Chemical Process Control: An Introduction to Theory and Practice

P T R PRENTICE HALL INTERNATIONAL SERIES
IN THE PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL ENGINEERING SCIENCES

NEAL R. AMUNDSON. EDITOR, University of Houston
ADVISORY EDITORS
ANDREAS ACRIVOS, Stanford University
JOHN DAHLER, University of Minnesota
THOMAS J. HANRATTY, Universityof Illinois
JOHN M. PRAUSNITZ,' University of California
L. E. SCRIVEN, University of Minnesota
BALZHISER, SAMUELS, AND ELLIASSEN Chemical Engineering
Thermodynamics
BEQUETTE Process Dynamics: Modeling, Analysis and Simulation
BIEGLER, GROSSMANN, AND WESTERBERG Systematic Methods of
Chemical Process Design
CROWL AND LauvAR Chemical Process Safety
DENN Process luid Mechanics
FOGLER Elements of Chemical !eaction Engineering, "nd edition
HANNA AND SANDALL Com#utational Methods in Chemical Engineering
HIMMELBLAU $asic Princi#les and Calculations in Chemical
Engineering, %th edition ,
HINES AND MADDOX Mass Transfer
KYLE Chemical and Process Thermodynamics, "nd edition
NEWMAN Electrochemical Systems, "nd edition
PRAUSNITZ, LICHTENTHALER,. AND DE AZEVEDO Molecular
Thermodynamics of luid&Phase E'uili(ria, "nd edition
PRENTilCE Electrochemical Engineering Princi#les
STEPHANOPOULOS Chemical Process Control
TESTER AND MODELL Thermodynamics and Its A##lications, )rd edition
TURTON, BAILIE, WHITING, AND SHAEIWITZ Analysis, Synthesis, and
Design of Chemical Processes
Chemical Process Control
An Introduction to Theory
and Practice
GEORGESTEPHANOPOULOS
Department of Chemical Engineering
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
....., ...., -.- !.
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Stephanopoulos, George.
Chemical process control.
(Prentice-Hall international series in the physical
and chemical engineering sciences)
Bibliography: p.
Includes inde.
I. Chemical process control. I. Title. II. Series.
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Contents
Preface xvii
Part I
The Control ofa Chemical Process: Its
Characteristics and-Associated Problems 1
1. Incentives for Chemica.lProcess Control 2
1.1 Suppress the Influence of External Disturbances 4
1.2 Ensure the Stability of a Process 7
1.3 Optimize the Performance of a hemical Process 10
2. Design Aspects of a Process Control
System 12
2.1 lassification of the !ariables in a hemical Process 12
2.2 Desi"n Elements ora ontrol System 14
2.3 ontrol #spects ora omplete hemical Plant 2$
3. Hardware for a Process Control System 28
3.1 %ar&'are Elements of a ontrol System 2(
3.2 )se of Di"ital omputers in Process ontrol 30
*** *************
viii
Concluding Remarks on Part I 33
Things to Think About Jar Part I 33
References for Part I 35
Problems for Part I 36
Part II
Modeling the Dynamic and tatic
!eha"ior of Chemical Processes #3
4. Development of a Mathematical Model 45
4.1 Why Do We Need Mathematical Modeling for Process
Control? 46
4.2 State Variables and State !"ations for a Chemical
Process 4#
4.$ %dditionallements of the Mathematical Models &&
#$# Dead 'ime &#
4.& %dditional (am)les of Mathematical Modeling &*
4.6 Modeling Diffic"lties +4
'hings to 'hin, %bo"t +#
5. Modeling Considerations for Control
Purposes 80
&.1 'he -n)"t./"t)"t Model #1
&.2 Degrees of 0reedom #6
&.$ Degrees of 0reedom and Process Controllers #*
5$# 0orm"lating the Sco)e of Modeling for Process
Control *$
'hings to 'hin, %bo"t *+
References for Part II %&
Problems for Part 'I '$$
ParllII
Analysis of the Dynamic !eha"ior
of Chemical Processes '''
6. Computer Simulation and the Linearization of
onlinear S!stems ""#
6.1 Com)"ter Sim"lation of Process Dynamics 114
6.2 1ineari2ation of Systems 3ith /ne Variable 116
Contents
Contents i$
6.$ De4iation Variables 11*
6$# 1ineari2ation of Systems 3ith Many Variables '('
'hings to 'hin, %bo"t 126
%. Laplace &ransforms "'8
+.1 Definition of the 1a)lace 'ransform 12#
+.2 1a)lace 'ransforms of Some 5asic 0"nctions '3$
+.$ 1a)lace 'ransforms of Deri4ati4es 1$*
+A 1a)lace 'ransforms of -ntegrals 1$*
+.& 0inal.Val"e 'heorem 6 147
+.6 -nitial.Val"e 'heorem 141
'hings to 'hin, %bo"t . 141
5. Solution of Linear Dift.erential ()uations *sing
Laplace&ransforms "4#
#.1 % Characteristic (am)le and the Sol"tion
Proced"re 14$
#.2 -n4ersion of 1a)lace 'ransforms. 8ea4iside
()ansion 14&
#.$ (am)les on the Sol"tion of 1inear Differential
!"ations 9sing 1a)lace 'ransforms 1&2
'hings to 'hin, %bo"t 1&+
+. &ransfer ,unctions and the -nput./utput
Models "5+
*.1 'ransfer 0"nction ofa Process 3ith a Single /"t)"t '5%
*.2 'ransfer 0"nction Matri( of a Process 3ith M"lti)le
/"t)"ts 16$
*.$ Poles and :eros of a 'ransfer 0"nction 16+
%$# ;"alitati4e%nalysis of the <es)onse of a System 16#
'hings to 'hin, %bo"t 1+2
"0. D!namic 0ehavior of ,irst./rder S!stems "%#
17.1 What -s a0irst./rder System? 1+$
17.2 Processes Modeled as 0irst./rder Systems 1+4
17.$ Dynamic <es)onse ofa P"re Ca)aciti4e Process 1+#
l/% Dynamic <es)onse of a 0irst./rder 1ag System 1+*
17.& 0irst./rder Systems 3ith Variable 'ime Constant and
=ain 1#$
'hings to 'hin, %bo"t 1#4
x
11. Dynamic Behavior of Second-Order
Systems 186
11.1 What Is a Second-Order System? 186
11.2 Dynamic Response of a Second-Order System 187
11.3 !"ticapacity #rocesses as Second-Order Systems 1$3
11.% Inherent"y Second-Order #rocesses 201
11.& Second-Order Systems 'a!sed (y the #resence of
'ontro""ers 201
)hin*s to )hin+ ,(o!t 204
,ppendix It, -x amp"es of #hysica" Systems .ith
Inherent Second-Order Dynamics 205
12. Dynamic Behavior of Higher-Order Systems 212
12.1 N 'apacities in Series 21.2
12.2 Dynamic Systems .ith Dead )ime 21%
12.3 Dynamic Systems .ith In/erse Response 216
References for Part III 220
Problems for Part III 223
Part IV Analysis and Design of Feedbac !ont1"01
#ystems 23$
13. lntroduction to Feedac! "ontrol 2#1
13.1 'oncept of 0eed(ac+ 'ontro" 2%1
13.2 )ypes of 0eed(ac+ 'ontro""ers 2%&
13.3 eas!rin* De/ices 1Sensors2 2%8
1.3.% )ransmission 3ines 2&3
13.& 0ina" 'ontro" -"ements 2&3
1#. Dynamic Behavior of Feedac!-"ontrolled
$rocesses 2%8
1%.1 5"oc+ Dia*ram and the '"osed-3oop Response 2&8
1%.2 -ffect of #roportiona" 'ontro" on the Response of a
'ontro""ed #rocess 26&
"ontents "ontents
&i
1%.3 -ffect of Inte*ra" 'ontro" ,ction 273
t%.% -ffect of Deri/ati/e 'ontro" ,ction 276
1%.& -ffect of 'omposite 'ontro" ,ctions 277
)hin*s to )hin+ ,(o!t 27$
1%. Staility 'nalysis of Feedac! Systems 281
1&.1 6otion of Sta(i"ity 281
1&.2 )he 'haracteristic -7!ation 28&
1&.3 Ro!th-8!r.it9 'riterion for Sta(i"ity 287
1&.% Root-3oc!s ,na"ysis 2$0
)hin*s to )hin+ ,(o!t 2$&
16. Design of Feedac! "ontrollers 2()
16.1 O!t"ine of the Desi*n #ro("ems 2$7
16.2 Simp"e #erformance 'riteria 2$$
16.3 )ime-Inte*ra" #erformance 'riteria 302
16.% Se"ect the )ype of 0eed(ac+ 'ontro""er 30%
16.& 'ontro""er )!nin* 310
1). Fre*uency +es,onse-'nalysis of .inear
$rocesses 31)
17.1 Response of a 0irst-Order System to a Sin!soida"
Inp!t 317
17.2 0re7!ency Response 'haracteristics of a :enera" 3inear
System 321
17.3 5ode Dia*rams 326
17.% 6y7!ist #"ots 338
)hin*s to )hin+ ,(o!t; 3%1
18. Designof Feedac! "ontrol Systems /sing
Fre*uency +es,onse01echni*ues 3##
18.1 5ode Sta(i"ity 'riterion 3%%
18.2 :ain and #hase ar*ins; 3%$
18.3 <ie*"er-6icho"s )!nin* )echni7!e 3&2
xii
18.4 Nyquist Stability Criterion 355
Things to Think About 358
References for Part IV 360
Problems for Part IV 363
19. Feedback Control of Systems with Large Dead
Time or Inverse es!onse "#"
19.1 Processes with arge!ea" Ti#e 383
19.$ !ea" Ti#e Co#%ensation 385
19.& Control o' Syste#s with (n)erse *es%onse 390
Things to Think About +393
$%. Control Systems with &'lti!le Loo!s "9(
$,.1 Casca"e Control 395
$,.$ Selecti)e Control Syste#s 0!
