Cell structure and organization

Chloroplasts
o Site of photosynthesis where light energy is absorbed
o Consist of grana which are stacked up to increase surface area for absorption
of light
o Only present in plant cells
Cell membrane (plasma membrane)
o Lipid bilayer that surrounds the cell, interspersed with protein molecule
o Presence of temporary pores
o Selectively permeable
Controls movement of substances
o iffusion, osmosis and active transport can therefore take place
o Prevent outflowing of cytoplasm
o !onoplast
Plasma membrane surrounding the vacuole
Cell wall
o "ade of cellulose (a polysaccharide), and may be deposited with ligin
o "aintain cell turgidity, provide mechanical support, protect from mechanical
damage
o #reely permeable to water and most solutes
o Only present in plant cells
Cytoplasm
o Protoplasm surrounding the nucleus
o !here are numerous organelles present in the cytoplasm
o Organelle
Speciali$ed membrane bound structures
Cell vacuole
o #luid%filled space enclosed by a membrane
o &n animal cells, these are present as numerous small ones, and these are
usually not permanent
o &n plant cells, there is usually a large central vacuole
o Cell sap
#luid in vacuoles, contains sugars, mineral salts and amino acids
o !onoplast
"embrane around the vacuole
'ucleus
o 'ucleoplasm
Small spherical mass of denser protoplasm
o 'uclear membrane
'uclear envelope
o #ound in the cytoplasm
o Control activities of the cell
(eproduction, repairs and maintenance
o Chromatin
'etwork of long thread%like structures, containing the heredity
materials
o Chromatin is made up of proteins and ') (eo*yribose 'ucleic )cid)
o Chromosomes
Condensed and highly coiled chromatin threads during cell division
o 'ucleoli
) spherical structure that plays a part in the build up of proteins
+ndoplasmic reticulum
o ) series of flattened sheets
o Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Sites of synthesis and transport of steroids and lipids
o (ough endoplasmic reticulum
!ransport proteins synthesi$ed at the ribosomes towards ,olgi bodies
for secretary packing
"itochondria
o (od%shaped
o Site of aerobic respiration
o Powerhouse
(elease energy during cellular respiration
,olgi bodies
o Stacks of flattened membrane sacs
o &nvolved in secretion of vesicles, formation of lysosomes
(ibosomes
o !iny structures concerned with the manufacture of proteins
o #ound on rough endoplasmic reticulum
Comparison between plant cell and animal cell
Plant cell )nimal cell
Cell wall - .
Cell membrane - -
Chloroplasts - .
"itochondria - -
,olgi apparatus - -
+ndoplasmic reticulum - -
'ucleus - -
Shape #i*ed &rregular
Centriole . -
/acuoles One large central "any small
,ranules Starch ,lycogen
Cilia0flagella . -
o )ll cells have cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic
reticulum and ribosomes
(oot hair cell
o #unction
&ncrease absorption of water and mineral salts from the soil
o Presence of root hair
o Long and elongated
o &ncrease surface area for greater rate of absorption
.ylem vessel
o #unction
Conduction of water in plants as well as to offer mechanical support
o 'arrow and cylindrical continuous tube
o )bsence of cross wall
o 1ater column can move easily up the lumen of the *ylem vessel
o Lignified cell walls
o Strengthens the wall and prevents collapse of the *ylem vessel
(ed blood cell
o #unction
!ransport of o*ygen from lungs to the rest of the body
o Contains hemoglobin
O*ygen carrier
o #lat, biconcave shape (no nucleus)
o !his serves to increase surface area to volume ratio
o O*ygen can also diffuse into or out of the cell at a faster rate
o !he absence of a nucleus also allow the red blood cell to s2uee$e through the
narrow capillaries
Cell
o 3asic structural unit of all organisms
o #unctional unit of all organisms where all chemical reactions necessary to
maintain and reproduce the living system e*ist
o )rise from pre%e*isting cells
o Contain heredity material
Simple tissue
o Cells of the same type grouped together to carry out special function
Comple* tissue
o Cells of different type grouped together for the same function
Organ
o ifferent tissues working together and enabling the organ to perform its
function
Organ system
o ifferent organs working together for a special purpose
Movement of substances
iffusion
o !he random movement of molecules of a substance from a region of higher
concentration to a region of lower concentration
Osmosis
o !he movement of water (or solvent) molecules from a region of higher
concentration to a region of lower concentration across a partially permeable membrane
)ctive transport
o !he movement of substances into or out of cells against a concentration
gradient
1ater potential
o !he measure of the free kinetic energy of water in a system, or the tendency
for water to leave a system
o 4igh water potential 5 high tendency for water to leave the system0low
tendency for water to enter a system0high concentration of water
Osmotic potential
o Low osmotic potential 5 low tendency for water to enter a system0high
tendency for water to leave the system0high water potential0high concentration of water
4ypertonic environment
o Cell has high water potential
o Cell has low osmotic potential
o 1ater leaves the cell
4ypotonic environment
o Cell has low water potential
o Cell has high osmotic potential
o 1ater enters the cell
&sotonic solution
o Cell gains and lose water at the same rate
o 'o net loss or gain in water
Biological molecules
&mportance of water
o 6se as a biological solvent
"edium where chemical reactions occur
o )s a reagent in the digestion or hydrolysis of food
o )s a transport medium for digested food like glucose, amino acids in animals
o )s a transport medium for wastes like CO7, urea and other nitrogenous
wastes like creatinine in animals
o )s a transport medium for hormones from the glands to the target organs
o #or heat loss since water has a high specific heat capacity
o )s a ma8or component of body fluids such as blood, tissue fluid and digestive
8uices
o (eplaces water lost from the body in sweat, urine and in breath
o )ct as a lubricant in mucus and synovial fluid
o +ssential constituent of protoplasm
o +ssential for photosynthesis in green plants
o "aintains turgidity of plant cells and to keep plants upright
o !ransport medium for mineral salts and manufactured sugars in plants
Carbohydrates
o Chemical constituents
Carbon
4ydrogen
O*ygen
#ats
o Chemical constituents
Carbon
4ydrogen
O*ygen
Proteins
o Chemical constituents
Carbon
4ydrogen
O*ygen
'itrogen
o Other possible constituents
Sulfur
Phosphorus
Starch test
o rops of iodine
3lue%black color if starch is present
3rown color if starch is present
(educing sugars test
o 3enedict9s solution
,reen color mi*ture means traces of reducing sugars
:ellow or orange color precipitate means moderate amounts of
reducing sugars
3rick%red or orange%red color precipitate means large amount of
reducing sugars
Protein test
o 3iuret solution
Sodium hydro*ide
Copper (&&) sulfate
o Color change
3lue to violet (proteins)
3lue to pink (short%chain polypetides)
#at test
o +thanol
o 1ater
o Observation
Cloudy white emulsion if fats are present
Synthesis
o ,lycogen from glucose
o Polypetides and proteins from amino acids
o Lipids such as fats from glycerol and fatty acids
+n$ymes
