Why Determining The Window Is Such A Pane

ECOLI BRI UM OCTOBER 201 0 34
Why determining thermal loads

through windows is such a pane
By Murray Mason B.E. Mech., L.AIRAH, F.IEAust., FAIE., and Trevor Kingston, M.AIRAH
F O R U M
THE RELEVANT SIGNIFICANCE OF
THE SOLAR AND CONDUCTION LOADS
The objective of this paper is to shed some light on the complex
calculations required to accurately calculate the heat gain
through windows and review the development of the relevant
formulae used by the industry as glass technology developed. It
also discusses the difculties in applying accurate calculation
methods at the design stage when the glass type and window
framing is not reliably known. To this end it provides some
empirical adjustment factors that can be used with readily
available Centre of Glass properties.
IN THE BEGINNING
Ever since people began air conditioning their home or
workplace, there has been conjecture on how best to calculate the
heat load through windows in a practical way. With the advent of
double glazing and heat absorbing glasses things became a little
more difcult. In the Carrier method as now documented in
AIRAHs Application Manual DA9
1
, U values of 5.89 for single
glazing and 2.89 to 3.35 for double glazing (depending on the air
gap thickness) were traditionally used. Shade factors were readily
calculated from the absorptivity, transmisivity and reectivity of
the glass using relatively simple formula.
With the advent in more recent times of laminated and low e
glasses, and the interest in energy consumption, more complex
methods have been developed for use in estimating the
energy consumption of buildings. These estimates of energy
consumption use hourly meteorological data from the climatic
data les available. However, for load estimation and equipment
sizing, statistically derived design temperatures (with
associated parameters such as wind speed) are still used when
determining Shade Coefcients and U-values.
The AIRAH Application Manual DA9
1
(which originally was a
rewrite of the Carrier Manual to convert it to metric units) provides
formulas for calculating the Shade Coefcient which determines the
amount of solar gain. For single glazing the formula is:
SC = (0.4 + ) / 0.884 eqn 1
where: is the glass absorption coefcient
is the glass transmission coefcient
0.4 is the proportion of the absorbed heat that is
transmitted inwards assumed to be the ratio of the
outside lm coefcient divided by the sum of the inside
and outside lm coefcients.
And for double glazing the following formula can be derived:
SC = ((0.21 x
o
) + (0.66 x
i
x
o
) + (
i
x
o
) + (
o
x
o
x
i
x
i
)
+ (0.21 + 0.66 x
o
)(
i
x
o
x
i
)) / 0.884 eqn 2
where: is the glass absorption coefcient
is the glass transmission coefcient
is the glass reection coefcient
subscript o is the outside pane and subscript i
is the inside pane
0.21 is the proportion of the absorbed heat in the outer
pane that is transmitted into the room assumed to be
the ratio of the thermal resistance of the outside lm
divided by, the sum of the thermal resistance of the
outside lm, the air gap and the inside lm.
0.66 is the proportion of the absorbed heat in the inner
pane that is transmitted into the room assumed to be
the ratio of the sum of the thermal resistance of the
outside lm and the airgap, divided by, the sum of the
thermal resistance of the outside lm, the air gap and
the inside lm.
The inside and outside lm coefcients are a function of the wind
speed across the surface of the window. Hence the shade coefcient
is dependent on the assumed inside and outside wind speed.
In calculating lm coefcients, Carrier (DA9
1
) assumes wind
speeds of 2.5 outside and 1.0 m/s inside. Glass manufacturers
generally quoted Shade Coefcients based on ASHRAE
2

