Chemistry in The Atmosphere: Chapter Seventeen

356
Chapter Seventeen
CHEMISTRY IN THE ATMOSPHERE
Earth's Atmosphere and Its Regions
Depletion of the Ozone Layer
The Greenhouse Effect and Acid Rain
Photochemical Smog
Indoor Air Pollution
EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE AND ITS REGIONS
STUDY OBJECTIVES
1. List the major components and several of the minor components of the atmosphere.
2. Describe the approximate altitude and characteristics of four regions of the Earth's atmosphere.
3. Describe the chemical processes responsible for light emission by the aurora borealis and aurora australis.
Earth's Atmosphere. Earth's atmosphere is unique in the solar system due to its high oxygen (O
2
)
content. Molecular oxygen makes up 21 percent of the atmosphere by volume. Table 17.1 in the text shows
that N
2
, O
2
, and Ar make up over 99.9% of the atmosphere by volume. The other noble gas elements (besides
argon) are only present in trace amounts. Associated with the high oxygen content is the formation of ozone
(O
3
), a molecule that absorbs ultraviolet light and filters it from sunlight. This radiation is known to be
harmful to many of the life forms that inhabit Earth's surface.
Nitrogen is the major constituent of the atmosphere. Nitrogen molecules are held together by a triple bond
and therefore are extremely stable. Biological and industrial nitrogen fixation converts the elemental form of
nitrogen into nitrogen compounds. Lightning plays an important role by initiating the production of about 30
million tons of nitric acid each year. There are three steps in the mechanism of nitric acid production. Lightning
provides the energy to break up the N
2
molecule and initiates the first step in the reaction sequence.
N
2
(g) + O
2
(g) 2NO(g)
2NO(g) + O
2
(g) 2NO
2
(g)
2NO
2
(g) + H
2
O(l) HNO
3
(g)+ HNO
2
(g)
The nitrogen in nitric acid is an essential plant nutrient.
Carbon dioxide, the fourth most abundant component, makes up only 0.033% of the air. Carbon dioxide is
extremely important to Earth's heat balance even though its relative concentration is low. In this chapter we will
review the effects of air pollutants on the ozone layer, on the Earth's temperature, and on other phenomena
related to the atmosphere.
Regions of the Atmosphere. For convenience the atmosphere is divided into four regions with respect
to altitude. The lowest region is the troposphere. This region extends up to about 10 km. The temperature
decreases with altitude in the troposphere from about 25C at sea level to 55C at 10 km. The troposphere
contains about 80% of the mass of the atmosphere and virtually all the precipitation, clouds, and water vapor.
All the weather occurs in the troposphere. Remember that the atmosphere gradually thins out as the altitude
increases. The atmospheric pressure at 10 km is about 230 mm Hg.
Back Forward Main Menu TOC Study Guide TOC Textbook Website MHHE Website
Chemistry in the Atmosphere 357
Above 10 km we enter the stratosphere which extends upward to 50 km. In the stratosphere the temperature
increases with altitude from about 55C at 10 km to 10C at 50 km. The atmospheric pressure at 50 km is
only 0.5 mm Hg. For the most part there is very little mixing of the contents of the troposphere and the
stratosphere.
Above the stratosphere we enter the mesosphere. As in the troposphere, the temperature decreases with
altitude, falling to 90C at 80 km. From 80 km to 100 km we find the ionosphere (also called the
thermosphere). In this region, the temperature increases slightly with increasing altitude. The region gets its
name from the ions that are produced there by high energy solar radiation. The temperatures associated with the
different regions of the atmosphere are shown in Figure 17.3 of the text.
Auroral Displays. Chemical processes in the ionosphere produce the phenomena called "northern lights,"
or aurora borealis in the Northern hemisphere and aurora australis in the Southern hemisphere. In Chapter 7 you
learned that excited atoms emit light when electrons jump from a higher to a lower energy state. The text
explains that excited O atoms and N
+
2
ions are produced in the ionosphere when protons from solar flares are
ejected from the Sun and eventually collide with molecules in the ionosphere.
N
2
+ energy N
+
2
* + e
O
2
+ energy 2O*
The green and red colors seen in the auroral displays are emitted by O* atoms, and the blue and violet colors are
emitted by N
+
2
* ions. The symbols contain an asterisk to indicate excess energy.
During the emission process excited atoms (denoted by an asterisk) drop to the ground state and emit
photons (h).
O* O + h
N
+
2
* O + h
The auroral displays occur near the Earth's poles because solar protons are attracted there by Earth's magnetic
field.
EXERCISES
1. What is nitrogen fixation. Write an equation for an example.
2. Name the regions of the atmosphere in order of increasing altitude. What region has dramatic weather
changes?
3. a. What chemical species emits green and red light in auroral displays?
b. What chemical species emits blue and violet light in auroral displays?
DEPLETION OF THE OZONE LAYER
STUDY OBJECTIVES
1. Write the steps in the mechanism of ozone formation.
2. Write chemical equations describing the destruction of ozone in the stratosphere.
The Ozone Layer. Ozone (O
3
) is a gas that is present in the atmosphere in a layer or shell that extends
around the entire Earth called the "ozone layer." This layer is centered in the stratosphere about 25 km above the
Earth's surface. Ozone molecules have the ability to absorb some of the ultraviolet (UV) light present in
sunlight. It is in this way that the ozone layer protects life on Earth from some of the harmful effects of
sunlight. Ultraviolet light causes skin cancer and eye damage in humans and mutations in plants.
358 / Chemistry in the Atmosphere
The term "ozone layer" is misleading because it may imply that the layer is pure ozone. Actually the
concentration of ozone is extremely low. Ozone is spread thinly at a concentration of about 10 ppm at
elevations between 15 and 35 km. If all the ozone in the atmosphere was collected into a layer of pure ozone at
standard temperature and pressure, it would only be 3 mm thick! The low concentration and unstable nature of
ozone combine to make the ozone layer a fragile part of the atmosphere.
Formation and Destruction of Ozone. Ozone is formed in the ozone layer by a two step mechanism
initiated by the action of UV light on oxygen molecules. In the first step, UV-light dissociates molecular
oxygen into oxygen atoms in a process called photodissociation. The energy of the UV-photon is enough to
break the OO bond. In the second step, the oxygen atom combines with an oxygen molecule, forming ozone.
O
2
(g) + h