o Lock and key
4ighly specific
Only substrates with shapes complementary in shape to that of the
en$ymes can fit into the en$yme active site and be acted upon by the en$ymes
o )ctive site
Site with a specific shape where substrate will bind onto en$yme
o +n$yme%substrate comple*
#ormed only long enough for the reaction to be complete
Same en$yme molecule can then cataly$e the reaction with another
substrate molecule
o )ctivation energy
(educes activation energy so that it is possible for chemical reactions
to take place in cells at normal body temperature
o +n$yme specificity
Only substrates with shapes complementary to that of the en$yme can
fit into en$yme active site and be acted upon by the en$yme
o +ffects of temperature
+n$ymes have an optimum working temperature often but not always
close to that at which they usually function
)n en$yme is inactive at low temperatures
!his is because en$yme%substrate comple*es are formed slowly
)s temperature rises, it activity increases
!he rising temperature increases the rate of metabolic reactions as the
heat increases molecular motion
!hus the molecules move more 2uickly and fre2uency of collision
between substrate and en$yme molecules increases
4ence, there is a greater possibility of a reaction taking place
;<=
!he rate of reaction double for every <=>C rise in temperature
until optimum temperature is reached
!he temperature coefficient ;<= varies between en$ymes,
depending on the activation energy of the cataly$ed reaction
Optimum temperature
!he temperature at which ma*imum reaction occurs
3eyond optimum temperature, en$yme activity will decrease
until it is completely deactivated or destroyed
)s en$ymes are made of proteins, when they are heated to too
high a temperature, they are denatured
enaturation
!he breaking of the secondary tertiary structures of
proteins0en$ymes due to high temperatures
)n irreversible (?@=>C) destruction of an en$yme can be
brought about by e*treme heating
+ach en$yme has its own optimum temperature
"ost en$ymes work best between A=%AB>C
+n$ymes in the human body have an optimum temperature of
AB>C
o +ffects of p4
+*treme changes in p4 of the solutions destroy the en$ymes
Optimum p4
!he p4 at which the ma*imum rate of reaction occurs
1hen the p4 is altered above or below the optimum p4, the
rate of en$yme activity decreases as changes in p4 alter the ionic charge of the acidic and
the basic groups that help maintain the specific shape of the en$yme
p4 changes lead to alterations in en$yme, particularly at the
active site
e*treme p4 changes can cause denaturation of the en$yme
Animal nutrition
igestion
o "outh
!he presence of food in the mouth or thoughts of food stimulates the
three pairs of salivary glands to secrete saliva
#ood is mi*ed with saliva and is softened by mucin
"astication breaks down food into smaller pieces (increase in surface
area0physical digestion)
!he en$yme amylase, present in saliva, digests starch to maltose
3olus
Small, spherical mass of food formed by mastication and
the rolling of the tongue
3olus is swallowed via the pharyn* into the esophagus
o +sophagus
3olus passes down the esophagus into the stomach through gravity as
well as peristalsis
'o digestion takes place in the esophagus
o Stomach
#ood in the stomach stimulates the secretion of gastric 8uices into the
stomach cavity by the gastric glands
Peristaltic movement in the stomach churns the food and mi*es it well
with gastric 8uice (as well as to break down the food substances into smaller pieces)
,astric 8uice
) dilute hydrochloric acid (?p4 7), prorenin and pepsinogen
!he functions of hydrochloric acid
Stops action of salivary amylase
Converts inactive forms of gastric en$ymes to active forms
o Pepsinogen pepsin
o Prorenin rennin
Provides a slightly acidic medium for the action of digestive
en$ymes
Cills germs and certain potential parasites
+*cess production of hydrochloric acid may erode the stomach walls
and thus result in gastric ulcers
Pepsin causes the breakdown of proteins to peptones or polypeptides
Proteins D pepsin peptones
Since pepsin breaks down proteins, these need to be formed in the
inactive state before being released, otherwise they will breakdown the proteins found in
the cells that produces them
(enin is an en$yme characteristic of mammals
(enin clots or curdles milk proteins by converting the soluble protein
caseinogen into insoluble casein, a process that re2uires calcium ions
Caseinogen (soluble) D renin0Ca
7D
casein (insoluble)
!he insoluble casein would remain long enough in the stomach to be
digested by pepsin
Protein digestion would be completed in the ileum
#ood normally remains in the stomach for about three to four hours
Chyme
Li2uefied, partly digested food that passes in small amounts
into the duodenum through the pyloric sphincter
Small intestine
!he presence of chyme stimulates
Secretion of intestinal 8uice (succus entericus (which
contains en$ymes enterokinase), erepsin (peptidase), maltase,
sucrase (or invertase), lactase and intestinal lipase by the
intestinal glands)
Secretion of pancreatic 8uice (pancreatic amylase,
pancreatic lipase, trypsinogen, an inactive form of protease) by
the pancreas into the duodenum
(elease of bile by the gall bladder into the duodenum
)cidic chyme comes into contact with intestinal 8uice, pancreatic 8uice
and bile and is neutrali$ed
)n alkaline environment is now created to provide a suitable alkaline
medium for the action of pancreatic and intestinal en$ymes
Carbohydrate digestion in small intestine
igestion of starch in the mouth is minimal
)lso, there is no digestion of starch in the stomach
(emaining starch that enters the small intestine are
digested by pancreatic amylase to maltose, then to glucose by
maltase
Simple sugars are the end%products of carbohydrates
digestion
#at digestion in small intestine
3ile emulsifies fat by breaking fats up into minute fat
globules suspended in water to form a stable emulsion
+mulsification increases the surface area of fats for
digestion
igestion of fats sped up
+mulsified fats are converted by lipases to fatty acid and
glycerol
Protein digestion in small intestine
Some protein digestion occurs in the stomach
6ndigested proteins in the small intestine are converted by
trypsin to peptones, which are converted erepsin to amino acids
o !rypsinogen D enterokinase trypsin
o Proteins D trypsin peptones
o Peptones D erepsin amino acids
)bsorption
o igested food substances are absorbed by the villi of the small
intestine, especially in the 8e8unum and ileum
o !he wall of the small intestine is well adapted for the absorption of
digested food substances
&nner walls of the small intestine thrown into many transverse
folds and furrows
/illi
"inute finger%like pro8ections found on the wall of the
small intestine
'umerous villi are found on the folds and furrows of the small
intestine
"icrovilli
"inute finger%like pro8ections found on villi
!he presence of folds and furrows, as well as villi and
microvilli, serve to increase surface area for absorption
!he long length of the small intestine also increases surface
area for absorption to take place
!he epithelium is only one cell thick
!he intestinal wall and the villi are richly supplied with blood
vessels and lymphatic vessels
