ility of an outcome. t's often difficult to distinguish
outcome expectations from self,efficacy expectations "ecause often it is thought that
outcomes are contingent on performance. ;owever, in some situations, outcome expectations
are readily distinguisha"le from self,efficacy expectations. 6or example, a women may
"elieve she is a"le to perform the role of (hief &xecutive, "ut does not expect that she would
"e selected for the -o" if she applied. That is, environmental factors are perceived as
controlling or influencing the outcome rather than the level or 4uality of one's "ehaviour.
Therefore, outcome expectations refer to the estimate of a"ility to accomplish a tas# !' can
pro"a"ly get into University$, whereas self,efficacy expectations refer to estimates of whether
an individual can carry out the tas# !' sure 'm capa"le of degree level study and am
definitely going to apply'$. Bandura !)*5<$ identified different types of outcome expectations,
as follows+
@hysical !e.g. payment for employment$
1ocial !e.g. parental praise for school wor#$
1elf,evaluative !e.g. satisfaction with own performance$.
'ne other varia"le influencing whether "ehaviour will "e initiated is incentives !lin#ed to
outcome expectations$. 6or example, a man may feel 'efficacious' a"out his a"ility to perform
the duties of a #indergarten teacher, "ut does not value the outcomes !e.g. salary and status$.
c) Goals,
'ne other varia"le influencing whether "ehaviour will "e initiated are goals.
ndividuals set goals to organise "ehaviour and guide their actions, which may result in the
identification of su",goals. 6or example, ' want to go into 2ational ;ealth 1ervice
Danagement' represents an overall goal. To achieve that goal, the individual will have to set
su",goals, including successfully completing a first degree, perhaps underta#ing further
study, applying for the 2;1 two,year training programme and then applying for a -o" of
2;1 manager. 7oals are self,motivating and are a source of great personal satisfaction.
Badura !)*5<$ identified four sources of information important to the process of development
and modification of efficacy "eliefs. These were+
i$ performance accomplishments +
successful performance of a tas# or "ehaviour provides information that increases
expectations regarding efficacy. ;ac#ett and Bet/ !)*5), p88)$ argue that gender role
socialisation is li#ely to encourage "oys to gain experiences in a wider range of areas
outside the home.
ii$ vicarious learnin* +
that is, "y o"servation. ;ac#ett and Bet/ !)*5), p88)$ suggest that males are exposed
to vicarious learning experiences more relevant to career self,efficacy "ecause of the
way women are persistently portrayed in the media, "oo#s and children's literature in
homema#er and mother roles.
iii$ emotional arousal +
for example, anxiety and stress. ;igh levels of anxiety and stress are generally
recognised to "e de"ilitating. ;ac#ett and Bet/ !)*5), p889$ remind us that research
indicates that females score higher on anxiety measures than males. This higher level
of anxiety increases the difficulty of developing positive efficacy expectations.
iv$ ver,al persuasion an% encoura*ement +
for example, towards a "ehaviour would increase efficacy whilst lac# of
encouragement or overt discouragement is li#ely to fail to increase or at worst
decrease efficacy expectations. 3gain, ;ac#ett and Bet/ !)*5), p889$ argue that,
"ecause of traditional societal views a"out "eing male and "eing female, males have
received more encouragement for career pursuits and achievements than females.
'f these four, Bandura suggested that a$ E "$ are the most powerful influences on self,
efficacy expectations, "ut all provide.
Application of Career 'elf)-fficacy theory to 3ocational *eha$iour,
n applying self,efficacy theory to vocational "ehaviour, ;ac#ett and Bet/ !)*5)$ stated that
where individuals lac# expectations of personal efficacy in one or more career,related
"ehavioural areas, "ehaviour critical to success is less li#ely to "e initiated, or if initiated,
sustained. Whilst ac#nowledging that self,efficacy theory re4uires research on various #ey
aspects !;ac#ett and Bet/, )*5), p880$ they suggest that a 'self,efficacy approach to the
career development of women appears promising due to its explanatory power, implications
for counseling practice, and research potential' !)*5), p88?$.
Implications for practice,
'elf)efficacy theory has considera2le potential for 2roadening options. For e#ample,
1elf,efficacy theory has considera"le potential for "roadening options. 6or example+
the practitioner could use a variety of cognitive strategies to help the client view her
successes as due to internal rather than to external causes !e.g. 'positive self,tal#' ,
(ognitive Behaviour Techni4ues$.
the structuring of incremental graded success experiences could also "e used.
in the area of vicarious learning, the practitioner could arrange, for example,
shadowing experiences with successful representatives of groups not normally
successful in a particular area !i.e. women in career fields that are of interest$.
desensiti/ation procedures could "e used to reduce excessive anxiety a"out career
choice or performance !e.g. relaxation techni4ues$.
provision of high 4uality information pro-ecting images that challenge common
stereotypes.