2O(g)
O(g) + O
2
(g)

O
3
(g)

(occurs twice)
________________________
net 3O
2
(g)

2O
3
(g)
Ozone, being an unstable molecule, tends to undergo reactions that convert it to the more stable O
2
molecule. Ozone absorbs UV light with wavelengths in the range 200 to 300 nm. When ultraviolet light is
absorbed by ozone, it too undergoes photodissociation:
O
3
(g) + h

O
2
(g) + O(g)
Atomic oxygen can also destroy ozone.
O(g) + O
3
(g)

2O
2
(g)
Catalytic Depletion of Ozone. The concentration of ozone in the stratosphere depends on a balance
between the rate of its production from molecular oxygen and its rate of destruction.
3O
2
(g) 2O
3
(g) production of ozone
2O
3
(g) 3O
2
(g) destruction of ozone
Ozone is said to be in a steady state. This refers to the situation where the rate of ozone production is
approximately equal to its rate of destruction. Any process that speeds up the destruction of ozone will cause its
stratospheric concentration to decrease.
The depletion of stratospheric ozone has been associated with man-made substances called
chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs for short. The CFCs were developed in the 1930s by chemists who were seeking
a new refrigerant to replace toxic and corrosive ammonia and sulfur dioxide then in commercial use as
refrigerants. Fluorocarbon-12 (CF
2
Cl
2
) was their answer, and it quickly found application in refrigerators,
freezers, and air conditioners. In the 1950s, fluorocarbon-11 (CFCl
3
) became a basic propellant for the new
aerosol can industry, fostering the development of the spray can. Soon, it was also developed as a blowing agent
for Styrofoam in insulation, cushions, plastic furniture, and sealants. While there are many fluorocarbon
compounds, fluorocarbon-11 and fluorocarbon-12 find the widest applications. The advantage of CFCs was that
they were nontoxic, noncorrosive, and nonreactive.
There are no known chemical reactions in the troposphere that destroy CFCs. Because of their inertness,
CFCs accumulate in the troposphere and gradually diffuse up to the stratosphere. Since ozone filters out UV
light, there is more UV light in the ozone layer than below it. In the ozone layer CFCs are bombarded by high-
energy UV radiation and break apart. This photodissociation of fluorocarbon molecules breaks a CCl bond,
and releases a chlorine atom. In the case of chlorofluorocarbon-12 the reaction is:
CCl
2
F
2
+ h CClF
2
+ Cl
The Cl atom attacks an ozone molecule, converting it to the more stable oxygen molecule, and forming an
intermediate molecule, chlorine monoxide ClO. Compounding the problem is that once a chlorine atom has
destroyed an ozone molecule, then it is regenerated when the intermediate ClO reacts with an O atom. Recall
that O atoms are prevalent in the stratosphere.
Cl(g) + O
3
(g) ClO(g) + O
2
(g)
ClO(g) + O(g) O
2
(g) + Cl(g)
___________________________
net O(g) + O
3
(g) 2O
2
(g)
Since Cl atoms accelerate the destruction of ozone and are regenerated, they are true catalysts. An increased rate
of destruction of ozone has the expected effect of lowering the atmospheric ozone concentration.
The net result of ozone depletion is that UV light, which is usually absorbed by ozone, is no longer
sufficiently filtered from sunlight. More UV light can reach the Earth's surface. The National Research Council
predicts 10,000 additional cases of skin cancer in the U.S. for each 1% depletion in the ozone layer. This
problem will be around for a long time because currently the troposphere is a giant reservoir of CFCs.
Estimates are that there are already enough CFCs in the troposphere to cause depletion of ozone for the next 100
years!
Currently intense efforts are underway to develop CFC substitutes. The idea is to maintain the noncorrosive
properties but make a molecule that is a little more reactive. HCFC-123 (C
2
HCl
2
F
3
), where the H represents
hydrogen, is a promising possibility. Introduction of a hydrogen atom into CFC molecules makes them more