!he presence of these vessels serve to carry away digested
food substances
Lacteal
) lymphatic vessel present in a villi which is surrounded
by blood capillaries
)id in the transport of fat
3lood vessels carry sugars and amino acids
!his continuous transportation of digested materials away
aids to maintain concentration gradient
Process
Simple sugars and amino acids, since they are relatively
small in si$e, diffuse through the walls of the villi into the blood
capillaries
"ineral salts and vitamins, since they are relatively small in
si$e, also diffuse through the walls of the villi into the blood
capillaries
!ransport of digested food substances into the blood
capillaries can be through diffusion or by active transport
#ats are broken down into glycerol and fatty acids
o ,lycerol is soluble in water and it diffuses
through the epithelium
o #atty acids reacts with bile salts to form soluble
soaps so that it can diffuse through the epithelium
o &n the epithelium, glycerol and the soluble soaps
recombine to form minute fat globules which are
absorbed by the lacteals
1ater and mineral salts are also absorbed by the large
intestines
!he epithelium layer of the villi is one cell thick
o !his allows digested food substances to diffuse
rapidly over a short distance into the blood capillaries or
lacteal
6ndigested food substances and unabsorbed digested
matter are stored temporarily in the rectum before being
discharged as feces through the anus
+gestion
o (emoval undigested matter from the body
!ransportation and utili$ation of absorbed foods
o Sugars
3lood capillaries in the villi unite to form a large vein, the hepatic
portal vein
!he hepatic portal vein is linked to the liver
Simple sugars are transported to the liver, where most of these are
converted to glycogen and stored
Conversion of glucose to glycogen is carried out in the presence of the
hormone insulin, produced by the pancreas
,lucose D insulin (from pancreas) glycogen
!he unconverted sugars are transported to the other parts of the body
as glucose for assimilation
,lucose is needed for cellular respiration
4ence, when the body is in need of glucose, glycogen is converted
back into glucose in the liver and transported away to other parts of the body
!he conversion of glycogen to glucose is under the action of the
hormone adrenaline
,lycogen D glucagon (from pancreas) glucose
o )mino acids
!he route of transport for amino acids is similar to that of simple
sugars (after being transported to the liver, it is transported in the blood stream to other
parts of the body)
)mino acids are assimilated for
'ew protoplasm
,rowth and repair
#ormation of hormones
#ormation of en$ymes
+*cess amino acids not utili$ed are brought back to the liver
eamination
(emoval of the amino groups (%'47) and conversion into
ammonia, then urea of e*cess amino acids
6rea is transported to the kidneys to be removed in the urine
!he remains of amino acids are converted into glucose (and then to
glycogen) in the liver
o #ats
Lymph
) colorless fluid in lacteals
Chyle
"ilky fluid obtained when fats in the lacteals are mi*ed with
lymph
Lacteals linked together into larger lymphatic vessels, discharging into
the thoracic duct, and ultimately opening into the subclavian vein
#ats are then carried to the liver and assimilated
1hen there is an inade2uate supply of glucose, the fats are o*idi$ed to
provide energy
6nder normal conditions, fats are used to build protoplasm
+*cess fats are stored in adipose tissues
)dipose tissues
) layer of tissues beneath the skin, around the heart, the
kidneys and in the mesenteries binding the intestines, where fats are stored
Peristalsis
o (hythmic, wave%like contractions of the alimentary canal wall to move food
along the alimentary canal
o 3rought about by the antagonistic actions of the circular and longitudinal
muscles
ilation
Circular muscles rela*, longitudinal muscles contract
Constriction
Circular muscles contract, longitudinal muscles rela*
#unctions of liver
o Carbohydrate metabolism
,lycogen is converted to glucose in the liver in the presence of
glucagon from the pancreas
o #at metabolism
Lipids are removed from the blood and broken down
+EgE cholesterol is e*creted in the bile
o 3reakdown of red blood cells
!he red blood cells become worn out after a period of time and are
destroyed by the spleen
!he hemoglobin of red blood cells are brought back to the liver where
it is broken down and the iron released is stored
3ile pigments are formed from the breakdown of hemoglobin
o "etabolism of amino acids and the formation of urea
!he amino group is converted into urea and is removed from the body
in the urine
!he remains of the deaminated amino acids are converted to glucose
in urea
Plant nutrition
)daptations of dicotyledonous leaf
Part of the leaf Structure #unction
6pper epidermis One cell thick layer
1a*y cuticle
'o chlorophyll
Stomata may be present in small
numbers
Cuticle reduces loss of water
through evaporation
Cuticle also protects the leaf from
mechanical in8ury
!he upper epidermis and the
cuticle is transparent, thus
allowing light to pass through
easily
Palisade mesophyll ensely packed cylindrical%
shaped cells arranged at right%
angles to the upper epidermis of
the leaf in one or two layers
Cells have thin walls and contain
many chloroplasts
Palisade mesophyll cells are the
main sites where photosynthesis
takes place due to high
concentration of chlorophyll
!hin cell wall and cytoplasm
allows rapid diffusion of water and
carbon dio*ide into the
chloroplasts
Spongy mesophyll &rregularly%shaped cells
containing fewer chloroplasts
Cells are loosely packed with
large intercellular air spaces
between cells
)ir spaces are connected with the
stomata (serves as passage way
for diffusion of carbon dio*ide and
o*ygen, as well as water vapor)
Some photosynthesis occurs and
this causes the cells to be turgid
(support)
/ascular bundles Lignified *ylem vessels and
tracheids
Phloem tissues with sieve tubes
and companion cells
.ylem aids in the conduction of
water and mineral salts from the
roots to the leaves
Provides support for the leaf
lamina
Phloem aids in transport of
products of photosynthesis from
the leaves to other parts of the
plant, especially to the roots, in
the form of sucrose
Lower epidermis One cell thick layer
1a*y cuticle
Presence of many stomata
Stomata allow gaseous e*change
between e*ternal environment
and the intercellular air spaces in
the spongy mesophyll
Stomata ) pair of curved guard cells
surrounding a stomatal pore
,aseous e*change occurs through
the stomatal pore
Opening or closure of guard cells
regulates gaseous e*change
Photosynthesis
o +2uations
1ord e2uation
Carbon dio*ide D water glucose D o*ygen D water
Chemical e2uation
@CO7 D <747O C@4<7O@ D @O7 D @ 47O
o &ntake of carbon dio*ide
Carbon dio*ide from the atmosphere diffuses into the leaf through the
stomata
Once the carbon dio*ide enters the leaf, it dissolves in the thin film of
water surrounding the spongy mesophyll cells and palisade mesophyll cells and finally
diffuse into the chloroplasts within the cells and used in photosynthesis
o +ffects of varying light intensity
&n the absence of light, photosynthesis does not occur and only
respiration continues
)s light intensity increases, the rate of photosynthesis increases until
