FUNCTIONING OF A COMPUTER

The general scheme of a computer is very simple. Keyboard and mouse are entry devices
used for inputting data in a computer. Monitor and printer are output devices used to present
a user the results processed by the computer. Every external device connected to a computer
is called generically peripheral. Inside the computer, microprocessor is the brain controlling
and managing every operation; RAM memory and disks are storage devices used to record
data, both temporarily (RAM memory) or permanently (hard and floppy disks).
RAM memory is a compulsory stage for transmitting every element of a computer. Any
datum passing from a place to another must pass through RAM memory. All data must
necessarily pass through a RAM memory. Any different route for data transmission is
impossible. Data flow between keyboard and RAM memory and between monitor and RAM
memory can happen just in a direction: from keyboard to RAM memory and from RAM
memory to monitor, never in the opposite direction. On the contrary, communication between
RAM memory and disks and between Ram memory and microprocessor is bi-directional, i.e.
it happens in both directions.
In conclusion computer data are subject to two rules. The first rule states that microprocessor
is the only element able to process data; consequently data must reach in any way
microprocessor to be processed. The second rule states that just microprocessor can reach
data of RAM memory. These two rules clearly imply the fundamental idea previously stated:
all data must pass through RAM memory in order that they can be read by microprocessor.

WHAT IS AN APPLICATION?


You may have heard people talking about using an application, or an app. But what
exactly does that mean? An app is a type of software that allows you toperform
specific tasks. Applications for desktop or laptop computers are sometimes
called desktop applications, and those for mobile devices are called mobile apps.
When you open an application, it runs inside theoperating system until you close it.
Much of the time, you will have more than one application open at the same time,
and this is known as multi-tasking.
Watch the video to learn about how applications are used.
App is a common term for an application, especially for simple
applications that can be downloadedcheaply or even for free. Many apps
are also available for mobile devices and even some TVs.

TYPES OF DESKTOP APPLICATIONS
There are countless desktop applications out there, and they fall into many different
categories. Some are more full-featured (like Microsoft Word), while others may
only do one or two things (like gadgets). Below are just a few types of applications
you might use:


Word processors: A word processor allows you to write a letter, design
a flyer, and create many other kinds of documents. The most well-
known word processor is Microsoft Word.
Personal finance: Personal finance software, such as Quicken, allows
you to keep track of your income and expenses, create a budget, and
more. Most personal finance programs can automatically download
information from your bank so you don't have to manually add your
transactions.
Web browsers: A web browser is the tool you use to access the Web.
Most computers come with a web browser pre-installed, but you can
also download a different one if you prefer. Examples of browsers
include Internet Explorer, Firefox, Google Chrome, and Safari.


Games: There are many different games you can play on your
computer. They range from card games such as Solitaire to action
games like Halo 2. Many action games require a lot of computing
power, so they may not work unless you have a newer computer.
Media players: If you want to listen to MP3s or watch moviesyou've
downloaded, you'll need to use a media player. Windows Media
Player and iTunes are popular media players.
Gadgets: Sometimes called widgets, these are simple applications you
can place on your desktop (or on the Dashboard if you're using a Mac).
There are many different types of gadgets, and they
include calendars, calculators, maps, and news headlines.

INSTALLING DESKTOP APPLICATIONS
In order to work, an application usually has to be installed on your computer.
Typically, installation is as simple as inserting the installation disc and following
the instructions on the screen. For software downloaded from the Internet, you can
usually double-click it after it is finished downloading and then follow the
instructions on the screen. Many applications include a readme file (for
example, readme.txt), which includes installation instructions and other
information.
Use caution when downloading software, as it can contain viruses or
other malware. If you have anantivirus program, you should scan the
downloaded software before installing it. For more information, learn
about Protecting Your Computer from Internet Threats in our Internet
Safety tutorial.

OPENING FILES WITH APPLICATIONS
Many applications are designed to open one or more types of files (or file formats).
For example, Microsoft Wordcan create and edit Word documents. If you don't
have the right kind of application, you won't be able to open a file. For example, if
you are taking our Access 2010 tutorial, you will need to have Microsoft Access in
order to open thesample database.