Bet/ and ;ac#ett !)**?, p858$$ assert that 'Deta,analyses and reviews of )A years of
research.....strongly support the role of career self,efficacy as a predictor of educational and
career preferences, academic performance, and persistence in the pursuit of desired career
options'. They conclude that "oth the theory and measures of career,related self,efficacy are
useful "oth in research examining "arriers to and facilitators of women's career development
and for designing and evaluating the effectiveness of practice grounded in this theory. They
advocate the use, "y the career practitioner, of "oth structured measures of career,self
efficacy and informal assessment techni4ues li#e the interview to ascertain the extent to
which gender role socialisation may have limited the client's range of options. n parallel, a
focus on male dominated occupations, mathematics, science and technology should ensure
that options have not "een limited+
...our -o" as counselors is not to ma#e a client's decisions or to push a client toward a
nontraditional career, "ut to restor options that may have "een de facto removed "y sexism
and gender role stereotyping as well as "y other environmental "arriers ($et- . /ackett,
1990, p'9#1
'verall, self,efficacy theory is thought "y many to have great potential for careers wor# with
groups who have traditionally underachieved in certain areas. 6or example, girls, women and
minority ethnic groups. 'ne of its strengths is that it doesn't ignore "iological, social or
environmental influences, nor the current context. ;owever, it does assert that as individuals
get older, it's more difficult to change interests, goals and performance outcomes.
2.4 Feminist Careers Counselling
6eminist counselling is a philosophy rather than a comprehensive theory of practice. Broo#s
E 6orrest !)**0$ outline some practice implications of applying this philosophy to careers
counselling.
i) 'ocio)cultural conditions as primary source of womens pro2lems
;ow a pro"lem is defined determines how and where one loo#s for a solution. 6eminist
approaches to careers assumes that social structures and societal prescriptions have moulded
and limited women's career development, experiences and opportunities. t follows from this
that in addition to the assessment of a"ilities, etc., there is a need to incorporate an
assessment of the ways in which gender,role issues have affected the client and created
"arriers within careers practice for women and girls. Two stages are identified which are
necessary to achieve this goal, pre,assessment and assessment+
a# 2re3assessment strate*ies (preparation for the practitioner#
@ractitioners familiari/e themselves with research and scholarship on the relationship
"etween gender and career development, for example+
interaction "etween gender and demographic varia"les such as race and class.
critical incidents that affect the career development of women such as models,
mentors, discriminatory practices, etc. that might occur in education and wor#place.
2B+@ractitioners with strongly traditional sex,role attitudes should not attempt career
counselling with women
,# Assessment 2rocess (with the client#
'ne of the central tas#s is to determine how the client has experienced gender,role
sociali/ation.
gather contextual data on the culture of the family of origin, family roles for men and
women, client's perception of societal gender,role prescriptions for her age cohort.
then, in4uire how the client transformed and gave meaning to her own life within her
sociological culture.
Techni4ues which can "e used for this purpose include structured 4uestions, fantasy exercise
and sentence completion. n summary, a #ey tas# of gender role analysis is to identify ways in
which social structures and gender role prescriptions have affected the client. The conclusions
drawn from the assessment then guide the goals and process of careers counselling. 7ender
role issues are more relevant for some clients than others, though Broo#s E 6orrest !)**0$
argue that it is difficult to imagine any situation where they are totally irrelevant.
ii) 5ersonal is political
3 focus of careers counselling should "e to help clients develop a political awareness of the
ways the social structure has moulded and limited them, for example, restricted perceptions
of occupational options, focus on nurturing roles to the neglect of achieving roles, etc.
Through gaining an awareness of the ways in which the environment has affected women's
career choice and development, clients reduce self,"lame for condition over which they had
no control.
iii) -galitarian relationship
The practitioner doesn't deny expertise or competence, "ut rather wor#s to avoid a"use of
power and user power sharing strategies. To implement this principles, feminist career
counsellors wor# towards+
esta"lishing the relationship as colla"orative and facilitative rather than hierarchical.
informing the client a"out the procedures and goals of counselling and the philosophy
of the practitioner.
urging the client to give feed"ac# to the practitioner.
encourage the client to "e selective a"out the practitioner with whom they wor#.
i$) -ssentials for womens mental health
7oals+ the overall goal is the empowerment of the client towards self,determination !i.e. help
clients gain the s#ills, #nowledge and attitudes necessary to ta#e control over her own life and
to "egin to influence others$. Feaching these goals often re4uires special techni4ues and
strategies. %arious strategies have "een suggested !e.g. use of groups, female role models,
interventions in the curriculum and other social structures, life planning$. 3dditionally+
1ex,role analysis+ similar to gender,role assessment where the goal is to identify the
client's expectations regarding gender roles. t is an activity directed at eliciting the
client's views a"out costs and "enefits of pursuing traditional versus nontraditional
careers.