the amount of carbon dio*ide released from respiration is e2ual to the amount of carbon
dio*ide absorbed for photosynthesis
)s higher light intensities, a net uptake of carbon dio*ide and release
of o*ygen is reached and the amount of sugar in the plant will increase
!he rate of photosynthesis increases with increasing light intensity up
to the light saturation point
3eyond the light saturation point, further increase in light intensity has
no effect on the rate of photosynthesis
)t very high light intensities, the rate of photosynthesis slows down as
e*cessive amounts of ultraviolet rays damages chlorophyll molecules
3lue light and red light are most strongly absorbed by chlorophyll
pigments
!hus, the highest photosynthetic rate is obtained when leaves are
illuminated with blue and red light
o +ffects of temperature
!he reaction in dark stage of photosynthetic process are cataly$ed by
en$yme
&ncreasing temperature up to F=>C will increase the rate of
photosynthesis due to increased en$yme activity
)t temperatures above F=>C, the rate of photosynthesis slows down as
the en$ymes are denatured gradually
o +ffects of carbon dio*ide
!he normal percentage of carbon dio*ide in atmospheric air is =E=AG
&ncreasing carbon dio*ide level increases the rate of photosynthesis up
to the carbon saturation point
#urther increase in carbon dio*ide levels had no effect on the rate of
photosynthesis
Carbon dio*ide levels of greater than =E<G have no effect on rate of
photosynthesis
o Limiting factor
efinition
)ny factor that directly affects a process if the 2uantity of this
factor is changed
&n the case of photosynthesis
Light
Carbon dio*ide concentration
!emperature
,raphs show the effect of light and carbon dio*ide concentration on
photosynthesis rates
&n each case, the rates increase rapidly at first, then reach a ceiling,
indicating that they are being affected by another limiting factor, for e*ample, temperature
#or e*ample, in the first graph, by increasing the temperature, the
rate of photosynthesis showed only a small increase
&t is likely that temperature may not be an important limiting factor in
this e*ample
&n the second graph, carbon dio*ide concentration is increased instead
!here is a significant increase in the rate of photosynthesis
&t is likely that carbon dio*ide is an important limiting factor in this
e*ample
!his is true in nature as there only is =E=AG CO7 in air
!hus, carbon dio*ide concentration is the limitation factor
Carbon dio*ide levels can only be raised under laboratory conditions
!he constant rate of photosynthesis even when carbon dio*ide
concentration is raised implies that there is another limiting factor at work
&n the third graph, with raised carbon dio*ide concentration,
temperature is increased
)gain, there is a significant increase in the rate of photosynthesis
!his shows that temperature was a limiting factor
Compensation point
)t certain light intensity, the rate of photosynthesis and the
rate of respiration is e2ual
!his means that the amount of CO7 taken in and O7 released is
the same
Transport in flowering plants
.ylem
o #unctions
Conducts water and its dissolved mineral salts from the roots to the
stems
Provide mechanical support to the plant
Phloem
o #unctions
Conducts manufactured nutrients (sucrose and amino acids) from the
leaves to other parts of the plant
(oot
o Structure
!he root consists of various regions or $ones
,rowing $one
Small young cells that are actively dividing to form new cells
Hone of elongation
Cells elongate here to bring about increase in length of the root
(oot cap
Several layers of protective cells to protect the young cells from
in8ury during elongation
Hone of root hairs0maturation
)bsorption of minerals and water occurs here
!he region of the root about the $one of root hairs has an outer skin
which is impregnated with suberin
!his allows it to be air proof as well as waterproof
o Structure of a young dicotyledonous root
.ylem and phloem are not bundled together
Corte* present as a storage tissue
Piliferous layer
+pidermal layer of the root which bears root hair cells
(oot hairs serve to increase surface area to volume ratio for the
adaptation of absorbing water and mineral salts
Cuticle is missing
o "ovement of water
)bsorption of water and mineral salts takes place mainly in the $one of
root hairs
(oot hairs increase surface area for uptake of water
Sap in root hair is a relatively concentrated solution of sugars and
various salts
!hus the sap has a lower water potential than the soil water
1ater enters the root hair cells by osmosis
Cell sap and soil water is separated by a partially%permeable plasma
membrane
+ntry of water dilutes the root hair cell sap
!his causes water to move into the inners cell by osmosis
)s water moves into these cells, they have a higher water potential
than cells further in, thus water will move in further into the roots
!he process continues until the water enters the *ylem vessels and
moves up the plant
o Pathway of water from root to leaves
(oot hair cells epidermis of root corte* of root endodermis
*ylem vessels
!ranspiration
o efinition
!he loss of water vapor from the aerial parts of a plant, especially
through the stomata of the leaves
o ) conse2uence of gaseous e*change
!here are numerous mesophyll cells present within a leaf, and these
are surrounded by intercellular air spaces
1ater continually moves out of the mesophyll cells to form a thin film
of moisture over their surface
#rom the wet cell walls, water evaporates into the intercellular spaces,
and from there it diffuses through the stomata to the drier air outside the leaf
o +ffects
)ir movement
!he higher the air movement, the higher the rate of
transpiration
!emperature
) rise in temperature will result in a rise in rate of evaporation
(transpiration)
4umidity of air
!he more humid the air, the slower the rate of transpiration
Light intensity
4igh light intensity will cause stomata opening
!his will increase the rate of transpiration
o 1ilting
!he turgor pressure in the mesophyll cells in the leaf
Supports the leaf
Ceep the leaf firm and widely spread out to absorb sunlight for
photosynthesis
&n strong sunlight, e*cessive transpiration causes the cells to lose their
turgor
!hey become flaccid and the plant wilts
o !ranslocation
efinition
!he transport of manufactured substances like sugars and
amino acids in plants
!ranslocation of sugars and amino acids occurs in the phloem
+*periment with aphids
(inging e*periment
6se of
<F
C isotopes
Transport in humans
"ain blood vessels
o Pulmonary artery
4eart to lungs
o Pulmonary vein
Lungs to heart
o 4epatic artery
4eart to liver
o 4epatic vein
Liver to heart
o (enal artery
4eart to kidneys
o (enal vein
Cidneys to arteries
#unctions of blood
o (ed blood cells
Contains hemoglobin
) red pigment
Special kind of protein containing iron
O*ygen carrier
o 1hite blood cells
!wo main kinds
Lymphocytes
o Produces antibodies
Phagocytes
o Phagocytosis
o !issue re8ection
o Platelets
)ids in the clotting of blood
#ibrinogen fibrin
o Plasma
!ransport medium
3lood cells
&ons
Soluble food substances
4ormones
Carbon dio*ide
6rea
/itamins
Plasma proteins
3lood groups
o !ypes
)
3
)3
O
o Possible combinations for the donor and recipient