There are two main ways to open a file:
Find the file on your computer, and double-click it. This will open
the file using the default program.

Open the application, then use the application to open the
file. Once the application is open, you can go to the File menu at the
top of the screen and select Open. This is useful because some files
can be opened by several different applications, and this method
allows you to choose which application to use.

If you're not sure what a file's format is, you can look at
the extension at the end of the file name (for example .docx, .txt,
or .jpg). On some computers, the extension may be hidden, and you
may need to look at the icon to determine the file format.
Mobile apps

Desktop and laptop computers aren't the only devices that can run apps. You
can also download apps for mobile devices like smartphones and tablet
computers, which opens up a lot of new possibilities. Here are a few examples
of mobile apps:
RedLaser: You can use RedLaser to compare prices while shopping.
You simply scan an item's barcode using your phone's built-in camera,
and the app searches the Web for the best price.
Word Lens: Word Lens is a language translator app. Like RedLaser,
it uses your phone's camera to take a picture of a sign, menu, or other
text you want to translate, and it displays the translation for you.
Foursquare: If you're going out to a restaurant, bar, or mall, you can
"check in" with Foursquare to find nearby friends and also let your
friends know where you are. Foursquare can also show you a list of
nearby businesses (using your phone's built-in GPS), which can help
you discover places you've never been to before.
Compared with traditional applications, mobile apps are relatively cheap.
Many of them cost as little as $0.99, and others are free. If your mobile device
has an Internet connection, you can download apps directly onto the mobile
device. Otherwise, you can download them to your computer and then transfer
them over.
Some of the tutorials on GCFLearnFree.org are available as mobile
apps. You can go to our Mobile Apps page to download them for free.

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTERS

Basic Concepts of Computer
Computer is an electronic device which is used to store the data, as per given
instructions it gives results quickly and accurately.
Data : Data is a raw material of information.
I nformation : Proper collection of the data is called information.

Characteristics of Computer
SPEED : In general, no human being can compete to solving the complex computation,
faster than computer.
ACCURACY : Since Computer is programmed, so what ever input we give it gives result
with accuratly.
STORAGE : Computer can store mass storage of data with appropriate formate.
DI LI GENCE : Computer can work for hours without any break and creating error.
VERSATILITY : We can use computer to perform completely different type of work at
the same time.
POWER OF REMEMBERING : It can remember data for us.
NO IQ : Computer does not work without instruction.
NO FEELING : Computer does not have emotions, knowledge, experience, feeling.
Computer and its components

Computer : Computer itself a combination of different type of separate electronic device. i.e.
Computer only will be computer if it has INPUT DEVICE, PROCESS UNIT, and OUTPUT
DEVICE.
Central Processing Unit (CPU) : It is heart and mind of the computer without this unit
computer unable to process.
Keyboard : This is an input device which is used to input the data into the computer.
Mouse : This is also an input device which is used to input the data into the computer.
Monitor : This is an output device which is used to show the result of the instructions.
There are variety of monitor available in the market such as, CRT Monitor, LCD Monitor,
Touch Screen Monitor, TFT Monitor etc.
Switched Mode Power Supply (SMPS) : This is and electronic device which is used to
manage the power supply of computer.
Hard Disk (HDD) : This is used to store the data in massive amount. There are so many
type of HDD available in the market, i.e. SATA, PATA, External HDD, Internal HDD.
Printer : This is an out put device which is used to show the result on the paper. There are
plenty of printer available in the market like inkjet, Laser printer, dot matrix printer etc.

Universal Serial Bus (USB) : This is used to connect the external device to the computer.
Ethernet Cable : This is used to connect computer with other computer.
CD/DVD ROM : This is used to store the data.
Speaker : This is an output device which is used to listen voice, songs, etc.
Mike : This is an Input device which is used to record the sound .
Laptop : This is complete computer which can be carried anywhere any time.
Netbook : This is called mini laptop which is generally lighter and smaller than laptop.
Random Access Memory (RAM) : This is called primary memory. This is also called
main memory of the computer. Whatever data is written in this memory, is lost after
switching off the system.
Read Only Memory (ROM) : This is called primary memory. Data is written in this
memory by the vendor of the computer permanently.
Pen Drive : This is very popular device now a days for carrying data on move.
Blue Ray Disk : This is same as CD/DVD but only different is it can store multi time of
data from CD/DVD and faster than CD/DVD.
Scanner : This is an input device which is used to scan the document for the soft copy.
LCD : It is known as Liqued Crystal Display. It is an output device as monitor.
Motherboard : It is a combination of electronic circuits.
Sound Card : This is also a combination of electronic circuits which helps to give out put
in the form of sound.
Graphics Card : This is also a combination of electronic circuits which helps to give
output the data into the monitor.