$,.3 S%lit-*ange Control 0"
$1. Feedforward and atio Control (11
$1.1 ogic o' .ee"'orwar" Control 411
$1.$ Proble# o' !esigning .ee"'orwar" Controllers 414
$1./3 Practical As%ects on the !esign o' .ee"'orwar"
Controllers !0
$1.4 .ee"'orwar"-.ee"back Control 4$3
$l.S *atio Control 4$0
Things to Think About 4$9
$$. )da!tive and lnterential Control*Systems ("1
$$.1 A"a%ti)e Control 431
$$.$ (n'erential Control 438
References for Part V
Problems for Part V "
Contents Contents
Part VI Design of Control Systems for #$ltioariable
Processes% Introd$ction to Plant
Control &9
$+1.Synthesis of )lternative Control Config'rations
for &'lti!le,In!'t- &'lti!le,.'t!'t
/rocesses (01
$3.1 !esign 1uestions 'or 2(23 Control Syste#s 441
$3.$ !egrees o' .ree"o# an" the Nu#ber o' Controlle" an"
2ani%ulate" 5ariables 6 44$
$3.3 7eneration o' Alternati)e oo% Con'igurations 440
$3.4 89tensions to Syste#s with (nteracting :nits 449
Things to Think About 48$
$(. Interaction an" Deco'!ling of Control
Loo!s (#0
$4.1 (nteraction o' Control oo%s 480
$4.$ *elati)e-7ain Array an" the Selection o' oo%s 494
$4.3 !esign o' Non interacting Control oo%s &0
Things to Think About &08
$S. Design of Control Systems for Com!lete
/lants 510
$5.1 Process !esign an" Process Control &10
$5.$ ;y"ro"ealkylation o' Toluene Plant to Pro"uce <en=ene/
A Case Stu"y 514
$5.3 2aterial <alance Control 'or the ;y"ro"ealkylation
Plant 519
$5.4 Pro"uct 1uality Control 'or the ;y"ro"ealkylation
Plant 5$4
$5.5 So#e Co##ents on the Control !esign 'or Co#%lete
Plants 5$9
References for Part VI &3"
Problems'or Part VI &0
xiii
Part V Analysis and Design of Advanced Control
Systems 381
xiv
Part VII Process Control Using Digital
Computers 549
~~6.Digital Computer Control Loops 551
26.1 The Digital Computer 552
26.2 Computer-Process Interface for Data Acquisition and
Control 557
26.3 Computer Control oops 561
26.! "e# Control Design Pro$lems 566
Things to Thin% A$out 568
27. From Continuous to Discrete-Time
Sstems 570
2&.1 'ampling Continuous 'ignals 5&1
2&.2 (econstruction of Continuous 'ignals from Their
Discrete-Time )alues 576
2&.3 Con*ersion of Continuous to Discrete-Time
+odels 5,1
Things to Thin%A$out 587
2!6. " -Trans#orms 58$
2,.1 Definition of --Transforms 58$
2,.2 --Transforms of 'ome .asic /unctions 501
2,.3 Properties of a-Transforms 5$5
2,.! In*ersion of --Transforms 500
Appendi1 2,A2 The +odified --Transform 606
2%. Discrete-Time &esponse o# Dnamic
Sstems 608
20.1 (esponse of Discrete D3namic '3stems 609
20.2 Discrete-Time Anal3sis of Continuous '3stems. The Pulse
Transfer /unction 613
20.3 Discrete-Time Anal3sis of Closed-oop '3stems 621
20.! 'ta$ilit3 Anal3sis of Discrete-Time '3stems 626
'(. Design o# Digital) Fee*+ac, Controllers 6'-
35.1 Digital Appro1imation of Classical Controllers 635
35.2 6ffect of 'ampling 6'8
Contents) Contents 1*
35.3 A Different Class of Digital Controllers 640
35.! 7(inging7 and the Placement of Poles 6!&
35.5 Design of 8ptimal (egulator3 Control '3stems 650
Things to Thin% A$out 65-
'1. .rocess /*enti#ication an* 0*aptive
Control 656
31.1 Process Identification 65&
31.2 Process Identification and Adapti*e Control 662
References for Part VII 670
Problems/or Part VII 674
/n*ex 685
Preface
As its title suggests, this is an introductory text to the theory and
practice of chemical process control. Itis intended to cover the needs,
as these pertain to the scope of basic chemical engineering education, (1)
of a first undergraduate course in process dynamics and control,and (2)
of the first part of an advanced undergraduate or graduate course in
. process control.
During the last ten years, academic research and industrial practice
in chemical process control have been shaped by the following impor-
tant realiations!
1. "he structure of chemical processes has become increasingly com-
plex, due to better management of energy and raw materials. As a
conse#uence, the design of control systems for complete plants
now constitutes the focal point of engineering interest, rather than
controller designs for single processing units. $urthermore, the
design of a control system has become intimately related to the
design of the process itself.
2. Designing a control system implies identification of control
ob%ectives& selection of appropriate measurements and manipula-
tions, as well as the determination of loops connecting these& and
identification of the proper control laws. 'n other words, it is a
much more involved (uestion than the traditional one of control-
ler turiing.
x v i i i
Preface
3. The advent and rapid growth of digital computers has revolution5
ized the practice of chemical process control and has allowed the
industrial implementation of advanced control concepts.
Today, it is widely believed that education in chemical process con5
trol, has not been adapted to follow modern directions, as these are
depl~ted above. The present text represents an attempt to bridge the
classical approach to process control problems with the current and
future trends and needs.Tt is primarily an educational vehicle rather
than a practical guide to. the solution of specific industrial probllems.
Here, the emphasis I on understanding the nature of process control
probl~ms an~ their attributes, as well ason systematizing the approach
to their solution. !eedless to say, several design tools and methodolo5
gies have also been included, but with reduced emphasis. Thus it is
hoped that the following aspects will emerge after studying this boo"#
$. %#hemical process control is a sub&ect of study with its own intrica5
~les a'd challenges. It is intimately related to chemical engineer5
mg %Ience and practice, and as such it is not the degenerate child
of any other branch of engineering.
(. The design of a ~ontrol system is not a mathematical problem, but
should be perceived as an engineering tas", with all its attractive
challenges and practical shortcomings.
3. ) good understanding of physical and chemical phenomena ta"5
ing place in a chemical process is. of paramount importance for
the design of simple and effective control schemes.
*. everal alternative control configurations are usually possible for
a given processing unit or a complete plant. The selection of the
+best+ among them is the central ,uestion to be resolved.
-. ~here exist a plethora of analytical tools and design methodolo5
gies that one should be familiar with before attempting to tac"le
process control problems. .
The text is divided into seven parts. .ach part includes a number of
chapters with a %ommon general orientation. . .
/artI 0%hapters $ through 31 represents a general introduction to the
control aspects. of a chemical process. )n attempt is made to define
what we mean by process control, to identify the needs and incentives
for process control, to analyze the design ,uestions and formulate the
problems that must be solved, and to provide the rationale for studying
the material that follows in the subse,uent chapters.
/~rt II 0%hapters * and2 -1 introduces the reader to the modeling
re,uirements for process control. Itdemonstrates how we can construct
useful, ~ode~s, starting from basic principles, and determines the scope
and difficulties of mathematical modeling for process controlpurposes,
Preface
/art III 0%hapters 3 through $(1 is devoted to the analysis of static
and dynamic behavior of processing systems. The emphasis here is on
identifying those process characteristics 4which shape the dynamic
response for a variety of processing units. The results of such analysis
are used later to design effective controllers. Input5output models have
been employed through the, use of 6aplace transforms.
/art I7 0%hapters $3 through $81 covers the analysis and design of
feedbac" control systems, which represent the control schemes encoun5
tered most often in a chemical plant. .mphasis has been placed on
understanding the effects which various feedbac" controllers have on
the response of controlled processes, and on the selection of the most
appropriate among them. The sub&ect4 of controller tuning has been
deemphasized, and as a conse,uence, the traditional root5locus tech5 .
ni,ues and fre,uency response tuning methods have been scaled down.
/art 7 0%hapters $9 through ((1 deals with the description, analysis,
and design of more complex control systems, with one controlled out5
put. In particular, %hapter $9 introduces the concept of feedbac" com5
pensation with mith4s predictor, tocope with systems possessing large
dead times or inverse response. %hapter (: describes and analyzes a
variety of multiloop control systems 0with one controlled output1 often
encountered in chemical processes, such as cascade, selective, and split5
range. %hapter ($ is devoted exclusively to the analysis and design of
feedforward and ratio control systems, while %hapter (( ma"es a rather
descriptive presentation of adaptive and inferential control schemes#
why they are needed and how they can be used.
%hapters (3 through (- constitute /art 7I and are devoted to mul5
tivariable control problems. The emphasis here is on generating alterna5
tive control configurations in a systematic manner and screening them
for the best. It is not meant to cover all aspects of multi variable control,
and only one design techni,ue 0relative5gain array1 is presented for the
selection of the least interacting loops. imple, noninteracting control
loops are also designed for low5order systems. %hapters (3 and (-. offer
an introduction to the control design problems for complete chemical
plants. )lso, they, outline systematic procedures which can be used to
synthesize control schemes for such complex systems.
/art 7II 0%hapters (3 through 3$1 is an introduction to process
control using digital computers. Initially 0%hapter (31, the characteris5
tics of a digital computer control loop are analyzed in4 terms of the new
hardware elements as well as the new control design ,uestions.
%hapters (; through (9 provide the analytical tools for analyzing the
response of open5loop and closed5loop discrete5time dynamic systems.
%hapter 3: outlines the most popular procedures for designing4 digital
feedbac" controllers, while %hapter 3$ discusses computer5aided, on5
x x
Preface
line identification of chemical processes and its use for the develop6
ment of adaptive control systems.
The: present book is the culmination of seven years of teaching
process control at the University of Minnesota and the National Techni6
c~l University of Athens. Itwas designed in such a way as to provide a
simple smooth and readable account of process control aspects while
providing the interested reader with material problems and directions
for further study
!ith few e"ceptions every chapter contains the proper amount of
material for #ust one lecture. $n order to maintain continuity and flow
of the main te"t two mechanisms have been used. %irst: specific details
are usually grouped at the end of each section under the heading
&emarlks. 'econd: additional useful but not necessary material has
been put into appendices at the end of the corresponding chapters.
Many e"amples have been used throughout the te"t either to e"plain
some concepts or to demonstrate the use of various techni(ues. Not all
of the e"amples need to be covered during a lecture hour and some of
them can be left for individual study.
To enhance the educational value of the book a series of Things to
Think About at the end of each chapter as well as a large number of
homework problems at the end of each part have been included. )cca6
sionally the Things to Think About will direct the reader to find the
answers in other books papers or handbooks which he or she can find
listed in the sections of annotated bibliography at the end of each part.
$ am vastly indebted to many people who have helped and inspired
me in various ways to start continue and complete this book. %irst
and foremost my gratitude goes to the *+hief* Neal &. Amundson for
supporting me at the conception of this book and strengthening my
resolve ,- so many direct and indirect ways. &utherford Aris Arnie
%redrickson and 'kip 'criven may not have reali.ed whatan influence
their generous presence *teachings* and friendship have had in shap6
ing this book. Thanks are due to /. !ei for his encouraging words to
continue with this pro#ect and to M. M. 0enn for being so gracious and
helpful when this book was in. its embryonic stage. The constructive
criticism of /. M. 0ouglas has been immensely helpful. 1is generous
permission to use passages from his work on the control system design
for complete plants is gratefully acknowledged.