O (donor) ) (donor) 3 (donor) )3 (donor)
O (recipient) -
) (recipient) - -
3 (recipient) - -
)3 (recipient) - - - -
)rteries
o )rteries have walls that are thick, muscular and elastic to withstand the high
pressure of blood coming out from the heart
o Strength of an artery to resist the pressure comes largely from its elastic
fibres
o !hick elastic walls also help to maintain the high blood pressure in the artery
o +lastic layer is much thicker in arteries near the heart
o +lasticity allows the arteries to stretch and recoil, thus propelling the blood
along the blood vessel
o !he constriction and dilation of an artery is brought about by the contraction
and rela*ation of the muscles in the arterial walls
/eins
o 3lood in veins are at a lower pressure and flows more slowly and smoothly
o !he walls of veins are not as thick and muscular as those of arteries
o /eins contains less elastic tissue
o Semi%lunar valves
#olds of the inner walls in veins that aids in preventing back flow of
blood
o Prevention of back flow is important in returning the blood to the heart
o Presence of semi%lunar valves ensures unidirectional blood flow of blood
o !he movement of blood along the veins is assisted by the action of the
skeletal muscles on the veins muscular contractions and rela*ation e*ert a pressure on
the veins, thus moving blood along
Capillaries
o "icroscopic blood vessels found between cells of almost all tissues
o +ndothelium
) single layer of flattened cells that makes up the wall of capillaries
o !he endothelium is partially permeable to ensure rapid diffusion of substances
through it
o Capillaries branch repeatedly to increase surface area for e*change of
substances
o 3lood pressure in capillaries is also lowered, thus blood flow is slowed down,
allowing more time for e*change of substances
!ransfer of materials between capillaries and tissue cells
o 4igh blood pressure at the arterial end of capillaries forces out blood plasma
into spaces between cells
o 1hite blood corpuscles can also s2uee$e through, but no red blood corpuscles
o !issue fluid
iluted plasma containing white corpuscles
o !issue fluid is a colorless li2uid
o Some cells do not have direct contact with blood vessels
o 4owever, these cells are bathed by tissue fluid
o !issue fluid carries substances in solution between the tissue cells and the
blood capillaries
o issolved food substances and o*ygen diffuse from the blood into the tissue
fluid and then into the cells
o 1aste products diffuse from the cells into the tissue fluid and then through
the capillary walls into the blood
o )s capillaries are small, erythrocytes can only move through them in single
file
(ed blood cells may even become bell%shaped
o !he advantages of this are
!he diameter of the erythrocyte is decreased so that it can pass easily
through the lumen of the capillaries
!he cell increases its surface area to speed up absorption of waste
products and release of o*ygen
(ate of blood flow is reduced, giving more time for efficient gaseous
e*change
4eart
o Si$e is about the si$e of a clenched fist in man
o Lies in the thora*, behind the sternum and between the two lungs, displaced
to the left side of the body
o Conical in shape and slants with its ape* directed slightly towards the left side
of the body
o Pericardium
) two%layered bag surrounding the heart
!he inner membrane being in contact with the heart while the
pericardial fluid lies between the two membrane
o "ade up of four chambers
!wo upper atria and two lower ventricles
o "edian septum
"uscular wall that separates the right chambers from the left
chambers, thus preventing mi*ing of o*ygenated and deo*ygenated blood
o 3lood is returned to the right and left from the vena cava and the pulmonary
vein respectively
o Contraction of the atria will cause the blood in the atria to be pumped into the
right and left ventricles accordingly
o 3lood is pumped out of the heart by the ventricles
Pulmonary arch and pulmonary arteries carry blood to the lungs, aortic
arch carries blood to the other parts of the body
o 3ackflow is prevented due to the presence of valves
!ricuspid valve in the right side, bicuspid valve on the left side
3lood clotting
o Clotting of blood seals up a wound to prevent e*cessive loss of blood
o Clotting also prevents entry of foreign particles into the blood stream
o 4emophilia
) genetic disease where the clotting mechanism is greatly impaired,
thus hemophilics may bleed to death
o amaged tissues and platelets thrombokinase
o Prothrombin D thrombokinase D Ca
7D
thrombin
o #ribinogen D thrombin insoluble fibrin threads
o 1hen blood vessels are damaged, an en$yme (thrombokinase) is released by
the damaged tissues and blood platelets
o !hrombokinase converts the protein prothrombin normally present in the
plasma to thrombin, which is an en$yme
o Calcium ions are re2uired for the conversion of prothrombin to thrombin
o !hrombin cataly$es the conversion of the soluble protein fibrinogen to a
meshwork of insoluble threads of fibrin
o #ibrin threads entangle blood corpuscles and the whole mass forms a clot
o /itamin C is also essential for the process of blood clotting
o &n undamaged blood vessels, the blood does not clot due to the presence of
heparin, an anti%clotting substance produced by the liver
o uring blood clot, thrombokinase released neutrali$es the action of heparin so
that clotting can take place
o 1hen blood clots, serum is left behind
o Serum
) yellowish li2uid that has the same composition as plasma e*cept
that it lacks the clotting constituents
Cardiac cycle
o Contraction of the atria will cause the blood in the atria to be pumped into the
right and left ventricles accordingly
o /entricular contraction is also known as ventricular systole (producing Ilubb9
sound due to the closing of the tricuspid and bicuspid valves)
o Semi%lunar valves are present to prevent back flow of blood into the
ventricles
o /entricular rela*ation is also known as ventricular diastole (producing the
Idubb9 sound due to the closing of the semi%lunar valves)
o ) systole and a diastole makes up one heartbeat
o !he rate of heartbeat varies between people
Coronary heart disease
o !wo coronary arteries bring o*ygen to the cardiac muscles
o Obstruction to blood flow in these two arteries may bring about cardiac arrest
or angina pectoris
o Coronary thrombosis
#ormation of blood clot in the artery
o &f thrombosis occurs in the coronary arteries, blood is prevented from
reaching the heart cardiac arrest
o 4eart attack0heart failure
Sudden slowing or stoppages of the heartbeat due to severe damage
or death of cardiac muscles
o Coronary thrombosis is more likely to occur in narrow arteries with fatty
deposits
o )therosclerosis
!he narrowing and hardening of artery due to fatty deposits on the
walls of the artery
o 1alls of artery with atherosclerosis are thick and hard, with the rough inner
surfaces increasing the risk of thrombosis
o 1hat happens leading up to coronary heart disease
Cholesterol and polysaturated fats are deposited on the walls of the
artery, narrowing and hardening the artery
)s the narrowing of lumen would result in rougher inner surfaces, a
blood clot is likely to be formed
!he blood clot would inhibit the blood from reaching the heart and
cause heart attacks or heart failure