reactive. Chemists are synthesizing a number of HCFC molecules to try as the first generation of substitutes.
The goal is to find molecules that are more easily oxidized in the troposphere, before they reach the stratosphere.
Polar Ozone Holes. Since 1985 a vast hole in the ozone layer appears during the Spring months over
Antarctica. It fills in during the summer and fall, but opens again each Spring. The size of this hole has
increased every spring since then. Laboratory studies of ice particles, that mimic polar stratospheric clouds
(PSCs) that form over Antarctica during the winter, again place the blame on chlorine species from CFCs for
this dramatic loss in ozone. The concentration of the reaction intermediate chlorine monoxide in the ozone hole
is large enough to account for the ozone loss.
Chlorine can be stored in chlorine nitrate, a so-called reservoir molecule. Chlorine nitrate is an unstable
molecule that is formed when chlorine monoxide reacts with nitrogen dioxide.
ClO(g) + NO
2
(g) ClONO
2
(g)
To explain the observed ozone depletion during the Antarctic spring, the CFC theories where adjusted to include
the reaction of chlorine nitrate with HCl on the surfaces of PSCs. These clouds contain HCl. Acting as a
heterogeneous catalysis, these PSCs provide a surface for reactions converting HCl and chlorine nitrate to
molecular chlorine.
HCl + ClONO
2
Cl
2
+ HNO
3
The first sunlight of spring can trigger the release of chlorine atoms by photodissociation of chlorine molecules.
Cl
2
+ h Cl + Cl
The only sure way to save the ozone layer is a complete worldwide ban on CFC manufacture. To this end
24 nations met in Montreal in 1988. The Montreal Protocol is designed to achieve a 35% reduction in
worldwide CFC production.
EXERCISES
4. a. What region of the atmosphere contains the ozone layer?
b. Ozone is distributed over approximately what range of altitudes?
5. What is the average concentration of ozone in the ozone layer?
6. What is the overall reaction for the formation of ozone in the stratosphere?
7. Give three reactions that are examples of photodissociation.
8. What does the abbreviation CFC stand for? Write the formulas of two CFCs.
9. What is a "molecular reservior" of atmospheric chlorine.
10. What is the Montreal Protocol?
THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT AND ACID RAIN
STUDY OBJECTIVES
1. Explain how some gases produce a greenhouse effect.
2. Describe the proposed chemical events by which sulfur dioxide leads to acid rain.
The Greenhouse Effect. Each year sees another 9 gigatons (Gtons) of carbon dioxide added to the
Earth's atmosphere. This is only about 1/1,000,000 of the total mass of the atmosphere. Though relatively
small in amount, carbon dioxide has an important effect on the Earth's average temperature. Carbon dioxide,
water, and a few other gases such as methane are called "greenhouse gases." This means that they act like the
glass in a greenhouse. They let sunlight through, but do not let heat out. The main components of the air, O
2
and N
2
, are not greenhouse gases.
"Greenhouse warming" occurs in the following way. Visible light from the sun passes directly through the
main components of the atmosphere: N
2
, O
2
, CO
2
, and H
2
O vapor. This radiant energy is absorbed by Earth's
oceans and land areas and warms the surface. All warm objects radiate infrared radiation, called IR. The oceans
and land areas emit IR, which passes directly through N
2
and O
2
into outer space. The loss of this energy would
mean that the Earth would be a cooler place. However, CO
2
(g) and H
2
O(g) absorb IR, and in effect slow down
the loss of heat from the surface. Therefore, Earth's surface is many degrees warmer than it would be without
CO
2
(g) and H
2
O(g) in the air. This is the so-called greenhouse effect. Some carbon dioxide has always been
present in the atmosphere, and some warming is considered desirable. Since atmospheric carbon dioxide is
increasing at the rate of 1 ppm per year, this is expected to lead to an "enhanced greenhouse effect."