A. !. !esterberg and 2. /ensen read the manuscript and used it for
c.lassroom teaching. Their thoughtful and valuable reviews and sugges6
tions have helped enormously to improve the book. T..Umeda $. 1ashi6
moto M. Morari 3. Arkun /. &omagnoli '. 'voronos M. Nikolaou
and 2. +hristodoulou contributed .many useful remarks corrections
and suggestions. To all of them $ want to e"press my sincere gratitude.
Preface
xxi
$ cannot find words to describe the debt4 owe to all of my colleagues
at the University of Minnesota for having created a stimulating atmos6
phere of academic e"cellence5 the basic element of any long6lasting
endeavor.
'hirley Tabis typed the original manuscript with great care artistic
taste skill and dedication unparalleled in my own e"perience.
lowe a special debt to my wife 7leni. 'he has participated in every
stage of this book8s development. 'he copied in her own careful manner
my original scribbles 9(uite often more than once: and a large number
of line drawings proofread the manuscript several times and edited it
for mistakes while at the same. time she was carrying our first son and
nurturing him through his first steps. $ am without words to thank her.
%inally to my parents and brothers goes my eternal gratitude for
their love support and dedication.
George Stephanopou[os
Athens ;reece
The Control of
a Chemical Process:
Its Characteristics
and Associated
Problems
I
The needs are intimately related to the problems, and the problems, as
usual, wear a sometimes effective camouflage.
A. S. Foss*
The purpose of the following three introductory chapters is:
1. To define what we mean by chemical process control
2. To describe the needs and the incentives for controlling a cherni-
cal process
3. To analyze the characteristics of a control system and to formu-
late the problems that must be solved during its design
4. To provide the rationale for studying the material that follows in
subseuent chapters
To achieve the foregoing ob!ectives" we will us#e a series of e$am-
ples ta%en from the chemical industry. These e$amples are usually
simplified and serve only to demonstrate the various ualitative points
made.
*"Critique of Chemical ProcessControl Theory," AIChE J.. 19(2),209 (197).
Incentives for Chemical
Process Control
1
A chemical plant is an arrangement of processing units (reactors,
heat exchangers, pumps, distillation columns, absorbers, evaporators"
tanks, etc.), integrated with one another in a systematic and rational
manner. The plants overall ob!ective is to convert certain rawmaterials
(input feedstock) into desired products using available sources of
energy, in the most economical way.
"uring its operation, a chemical plant must satisfy several re#uire%
ments imposed by its designers and the general technical, economic,
and social conditions in the presence of ever%changing external influ%
ences (disturbances). Among such re#uirements are the following&
1. Safety: The safe operation of a chemical process is a primary
re#uirement for the well%being of the people in the plant and for
its continued contribution to the economic development. Thus
the operating pressures, temperatures, concentration of chemi%
cals, and so on, should always be within allowable limits. H)I'
example, if a reactor has been designed to operate at a pressure up
to 1'' psig, we should have a control system that will maintain the&
pressure below this value. As another example, we should try to
avoid the development of explosive mixtures during the opera%
tion of a plant.
2. Production specifications: A plant should produce the. desired
amounts and #uality of the final products. (or example, we may
Chap. 1 Incentives for Chemical Process Control )
re#uire the production of 2 million pounds of ethylene per day, of
. **.+, purity. Therefore, a control system is needed to ensure that
the production level (- million. pounds per day) and the purity
specifications (**.+,/ethylene)are satisfied.
3. Environmental regulations: 0arious federal and state laws may
specify that the temperatures, concentrations of. chemicals, and
flow rates of the effluents from a plant be within certain limits.
1uch regulations exist, for example, on the amounts of 1'- that a
plant can e!ect to the atmosphere, and on the #uality of water
returned to a river or a lake.
4. Operational constraints: The various types of e#uipments used in
a chemical plant have constraints inherent to their operation. 1uch
constraints should be satisfied throughout the operation of a plant.
(or example, pumps must maintain a certain net positive suction
head2 tanks should not overflow or go dry2 distillation columns
should not be flooded2 the.temperature ina catalytic reactor should
not exceed an upper limit since the catalyst will be destroyed.
3ontrol systems are needed to satisfy all these operational con%
straints. .
5. Economics: The operation of a plant must conform with the
market conditions, that is, the availability of raw materials and the
demand of the final products. (urthermore, it should be as eco%
nomical as possible in its utili4ation of raw materials, energy, capi%
tal, and human labor. Thus it is re#uired that the operating condi%
tions are controlled at. given optimum levels of minimum
operating cost, maximum .profit, and so on.
All the re#uirements listed above dictate. the need for continuous
monitoring of the operation of a chemical plant and external interven%
tion (control) to guarantee the satisfaction of the operational ob!ectives.
This is accomplished through a rational arrangement of e#uipment
(measuring devices, valves, controllers, computers) and human interven%
tion (plant designers, plant operators), which together constitute the
control system.
There are three general classes of needs that a control system is called
on to satisfy&
Suppressing the influence of e!ternal distur"ances
Ensuring the sta"ility of a chemical process
Optimi#ing the performance of a chemical process
5et us examine these needs using various examples.
4
Part I Control of a Chemical Process: Characteristics and A .ated Problems
1.1 Suppress the Influence of External
Disturbances
Suppressing the influence of external disturbances on a process is the
most common objective of a controller.in a chemical plant. Such distur+
bances, which denote the. effect that the surroundings (external world)
have on a reactor, separator, heat exchanger, compressor, and so' on, are
usually out of the reach of the human operator. Conseuently, we need
to introduce a control mechanism that will ma!e the proper changes on
the process to cancel the negative impact that such disturbances may
have on the desired operation of a chemical plant.
Example "."# Controlling the Operation of a Stirred Tank Heater
Consider the tan! heater system shown in $igure ".". % liuid enters
the tan! with a flow rate FI (ftl &min) and a temperature Ti C$), where it.is
heated with steam (having a flow rate FSI lb&min), 'et F and T be the
flow rate and temperature of the stream leaving the tan!. (he tan! is
considered to be well stirred, which implies that the temperature of the
effluent is eual to the temperature of the liuid in the tan!.
(he operational objectives of this heater are#
". (o !eep the effluenttemperature T at a desired value T,
). (o *!eep the volume of the liuid in the tan! at a desired value V,
(he operation of the heater is disturbed by external factors such as
changes in the feed flow rate and temperature (F, and TI). If nothing
changed, then after attaining T =T, and V =Vs, we could leave the
system alone without any supervision and control. It is clear, though, that
this cannot be true since T; and F, are subject to freuent changes,
Conseuently, some form of control action is needed to alleviate the
Steam
$igure "." Stirred tan! heater.
Chap. 1 lucent, , tor Chemical Process Control
'F,T
$igurel.) $eedbac!+temperature control for a tan! heater.
impact of the changing disturbances and !eep' T and V at the desired
values.
,n $igure ".) we see such a control action to !eep T =T, when' TI or
F, changes. % thermocouple measures the temperature T of the liuid in
the tan!. (hen T is compared with the desired value T'; yielding a
deviation E =T, - T. (he value of the deviation E is sent to a control
mechanism which decides what must be done in order for the tempera+
ture T to return bac! to the desired value Ts ,f - ./, which implies that
T ! Ts. the controller opens the steam valve so that more heat can be
supplied. 0n the contrary,. the controller closes the steam valve when
E ! / or T" T; It is clear .that when T 1 T, (i.e., E =/), the controller
does nothing. (his control system, which measures the variable of direct
importance (T in this case) after a disturbance had its effect on it, is
called the feedback control 'system. (he desired value T, is called the set
point and is' supplied externally by the person in charge of production.
% similar configuration can be used if we want to !eep the volume V,
or euivalently the liuid level h, at its set point h, when FI changes. ,n
this case we measure the level of the liuid in the tan! and we open or
close the valve that affects the effluent flow rate F, or inlet flow rate FI
(see $igure ".2). It is clear that the control systems shown in $igure 1.# are
also feedbac! control systems. %ll feedbac! systems shown in $igures ".)
and ".2 act post facto (after the fact), that is, after the effect of the
disturbances has been felt by the process.
3eturning to the tan! heater example, we reali4e that we can use a
different control arrangement to maintain T::::i T, when T; changes. 5ea+
sure the temperature of the inlet stream T; and open or close the steam
valve to provide more or less' steam. Such a control configuration is
called feedforward control and is shown in $igure !". 6e notice that the
feedforward control does not wait until the effect of the disturbances has
been felt by the system, but acts appropriately before the external disturb+
ance affects the system, anticipating what its effect will be. (he charac+
teristics of the feedbac! and feedforward control systems will be studied
in detail in subseuent chapters.
6 Control of a Chemical Process: Characteristics and Associated Problems
r,
T,~lstant l
t- - + - - - - t- - - - - i
G
Level measuring
device
E I
(a)
-- iController l3 + 3 3 3 3 ~ E
F, + Set point
---- h,
T / = const
'-
(b)
lgure !"# $lternative li%uid3 level control sc&emes"
F, = constant
F,T
I
L __
Ffgure !"' eed(or)ard temperature control (or stirred f'''- tlk &eater"
Part I
Chap. Incenti!es for Chemical Process Control *
T&e suppresion o( t&e impact t&at disturbances &ave on t&e operating
be&avior o( processing units is one o( t&e main reasons (or t&e use o(
control in t&e c&emical industr+"
.. " Ensure the.s#tabilit$ of a Process
Consider t&e be&avior o( t&e variable x s&o)n in igure !"," -otice t&at
at time t = to t&e constant value o( x is disturbed b+ some e.ternal
(actors, but t&at as time progresses t&e 3 value o( x returns to its initial
value and sta+s t&ere" If x is a process variable suc& as temperature,
pressure, concentration, or (lo) rate, )e sa+ t&at t&e process is stable or
self-regulating and needs no e.ternal intervention (or its stabili/ation"
It is clear t&at no control mec&anism is needed to (orce x to return to
its initial value"
0n contrast to t&e be&avior described above,t&e variable y s&o)n in
igure !"6 does not return1 to its initial value a(ter it is disturbed b+
e.ternal in(luences" 2rocesses )&ose variables (ollo) t&e pattern indi3
cated b+ y in igure !"6 (curves $, 4, C) are called unstable processes
and re%uire e.ternal control (or t&e stabili/ation o( t&eir be&avior" T&e
e.plosion o( a &+drocarbon (uel )it& air is suc& an unstable s+stem"
5iding a bic+cle is an attemptto stabili/e an unstable s+stem and )e
attain t&at b+ pedaling, steering, and leaning our bod+ rig&t or le(t "
.%&
igure !", 5esponse o( a stable s+stem"
y
" igu06e7"6 $lternative responses o( unstable s+stems"
' 8
8
Control of a Chemical Process: Characteristics and A~ 'ted Problems
Part I
Fe' Te;
Coolant
Figure'!.7 CSTR with cooling jacket.