Computer Software
Software is a logical programme to handle/solve the complex problem.
System Software : This is special type of software which is responsible for handle the
whole computer system.
Application Software : This is special type of software which is used to solve a particular
problem.
Embeded Software : This type of software embeded with hardware to do a specific type
of job.
Proprietary Software : In general, this type of software require to purchase to use that
particular software for the some time or single user as per conditioned by the vendor of
that particular software.
Open Source Software : This type of software may be freely available and can not be use in
commercially. We can modify, and use it under the same license.

Computer Languages
Machine Level Language : This is low level programming language. Computer or any
electronic device only understand this language. i.e. Binary number i.e 0 and 1.
Assembly Level Language : This is a low level programming language which is
converted into executable machine code by a utility programmer referred to as an
assembler.
High Level Language : High level language is a programming language which is easily
understandable/readable by human.
Interpreter : This is a convertor which converts high level language programme to low
level language programme line by line.
Compiler : This is also a convertor which converts whole high level language programme
to low level language programme at a time.

Number System
Binary Number System : It has only base 2 i.e 0 and 1
Octal Number System : Base of octal is 8 i.e. 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
Decimal Number System : Base of Decimal is 10 i.e. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Hexadecimal Number System : Base of this number system is 16 i.e. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A
B C D E F

Operating System
Windows : This is an Proprietary Operating system and vendor is Microsoft. i.e.
Windows 2007, Windows vista, Windows 2008 etc.
Linux : This is an open source Operating System such as ubuntu, fedora, debian,
mandriva, centOS etc.
Linux (Ubuntu ) Desktop Elements
File Management in Linux (Ubuntu)

Computer Security
Virus and worms : These are the computer programme which malfunction the computer
system. Virus requires a carrier while worms does this by itself. Worm does not requires
any carrier.
Spoofing : Through this, deceiving the computer users and making the fool.
Intrusion or Hacking : If a computer is used and controlled by unauthorised users then it
is called hacking and who does this is called hacker. Main purpose of hacking to steal the
private data or alter the actual data.
Denial of Services: The main aim of this attack is to bring down the targeted network and
make it to deny the service for legitimate users.
Sniffing : Data can be seen and watched when it travels one computer to other computer.
Generation of the Computer Charlse Babbase is known as father of computer he has invented
first analytical computer in year 1822
First Generation (1940 1955) . Example : Electronic Numerical Integrator and
Computer (ENIAC) , EDVAC
Second Generation (1956 1965) : IBM 1401
Third Generation (1966 1975) : IBM System/360
Fourth Generation (1976 1985) : Macintosh 128k
Fifth Generation (1986 -till date) : Super computer

The characteristics of computers that have made them so powerful and universally useful are
speed, accuracy, diligence, versatility and storage capacity. Let us discuss them briefly.
Speed
Computers work at an incredible speed. A powerful computer is capable of performing about
3-4 million simple instructions per second.
Accuracy
In addition to being fast, computers are also accurate. Errors that may occur can almost
always be attributed to human error (inaccurate data, poorly designed system or faulty
instructions/programs written by the programmer)
Diligence
Unlike human beings, computers are highly consistent. They do not suffer from human traits
of boredom and tiredness resulting in lack of concentration. Computers, therefore, are better
than human beings in performing voluminous and repetitive jobs.
Versatility
Computers are versatile machines and are capable of performing any task as long as it can be
broken down into a series of logical steps. The presence of computers can be seen in almost
every sphere Railway/Air reservation, Banks, Hotels, Weather forecasting and many more.
Storage Capacity
Todays computers can store large volumes of data. A piece of information once recorded (or
stored) in the computer, can never be forgotten and can be retrieved almost instantaneously.