o Coronary heart disease can be caused by
iet
iet rich in cholesterol and saturated animal fats results in high
blood cholesterol level
Lack of e*ercise0being overweight
Stress
4ormone adrenaline secreted under stress conditions increases
heart beat rate and blood pressure
rinking
Smoking
'icotine
o &ncreases the rate of heart beat by increasing secretion
of the hormone adrenaline
o Causes the blood vessels to constrict, increasing the
blood pressure
o Causes blood to clot more easily
Carbon mono*ide
o &ncreases the rate of fatty deposition on inner surfaces
of the arteries and decreases o*ygen supply to the heart
o Preventive measures can be taken as atherosclerosis begins early in life
)void diets rich in saturated animal fats
Substitute with polyunsaturated vegetable fats
(egular e*ercising
o Strengthens the heart and maintains elasticity of the
arterial walls
"inimal or no smoking and drinking
Low%stress lifestyle or proper stress management
Respiration
)lveoli
o !he walls of the alveoli are the respiratory surfaces, and these are one cell%
thick
o 'umerous capillaries are closely wrapped around outside of the alveoli
o O*ygen can diffuse across the walls of the alveoli into the blood
o Carbon dio*ide can diffuse the other way
(emoval of carbon dio*ide from the lungs
o 3lood entering the lungs is rich in carbon dio*ide in the form of hydrogen
carbonate ions
47O D CO7 47COA 4
D
D 4COA
%
o !his is also a reversible reaction
o )s tissue cells respire, carbon dio*ide is evolved
o Carbon dio*ide diffuses into the blood and dissolves in the water in the red
blood cells to form carbonic acid
o !his reaction is cataly$ed by the en$yme carbonic anhydrase
o Carbonic acid is converted to hydrogen carbonates in the red blood cells
o "uch of hydrogen carbonates formed will diffuse back into the plasma
o !hus, hydrogen carbonates are carried both in the red blood cells as well as in
the plasma
o 1hen blood passes through the lungs, alveolar carbon dio*ide concentration
is low
o Carbonic anhydrase will cataly$e the backward reaction and hydrogen
carbonates are converted to water and carbon dio*ide in the red blood cells
o Carbon dio*ide will diffuse out of the blood in the alveoli to be e*haled out to
the e*ternal environment
o Some moisture and heat will also be e*haled out in this manner
Cilia
o Cilia are hair%like structures which lines the trachea, moves to and fro in a
wave%like rhythm to sweep the Idirty9 mucus up the laryn* and into the pharyn* to be
swallowed down the esophagus
iaphragm
o !o increase volume of the thora* during inspiration (inhalation)
o !o decrease volume of the thora* during e*piration (e*halation)
(ibs
o (ibs are pulled upwards and outwards during inspiration (inhalation) to
increase volume of the thora*
o (ibs are dropped to its normal position during e*piration (e*halation) to
decrease volume of the thora*
&ntercostal muscles
o uring inspiration (inhalation), the e*ternal intercostal muscles contract,
while the internal intercostal muscles rela*, pulling the rib cage upwards and outwards, and
pulling sternum upward and forward
o !his is done to increase volume of the thora*
o uring e*piration (e*halation), the e*ternal intercostal muscles rela*, while
the internal intercostal muscles contract, causing the rib cage to drop again to its normal
position
o !his is done to decrease volume of the thora*
+ffects of tobacco smoke
o Cigarette smoke contains more than F=== chemicals, many of which are
carcinogenic
o Smoking can cause harmful diseases in man
o Chemicals in tobacco smoke
'icotine
Carbon mono*ide
!ar
o +ffects of nicotine on the body
&ncrease in heartbeat and blood pressure
&ncreased risk of blood clots in arteries
o +ffects of carbon mono*ide on the body
eath
&ncreased risk of atherosclerosis
&ncreased risk of blood clots in arteries
o +ffects of tar on the body
3lockage in alveoli reduces gas e*change efficiency
"ucus cannot be removed
&ncrease risk of chronic bronchitis
&ncreased risk of emphysema
)erobic respiration
o !he breakdown of food substances in the presence of o*ygen with the release
of a large amount of energy
o 1ord e2uation
,lucose D o*ygen carbon dio*ide D water D energy
o Chemical e2uation
C@4<7O@ D O7 CO7 D 47O (AJ )!P)
)naerobic respiration
o !he breakdown of food substances with the release of a comparatively small
amount of energy in the absence of o*ygen
o 1ord e2uation
,lucose carbon dio*ide D ethanol D energy
o Chemical e2uation
C@4<7O@ 7CO7 D 7C74KO4 (7 )!P)
+ffects of lactic acid on muscles
o !his will cause muscle fatigue and the body will need to rest to recover
Excretion
!he process by which metabolic waste products are removed from the body of an
organism
&mportance of removing nitrogenous and other compounds
o +nsure that chemical reactions proceed in the correct direction
o Certain metabolic wastes are to*ic
6ltrafiltration
o 3lood from the renal artery brings metabolic wastes and useful substances to
the kidney tubules
o "ost of the blood plasma is forced out of the glomercular blood capillaries into
the 3owman9s capsule
o &s the process of small molecules being forced into the nephron due to high
blood pressure
o #actors of ultrafiltration
4ydrostatic blood pressure
3lood pressure in the glomerulus is high because the efferent
arteriole is narrower than the afferent arteriole, hence providing the main force re2uired for
filtrate to leak through the porous capillary wall of glomerulus
Partially permeable membrane
)llowing only small molecules to diffuse across
o #iltrate
,lucose, vitamins, amino acids, hormones, bicarbonate ions, mineral
salts and other nitrogenous waste products
o (emnants
3lood cells and all large molecules like blood platelets, blood
corpuscles, proteins and fats
o !he filtrate trickles down into the pro*imal convoluted tubule, the loop of
4enlL and then to the distal convoluted tubule, then down into the collecting duct
Selective reabsorption
o )bout <7=cm
A
of filtrate are formed in the kidney every minute
!here is a need to reabsorb useful materials
Selective reabsorption takes place to take back useful materials
o )t the pro*imal convoluted tubule, mineral salts, glucose, amino acids, and
other useful substances are reabsorbed through the walls of the tubules into the blood
capillaries through active transport and diffusion
o 4ighly selective
(eceptors only pumps in those that are needed by the body
o !he large molecules that remain in the blood capillaries act osmotically to
reabsorb water in the tubule
o "ost of the water is reabsorbed mainly by osmosis
o Some of the water is reabsorbed in the loop of 4enlL, distal convoluted tubule
and collecting duct into the surrounding blood capillaries
o Some salts are also reabsorbed from the distal convoluted tubule
o +*cess water, mineral salts and nitrogenous waste products are allowed to
pass through along the uriniferous tube and out through the collecting tubule into the renal
pelvis and into the ureter as urine
o 3lood that flows away from the kidney tubule contains very little urea and
less e*cess water
o !he fluid in the nephron flows in one direction while the capillaries flow in the
opposite direction
o !his is known as countercurrent flow
o Countercurrent flow occurs to allow for ma*imum reabsorption of substances