Example 1.2: Controlling the Operation of an Unstable Reactor
Consider a continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR) in which an irre&
!ersi"le e#other$ic raction % &' (' takes )lace. The heat o* reaction is
re$o!ed "+ a coolant $ediu$ that *lows through a jacket around the
reactor (Figure, 1.7). %s is known *ro$ the anal+sis o* a CSTR s+ste$, the
cur!e that descri"es the a$ount o* heat released "+ the e#other$ic reac&
tion is a sig$oidal *unction o* the te$)erature Tin the reactor (cur!e %
in Figure 1.-). .n the other hand, the heat re$o!ed "+ the coolant is a
linear *unction o* the te$)erature T (line ( in Figure 1.-). Conse/uentl+,
when the CSTR is at stead+ state (i.e., nothing is changing), the heat
)roduced "+ the reaction should "e e/ual to the heat re$o!ed "+ the
coolant. This re/uire$ent +ields the stead+ states PI, P2, and P3 at the
intersection o* cur!es % and ( o* Figure 1.-. Stead+ states P 0 and P 1 are
called stable, whereas P2 is nstable .To understand the conce)t o* sta"il&
it+, let us consider stead+ state P2
%ssu$e that we are a"le to start the reactor at the te$)erature T2 and
the concentration cA2 that corres)onds to this te$)erature. Consider that
the te$)erature o* the *eed T; increases. This will cause an increase in the:
te:$)erature o* the reacting $i#ture, sa+ n;%t nthe heat released "+ the
reaction !"2# is $ore than the heat re$o!ed "+ the coolant, "'i (see
Figure 1.-), thus leading to higher te$)eratures in the reactor and conse&
Figure 1.S The three stead+ states o* a CSTR.
Chap. 1 Incenth Chemical Process Control
/uentl+ to increased rates o* reaction. 0ncreased rates o* reaction )roduce
larger a$ounts o* heat released "+ the e#other$ic reaction, which in turn
lead to higher te$)eratures,' and so on. There*ore, we see that an increase
in T; takes the reactor te$)erature awa+ *ro$ stead+ state P
2
and that the
te$)erature will e!entuall+. reach the !alue o* stead+ state P
J
(Figure
1.2a). Si$ilarl+, i* TI were to decrease, the te$)erature o* the reactor
would take o** *ro$ P2 and end u) at PI (Figure 1.2"). (+ contrast, i* we
were o)erating at stead+ state P 1 or P 0 and we )ertur"ed the o)eration o*
the reactor, it would return naturall+ "ack to )oint 3
J
or P I *ro$ which it
started (see Figure 1.2c,d). !$ote% The reader should !eri*+ this assertion.)
So$eti$es we would like to o)erate the CSTR at the $iddle unsta"le
stead+ state, *or the *ollowing reasons: (1) the low&te$)erature stead+
state PI causes !er+ low +ields "ecause the te$)erature T I is !er+ low,
and (2) the high&te$)erature stead+ state P3 $a+ "e !er+ high, causing
unsa*e conditions, destro+ing. the catal+st *or a catal+tic reactor, degrad&
ing the )roduct (, and so on.
0n such cases we need a controller that will.ensure the sta"ilit+ o* the
o)eration at the $iddle stead+ state. !"estion :The reader should suggest
a control $echanis$. to sta"ili4e the o)eration o* the reactor at the
unsta"le stead+ state P
2
& This e#a$)le de$onstrates !er+ !i!idl+ the
need *or sta"ili4ing the o)eration o* a s+ste$ using so$e t+)e o* control
in the )resence o* e#ternal distur"ances that tend to take the s+ste$ awa+
*ro$ the desired )oint.)
~ ------~~--------
I
Tl "+" """ "'"""." "" " " ""
I .
o Ti$e t o
(a) (")
~ ------, -----------
I
I
T2 "!1 """ """ ~ """"""""

I
~ -+~-------------
I
o o
(c) (d)
Figure 1.2 5+na$ic res)onse o* a CSTR: (a) and (") indicate the insta&
"ilit+ o* the $iddle stead+ state, while (c) and (") de$onstrate the
sta"ilit+ o* the other two.
10 Control of a Chemical Process: Characteristics and Associated Problems Part I
1.3 Optimize the Performance
of a Chemical Process
Safety and the satisfaction of production specifications are the two
principal operational objectives for a chemical plant. Once these are
achieved, the next goal is how to make the operation of the plant more
profitable. Given the fact that the conditions which affect the operation
of the plant do not remain the same, it is clear that we would like to be
able to change the operation of the plant (flow rates, pressures, concen+
trations temperatures!" in such a way that an economic objec#tive
(profit! is always maximi$ed. %his task is undertaken by the automatic
controllers of the plant and its human operators.
&et us now see an example' from the chemical processing industry
where the controller is used to optimi$e the economic performance ora
single unit.
Example (.)# Optimizing the Performance of a Batch Reactor
*onsider a batch reactor where the following two consecutive reac+ .
tions take place#
, .&,- .../.,*
-oth reactions are assumed to be endothermic with first+order kinetics.
%he. heat re0uired for the reactions is supplied by steam which" flows
through the jacket around the reactor (1igure l.2O!. %he desired product is
-3 * is an undesired waste. %he economicobjective for the operation of.
the batch reactor is to maximi$e the profit 4 25 over a period of time In: that
is,
f'n .
maximi$e < l> =6 o 78revenue from the sales of product -9 +
cost of steam: dt cost of purchasing , (l.l!
where In is the period of reaction. "
%he only variable that we can change freely in order to maximi$e the
profit is the steam flow rate ;. %he steam flow rate, which can vary with
*ondensate ++
1igure (..(< -atch reactor with two consecutive reactions.
Chap. 1
Incenti!es for Chemical Process Control
((
time, will affect the temperature in the batch reactor and the temperature
will, in turn, affect the rates of the desired and undesired reactions. %he
0uestion is how we Should vary Q(/) with time so that the profit 4 25 is
maximi$ed. &et us examine some special policies with respect to Q(t).
1. If Q(t) is given the largest possible value for the entire reaction
period tR, the temperature" of. the reacting mixture will take the
. largest value that is possible. 2nitially, when CA is large, we will have
high yields of - but we will also pay more for the steam. ,s time
goes on and the concentration of - increases, the yield of * also
increases, *onse0uently, toward the end of the reaction period the
temperature must decrease3 necessitating a decrease in the steam
flow rate.
=. If the steam flow rate is kept at its lowest value 8i.e., Q(t) =<9 for
the entire reaction period tR, we will have no steam cost, but we will
also have no production of -.
' Ie see clearly from these two extreme cases that Q(t) will vary between
2ts lowest and highest values during the reaction period IR. >ow it should
vary to maximi$e the profit is not trivial and re0uires the solution of the
optimi$ation problem posed above.
2n 1igure (.(( we see a general trend that the steam flow rate must
follow to optimi$e the profit 4 (5 . %herefore a control system is needed
which will "1# compute the best steam flow rate for every time during the
reaction period and (=! adjust the valve (inserted in the steam line! so
that the steam flow rate takes its# best value 8as computed in "1#$. Such
problems are known as optimal control problems.
Q Steam flow rate
Qmm~O~ ~~~
o
In %ime
1igure (.(( Optimal profile of the steam flow rate for the batch reactor
of ?xample (.).
%his example indicates that the control of the steam flow rate is not
to ensure the stability of the reactor or to eliminate the effect of
...t'.',,,,.,( disturbances on the reactor, but to optimi$e its economic per+
Design Aspects
of a Process Control
System
2
2:1 Classification of the Variables
in a Chemical Process
Th~ variables (flow rates, temperatures, pressures, concentrations, etc.
associated with a chemical process are divided into two groups:
1. Input variables, which denote the effect of the surroundings on
the chemical process ,
2. Output variables, which denote 'the effect of the process on the
surroundings
Example 2.1
For the CST reactor discussed in !"ample 1.# (Figure 1.$% we have
&nput variables:
'utput variables: C (, T, F, Teo' 'V
)otice that the effluent flow rate F can be considered .either as input or
output. If there is a control valve on the effluent stream so that its flow
rate can be manipulated b* a controller, the variable F is an input, since
the opening of the valve is ad+usted e"ternall*, otherwise, F is an output
variable.
12
Chap. 2 Oesigr sets of a Process Control System
Example 2.2
For the tan- heater discussed in !"ample 1.1 (Figure 1.1% we have
&nput variables:
'utput variables: F, V. T
The input variables can be further classified into the following cate/
gories: . . .
1. Manipulate (or a!usta"le# variables, if their values can be
ad+usted freel* b* the human operator or a control mechanism
#. Distur"ances$ if their values' are not the result of ad+ustment b* an
operator or a control s*stem
The output variables are also classified into the following categories:
1. Measure output variables, if their values are -nown b* directl*
measuring them
2. %nmeasure output variables, if the* are not or cannot be meas/
ured directl*
Example 2.&
Suppose that the inlet stream in the CST s*stem (Figure 1.$% comes
from an upstream unit over which we have no control. Then C(+' '
i
$ and
T$ are disturbances. If the coolant flow rate is controlled b* a control
valve, then 'e is a manipulated variable, while Tc( is a disturbance. (lso,
if the flow rate of the effluent stream is controlled b* a valve, ' is a
manipulated variable, otherwise, it is an output variable.
0ith respect to the output variables we have the following: T, '$ Teo' .
and V are measured outputs since their values can be -nown easil* using
thermocouples (T, Teo#' a venturi meter )'#$ and a differential pressure
cell (V).
The concentration C ( can be a measured variable if an anal*1er (gas
chromatograph, infrared spectrometer, etc.% is attached to the effluent
stream. &n man* industrial plants such anal*1ers are not available
because the* are e"pensive and2or have low reliabilit* (give poor meas/
urements or brea- down easil*%. Conse3uentl*, in such cases C A is an
unmeasured output variable.
Example VI
For the tan- heater s*stem (Figure 1.1%, the inputs '( and T( are
disturbances, while 'st and ' are manipulated inputs. The output vari/
ables V and T can be measured easil* and the* are considered measured
outputs.
14
Control of a Chemical Process: Characteristics and Associated Problems Part I
External disturbances
Measured (d) Unmeasured (d')
Manipulated &&..&.t
variables'
(m)
Processing system
t&&&~ Measured
..... &~ outputs
(y)
Unmeasured outputs (z )
Figure .! "nput and output variables around a c#emicalprocess$
%ccording to t#eir direct measurability$ t#e disturbances are classi&
'ied into t(o categories) measured and unmeasured disturbances.