conditions which assumed wind speeds of 2.8 outside
and 0.0 inside. These wind speeds change:
the 0.4 in equation 1 to 0.34 and
the 0.21 and 0.66 in equation 2 to 0.19 and 0.61
respectively
This in turn results in a different Shade Coefcient. The
question is and has always been, which is the correct value to use?
A manual conversion from ASHRAE values to Carrier
values based on the glass absorption coefcient often used
was to add the following to the ASHRAE value:
Glass absorption
coefcient
Value to add to the
ASHRAE
2
value
Less than 15% + 0.01
15 to 30% + 0.02
30 to 50% + 0.04
50 to 70% + 0.05
70% + 0.06
35 OCTOBER 201 0 ECOLI BRI UM
F O R U M
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/ HUMIDITY & CO
2
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the complete solution
Pro Pipe Supplies Pty Ltd, 13-15 Main Street, Beverly, SA5009
t: +61 8 8268 8633 enquiries@propipesupplies.com.au
Glass Type
Double
Single
Eqn 1 & 2
(Carrier
1
)
Eqn 1 & 2
(ASHRAE
2
)
Manualy
Converted
ASHRAE
NFRC
3

(Summer)
WINDOW5
4

Using Carrier
wind speeds
Pilkington
6mm clear
Single 0.94 0.93 0.95 0.94 0.95
G.James Solarplus
TS21 on clear
Single 0.45 0.41 0.43 0.36 0.38
Pilkington 6mm
Eclipse Advantage
Single 0.61 0.57 0.59 0.54 0.53
G.James HL219 Single 0.66 0.62 0.67 0.54 0.61
G.James Solarplus
SL20 Low E
Single 0.71 0.68 0.73 0.60 0.66
G.James Solarplus
SL60 Low E
Single 0.48 0.44 0.49 0.35 0.42
Pilkington 6mm
Clear + 6mm Clear
Double 0.80 0.79 0.81 0.81 0.81
Pilkington Low E
+ 6mm clear
Double 0.71 0.70 0.73 0.71 0.71
Pilkington Eclipse
Advantage Artic
Blue + 6mm Clear
Double 0.39 0.37 0.42 0.33 0.34
Table 1: Shade Coefficient for different glasses using different methods of calculation.
F O R U M
This correction can be applied to the value for single glazing,
but whether it can be used for double glazing, low e glasses,
laminated glasses, etc is debatable.
Table 1 lists the Shade Coefcient for a sample list of 6 single and
3 double pane glasses using the different calculation methods.
It indicates that the ASHRAE
2
values are generally lower than
the Carrier values and that the manual corrections based on
absorption coefcient are not to far off the mark.
The last two columns are further alternative values; the
ASHRAE NFRC
3
(National Fenestration Rating Council)
Summer values and the value obtained using the NBNL
(Lawrence Berkely National Laboratory) WINDOW5
4
program
with the DA9
1
wind speeds. These are different again and are
discussed later in this paper.
U values which determine the conduction load through a
window, even more so, depend on the inside and outside lm
coefcient and hence the assumed wind speed.
Hence the inside and outside wind speeds are very important
factors when determining the conduction and solar gain through
windows.
THE RELEVANT SIGNIFICANCE OF
THE SOLAR AND CONDUCTION LOADS
In an ofce building in Melbourne the percentage break-up of
the lighting and equipment energy consumption and the cooling
energy consumption would typically be approximately:
electrical input for lights plus the air conditioning cooling
energy for the lighting load 28%
electrical input for equipment plus the air conditioning
cooling energy for the equipment load 30%
the cooling energy for the solar gain through
the windows 26%
the cooling energy for the conduction gain through
the windows 2.5%
the remaining 13.5% being the cooling energy for the heat from
people, heat gain through the walls and roof and outside air.
The rst thing to note is that the cooling energy consumption
associated with the heat gain through windows is primarily due
to the solar gain and is relatively large whilst the conduction
load is typically only about 10% of the total window load and
2.5% of the total building energy consumption so the variation
in U value with wind speed is not that important in the overall
scheme of things but the impact on the shade coefcient is very
important. In cooler climates the window conduction load for
heating will be more signicant, but even then the solar gain is
still dominant.
GLASS THERMAL PROPERTIES
To calculate the conduction and solar heat gain through
windows, the thermal properties of the glass have to be known:
For the conduction load, the U value.
For the solar gain, the absorption, transmission and refection
coefcient or the Solar Heat Gain Coefcient (SHGC) and/or
the Shade coefcient (SC)
The properties used depend on whether the air conditioning
loads and plant capacities are being estimated or whether
the building energy consumption is being estimated. Load
calculations, usually employ simplied calculation methods
based on industry accepted design conditions. For example
for the solar gain through windows, the Shade Coefcient
is normally taken as the value at an angle of incidence of 30
degrees whereas for energy calculations, values at varying
angles of incidence are used. Inside and external wind speeds,
which signicantly affect U values and to a lesser extent Shade
Coefcient and SHGC, are usually assumed xed for load
estimation whereas hourly values are used when estimating
energy consumption.
Glass manufacturers publish glass properties for their
range of glass types but these are at a given set of industry
accepted reference conditions set by (and agreed to by glass
manufacturers), the National Fenestration Rating Council in
Maryland USA (NFRC
3
conditions). The LBNL (Lawerence
Berkely National Laboratory) WINDOW5
4
program, which
contains a data base of glasses from manufacturers around the
world, can be used to calculate glass properties under different
conditions and, in the case of double and triple glazing, different
combinations of glass types.
It is important to realise that these NFRC
3
reference conditions
are for the purpose of comparing glasses and are not design
conditions, which can vary with location and the type of air
conditioning system.
THE PHYSICAL PARAMETERS
THAT AFFECT THE GLASS
THERMAL PROPERTIES
The parameters that affect the glass thermal properties include
at any given time:
The inside air temperature
The inside air velocity
The effective room radiant temperature
The effective room emmisivity
0
20
Pilkington 6mm clear
25 30 35 40
1
2
3
4
5
6
U