COMPUTERS TYPES
Computer: Definition
A computer is a machine that can be programmed to manipulate symbols. Its principal
characteristics are:

It responds to a specific set of instructions in a well-defined manner.
It can execute a prerecorded list of instructions (a program).
It can quickly store and retrieve large amounts of data.

Therefore computers can perform complex and repetitive procedures quickly, precisely and
reliably. Modern computers are electronic and digital. The actual machinery (wires,
transistors, and circuits) is called hardware; the instructions and data are called software. All
general-purpose computers require the following hardware components:

Central processing unit (CPU): The heart of the computer, this is the component that
actually executes instructions organized in programs ("software") which tell the computer
what to do.
Memory (fast, expensive, short-term memory): Enables a computer to store, at least
temporarily, data, programs, and intermediate results.
Mass storage device (slower, cheaper, long-term memory): Allows a computer to
permanently retain large amounts of data and programs between jobs. Common mass
storage devices include disk drives and tape drives.
Input device: Usually a keyboard and mouse, the input device is the conduit through
which data and instructions enter a computer.
Output device: A display screen, printer, or other device that lets you see what the
computer has accomplished.

In addition to these components, many others make it possible for the basic components to
work together efficiently. For example, every computer requires a bus that transmits data
from one part of the computer to another.


II, Computer sizes and power

Computers can be generally classified by size and power as follows, though there is
considerable overlap:
Personal computer: A small, single-user computer based on a microprocessor.
Workstation: A powerful, single-user computer. A workstation is like a personal
computer, but it has a more powerful microprocessor and, in general, a higher-quality
monitor.
Minicomputer: A multi-user computer capable of supporting up to hundreds of users
simultaneously.
Mainframe: A powerful multi-user computer capable of supporting many hundreds or
thousands of users simultaneously.
Supercomputer: An extremely fast computer that can perform hundreds of millions of
instructions per second.


Supercomputers Minicomputer
s
Mainframes Workstations Personal Computers
Least powerful Most powerful
Supercomputer and Mainframe

Supercomputer is a broad term for one of the fastest computers currently available.
Supercomputers are very expensive and are employed for specialized applications that
require immense amounts of mathematical calculations (number crunching). For example,
weather forecasting requires a supercomputer. Other uses of supercomputers scientific
simulations, (animated) graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research,
electronic design, and analysis of geological data (e.g. in petrochemical prospecting). Perhaps
the best known supercomputer manufacturer is Cray Research.

Mainframe was a term originally referring to the cabinet containing the central processor unit
or "main frame" of a room-filling Stone Age batch machine. After the emergence of smaller
"minicomputer" designs in the early 1970s, the traditional big iron machines were described
as "mainframe computers" and eventually just as mainframes. Nowadays a Mainframe is a
very large and expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds, or even thousands, of
users simultaneously. The chief difference between a supercomputer and a mainframe is that
a supercomputer channels all its power into executing a few programs as fast as possible,
whereas a mainframe uses its power to execute many programs concurrently. In some ways,
mainframes are more powerful than supercomputers because they support more simultaneous
programs. But supercomputers can execute a single program faster than a mainframe. The
distinction between small mainframes and minicomputers is vague, depending really on how
the manufacturer wants to market its machines.

Minicomputer

It is a midsize computer. In the past decade, the distinction between large minicomputers and
small mainframes has blurred, however, as has the distinction between small minicomputers
and workstations. But in general, a minicomputer is a multiprocessing system capable of
supporting from up to 200 users simultaneously.

Workstation

It is a type of computer used for engineering applications (CAD/CAM), desktop publishing,
software development, and other types of applications that require a moderate amount of
computing power and relatively high quality graphics capabilities. Workstations generally
come with a large, high-resolution graphics screen, at large amount of RAM, built-in network
support, and a graphical user interface. Most workstations also have a mass storage device
such as a disk drive, but a special type of workstation, called a diskless workstation, comes
without a disk drive. The most common operating systems for workstations are UNIX and
Windows NT. Like personal computers, most workstations are single-user computers.
However, workstations are typically linked together to form a local-area network, although
they can also be used as stand-alone systems.