Example 2.5
*#e disturbances FI and TI o' t#e stirred.tan+ #eater (Figure !.!) are
easily measured, t#us t#ey are considered measured disturbances. -n ~#e
ot#er #and t#e 'eed composition 'or a distillation column$ an extraction
unit$ reactors$ and t#e li+e$ is not normally measured and conse.uently is
considered an unmeasured disturbance. %s (e (ill see later$ unmeasured
disturbances generate more di''icult control problems.
Figure .! summarizes all t#e classes o' variables t#at (e #ave
around a c#emical process.
2.2 Design Elements of a Control System
/et us loo+ next at t#e basic .uestions t#at (e must as+ and try to
ans(er$ (#ile attempting to design a control system t#at (ill satis'y t#e
control needs 'or a c#emical process.
Define control objectives
*#e central element in any control con'iguration is t#e process t#at
(e (ant to control.*#e 'irst .uestion raised by t#e control designer is)
0uestion !) What are the operational objectives that a control sys-
tem is called upon to achieve?
Cha. 2 1!
1
"
#
I
1
1 $
il
$
%
2 )
&
.f
"'
' ( I
f
*#e ans(er to t#is .uestion determines t#e control objectives. *#ey
may #ave to do (it#)
Design Asects of a Process Control System
Ensuring the stability o the process! or
"uppressing the inluence o external disturbances. or
#ptimi$ing the economic perormance o a plant! or
% combination o the above.
%t t#e beginning t#e control ob3ectives are de'ined .ualitatively, subse&
.uently$ t#ey are .uanti'ied$ usually in terms o' t#e output variables.
Example 2.&
For t#e 45*6 system discussed in Example !.(Figure !.7)$ t#e con&
trol ob3ective (.ualitatively de'ined) is to ensure t#e stability o' t#e
middle$ unstable steady state. 8ut suc# a .ualitative description o' t#e
control ob3ectives is !!9tuse'ul 'or t#e design o' a control system and
must be .uanti'ied. % .uantitative translation o' t#e .ualitative control
ob3ective re.uires t#at t#e temperature (an output variable) not deviate
more t#an :;'rom its nominal value at t#e unstable steady state.
Example 2.'
For t#e stirred tan+ #eater o' Example !.!$ t#e control ob3ectives are to
maintain t#e temperature o' t#e outlet (T) and t#e volume o' t#e 'luid
(V) in t#e tan+ at desired values. For t#is example t#e .uanti'ication o'
t#e control ob3ectives is direct and straig#t'or(ard) t#at is$
( $) T,
() < .r
(#ere T, and V,are given, desired values.
Example 2.*
For t#e batc# reactor o' Example !.=$ t#e .ualitative control ob3ective
is t#e maximization o' t#e pro'it. *#e .uantitative description o' t#is
ob3ective is rat#er complex. It re.uires t#e solution o' a maximization
problem$ (#ic# (ill yield t#e value o' t#e steam 'lo( rate$ +(t)! at eac#
instant during t#e reaction period$
Select meas*rements
>#atever our control ob3ectives are$ (e need some means to moni&
tor t#e per'ormance o' t#e c#emical process.*#is is done by measuring
t#e values o' certain' processing variables (temperatures$ pressures$ con&
centrations$ 'lo( rates$ etc.).*#e second .uestion t#at arises is)
Hi Control of a Chemical Process: Characteristics and As'' 3d Problems Part I
Question 2: What variables should we measure in order to monitor
the operational performance of a plant?
It is self4evident that we would like to monitor directly the variables
that represent our control objectives, and this is what is done whenever
possible. Such measurements are called primary measurements.
Example 2.9
For the tank heater system !"ample #.#$ our control objectives are to
keep the volume and the temperature of the li%uid in the tank at desired
&levels, that is, keep
T=.Ts and
'onse%uently, our first attempt is to install measurin( devices that will
monitor T and V directly. For the present system this is simple. by usin( a
thermocouple for T) and a differential pressure cell for V).
It sometimes happens that our control objectives are not measurable
%uantities) that is, they belon( to the class of unmeasured outputs. &n*
such cases we must measure other variables which can be measured+
easily and reliably. Such supportin( measurements are called secondary'
measurements.
,hen we develop mathematical relationships between the unmeas ..
ured outputs and the secondary measurements) that is,
unmeasured output =fsecondary measurements$
which allows us to determine, the values of the unmeasured outputs
once the values of the secondary measurements are available$. &n a
subse%uent chapter we will see that the mathematical relationship*
between measured and unmeasured outputs results. from empirical,
e"perimental, or theoretical considerations.
Example 2.!
'onsider a simple distillation column separatin( a binary mi"ture of
pentane and he"ane into two product streams of pentane distillate$ and
he"ane bottoms$. -ur control objective is to maintain the production of
a distillate stream with ./ mole 0 pentane in the presence of chan(es in
the feed composition.
It is clear that our first reaction is to use a composition analy1er to
measure the* concentration of pentane in the *distillate and then usin(
feedback control to manipulate the reflu" ratio, so that we can keep the
distillate ./0 in pentane. ,his control scheme is shown in Fi(ure 2.2a.2n
allternative control system is .to use a composition analy1er to monitor the
concentration of pentane in the feed. ,hen in a feedforward arran(ement
we can chan(e the reflu" ratio to achieve our objective. ,his control
'hap. 2 Design cts of a Process Control System
Feed
b$
c$
Fi(ure 2.2 ,hree different systems for the distillate composition control
3fa simple distillation column: a$ feedback) b$ feedforward) c$ inferen4
tial.
18
Control of a Chemical Process: Characteristics and Associated Problems Part I
scheme is shown in Figure 2.2b. Both of the control systems noted above
depend on the composition analyzers. It is possible that such measuring
devices are either very costly or of very low reliability for an industrial
environment (failing quite often or not providing accurate measure-
ments). In such cases we can measure the temperature of the liquid at
various trays along the length ofthe column quite reliably using simple
thermocouples. !hen using the material and energy balances around the
trays of the column and the thermodynamic equilibrium relationships
between liquid and vapor streams we can develop a mathematical rela-
tionship that gives us the composition ofthe distillate if the temperatures
of some selected trays are "nown. Figure 2.2c shows such a control
scheme that uses temperature measurements (secondary measurements)
to estimate or infer the composition of pentane in the distillate (i.e. the
value# of the control ob$ective).
!he third class of measurements that we can ma"e to monitor the
behavior of a chemical process includes direct measurement of the
e%ternal disturbances. &easuring the disturbances before they enter the
process can behighly advantageous because it allows us to "now a
priori what the behavior of the chemical process will be and thus ta"e
remedial control action to alleviate any undesired consequences. Feed-
forward control uses direct measurements of the disturbances (see Fig-
ure '.()'.
setect manipulated variables
)nce the control ob$ectives have been specified and the various
measurements identified the ne%t question relates to how we effect a
change in the process#
*uestion +# What are the manipulated variables to be used to con-
trol a chemical process?
,sually in a process we have a number of available input variables
which can be ad$usted freely. -hich ones we select to use as manipu-
lated variables is a crucial question as .the choice will affect the quality
of the control actions we ta"e.
Example 2.11
!o control the level of liquid in a tan" we can ad$ust either the now
rate of the inlet stream (Figure '.+b) or the flow rate of the outlet stream
(Figure '.+a). -hich is better is an important question that we will ana-
lyze later.
Chap. 2 Design Aspects of a Process Control System
Select the control configuration
.fter the control ob$ectives the possible measurements and the
available manipulated variables have been identified the final problem
to be solved is that of defining the control configuration. Before we
define a control configuration let us loo" at some control systems with
different control configurations.
!he two feedbac" control systems in Figure '.+a and b constitute
two different control configurations. !hus the same information (mea-
surement of liquid level) flows to different manipulated variables /i.e.
F (Figure '.+a) and F, (Figure ,b)0. 1imilarly the feedbac" control
system (Figure '.2) and the feedforward control system (Figure '.() for
the tan" heater constitute two# distinctly different control configura-
tions. For these two control systems we use the same manipulated
variable (i.e. F
st
) but different measurements. !hus for the feedbac"
system of Figure '.2 we use the temperature of the liquid in the tan"
whereas for the feedforward system of Figure '.( we measure the tem-
perature of the inlet.
In the e%amples above we notice that two control configurations
differ either in#
'. !he information (measurement) flowing to the same manipulated
variable or
2. !he manipulated variable to which the same information flows.
!hus for the two feedbac" control systems in Figure '.+a and b we
usethe same information (measurement of the liquid level) but differ-
ent manipulated variables (F or Fi)' )n the contrary for the control
systems in Figures '.2 and '.( -ehave different measurements (T or
T
i
) which are used to ad$ust the 2value of the same manipulated variable2
(F
st
).
3ater we will study other types of control configurations but for the
time being we can define a control configuration (or control structure)
as follows#
. control configuration is the information structure that is used to
connect the available measurements to the available manipulated
variables.
It is clear from the previous e%amples that normally we will have
many different control configurations for a given chemical process
which raises the following question#
*uestion (# What is the best control configuration for a given
chemical process control situation?
'4
!
:l
5 5
#'
II
#6 6 .6 6 .'
7 8 l
f
I..
1
20 Control of C I Chemical Process: Characteristics and Ast .ed Problems Part I
The answer to this question is very critical for the quality of the control
system we are asked to design.
Depending on how many controlled outputs and manipulated
inputs we have in a chemical process, we can distinguish the control
configurations as either single-input, single-output (SI SO or multiple":
input, multiple-output (!I !O control systems.
"or e#ample, for the tank heater system$
(a If the control o%&ective (controlled output is to keep the liquid
level at a desired value %y manipulating the effluent flow rate, we
have a SI SO system.
(% On the contrary, ifour control o%&ectives are (more than one to
keep the level and the temperature of the liquid at desired values,
%y manipulating (more than one the steam flow rate and the
effluent flow rate, we have a !I !O system.
I n the che'ical industry most of the processing systems are multi)
ple)input, multiple)output systems. Since the design of SI SO systems is
simpler, we will start first with them and progressively coverthe design
of !I !O systems.
*et us close this section %y defining three general types of control
configurations.
1. Feedback control configuration: uses direct measurements of
the controlled varia%les to ad&ust the values of the manipulated
varia%les ("igure +.,. The o%&ective isto keep the controlled vari)
Distur%ances
!anipulated -,..;&.-.----~
varia%les
1--_................. !easured outputs
(controlled varia%les
-rocess
I I
I I
I I
I ,
I I
I I
I I I
I I I
I I L
I L_
L__
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
J I
_.J
---'
.nmeasured outputs
) ) ) ) ) Set points
"igure +., /eneral structure of feed%ack control configurations.