Greenhouse gases reduce the heat loss to outer space by absorbing IR. Infrared radiation increases the
vibrational energy level of molecules that absorb it. Then these vibrationally excited molecules reemit IR as
they drop to the ground state. Statistically 1/2 of the IR is aimed downward toward Earth's surface, and 1/2 is
aimed upward toward outer space. The IR aimed back toward the surface eventually causes the temperature of the
air to rise.
Scientists have been trying for many years to estimate rates of global warming and its effects. The carbon
dioxide content of the atmosphere is expected to double by the year 2050. Some of the predicted effects are:
1. A temperature increase of 3C to 5C by that year.
2. Melting of glaciers and icecaps that will cause a 2-ft rise in sea level with its accompanying flooding of sea
coasts and major cities.
3. Widespread changes in climate.
Suggestions to lower carbon dioxide emissions center around less dependence on fossil fuels for energy.
Carbon dioxide emissions could be reduced by increasing efficiency of automobiles, home heating, and electric
power production. Additional reduction could result from replacing existing fossil fuel electric power plants with
ones that utilize solar energy and nuclear energy.
Methane, nitrous oxide, and CFCs are also strong absorbers of IR. These gases are present in only trace
amounts, but enhance the greenhouse effect significantly because they absorb IR at wavelengths that water and
CO
2
cannot absorb. In a sense they close an open window that would allow some IR to escape the greenhouse.
Acid Rain. The term "acid rain" was coined in 1872 by an English chemist who used it to describe the
increasingly acid precipitation that fell on the industrial city of Manchester. In the century since then, acid rain
has grown to be an environmental problem of global proportions. Acid rain is rainwater with a pH of less than
5.5. Precipitation in the northeastern part of the U.S. has an average pH of 4.3 and in some specific storms the
pH has been as low as 2.8.
The text points out that "normal" rain is slightly acid because it contains carbonic acid. As rain passes
through air containing carbon dioxide, the CO
2
dissolves and forms carbonic acid. Carbon dioxide is an acid
anhydride.
CO
2
(g) + H
2
O(l) H
2
CO
3
(aq)
Because carbonic acid is a weak acid, the pH of rain normally will not go below 5.5. The presence of several
stronger acids accounts for the lower pH values of acid rain. Acid rain usually contains sulfuric acid (H
2
SO
4
)
and nitric acid (HNO
3
). We will discuss only sulfuric acid.
These acids do not start out in the atmosphere as oxoacids. The text points out that the precursors of the
oxoacids are the acidic oxides, SO
2
and SO
3
. Sulfur dioxide is produced by the combustion of fossil fuels such
as coal and from the processing of sulfide ores at smelters.
2ZnS(s) + 3O
2
(g) 2ZnO(s) + 2SO
2
(g) smelting an ore
Coal and petroleum contain between 1% and 5% S. Combustion of sulfur in fossil fuels yields SO
2
.
S(s) + O
2
(g) SO
2
(g) combustion of sulfur
Once in the atmosphere some of the sulfur dioxide is oxidized to sulfur trioxide by reactions that are currently
being intensely studied. The effects of light and ozone on this oxidation are mentioned in the text. The net
oxidation reaction is
2SO
2
(g) + O
2
(g) 2SO
3
(g)
In the final step, sulfur trioxide combines with water to form sulfuric acid. Sulfur trioxide is converted to
sulfuric acid by rainwater.
SO
3
(g) + H
2
O(l) H
2
SO
4
(aq)
Streams and lakes show the most dramatic effects of acid rain. It is known that natural waters with a low
pH can kill fish eggs, salamander eggs, and frog eggs. The extent of change in acidity of a lake or stream when
under the stress of acid rain is determined mainly by the buffering capacity of the surrounding soil. Watershed
soils containing limestone are alkaline and can resist rapid changes in pH, making them less susceptible to
harm.
Trees are also susceptible to acid rain. Acid rainfall causes damage to leaves and the growing tissues of