N.B.: In networking, workstation refers to any computer connected to a local-area network. It
could be a workstation or a personal computer.

Personal computer:

It can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an individual user.
In price, personal computers range anywhere from a few hundred pounds to over five
thousand pounds. All are based on the microprocessor technology that enables manufacturers
to put an entire CPU on one chip. Businesses use personal computers for word processing,
accounting, desktop publishing, and for running spreadsheet and database management
applications. At home, the most popular use for personal computers is for playing games and
recently for surfing the Internet.

Personal computers first appeared in the late 1970s. One of the first and most popular
personal computers was the Apple II, introduced in 1977 by Apple Computer. During the late
1970s and early 1980s, new models and competing operating systems seemed to appear daily.
Then, in 1981, IBM entered the fray with its first personal computer, known as the IBM PC.
The IBM PC quickly became the personal computer of choice, and most other personal
computer manufacturers fell by the wayside. P.C. is short for personal computer or IBM PC.
One of the few companies to survive IBM's onslaught was Apple Computer, which remains a
major player in the personal computer marketplace. Other companies adjusted to IBM's
dominance by building IBM clones, computers that were internally almost the same as the
IBM PC, but that cost less. Because IBM clones used the same microprocessors as IBM PCs,
they were capable of running the same software. Over the years, IBM has lost much of its
influence in directing the evolution of PCs. Therefore after the release of the first PC by IBM
the term PC increasingly came to mean IBM or IBM-compatible personal computers, to the
exclusion of other types of personal computers, such as Macintoshes. In recent years, the
term PC has become more and more difficult to pin down. In general, though, it applies to
any personal computer based on an Intel microprocessor, or on an Intel-compatible
microprocessor. For nearly every other component, including the operating system, there are
several options, all of which fall under the rubric of PC

Today, the world of personal computers is basically divided between Apple Macintoshes and
PCs. The principal characteristics of personal computers are that they are single-user systems
and are based on microprocessors. However, although personal computers are designed as
single-user systems, it is common to link them together to form a network. In terms of power,
there is great variety. At the high end, the distinction between personal computers and
workstations has faded. High-end models of the Macintosh and PC offer the same computing
power and graphics capability as low-end workstations by Sun Microsystems, Hewlett-
Packard, and DEC.
III, Personal Computer Types
Actual personal computers can be generally classified by size and chassis / case. The chassis
or case is the metal frame that serves as the structural support for electronic components.
Every computer system requires at least one chassis to house the circuit boards and wiring.
The chassis also contains slots for expansion boards. If you want to insert more boards than
there are slots, you will need an expansion chassis, which provides additional slots. There are
two basic flavors of chassis designsdesktop models and tower modelsbut there are many
variations on these two basic types. Then come the portable computers that are computers
small enough to carry. Portable computers include notebook and subnotebook computers,
hand-held computers, palmtops, and PDAs.

Tower model
The term refers to a computer in which the power supply, motherboard, and mass storage
devices are stacked on top of each other in a cabinet. This is in contrast to desktop models, in
which these components are housed in a more compact box. The main advantage of tower
models is that there are fewer space constraints, which makes installation of additional
storage devices easier.

Desktop model
A computer designed to fit comfortably on top of a desk, typically with the monitor sitting on top
of the computer. Desktop model computers are broad and low, whereas tower model computers
are narrow and tall. Because of their shape, desktop model computers are generally limited to
three internal mass storage devices. Desktop models designed to be very small are sometimes
referred to as slimline models.

Notebook computer
An extremely lightweight personal computer. Notebook computers typically weigh less than 6
pounds and are small enough to fit easily in a briefcase. Aside from size, the principal difference
between a notebook computer and a personal computer is the display screen. Notebook
computers use a variety of techniques, known as flat-panel technologies, to produce a
lightweight and non-bulky display screen. The quality of notebook display screens varies
considerably. In terms of computing power, modern notebook computers are nearly equivalent to
personal computers. They have the same CPUs, memory capacity, and disk drives. However, all
this power in a small package is expensive. Notebook computers cost about twice as much as
equivalent regular-sized computers. Notebook computers come with battery packs that enable
you to run them without plugging them in. However, the batteries need to be recharged every
few hours.