Chap. Desi0
pects of a Process Control !"stem
Distur%ances
!anipulated )12).))''
varia%les
-rocess
t))))3'.*..' !easured
outputs
.nmeasured
outputs
(controlled
varia%les
unmeasured
controlled
varia%les
"igure +.3 /eneral structure of inferential control configurations.
a%les at desired levels (set points. 4#amples of feed%ack control
are shown in "igures 5.+and 5.,.
+'Inferential control configuration: uses secondary measurements
(%ecause the controlled varia%les cannot %e measured to ad&ust
t6e values. of the manipulated varia%les ("igure +.3. The o%&ec)
tive here I S to keep the (unmeasured controlled varia%les at
desired levels.
The estimator uses the values of the availa%le measured out)
puts0 together with the material and energy %alances that govern
the process, to compute mathematically (estimate the values of
the unmeasured controlled varia%les. These estimates, in turn, are
use' %y the controller to ad&ust the values of the manipulated
vana%les. 7n e#ample of inferential control configuration is
shown in "igure +.+c. .
3. Feedforward control configuration: uses direct measurement of
the distur%ances to ad&ust the values of the manipulated varia%les
("igure +.8. The o%&ective here is to keep the values of the con)
trolled output varia%les at desired levels. 7n e#ample of feedfor)
ward control configuration is shown in "igure 5.3. . .
Disturbances
Manipulated _ _,__ .... ~
variables,
Process
t&&........ Measured
outputs
Unmeasured
outputs
Figure 2.5 General structure o eedor!ard control conigurations.
Desi'gn the controller
"n ever# control coniguration, t$e controller is t$e active element
t$at receives t$e inormation rom t$e measurements and ta%es appro&
priate control actions to ad'ust t$e values o t$e manipulated variables.
For t$e design o t$e controller !e must ans!er t$e ollo!ing (uestion)
*uestion 5) How is the in/ormation, taken/rom the measurements,
used to adjust the values of the manipulated variables?
+$e ans!er to t$is (uestion constitutes t$e control. law, !$ic$ is
implemented automaticall# b# t$e controller.
Example 2.11
,et us consider t$e problem o controlling t$e temperature T o a
li(uid in a tan% -Figure .../ !$en t$e inlet temperature T[ c$anges.
0ssume t$at t$e inlet and outlet lo! rates are e(ual. 1ur measurement
!ill be t$e li(uid temperature and t$e manipulated variable t$e rate o
$eat input, Q, provided b# steam. +$e (uestion is) 2o! s$ould Q c$ange.
in order to %eep temperature T constant, !$en T c$anges3 "n ot$er
!ords, !e !ant to dlevelop t$e control la!.
0ssume t$at t$e $eater $as been operating or some time and t$at t$e
li(uid temperature $as been %ept constant at T
!
, !$ile t$e volume o t$e
li(uid $as remained constant at a value V. 4e sa# t$at t$e $eater bas
been operating at stead" state -!$ere not$ing c$anges/. Under t$ese
conditions t$e energ# balance around t$e tan% #ields
#$ %pcp&T's ( Ts) + *s &2.1)
!$ere F, p, and c
p
are t$e inlet -or outlet/. lo! rate, densit# o t$e li(uid,
Chap. 2
Design Aspects of a Process Control System
T[
t 5 6 +ime
.Figure 2.7 +emperature step c$ange.
and t$e li(uid8s $eat capacit#, respectivel#. Ts, T,s, and *s are t$e
corresp.ond9ng stead#&state values. :uppose t$at suddenl# T increases as
s$o!n III F"gure 2.7. If not$ing is done on Q, t$e temperature T !ill start
rising !it$ time. 2o! T c$anges !it$ time !ill be given b# t$e transient
energ# balance around t$e tan%) t$at is,
dT
Vpc, dt = = %pcp&T ( T) + Q (2.2)
:ubtract e(. -2../ rom -2.2/ and ta%e
Vpc; d&Td+ Ts). %pcp,&Ti ( T
i
.
s
) ( &T ( Ts)- + &* ( *s) (2.3)
;ote t$at d&T ( Ts)/dt = dT/dt, since T, = constant.
+$e dierence E 5 T ( T, denotes t$e error or deviation o li(uid8s
temperature rom t$e desired value Ts. 4e !ant to drive t$is error to <ero
b# manipulating appropriatel# t$e value o $eat input Q. +$e simplest
control la! is to re(uire t$at Q c$anges proportionall# to t$e error
T( Ts.
+$is la! is %no!n as proportional control and parameter a is called
proportional /ain. :ubstitute e(, -2.=/ into -2.>/ and ta%e
0
d&T(Ts)
pc, dt %pcp,&Ti ( Ti.s) ( &T ( Ts)- ( a&T ( Ts) (2.5)
?(uation -2.5/ is solved or (T - T
s
), and or various values o gain a
#ields t$e solutions s$o!n in Figure 2.@. 4e notice t$at none o t$e
solutions is satisactor# since T - T, :: 1. +$us !e conclude t$at t$e
proportional control la! is 8not acceptable.
Aonsiderable improvement in t$e (ualit# o t$e resulting control can
be obtained i !e use a dierent control la! %no!n as inte/ral control. "n
t$is case Q is proportional to t$e time integral o (T - Ts).
* = ! a1 &T ( Ts)dt + *s (2.6)
:ubstitute again *rom e(. -2.7/ into -2.>/ and ta%e
23
-2.=/
II
Ii
" Ii
I:
#
.
).
'
Ii
it
r
t .
~4 : : f Problems Part I Control of a Chemical Process: Characteristics and Assc
Error
(T- T,)
No control
o Time
Figure 2.7 Temperature response under proportional f eedback control.
VPC
p
d(T - Ts~=Fpcp[(T; _ T1,s) - (T - Ts)] - a' f' (T - Ts) dt (2.7)
m J o
The solution ofeq, (2.7) f or various values of the parameter a' is shown
in Figure 2.. !e notice that integral control is acceptable since it drives
the error T- T,to "ero. !e also notice that depending on the value of a',
the error T - T, returns to "ero f aster or slower# oscillates f or longer or $
shorter time% and so on. &n other words% the 'ualit( of control depends on
the value of a'. [Note: &n )hapter we will learn how to solve integral*
dif f erential e'uations such as (2.7).+
)ombining the proportional with the integral action we take a. new
control law known as proportional-integral control. ,ccording to this law
the value of heat input - is given b(
(2.8)
&n .art &/ ()hapters 01 through 0) we will stud( the characteristics
of various control laws% but it should be remembered that the selection
of the appropriate control law is an important 'uestion to be answered
b( the chemical engineer control designer.
Error
(T- T
J
)
No control
(a' 2 )
Time
Figure 2. Temperature response under integral f eedback control.
Cha!, 2 "esi#r
sets of a Process Control $%stem
2.& Control As!ects of a Com!lete
Chemical Plant
The e3amples that we discussed in previous sections were concerned
with the control of single units such as )4T5% a tank heater% and a batch
reactor ..It should be emphasi"ed as earl( as possible that rarel( if ever is
a che.m0cal proces.s composed of one unit onl(. 6n the contrar(% a
chemical process 04composed of a large number of units (reactors%
separators% heat e3changers% tanks% pumps% compressors% etc.) which are
interconnected with each other through the f low of materials and
energ(. For such a process the problem of designing a control s(stem is
not simple but re'uires e3perience and good chemical engineering back*
ground.
!7thout dwelling too much on the control problems of integrated
chemical processes% let us see some of their characteristic f eatures which
do not show up.in the control of single units.
Example 2.13
)onsider a simple chemical plant composed of two units: a )4T5 and
a distillation column (Figure 2.8). The raw materials entering the reactor
4team
~
9istillation
column
Figure 2.8 The simple chemical plant of E3ample 2.01.
are A and B with flow rates FA. and F D. and temperatures TA and TD,
respectively. They react to yield C:
A+B222+C
The reaction is endothermic and the heat is supplied y steam which
flows throu!h the "ac#et of the reactor. The mi$ture of C and unreacted A
and B enters the distillation column, where A + B is separated from the
top as the overhead product and C is ta#en as the ottom product.
The operational o"ectives for this simple plant are:
%. &roduct specifications:
'a( )eep the. flow rate of the desired product stream F at the
specified level.
'( )eep the re*uired purity ofC in the product stream.
2. +perational constraints:
'a( Do not overflow the C,T-.
'( Do not flood the distillation column or let it !o dry.
.. /conomic considerations:
0a$imi1e the profit from the operation of this plant. ,ince the flow
rate and the composition of the product stream are specified, ma$2
imi1in! the profit is e*uivalent to minimi1in! the operatin! costs.
It should e noted that the operatin! cost involves the cost for
purchasin! the raw materials, the cost of steam used in the C,T-
and the reoiler of the distillation column, and the cost of the
coolin! water used in the condenser.
The disturances that will affect the fore!oin! operational o"ectives
are:
'a( The flow rates, compositions, and temperatures of the streams of
the two raw materials.
'( The pressure in the distillation column.
'c( The temperature of the coolant used in the condenser ofthe distil2
lation column: '3or e$ample, if the coolant is water, it will have a
different temperature durin! the day than durin! the ni!ht.(
At first !lance the prolem of desi!nin! a control system even for this
simple plant loo#s very comple$. 4ndeed it is. The asically new feature
for the control desi!n of such a system is the interaction etween the units
'reactor, column(. The output of the reactor affects the operation of the
column in a profound way and the overhead product of the column
influences the conversion in the C,T-. This ti!ht interaction etween the
two units seriously complicates the desi!n ofthe control system for the
overalll process.
,uppose that we want to control the composition of the ottoms
product y manipulatin! the steam in the reoiler. This control action
will affect the composition of the overhead product 'A + B(, which in tum
will affect the reaction conversion in the C,T-.
+n the other hand, to #eep the conversion in the C,T- constant at
Chap. 2 25 Design Aspects of a Process Control System
the desired level, we try to #eep the ratio FA4 FD =constant and the
temperature T in the C,T- constant. Any chan!es in FA4 FD or T will
affect the conversion in the reactor and thus the composition of the feed
in the distillation column. A chan!e in the feed composition of the col2
umn will affect the purity of the two product streams.
The control of inte!rated processes is the asic o"ective for a chem2
ical en!ineer. Due to its comple$ity, thou!h, we will start y analy1in!
the control prolems for sin!le units and eventually we will treat the
inte!rated processes.
Hardware for a Process 3
Control System
In Chapter 2 we examined the various considerations that must be
taken into account during the design ofa control system and the associ)
ated problems that must be resolved. In this chapter we discuss the
physical elements (hardware) constituting a control system as it is
implemented in practice for the control of real physical processes.
3.1 Hardware Elements of a Control
System
In every control configuration we can distinguish the following hard)
ware elements
1. The chemical process: It represents the material e!uipment
together with the physical or chemical operations that occur there.