trees. The needles of firs, spruces, and pines turn yellow and fall off. Among the possible causes are acid rain
and ozone from polluted air. These pollutants damage the cell membranes of needles, allowing nutrients to
escape.
Acid precipitation can acidify the soil, interfering with nutrient availability. To grow normally trees require
adequate supplies of 16 elements. Several of these, notably Ca, Mg, and K are taken up by tree roots as cations
from aqueous solution in the soil. When sulfuric acid is deposited in soil by precipitation, nutrient cations can
be leached from the root zone. This can greatly affect the health of forests.
Sulfur dioxide emissions can be reduced by removing SO
2
after combustion, but before it leaves the stack
and is released into the atmosphere. Powdered limestone (CaCO
3
) is injected into the hot gases leaving the
combustion zone. Heat causes the carbonate to decompose into quicklime (CaO). The quicklime then reacts with
SO
2
to form calcium sulfite (CaSO
3
).
CaCO
3
(s) CaO(s) + CO
2
(g)
CaO(s) + SO
2
(g) CaSO
3
(s)
About half of the SO
2
is removed by contact with the dry CaO. The remaining SO
2
must be removed by
spraying the hot gases with a suspension of quicklime. This process, called "scrubbing," creates huge amounts
of calcium sulfite to dispose of. Retrofitting of scrubbers onto established power plants is very expensive and
significantly raises the cost of electricity .
EXERCISES
11. Give three sources of CO
2
in the atmosphere.
12. Name three "greenhouse" gases besides carbon dioxide and water.
13. Below what pH is rain considered to be "acid rain?"
14. SO
2
and SO
3
are acid anhydrides. Write reactions to show their conversion into acids.
PHOTOCHEMICAL SMOG
STUDY OBJECTIVES
1. Distinguish between primary and secondary pollutants.
2. Describe how ozone is formed in polluted air.
Photochemical smog is formed by the reactions of automobile exhaust in the presence of sunlight.
Reactions initiated by photons are called photochemical reactions. The text points out that smog begins with
certain primary pollutants. These substances may or may not be objectionable by themselves. These are
transformed by sunlight or by ordinary chemical reactions into secondary pollutants. Secondary pollutants are
involved directly in the buildup of smog. Nitric oxide is a good example of a primary pollutant. It is formed at
the high temperatures inside an internal combustion engine when nitrogen and oxygen from air react. Nitric
oxide does not build up in the air because it is rapidly converted to nitrogen dioxide.
N
2
(g) + O
2
(g) 2NO(g)
2NO(g) + O
2
(g) 2NO
2
(g)
Nitrogen dioxide is involved in a chain of reactions that produce ozone. First NO
2
is photochemically
decomposed by sunlight.
NO
2
(g) + h NO(g) + O(g)
Oxygen atoms initiate a number of reactions in polluted air. An important one is the formation of ozone.
O(g) + O
2
(g) O
3
(g)
Exposure to 0.1 to 1.0 ppm of ozone produces headaches, burning eyes, and irritation to the respiratory
passages. Another secondary pollutant is peroxyacetyl nitrate, better known as PAN. PAN literally brings tears
to your eyes. It is an example of a lachrymator, a compound that causes burning of the eyes and tears. Onions,
as you know, contain a lachrymator.
Unburned hydrocarbons in automobile exhaust also produce secondary air pollutants. The oxidation of
unburned hydrocarbons produces various alcohols and organic acids. These can condense to produce an aerosol.
Aerosols are liquid droplets dispersed in air. They are objectionable because they reduce visibility and make the
air look hazy.
Efforts to control smog are usually focused on reducing the source of primary pollutants. The catalytic
converters on automobiles are designed to remove NO, CO, and unburned hydrocarbons from automobile
exhaust. The catalyst contains platinum and palladium metals. Nitrogen monoxide, a primary pollutant, is
converted back to nitrogen and oxygen by a reaction whose rate is increased by the catalyst in the converter.
2NO(g) N
2
(g)