Laptop computer
A small, portable computer -- small enough that it can sit on your lap. Nowadays, laptop
computers are more frequently called notebook computers.

Subnotebook computer
A portable computer that is slightly lighter and smaller than a full-sized notebook computer.
Typically, subnotebook computers have a smaller keyboard and screen, but are otherwise
equivalent to notebook computers.


Hand-held computer
A portable computer that is small enough to be held in ones hand. Although extremely
convenient to carry, handheld computers have not replaced notebook computers because of their
small keyboards and screens. The most popular hand-held computers are those that are
specifically designed to provide PIM (personal information manager) functions, such as a
calendar and address book. Some manufacturers are trying to solve the small keyboard problem
by replacing the keyboard with an electronic pen. However, these pen-based devices rely on
handwriting recognition technologies, which are still in their infancy. Hand-held computers are
also called PDAs, palmtops and pocket computers.

Palmtop
A small computer that literally fits in your palm. Compared to full-size computers, palmtops are
severely limited, but they are practical for certain functions such as phone books and calendars.
Palmtops that use a pen rather than a keyboard for input are often called hand-held computers or
PDAs. Because of their small size, most palmtop computers do not include disk drives.
However, many contain PCMCIA slots in which you can insert disk drives, modems, memory,
and other devices. Palmtops are also called PDAs, hand-held computers and pocket computers.

PDA
Short for personal digital assistant, a handheld device that combines computing, telephone/fax,
and networking features. A typical PDA can function as a cellular phone, fax sender, and
personal organizer. Unlike portable computers, most PDAs are pen-based, using a stylus rather
than a keyboard for input. This means that they also incorporate handwriting recognition
features. Some PDAs can also react to voice input by using voice recognition technologies. The
field of PDA was pioneered by Apple Computer, which introduced the Newton MessagePad in
1993. Shortly thereafter, several other manufacturers offered similar products. To date, PDAs
have had only modest success in the marketplace, due to their high price tags and limited
applications. However, many experts believe that PDAs will eventually become common
gadgets.
PDAs are also called palmtops, hand-held computers and pocket computers.

COMPUTER COMPONENTS
Computers come in all types and sizes. There are primarily two main sizes of computers. They
are:
Portable
Desktop
The portable computer comes in various sizes and are referred to as laptops, notebooks, and
hand-held computers. These generally denote different sizes, the laptop being the largest, and the
hand-held is the smallest size. This document will mainly talk about the desktop computer
although portable computer issues are also discussed in various areas.
Computer Components:
Computers are made of the following basic components:
1. Case with hardware inside:

1. Power Supply - The power supply comes with the case, but this component is
mentioned separately since there are various types of power supplies. The one you
should get depends on the requirements of your system. This will be discussed in
more detail later
2. Motherboard - This is where the core components of your computer reside
which are listed below. Also the support cards for video, sound, networking and
more are mounted into this board.

1. Microprocessor - This is the brain of your computer. It performs
commands and instructions and controls the operation of the computer.
2. Memory - The RAM in your system is mounted on the motherboard. This
is memory that must be powered on to retain its contents.
3. Drive controllers - The drive controllers control the interface of your
system to your hard drives. The controllers let your hard drives work by
controlling their operation. On most systems, they are included on the
motherboard, however you may add additional controllers for faster or
other types of drives.

3. Hard disk drive(s) - This is where your files are permanently stored on your
computer. Also, normally, your operating system is installed here.
4. CD-ROM drive(s) - This is normally a read only drive where files are
permanently stored. There are now read/write CD-ROM drives that use special
software to allow users to read from and write to these drives.
5. Floppy drive(s) - A floppy is a small disk storage device that today typically has
about 1.4 Megabytes of memory capacity.
6. Other possible file storage devices include DVD devices, Tape backup devices,
and some others.

2. Monitor - This device which operates like a TV set lets the user see how the computer is
responding to their commands.
3. Keyboard - This is where the user enters text commands into the computer.
4. Mouse - A point and click interface for entering commands which works well in
graphical environments.