2. The measuring instruments or sensors: "uch instruments are
used to measure the disturbances# the controlled output variables# or
secondary output variables# and are the mainsources of information
about what is going on in the process. Characteristic examples are
Thermocouples or resistance thermometers. for measuring the tem-
perature
Venturi meters, for measuring the.flow rate
as chromatographs, for measuring the composition of a stream
28
Chap. 3 Hardw >r a Process Control System
$ mercury thermometer is not a good measuring device to be used
for control since its measurement cannot be readily transmitted. %n the
other hand# a thermocouple is acceptable because it develops an electric
voltage which can be readily transmitted& 'hus transmission is a very
crucial factor in selecting the measuring devices&
"ince good measurements are very crucial for good control# the
measuring devices should be rugged and reliable for an industrial envi)
ronment.
3. Transducers:! (any measurements cannot be used for control
)until they are converted to physical !uantities (such as electric voltage
or current# or a pneumatic signal# i.e.# compressed air or li!uid) which
can be transmitted easily. 'ransducers are used for. that purpose. *or
example# strain gauges are metallic conductors whose electric resistance
changes when they are sub+ected to mechanical strain. 'hus they can be
.used to convert a pressure signal to an electric one.
". Transmission lines: 'hese are used to carry the measurement
signal from the measuring device to the controller. In the past# trans)
mission lines were pneumatic (compressed air or compressed li!uids)
but with the advent of electronic analog controllers and especially the
expanding use of digital computers for control# transmission lines carry
electric signals. (any times the measurement signal coming from a
measuring device is very weak and cannot be transmitted over a long
distance. In such cases the transmission lines are e!uipped with
amplifiers which raise the level of the signal. *or example# the output of
a thermocouple is of the order of a few millivolts. ,efore it is transmit)
ted to the controller# it is amplified to the level of a few volts.
#. The controller: 'his is the hardware- element that has .intelli)
gence.. It receives the information from the measuring devices and
decides what action should be taken. 'he older controllers were of
limited intelligence# could perform very simple operations# and could
implement simple control laws. 'oday# with increasing use of digital
computers as controllers# the available machine intelligence has
expanded tremendously and very complicated control laws can be
implemented.
$. The final control element: 'his is the hardware element that
implements in real lire the decision taken by the controller. *or exam)
ple# if the controller .decides. that the flow rate of the outlet stream
should be increased (or decreased) in order to keep the li!uid level in a
tank at the desired value (see /xample 0I# *igure l.3a)# it is the valve
(on the effluent stream) that will implement this decision# opening (or
dosing) by the commanded amount.
'he control valve is the most fre!uently encountered final control
dement but not the only one. %ther typical final control elements for a
chemical process are
Desired T,
I
I ,--
I I
I I
Iq O l1 ~
I
I
I
L__
Transmission lines
t
Transmission lines
Fiigre !"1 Hardware elements for the feedback control of a stirred tank
heater.
Relay switches, providing on-off control
Variable-speed pumps
Variable-speed compressors
7. Recording elements: These are used to provide a visual demon(
stration of how a chemical process behaves. Usually, the variables
recordedl are the variables that are directly measured as part of the
control system. Various types of recorders temperature, pressure, flow
rate, composition, etc.! can be seen in the control room of a chemical
plant, continuously monitorin" the behavior of the process. The recent
introduction of di"ital computers in the process control has also
e#panded the recordin" opportunities, throu"h video display units
VDUs!.
$i"ure.%l describes the hardware elements used for the control of
the stirred tank heater.
!"# $se of %igitallCom&ters in Process
Control
The rapid technolo"ical development of di"ital computers durin" the
last &0years, coupled with si"nificantreduction of their cost, has had a
very profound effect on how the chemical plants are controlled. The
e#pected future improvements, to"ether with the "rowin" sophistica(
tion of control desi"n techni'ues, make the di"ital computer the center(
Cha&" ! 'ard(are for a Process Control )*stem !1
piece for the development of a control system for chemical processes.
)lready, lar"e chemical plants such as petroleum refineries, ethylene
plants, ammonia plants, and many others are under. di"ital computer
control. The effects have been very substantial, leadin" to better control
and reduced operatin" costs.
*n the past the control laws that could be implemented by a control(
ler were very simple, such as the proportional or proportional(inte"ral
control. we discussed in +#ample ,.&,. The fundamental revolution
introduced by the di"ital computer in the practice of process control is
the virtually unlimited intelli"ence that can be e#hibited by such units.
This phenomenon implies that the -control laws that can be used are
much more comple# and sophisticated. $urthermore, the di"ital com(
puter, with its easily pro"rammed inherent intelli"ence, .can learn. as
it receives measurements from the process, and it can chan"e the con(
trol law that is implementin" durin" the actual operation of the plant.
The di"ital computers have. fond very diversified control applica(
tions in the process industry. *n /art V** 0hapters ,1 throu"h 3&! we
will study both the theoretical and practical aspects associated with the
use of di"ital computers for process control. *n the followin" para(
"raphs, for the time bein"2 we will discuss some applications character(
istic of the diverse usa"e of di"ital computers.
1. Direct digital control (DD!: *n such applications the computer
receives directly the measurements from the process and, based on the
control law, which is already pro"rammed and resides in itsmemory,
calculates the values of the manipulated variables. These decisions are
now implemented directly on the process by the computer throu"h the
proper ad3ustment of the final control elements valves, pumps,
compressors, switches, etc.!. This4 direct implementation of the control
decisions "ave rise to the name direct digital control, or simply D50.
$i"ure 3., illustrates a typical D50 confi"uration. The process can be
any of the units we have already considered, such as heaters, reactors,
or separators. The two interfaces before and after the computer are
hardware elements and they are used to provide compatibility in the
communication between computer and process. *n a later chapter we
will discuss the nature of these interfaces. $inally, the human operator
can interact with the computer and affect the operation of the DD0s.
Today the chemical industry is movin" more and more toward the
D50 of the plants. ) typical system of DD0s for an ethylene plant can
include between 300 and 600 control loops, )ll the companies that
furnish the control systems for the chemical industry rely more and
more on DDe.
",. #upervisory computer control: )s we discussed earlier, one of
the incentives for process control is the optimi7ation of the plant8s
32
Control of a Chemical Process: Characteristics and As, .ted Problems
Disturbances
~---l'\... { Manipulated
~---v' variables
Process-to-
computer
interface
Measured}
outputs
Unmeasured
outputs
Operator's
console
Computer-to-
process
interrace
Diital
computer
!iure ".# $%pical DDC confiuration.
economic performance. Man% times t&e' &uman operator does not or
cannot find t&e best operatin polic% for a plant '&ic& 'ill minimi(e
t&e operatin cost. $&is deficienc% is due to t&e enormous comple)it% of
a t%pical c&emical plant. *n suc& cases. 'e can use t&e speed and t&e
prorammed intellience of a diital computer to anal%(e t&e situation
Computer for
supervisor%
control
DDC
for
Unit+
DDC
for
Unit #
DDC
for
Unit *
!iure "." ,tructure of supervisor% computer control.
Part I Chap. 3 Hardw. .)f a Process Control System
and suest t&e best polic%.. *n doin so t&e computer coordinates t&e
activities of t&e basic DOC loops -see !iure "."..
3. Scheduling computer control: '!inall%/ t&e computer can be used
to sc&edule t&e operation of.a plant. !or e)ample/ t&e conditions in t&e
mar0et -demand/ suppl%/ prices. c&ane 'it& time/ re1uirin t&e man-
aement of t&e c&emical plant to c&ane its operational sc&edule b%
cuttin production to avoid overstoc0in/ increasin production to
meet t&e demand/ c&anin2 over to a ne' production line/ and so on.
$&ese decisions can be made rationall% 'it& t&e aid of a diital
computer/ '&ic& in turn 'ill communicate t&ese decisions to t&e super-
visor% computer controllers. !inall%/ t&e supervisor% controllers 'ill
implement t&ese decisions on t&e c&emical plant t&rou& t&e ODCs.
*n subse1uent c&apters 'e 'ill deal predominantl% 'it& t&e DDC
and a little 'it& supervisor%computer control/ but 'e 'ill not concern
ourselves 'it& t&e sc&edulin computer control/ .'&ic& is t&e sub3ect
matter of a different field.
CONC!"IN# $%&A$'S ON PA$( I
*t is &oped t&at t&e reader *llO4 &as a s0etc&% outline of5
6. $&e needs and t&e incentives for process control
#. $&e basic 1uestions involved durin t&e desin of a control s%stem for a
c&emical. process
". $&e &ard'are elements involved in a control s%stem
7. $&e importance of t&e diital computers for t&e. present and future imple-
mentation of advanced control tec&ni1ues
*n t&e remainin c&apters 'e 'ill start a s%stematic anal%sis of t&e various
. 1uestions raised in t&is c&apter/ 'it& our final oal t&at of bein able to desin a
rational control s%stem for a iven process. $&us t&e subse1uent c&apters 'ill
be less c&att% and more riorous.
(HIN#S (O (HIN' A)O!( *O+A PA$( I
6. 4&at is t&e control ob3ective '&ile %ou are ridin a unic%cle or a bic%cle8
4&at are t&e measurements t&at %ou instinctivel% ma0e '&ile ridin/ and
'&at are t&e manipulated variables at %our disposal8
#. -4&ile %ou are ta0in a mornin s&o'er/ '&at are %our control ob3ective/
%our measurement/ and t&e manipulated variables at %our disposal8
". Compare simple feedbac0 to simple feedfor'ard control confiuration
-!iure 9*.l.. 4&ic& one ~ould %ou trust to perform better 'in ac&ievin
%our control ob3ective8 4&%8
7. 4&at factors s&ould %ou consider in determinin '&at variables to mea-
sure for t&e control of a c&emical process8 :ns'er 1ualitativel%.
34
Control of a Chemical Process: Characteristics and Associated Problems
Part I
Disturbance Disturbance
Control
objective
Manipulated
input
Feedback Feedforward
FigureQI.l
5. Wen is an inferential control configuration needed! Wat do "ou tink is
its pri#ar" weakness! Co#pare it to a si#ple feedback control configura8
tion. Wic one is preferable!
%. Describe te steps tat "ou would go troug.in designing a control s"ste#
for #aintaining te p& of te li'uid in a stirred tank (see Figure QI.)* at a
desired value! Wat 'uestions #ust "ou resolve! Develop bot feedback
and feedforward control configurations for tis s"ste#.
+cidic
solution ,a-& solution
.olution wit
desired p&
Figure QI.)
/. Wat is a .0.1 s"ste# and wat is a MIM- s"ste#! 2ive e3a#ples fro#
te ce#ical engineering field for bot.
4. Define te ter# 5control configuration5 and develop tree different con8
trol configurations for te p& control proble# presented in ite# %.