+ O
2
(g)
Carbon monoxide and unburned hydrocarbons are both oxidized to carbon dioxide by the catalytic converter,
as shown by the following equations (C
5
H
12
represents a typical hydrocarbon).
2CO(g)

+ O
2
(g)

2CO
2
(g)
C
5
H
12
(g)

+ 8O
2
(g)

5CO
2
(g) + 6H
2
O(l)
EXERCISES
15. Name three primary pollutants.
16. Name three pollutants that are removed by catalytic converters.
17. Is ozone in a city a primary or secondary pollutant?
INDOOR AIR POLLUTION
STUDY OBJECTIVES
1. Describe the source of radon and how it gets into buildings.
2. Describe why the main health effects of radon are to the lungs.
Radon Gas. All isotopes of radon are radioactive. Concern about radon in homes began in 1984 when a
worker at a nuclear power plant in Pennsylvania found that he was setting off the plant's radiation monitor
alarms in the morning upon arriving at the plant. The source of the radioactivity was traced to the worker's
home, which measured an extremely high level of radioactivity in the basement air. The air in his home
contained an isotope of radon. Radon-222 atoms undergo radioactive decay by emitting alpha particles. Radon is
always associated with uranium deposits. Some uranium occurs naturally in most soils and rocks in widely
varying amounts. Radon-222 has a half-life of 3.8 days. This gives it time to migrate up out of the ground and
to enter buildings through cracks in foundations. It can also dissolve in ground water and enter a home via well
water.
The element radon has been known since its discovery in 1900. As a member of the noble gas group of
elements, radon is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas with very little tendency to combine with other
elements. Therefore, it tends to stay in the air. Radon atoms in the air can be inhaled into the lungs. If radon
atoms decay in the lungs, we get a dose of radiation. In addition, its decay products, particularly polonium-218
and polonium-214, are deposited in the lungs. These isotopes are radioactive and contribute more to the radiation
dose than that received from radon itself. These alpha-emitting isotopes are of the greatest health concern because
they are solids and become trapped in respiratory passages. Here their radioactivity can damage nearby cells,
which over a long period of time leads to lung cancer. In order to better assess the danger to people, health
workers are trying to sort out the importance of the three main causes of lung cancer: cigarette smoking,
secondary smoke, and radon gas.
EXERCISES
18. What is the formula for radon gas? To what group of elements does it belong?
19. Radon decays into two extremely dangerous radioisotopes. What are they?
20. What is the principle health effect of radon gas?
_______________________________________________________________________________
CONCEPTUAL QUESTIONS
1. Ozone occurs naturally in the atmosphere; so is it correct to call it a pollutant?
2. Is it more feasible to try to reduce the effects of acid rain by reducing SO
2
emissions from power plants or
by neutralizing acidic lakes, streams, and soils.
PRACTICE TEST
1. What noticable change marks the transition from the troposphere to the stratosphere?
2. a. Write out the steps in the mechanism by which ozone is formed in the stratosphere.
b. What other naturally occurring molecule absorbs UV light in the stratosphere?
3. a. Write out the steps in the mechanism of ozone destruction by chlorine atoms.
b. Identify the catalyst and the intermediate.
4. What does the abbreviation HCFC stand for? Write the formula of HCFC-123.
5. What is the greenhouse effect?
6. Name two ways in which deforestation contributes to the greenhouse effect that involve CO
2
levels.
7. Give two sources of methane in the atmosphere.
8. By what means does Earth lose heat?
9. Write chemical equations that show what happens when acid rain reacts with iron and with limestone.
10. a. List three primary pollutants removed from automobile exhaust by catalytic converters.
b. Explain briefly the role of each in the formation of smog.
11. The strength of the CCl bond in CF
2
Cl
2
is 318 kJ/mol. What is the wavelength of a photon that has
enough energy to break a CCl bond? Is this in the UV or visible region of the spectrum?
12. List three effects of acid rain.
ANSWERS
Exercises
1. Forming compounds from the element. N
2
(g) + O
2
(g) 2NO(g)
2. Troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and ionosphere. The troposphere has constantly changing weather.
3. a. O* atoms b. N
+
2
* ions
4. a. the stratosphere b. 1535 km
5. 10 ppm
6. 3O
2
(g)