3nother techni4ue is the nonsexist occupational card sort, where cards portraying
occupational roles free from gender stereotyping are used to explore attitudes to
'gendered wor#'.
>ife,career planning strategies can encourage women to engage in long,term planning
and there"y exert some control over their future.
2.6 Farmer, 7i$ersity and Womens Career 7e$elopment
Using social learning theory as a theoretical framewor#, 6armer !)**?a, )**?"$ challenges
the via"ility of current theoretical views for women. They also criticise current careers
programmes and practices, offering concrete practical suggestions for addressing these
wea#nesses.
6armer developed her ideas from on a longitudinal research study conducted over a period of
two decades. The particular focus of the research was women's persistence in science careers
!)**?a, pxi$. =ata collection too# place during three time period+ )*5:, )**: and )**),)**8,
in 2orth 3merica. Guestionnaires were used to collect the data during the first two phases.
The 'usa"le' !6armer, )**?a, p9)$ 4uestionnaires from participants during this first phase
!)*5:$ num"ered ),5<8. By )**:, 0A* participants returned usa"le 4uestionnaire data !p9<$.
What appeared to "e inconsistencies were found in the data collected during these first two
phases and decided to investigate further. 6or the third phase, ):A participants were
interviewed for one to two hours, since 6armer recognised 'that more 4uantitative data would
not suffice to unloc# the meaning "ehind the inconsistencies' !)**?a, pxi$.
4heoretical mo%el un%erlyin* the lon*itu%inal stu%y (5armer, 196, 1990a, 1990,#
6or the )*5: phase of data collection, three types of factors were assumed to affect women's
"ehaviour+ motivation, personal and environmental varia"les+
@ersonal+
home role salience. sex role orientation. self,esteem. co,operative and competitive
achievement style. successCfailure attri"utions !four dimensions , a"ility, effort, luc#
and tas# difficulty$. and achievement values.
&nvironmental+
parent support. teacher support. counsellor support and support for women wor#ing.
Dotivation+
career motivation. achievement motivation and career aspirationCeducational level.
6or the )**: phase of data collection, the same categories were used, with some items
enhanced !6armer, )**?a, p)0,)A$. mportant assumptions underlying interpretations of the
data are identified as !6armer, )**?", p8<8$+
that career planning must ta#e place within a life planning framewor#, and that such
plans must ta#e account of other life roles, such as those of spouse or partner and
parent, as well as personal roles.
that choice of a career field should "e consistent with a woman's or a man's a"ilities,
aptitudes, values and interests as well as realistic in light of societal opportunities and
constraints.
that the role of people as agents in their learning, choosing and "ehaviour is an
important aspect of the potential for change.
6armer remains convinced that social learning theory provides the most promising theoretical
"asis for effective careers counselling with girls and women+
1ocial learning theory is optimistic in that it allows for "ehaviours to change over time as a
result of new experiences, new ideas, and self perceptions and plans. ...'perating within
many realistic constraints, women still may have much to say a"out their destinies (1990, p9#
Based on her research findings, 6armer ma#es the following suggestions for careers
counselling with 'young women and men to day and in the coming decades' !)**?, p9*)$+
&nhanced careers education curriculum in further and higher education, which
emphasises sexual e4uality and addresses issues such as sexual harassment in the
wor#place.
>ife planning, including exploration of values and how these fit in with their long,
term career plans. This would address career,family role conflicts which arise in 'dual,
wor#er couples'!p959$ and aim to develop 'multiple role realism' !p950$.
1elf,efficacy and career persistence+ since these are connected, careers counsellors
can contri"ute much "y increasing self,efficacy in clients !see section c$ a"ove for
strategies.
Feducing the 'null environment' !p9*9$ in education !i.e. one that is indifferent to
women's achievements$ is essential if women are to start realising their potential. This
re4uires reduction of the 'chilly environment' !p9*9$ and sexual harassment present in
many educational settings, especially non,traditional areas for women !li#e science,
maths and engineering$.
Conclusion
6rom a review of a decade of research into women and career development, @hillips and
mhoff !)**?$ conclude that 'women's lives are complex' !p0*$. They note that the past
decade has seen significant progress towards understanding this complexity. 6it/gerald et al
!)**A$ stress the need to study concepts and varia"les for women !such as those identified "y
Bet/, )**0$ which were previously regarded as unnecessary and irrelevant, concluding that
this will lead to a greater understanding of the vocational "ehaviour of everyone !p<5$.