V
a
l
u
e
Ambient Temperature
G. James HL219
Pilkington 6mm clear + 6mm clear Pilkington Low E + 6mm clear
Figure 1: U-Value variation with temperature
F O R U M
The outside air temperature
The direct solar radiation
The outside wind speed
The outside wind direction (windward or leeward)
The effective sky radiant temperature
The effective sky emmisivity
Of these, the parameters that have the most signicant affect are
the inside and outside wind speeds. Many of the other parameters
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.
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0
1
1.5 2 2.5 3 4
1
2
3
4
5
6
U

V
a
l
u
e
Wind Speed m/s
G. James HL219

0
0
0.5 1 1.5
1
2
3
5
4
6
7
U

V
a
l
u
e
Inside Wind Speed
G. James HL219
Pilkington 6mm clear Pilkington Low E + 6mm clear

Figure 2: U-Value variation with outdoor wind speed
Figure 3: U-Value variation with inside wind speed
F O R U M
will either be unknown by designers or very difcult to ascertain.
Figure 1 to 3 illustrate the affect of temperature, external wind
speed and internal wind speed on the U value of glass for a
number of single glazed and double glazed windows. For these
comparisons the WINDOW5
4
program was used to calculate the
glass U values. The full lines are (four) single glazed windows and
the broken lines are (two) double glazed windows and it can be
seen that the most signicant variable is the inside wind speed.
Glass manufacturers data is usually based on the standard
NFRC
3
Winter conditions (including an ambient temperature
of 18 degrees). Fortunately the ambient temperature has little
affect otherwise, with load estimation, a different U value would
be required for each hour of the design day in each month.
The outside wind speed does have an affect and for cooling load
estimation, DA9
1
suggests a value of 2.5 while with the NFRC
3

Summer conditions a value of 2.8 is stipulated. For NFRC
3

Winter conditions the outside wind speed is 5.5 m/s.
The inside wind speed has a far greater affect and while DA9
1

suggests a value of 1 m/s, the NFRC
3
summer condition is based
on a value of 0.0 m/s and this signicantly reduces the U value
(and for the glass manufacturer, gives an apparently better
thermal performance of the glass).
The Shading Coefcient is virtually unaffected by ambient
temperature, but is affected by the inside wind speed and to a
lesser extent the external wind speed as illustrated in Fig 4 and 5
where the same glasses as in gures 1 to 3 are compared.