o "ost water is reabsorbed by diffusion, followed by osmosis according to the
control of the anti%diuretic hormone ()4) made in the hypothalamus of the brain
o )4 is stored in the pituitary gland of brain
o !he osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus of the brain monitors the osmotic
pressure of the blood passing through
o &f the osmotic pressure of the blood rises, more )4 released from the
pituitary will increase the permeability of the tubule wall and more water will be reabsorbed,
hence less urine will be formed
o !he production of a large 2uantity of water urine is known as diuresis
o )4 serves to counter this condition, and thus the name
Cidney dialysis
o )n artery is 8oined to a vein, creating a arteriovenous fistula
o 3lood is then drawn from the vein in the arm of a patient and allowed to flow
through the dialysis tubing in the machine
o !his tubing is narrow, long and coiled to increase surface area
o &ts walls are selectively permeable
o !he dialysis tubing is bathed in a dialysis li2uid similar to blood plasma
o Small molecules that are waste products like urea diffuse out of the tubing
into the dialysis li2uid
o 3ig particles like blood cells and plasma protein remain in the tubing
o !he blood is not only cleansed but the amount of salt and water is ad8usted
before it is returned to the patient
o !he McleansedN blood is returned to the patient through a tube connected to a
vein in the arm
o Countercurrent flow is observed to maintain concentration gradient
omeostasis
efinition
o !he maintenance of a constant internal environment
Process of homeostasis
o ) change in the internal environment (stimulus)
o ) corrective mechanism
o ) negative feedback
o &n general, if some factor becomes e*cessive or too little, a control system
initiates a feedback mechanism, which consists of a series of changes that return the factor
toward a certain mean value, thus maintaining homeostasis
o 'egative feedback serves to prevent the self%regulatory corrective mechanism
from over%compensation
"aintenance of body temperature
o &nsulation
!he thicker one9s skin is, the higher the insulation, thus he or she
loses or gains heat at a slower rate
o !emperature receptors in the skin
!he temperature receptors in the skin sense changes in the
environment and transmit a signal to the hypothalamus to start the corrective mechanism
to effect a change
o Sweating
)nother characteristics of mammals
+ach sweat glands is a coiled tube formed by a down%growth of the
epidermis
&t forms a tight knot in the dermis and is richly surrounded by blood
capillaries
!hese secrete a li2uid called sweat
Sweat is mostly water, with small amounts of salt and urea dissolved
in it
&t travels up the sweat ducts, and out onto the surface of the skin
through the sweat pores
Sweat is secreted continuously but sometimes in very small 2uantities
which evaporate almost immediately
Sweat helps in temperature regulation (removal of latent heat)
o Shivering
) very fast random contraction and rela*ation of muscles, which
generates heat to warm the blood
o 3lood vessels near the skin surface
1hen one is too warm
/asodilation is brought about
o "ore blood is brought to the surface of the skin and
more heat is lost through radiation, conduction and convention
Constriction of shunt vessels to allow more blood to be brought
to the surface
1hen one is too cold
/asoconstriction is brought about
o !his prevents blood from flowing to the surface of the
skin
o &nstead it has to go through the capillaries which lie
below the fat layer
o !his reduces the amount of heat lost by radiation from
the blood to the air
ilation of shunt vessels to direct blood away from the surface
o Coordinating role of brain
!he hypothalamus in the brain is responsible to prevent over%
compensation
&n other words, the brain controls when compensation is to be ceased
Co!ordination and response
(elationship between receptors, central nervous system and effectors
o !he receptors send impulses to the central nervous systems, which transmits
another impulse to the effectors, which response to the stimuli
Structure of the eye
o Cornea
ome%shaped transparent layer continuous with the sclera
Speciali$ed form of con8unctiva
(efracts light rays into the eye
Causes most of the refraction of light
o &ris
Circular sheet of muscles that controls the amount of light into the eye
Pigmented to give the eye its color (it may vary from blue to grey or
green to brown)
!wo sets of involuntary muscles present
Circular muscles and radial muscles
o Pupil
4ole in the centre of the iris
)llows light to enter into the eye
o Sclera
Outermost layer, tough, white, fibrous coat
#orms a protective layer round the eyeball and continues as a
transparent cornea which forms a small bulge at the front of the eye
Cornea
!ransparent part of the sclera
!he cornea allows light to enter
!he cornea is denser than the air medium, thus light rays falling onto
it are refracted inwards towards the lens
o Con8unctiva
) thin transparent membrane covering the e*posed part of the eyeball
&t is a mucous membrane that secretes mucus to keep the eye moist
!he con8unctiva is continuous with the skin of the eyelids
o +yelids
Serve to protect the eyeball against mechanical in8ury
)ct as a shutter and help control the amount of light intensity entering
the light
o Lachrymal gland
Secretes tears to lubricate the con8unctiva
!he tear gland lies in the outer corner of the upper eyelid
!ears flow between the eyelids and the e*posed part of the eyeball,
helping to reduce friction when the eyelids move
ust particles entering the eyes will cause a great production of tears
to wash them away
!ears contain an en$yme called lyso$yme, which can kill bacteria
3linking spreads tears over the cornea and con8unctiva and wipes dust
particles off the cornea
o 'aso%lachrymal duct
uct where e*cess tear drains into
!he naso%lachrymal duct runs from the inner corner of the eye to the
nose
+motion may cause e*cess tears to be secreted and passed into the
naso%lachrymal duct
o +yelashes
4elp to shield the eye from dust particles
o Choroid coat
!he middle layer of the eyeball
Contains a network of blood capillaries that nourishes the eye as well
as removes waste
Pigmented black to prevent internal reflection of light
)nterior end of the choroid is modified to form the ciliary body and the
iris
Ciliary body
!hickened region at the front end of the choroids that contains
many involuntary circular muscles called ciliary muscles
&ntrinsic eye muscles since they are inside the eyeball
Ciliary muscles control the curvature or the thickness of the
lens
Ciliary muscles pay an important part in focusing and
accommodation
&ris
Circular sheet of muscles with a round hold in the centre
Pupil
!he central hole in the iris which allows light to pass into the
eye
Lens
!ransparent, elastic, biconve* crystalline lens
Situated behind the iris and in contact with the iris
!he lens is attached to the ciliary body by the suspensory
ligaments
ivides the eyeball into two chambers
o !he small chamber in front of the iris and the lens is
filled with a water fluid known as a2ueous humour
o !he larger chamber behind the lens is filled with a
transparent 8elly%like fluid, the vitreous humour