2O
3
(g)
7. O
2
(g) + h

2O(g) O
3
(g) + h

O
2
(g) + O(g) CCl
2
F
2
+ h CClF
2
+ Cl
8. CFC = chlorofluorocarbon. CF
2
Cl
2
and CFCl
3
9. Chlorine monoxide
10. An international agreement to limit CFC production.
11. Combustion of a carbon compound. Respiration by animals and plants. Decompositon of dead animals
and plants. Volcanoes
12. Methane, nitrous oxide, and CFCs.
13. 5.6
14. SO
2
(g) + H
2
O(l) H
2
SO
3
(aq) SO
3
(g) + H
2
O(l) H
2
SO
4
(aq)
15. Carbon monoxide, nitrogen monoxide, and unburned hydrocarbons.
16. Those in #15.
17. Secondary pollutant.
18. Ra. Noble gas elements.
19. Polonium-214 and polonium-218.
20. Lung cancer.
Conceptual Questions
1. The answer lies in just where the ozone is. Ozone occurs naturally in the stratosphere which is too far away
for people to come into contact with ozone. However in the troposphere ozone concentrations are
significantly increased by automobile exhaust reacting with sunlight. Humans (and other living things) can
inhale too much ozone. Health effects include severe respiratory and eye irritation. Ozone in cities is a
secondary pollutant.
2. Liming is the process of adding quicklime to lakes and soils to reduce their acidity. This process is very
expensive due to the enormous transportation costs involved. It is much less expensive to remove SO
2
at
the power plant as it is formed (again with quicklime). In this way all of the sulfur (SO
2
) is in one place,
rather than spread out over the landscape as sulfuric acid.
Practice Test
1. In the troposphere the temperature decreases as altitude increases. In the stratosphere temperature increases
with altitude.
2. a. O
2
(g) + h

2O(g)
O(g) + O
2
(g)

O
3
(g)
b. O
2
3. a. Cl(g) + O
3
(g) ClO(g) + O
2
(g)
ClO(g) + O(g) O
2
(g) + Cl(g)
b. The catalyst is atomic Cl, and the intermediate is chlorine monoxide, ClO.
4. HCFC stands for h ydro c hloro f luoro c arbon. CF
3
CHCl
2
5. The trapping of heat near the Earth's surface by atmospheric gases, particularly carbon dioxide.
6. Combustion and decomposition of trees and plants produces CO
2
. Removing trees reduces photosynthesis
which would normally consume CO
2
.
7. Landfills and natural gas leaks.
8. Emission of IR to space.
9. Fe(s) + 2H
+
(aq) Fe
2+
(aq) + H
2
(g)
CaCO
3
(s) + 2H
+
(aq) Ca
2+
(aq) + CO
2
(g) + H
2
O(l)
10. a. Carbon monoxide, NO, and unburned hydrocarbons.
b. CO is toxic but may not be involved in reactions producing smog. NO is oxidized to NO
2
.
Photodecomposition of NO
2
leads to ozone and PAN. Oxidation of unburned hydrocarbons produces
alcohols and organic acids that eventually form aerosols and haze.
11. The wavelength is 376 nm, which is in the UV region.
12. 1. Kills fish, salamnders, and frogs. 2. Damage to leaves and needles of trees. Toxic to vegetation.
3. Damage to stone buildings and monuments.

Chemistry in The Atmosphere: Chapter Seventeen

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Titolo originale

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Chemistry in The Atmosphere: Chapter Seventeen

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

356

Potrebbero piacerti anche