CONDITIONS ON WHICH GLASS
THERMAL PROPERTIES ARE BASED
For air conditioning load estimation, industry accepted monthly
design dry and wet bulb temperatures as a function of location
are readily available. For example in the AIRAH Application
Manual DA9
1
or on the ASHRAE Design conditions CD5.
The suggested or accepted wind speeds are however a single value
independent of location, time of year, time of day, etc and differ
in the various literatures. So in ASHRAE
2
an external wind
speed of 2.8 m/s and an internal wind speed of 0.0 m/s is used.
In DA9
1
an external wind speed of 2.5 m/s and an inside wind
speed of 1.0 m/s is implied in the worked examples although
calculations at other wind speeds are illustrated.
For load estimation, design values for all the other parameters
identied above are not listed in DA9
1
and in ASHRAE
2
only
the NFRC
3
conditions are listed which as stated earlier are
reference conditions for use in comparing different glasses
not for designing.
For energy calculations most building energy simulation
programs adjust the entered U value and solar properties
each hour on the basis of the external wind speed in the hourly
weather data being used and the users estimate of the internal
wind speed (as input to the program). The ambient wind speed
in the weather le will normally be that at the Metreological
Bureau recording station. This is usually a 10 minute average
for each hour and could well be quite different to the wind
speed at the project location and on the surface of each window.
The BCA has a Glass Calculator to assist with checking
compliance of glazing. This uses the NFRC
3
Winter U-value
and the NFRC
3
Summer SHGC.
It is important to recognise that the NFRC
3
standard
conditions are reference values used by glass manufacturers
as a basis for comparing glass types and listing their glass
properties. These conditions are not necessarily conditions
to be used for estimating air conditioning plant loads and in
energy simulation programs, they need to be adjusted each
hour particularly for wind speed. For U values, the NFRC
3

winter ambient temperature reference condition of 18C is
certainly not appropriate for Australia although fortunately
the ambient temperature only has a minor affect.
Appropriate values of design Conditions when using the
WINDOW5
4
program to determine Shade Coefcient and
Summer U values based on DA9
1
for use in load estimation
programs, such as the ACADS-BSG program CAMEL are
suggested as:
0
0
0.5 1 1.5
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
1
S
h
a
d
e

c
o
e
c
i
e
n
t
Inside Wind Speed
G. James HL219

0
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 4
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
S
h
a
d
e

C
o
e
c
i
e
n
t
Wind Speed

Pilkington 6mm clear G. James HL219
Figure 4: Shade coefficient variation with inside wind speed
Figure 5: Shade coefficient variation with outside wind speed
F O R U M
The NFRC
3
Conditions used by glass manufacturers
when publishing glass properties are:

These are the values that were used in determining the Shade
Coefcients in the last two columns in Table 1
THE WINDOW FRAME
Yet another important parameter when determining the Shade
Coefcient and U value of windows is the frame. A frame with
a signicantly higher U value than the glass can degrade the
thermal properties of the window. The affect is a function of
the U value of the frame itself, the width of the frame (as this
changes the percentage area of the glass). The most signicant
impact is on the U value. The absorption coefcient of the
external surface of the frame also has an affect on the Shade
Coefcient.
Values of Shading Coefcient and U value of the combined
glass and frame can be determined using the LBNL THERM
program (for calculating the U value of the frame) in
association with the LBNL WINDOW5
4
(for calculating
the overall value for the glass and frame).
Unfortunately in practice the details (properties) of the window
frame are often unknown (particularly at the planning or early
design stage of the project) and for load estimation calculations,
empirical corrections will usually sufce and indeed is often all
that can be used.
60
0.00 1.00 0.50 1.50 2.00 2.50
Centre of glass
70
80
90
100
110
W
i
n
d
o
w

S
H
G
C

/

C

o
f

G

S
H
G
C

(
%
)
Ratio of frame to glass U value
Large % glass to window 90
Small % glass to window 75
Medium % glass to window 80
60
0.00 2.00 1.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00
Centre of glass
70
80
90
100
110
W
i
n
d
o
w