3oth a2ueous humour and vitreous humour serve to keep the
eyeball firm and to refract light
o (etina
&nnermost layer of the eyeball
Light%sensitive layer on which images are formed
Presence of photoreceptors
(ods and cones
!hese cells are connected to the nerve%endings from the optic nerve
o (ods
Contains visual purple
!he pigment concerned with vision in dim light
Light causes bleaching of visual purple which is involved in light
detection
&n bright light, all the visual purple is bleached
&t takes a short time for visual purple to be formed again in the rods
!hus, when a person enters a dark place from a bright one, he may
not be able to distinguish the ob8ects around him for some time
#ormation of visual purple re2uires /itamin )
) person with deficiency in /itamin ) may not be able to see in dim
light, a condition known as night%blindness
(ods are sensitive to dim light, but only let one see in black and white
o Cones
Less sensitive than rods, thus it is inefficient in dim light
Concerned with bright light and color vision
!hree types of cones, each possessing a different pigment
(ed, green and blue
!hus, cones enable one to see light at different colors
#ovea centralis (yellow spot)
) shallow yellow depression in the retina in line with or on the
optical a*is of the lens
Place where images are normally focused
Contains only cones
!hus vision is keenest in bright light when images are focused
onto the yellow spot
Optic nerve
'erve that transmit impulses to the brain when the
photoreceptors are stimulated
3lind spot
On the retina immediately over the optic nerve
)bsences of any photoreceptors, thus this area is insensitive to
light
)ccommodation for near ob8ects
o Light rays from a near ob8ect are diverging
o (efraction by cornea and a2ueous humour into the pupil
o Contraction of the ciliary muscles
o Pull on the suspensory ligaments is released
o Lens becomes thicker and more conve* contracted
o Light rays from near ob8ects are sharply focused on the retina
o Photoreceptors stimulated
o 'erve impulses transmitted to brain via the optic nerve
o 3rain interprets the impulses and near ob8ect is seen
o !he nearer the ob8ects, the more the circular muscles will contract and the
thicker the lens will be
o 'ear point
Point where the ob8ect is so close to the eye that in order to see it, the
ciliary muscle must contract fully and the lens become most conve*
&f the ob8ect is moved nearer to the eye, the image formed on the
retina will be blurred as the lens cannot ad8ust any further
)ccommodation for a distant vision (OBm)
o #or a distant ob8ect, the light rays are almost parallel to each other when they
reach the eye
o Parallel rays are refracted by cornea and a2ueous humour into the pupil
o (ela*ation of ciliary mscles
o Pull on suspensory ligaments increase becomes taut, pulling on the edge of
the elastic lens
o !he lens become flatter and less conve* rela*
o Light rays from the distant ob8ect are sharply focused on the retina
o Photoreceptors stimulated
o 'erve impulses transmitted to brain via the optic nerve
o 3rain interprets the impulses and far ob8ect is seen
Light and pupil refle*
o !he si$e of the pupil changes to allow a suitable amount of light to pass into
the eye
!his protects the inner layer of the eye from damage
)nd in dim light, allows more light to enter the eye in order to see
clearly
o !he si$e of the pupil is controlled by two sets of involuntary muscles in the iris
Circular muscles and radial muscles
o 1hen the circular muscles contract, the radial muscles rela* pupil becomes
smaller
o 1hen the circular muscles rela*, the radial muscles contract pupil becomes
larger
o !hus, the si$e of the pupil will control the amount of light entering the eye
o !he pupil becomes smaller in light of high intensity
o !he pupil becomes larger in low light intensity
o !his is a refle* action
Contraction and rela*ation of these involuntary muscles are automatic
and immediate in response to the stimulus of light
o Sometimes, the light intensity is so bright that decreasing the si$e of the pupil
is not enough
o !he eyelids have to come closer together to screen off part of the light
o !he pupil refle* arc
Stimulus (change in light intensity) receptor (retina) sensory
neurone in optic nerve brain motor neurone effector (iris)
'ervous system
o #unction
Co%ordinate and regulate bodily functions
Sensory neurons
o )fferent0receptor neurons
o !ransmit impulses from the receptors to the central nervous system
(elaying neurons
o &ntermediate neurons
o !ransmit impulses from the afferent neurons to the efferent neurons and are
found within the central nervous system
+fferent neurons
o "otor0effector neurons
o !ransmit impulses from the central nervous system to the effectors
(efle* actions
o !he nervous pathway for refle* action is the refle* arc
o ) stimuli stimulates the nerve endings (receptor0sense organ) in the skin
o &mpulses are produced
!hese travel along the sensory neurone to the spinal cord or the brain
o &n the spinal cord or the brain (refle* centre), the impulses are transmitted
first across a synapse to the intermediate or relaying neurone, and then across another
synapse to the motor neurone (an impulse may also be transmitted to the brain at the same
time)
o "otor impulses leave the spinal cord along the motor neurone to the effector
o !he effector (muscles or glands) brings about a respond to the stimuli
4ormone
o Chemical substances produced in minute 2uantities by certain parts of the
body and transported in the bloodstream to other parts where they e*ert an effect
+ndocrine gland
o ,lands without ducts or glands of internal secretions
o !he islets of Langerhans in the pancreas secrete the hormone insulin into the
blood stream
)drenaline
o &t increases the rate of conversion of glycogen to glucose in the liver, thus
increasing blood sugar level so that more glucose is available for energy production
o Stimulus includes fear, anger, an*iety or stress
&nsulin
o Stimulates absorption of glucose by cells so that they can break it down to
release energy
o irecting the conversion of e*cess glucose to glycogen for storage in liver or
muscles
o &ncreasing o*idation of glucose during tissue respiration
o !hus, decreasing blood glucose concentration
,lucagon
o Conversion of glycogen into glucose
o Conversion of fats and amino acids into glucose
o Conversion of lactic acid into glucose
o !hus, increasing blood glucose concentration
iabetes mellitus
o Symptoms
4igh blood glucose level
Lack of secretion of insulin, the body cannot use or store
glucose
!his brings about a rise in blood glucose concentration
,lucose in urine
)s insulin is not secreted, blood glucose is not reabsorbed by
the body and is lost in the urine
o !reatment
People with !ype < diabetes have to in8ect insulin into their bodies
dailyE
!hey also need to ensure that they have a ready supply of sugary food
as their blood glucose concentration can drop drastically (either from over%dosage of insulin,
e*ercising too much or eating too little)
People with !ype 7 diabetes need to control their blood glucose
concentration by regulating intake of carbohydrates in their diet and by regular e*ercising
&f lifestyle changes fail, then the patients may need to take medication
(eEgE metformin tablets) or insulin in8ection