8eferences
3stin )*<?
3stin, ;.1. !)*<?$ @atterns of (areer (hoices 'ver Time in @ersonnel and 7uidance
Journal, 0A, pA0),A0<.
3stin )*50
3stin, ;.1. !)*50$ The Deaning of Wor# in Women's >ives+ a sociopsychological
model of career choice and wor# "ehaviour in The (ounseling @sychologist, )9, 0,
p))?,)9<.
Bet/ et al )*5)
Bet/, 2.&. E ;ac#ett, 7. !)*5)$ The Felationship of (areer,Felated 1elf,&fficacy
&xpectations to @erceived (areer 'ptions in (ollege Women and Den in Journal of
(ounseling @sychology, 95, A, p8**,0):.
Bet/ )**0
Bet/, 2.&. !)**0$ Basic ssues and (oncepts in (areer (ounseling for Women, in
Wash, W.B. E 'sipow, 1.;. !)**0$ !ed$ (areer (ounselling for Women ;illsdale,
2ew Jersey+ >awrence &rl"aum 3ssociates.
Bet/ et al )**?
Bet/, 2.&. E ;ac#ett, 7. !)**?$ 3pplications of 1elf,&fficacy Theory to the (areer
3ssessment of Women in Journal of (areer 3ssessment, A !0$ p858,0:9.
Broo#s )**:
Broo#s, >. !)**:$ Fecent =evelopments in Theory Building in Brown, =. Broo#s, >.
E 3ssociates (areer (hoice E =evelopment !second ed$, 1an 6rancisco+ Jossey Bass
!p 8<0,8*0$.
Broo#s et al )**0
Broo#s, >. E 6orrest, >. !)**0$ 6eminism E (areer (ounseling in Walsh, W.B. E
'sipow, 1.;. !eds$ (areer (ounseling for Women, ;illsdale, 2ew Jersey+ >awrence
&rl"aum 3ssociates.
6armer )*5A
6armer, ;.1. !)*5A$ Dodel of (areer and 3chievement Dotivation for Women and
Den in Journal of (ounseling @sychology, 89, 8, p8<8,8*:.
6armer et al )**?a
6armer, ;.1. E 3ssociates !)**?a$ =iversity E Women's (areer =evelopment,
Thousand 'a#s, (alifornia+ 1age.
6armer )**?
6armer, ;.1. !)**?$ Women's motivation related to mastery, career salience, and
career aspiration+ a multivariate model focusing on the effects of sex role sociali/ation
in Journal of (areer 3ssessment, A, p8AA,85).
6it/gerald et al )**A
6it/gerald, >.6, 6assinger, F.&. E Bet/, 2.&. !)**A$ Theoretical 3dvances in the
1tudy of Women's (areer =evelopment in Walsh, W.B. E 'sipow, 1.;. !eds$ !9nd
edition$ ;and"oo# of %ocational @sychology+ theory, research and practice, Dahway,
2ew Jersey+ >awrence &rl"aum 3ssociates.
7ottfredson )*5)
7ottfredson, >.1. !)*5)$ (ircumscription and (ompromise+ 3 =evelopment Theory
of 'ccupational 3spirations, in Journal of (ounseling @sychology Donograph, 95,
A0A,A?*
7ottfredson )*58
7ottfredson, >.1. !)*58$ (reating and (ritici/ing Theory, in Journal of %ocational
Behaviour,, 98, 9:8,9)9
7ottfredson )**<
7ottfredson, >.1. !)**<$ 7ottfredson's Theory of (ircumscription and (ompromise in
Brown, =. E Broo#s, >. E 3ssociates, !eds$ !8rd edition$ (areer, (hoice and
=evelopment, 1an 6rancisco, (alifornia, Jossey Bass.
7ottfredson et al )**?
7ottfredson, >.1. and >apan, F.T. !)**?$ 3ssessing gender,"ased circumscription of
occupational aspirations, Journal of (areer 3ssessment, A, 0)*,00).
;ac#ett et al )*5)
;ac#ett, 7. E Bet/, 7. !)*5)$ 3 self,efficacy approach to the career development of
women in Journal of %ocational Behaviour, )5, p89<,88*.
@hillips et al )**?
@hillips, 1.=. E mhoff, 3.F. !)**?$ Women and (areer =evelopment+ a =ecade of
Fesearch, in 1pence, J.T., =arley, J.D. E 6oss, =.J. !&ds$ 3nnual Feview of
@sychology, 05, pp8),A*
>ast modified 9::0,:5,9* :)+:: @D