S
H
G
C

/

C

o
f

G

S
H
G
C

(
%
)
Figure 6: Window SHGC / C of G SHGC (%) vs Ratio frame to glass
U-value for various glass to window areas (single glazing)
Figure 7: Window SHGC / C of G SHGC (%) vs Ratio frame to glass
U-value for various glass to window areas (double glazing)
DA91 Summer
Inside air room
temperature. (degC)
24
Effective room
temperature. (degC)
24
Outside wind speed (m/s) 2.5
Effective Room
and sky Emmissivity
1.00
Outside air and effective
sky temp . . . (degC)
32.0
Direct Solar Radiation (W/sq.m) 783.0
Inside air velocity (m/s)
(Convective Coeff 8.0 W/m2.K)
1.0
NFRC
3
Shade
Coefcient
(Summer)
NFRC
3

U value
(Winter)
Inside air room
temperature
(degC)
24 21
Effective room
temperature
(degC)
24 21
Outside wind
speed (m/s)
2.8 5.5
Effective
Room & sky
Emmissivity
1.00 1.00
Outside air
& effective sky
temp. (degC)
32.0 -18.0
Direct Solar
Radiation (W/
sq.m)
783.0 0.0
Inside air
velocity (m/s)
0.0 0.0
F O R U M
Figures 6 to 8, illustrate the affects of various frame types
expressed (x axis) as the ratio of the frame U value to the glass U
value. They are a plot of the ratio of the SHGC or the U-value of
the window divided by the Centre of Glass value (no frame) as a
percentage for a selection of single and double glazed glass types
with varying percent area of glass to window.
Wooden frames have a low U value so that for single glazed
windows the frame to glass U value ratio is approximately of 0.4
and for double glazing it is approximately 0.8. At the other end of
the graphs, values of 2.0 (single glazing) and 5.6 (double glazing)
represent frames without a thermal break which is typical of the
frames most commonly used in Australia.
From Figs 6 and 7 it can be seen that with a high U value frame,
the SHGC (and hence Shade Coefcient) approaches the Centre
of Glass value and for both single and double glazing,
is virtually independent of the % glass to window ratio.
From Figs 8 and 9 it can be seen that with a high U value frame the
U value departs signicantly from the Centre of Glass value and is
very much dependent on the % glass to window ratio particularly
with double glazing where the glass U value is much lower.
Tables 2 and 3 are empirical frame and glass to window area
adjustment factors for shade factor derived from Figures 7
and 8 for use when only the centre of glass values are available.
The factors in Tables 2 and 3 are for use with the Carrier Method
as the storage load factors for glass with this method already
include an allowance of 85% for wooden frames. For other
methods and for energy simulation programs these values
need to be multiplied by 0.85
60
0.00 1.00 0.50 1.50 2.00 2.50
Centre of glass
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
W
i
n
d
o
w

U

V
a
l
u
e

/

C

o
f

G

U
-
V
a
l
u
e

(
%
)
50
0.00 2.00 1.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00
Centre of glass
90
130
170
210
250
W
i
n
d
o
w

S
H
G
C

/

C

o
f

G

S
H
G
C

(
%
)
Figure 8: Window U-value / C of G U-value (%) vs Ratio frame to
glass U-value for various glass to window areas (single glazing)
Figure 9: Window U-value / C of G U-value (%) vs Ratio frame to
glass U-value for various glass to window areas (double glazing)
Glass/Sash Frame to Centre of Glass U value Ratio
Area % 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
95 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17
90 1.05 1.07 1.08 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.14 1.15 1.17
80 0.93 0.96 0.99 1.02 1.05 1.07 1.10 1.13 1.16
70 0.81 0.85 0.90 0.94 0.98 1.03 1.07 1.11 1.15
60 0.60 0.67 0.74 0.80 0.87 0.94 1.00 1.07 1.14
Table 2: Empirical Shade Coefficient Adjustment for Varying Frames and Glass to Window Area Ratios (Single Glazing)
This is the rst part of Why determining thermal loads though windows is such a pane.
Part 2 will run in November Ecolibrium.
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Event
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ECOLI BRI UM OCTOBER 201 0 34

Why determining thermal loads

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