6. In te stirred tank eater s"ste# sown in Figure 0.07 te flow rate F ofte
effluent strea# is proportionalto te s'uare root of te li'uid level h in te
tank. .ow tat suc a s"ste# is self8regulating (i.e.7 if te inlet flow rate
increases or decreases9 b" a unit7 te9 tank will not overflow or e#pt"
co#pletel"*.
01. Wat is a differential pressure cell7 and ow does it #easure te li'uid level
in a tank!
:art l Control of a Chemical Process: Characteristics and Associated Problems 35
00. Is a venturi #eter a good #easuring device for #onitoring and trans#it8
ting te flow rate value of a strea#!
0). Deter#ine te ardware ele#ents re'uired forte feedback control config8
uration of te p& in te stirred tank described in ite# %.
03. If "ou were to use a digital co#puter as "our controller in te control
configurations of ite# 47 wat new ardware ele#ents would "ou need!
04. Wat are te basic and #ost i#portant advantages offered b" digital co#8
puters in process control! Discuss te si;e7 capabilities7 and prices of te
#ost recent digital #icroprocessors available in te #arket. Do "ou reali;e
te ine3pensive potential tat te" offer for process control!
REFERENCES FOR PART I
Capter 0. ,u#erous e3a#ples of te needs and incentives for process con8
trol can be found in te following books<
1. Techniques of Process Control, b" :. .. =uckle"7 >on Wile" ? .ons7 Inc.7
,ew@ork (06%4*. 9
2. Process Control Systems, )nd ed.7 b" A 2. .inske"7 Mc2raw8&ill =ook
Co#pan"7 ,ew@ork (06/6* ..
More on te stabilit" caracteristics of C.BCs wit e3oter#ic reactions
can be found in< . .
3. Elementary Chemical Reactor Analysis, b" R. +ris7 :rentice8&all7 Inc.7
Anglewood Cliffs7 ,.>. (06%6*.
Capter ). + good discussion of te proble#s encountered during te design
of a control s"ste# can be found in te following papers<
4. 5Criti'ue of Ce#ical :rocess Control Beor"75 b" +. .. Foss7 AIChE J.,
067 )16 (06/3*.
5. 5+dvanced Control :ractice in te Ce#ical :rocess Industr"< + Diew
fro# Industr"75 b" W. Eee and V. W.Week#an7 >r.7 AIChE J., ))7)/ (06/%*.
%. 5Design Concepts for :rocess Control75 b" +. Festenbau#7 C. .innar7 and
A A. Bau7 Ind. En. Chem., Proc. !es. !e"., 057 ) (06/%*.
Be reader is encouraged to return< to tese articles later after e or se as
beco#e fa#iliar wit te ter#inolog" included in te references listed above.
Capter 3. Details on te caracteristics and te design of te #easuring
devices7 transducers7 trans#itters7G controllers7 final control ele#ents7 and
recorders can be found in<
3(3 Control of a Chemical Process: Characteristics and ASf 'ed Problems Part I
7. The Chemical Engineer's Handbook, J. H. Perry (ed.), 5tbed.
l
, McGraw*
Hill Book Compay, !ew"ork (#$%&).
8" Process Intruments and Controls Handbook; 'd ed., (. M. Co)idie
(ed.), McGraw*Hill BookCompay, !ew"ork (#$%&).
A e+cellet referece for t,e comp-ter cotrol of t,e c,emical proce))e) i)
t,e.book.
9. igital Com!uter Process Control, 'py C. /.. Smit,, /te+t 0d-catioal
P-bli),er), Scrato, Pa. (#$%').
Applicatio) of comp-ter*cotrol ca be fo-d i t,e followi1 article).
#2. 3(i1ital Cotrol of a (i)tillatio Sy)tem,3 by 0. !. Ca)tellao, C. A.
McCai, ad 0 45!oble)3 Chern. Eng. Prog., %&(&), 56 (#$%7).
##. 30er1y Co)er8atio 8ia Proce)) Comp-ter Cotrol,3 by P. 9. :ato-r,
Chern. Eng. Prog., %'(&),%6 (#$%6).
#'. 3Comp-ter Cotrol of Ammoia Plat),3 by :.,C. (ai1re H/ ad G. 9.
!iema, .Chern..Eng. Prog., 7"#$%, 52 (#$%&)..
#;. 3Applyi1 Cotrol Comp-ter) to a /te1rated Plat,3 by A.,0. !i)efeld,
Chem. Eng. Prog.& 6$($), &5 (#$%;).
PROBLEMS FOR PART"! .
#.# Co)ider t,e ,eat e+c,a1er ),ow i <i1-re Pl.l. /detify.
(a) =,e cotrol ob>ecti8e) for t,i) )y)tem.
(b) All t,e e+teral di)t-rbace) t,at will affect t,e operatio of t,e
e+c,a1er.
(c) All t,e a8ailable maip-lated 8ariable) for? t,e cotrol of t,e
e+c,a1er i t,e pre)ece of di)t-rbace).
T.' = . '52
0
<5Steam
()at-rated)
. ---_-~I ,
4ater
*@ --
=l A 72B< C* .... -----------rt -. -=l A #$2B<
~! I
Code)ate
()at-rated) T( A '52B<
<t1-re P/.t
#.' <or t,e )ame ,eat e+c,a1er ),ow i <i1-re P/.l, co)ider t,at t,e
temperat-re T$ = #$2B< i) o-r ba)ic cotrol ob>ecti8e (i.e., maitai
Part I Control of
)mical Process: Characteristics and "ssociated Problems
t,i) temperat-re i t,e pre)ece of di)t-rbace)). Co)tr-ct two differ*
et feedback ad two differet feedforward cotrol cofi1-ratio) t,at
will )ati)fy t,e cotrol ob>ecti8e i t,e pre)ece of di)t-rbace).
#.; A )team t-rbie dri8e) a compre))or (<i1-re P#.') w,o)e load ca
c,a1e wit, time. Small 8ariatio) i t,e ),aft )peed of t,e t-rbie are
cotrolled t,ro-1, t,e -)e of a flyball )peed 1o8eror. <or t,i) )y)tem.
(a) /detify all t,e e+teral di)t-rbace).
(b) /detify all t,e a8ailable maip-lated 8ariable).
Al)o determie t,e ba)ic cotrol ob>ecti8e ad )-11e)t a feedback co*
trol )y)tem t,at ca be -)ed to )ati)fy t,e cotrol ob>ecti8e.
Speed
=-rbie
Steam
<i1-re P/.'
#.& / <i1-re P/.; t,e ,di)tillatio cofi1-ratio for t,e )eparatio of be*
Dee from t-l-ee i) 1i8e. =,e feed to t,e di)tillatio come) from t,e
reactor, w,ere tol-ee ,a) bee ,ydrodealkylated to prod-ce beDee.
tol-ee # H' ---# beDee # CH
&
after t,e e+ce)) H'ad t,e prod-ced CH
&
,a8e bee remo8ed i a fla),
-it. <or t,e di)tillatio )y)tem.
# =ol-ee
beDee
<i1-re P/.;
(a) Identify all the control objectives (make sure that you have
included all the operational objectives).
(b) Identify all external disturbances. .
(c) All the availlable measurements and manipulated variables.
1.5 or the distillation system of i!ure "1.3#
(a) $u!!est a feedfor%ard controller that %ill control the operation of
the column in the presence of chan!es in the feed flo% rate.
(b) $u!!est a feedback control confi!uration to account for chan!es in
the feed flo% rate.
(c) If the control objective is to keep the purity of the overhead product
(ben&ene) constant and the use of concentration measurin! devices
(!as chromato!raphs' infrared analy&ers' etc.) is not recommended
due to their lo% reliability' su!!est an inferential control confi!ura.
tion. )hat secondary measurements %ould. you use* +o% %ould
you use them' in principle' to estimate the unmeasured composition
of the overhead product*
1., -onsider the air.heatin! system used to re!ulate the temperature in a
house (i!ure "I./). 0he heat is supplied from1 the combustion of fuel
oil.
(a) Identify the control objectives' the available measurements' and
manipulated variables. )hat are the external disturbances for such
a system* Is this a $I$2 system*
(b) 3evelop a feedback control confi!uration to achieve your control
objectives.
(e) Is a feedfor%ard control confi!uration possible for achievin! your
control objectives*
0hermostat
+eat losses
4......44..... throu!h
the %all
i!ure "I./ 5
1.6 i!ure '"I. 5 sho%s a system of t%o tanks %hich are used for the tempo.
rary (tank 1) and lon!er.term (tank 7) stora!e of a li8uid chemical
product. 0he. demand is satisfied1 from the temporary stora!e tank'
%hile tank 7 is used to accumulate the li8uid product in excess of the
. demand.
Part I Control of a Chemical Process: Characteristics and Associated Problems 39
(a) Identify the external disturbances' control objectives' measure.
ments' and manipulated variables available to you. Is this a $I$2 or
a 9I92 system*
(b) 3evelop alternative feedback and:or feedfor%ard control confi!ura.
tions to achieve your control objectives.
(c) Is there any situation that may arise durin! %hich you cannot avoid
overflo%in! of the1 stora!e tanks*
0ank I 0ank 7
i!ure "1i.$
;1 -onsider a system of1 t%o continuous stirred1 tank reactors in series
(i!ure "I.,)' %here the follo%in! endothermic reaction takes place#
A + catalyst .. <
(a) Identify the control objectives for the operation of the t%o -$0=s.
(b) -lassify the variables of the system into inputs and outputs and
subse8uently classify the inputs into disturbances and manipulated
variables and the outputs into measured and unmeasured outputs.
Is this a $I$2 or a 9I92 system*
i!ure "I.,
d Problems Part I
'0
Control of a Chemical Process: Characteristics and Assc
(c) Develop a. feedback control configuration that satisfies your objec$
tives using a composition analyzer at the exit stream of the second
CS!.
(d) Develop an inferential control configuration that uses temperatures
and flo" rates only# assuming that a composition analyzer is not
available.
(e) Develop a feedfor"ard control configuration that can also use com$
position analyzers if they are needed.
(f) %n your opinion# "hich system is easier to control# the t"o$CS!
system sho"n in &igure '%.( or an e)uivalent one$CS! system
that achieves the same conversion* +xplain )ualitatively "hy.
Consider a tubular catalytic reactor "here an endothermic reaction
, ...- takes place (&igure '%. .a). he reacting mixture is heated "ith
steam flo"ing in a jacket around/ the tubular reactor. he stream of the
ra" material , includes a chemical C "hich poisons the catalyst over a
period of five days. ,s .the catalyst decays# the conversion of , to -
decreases. 0e can make up for this decrease by increasing the tempera$
ture of the reacting mixture# "hich can be achieved by increasing the
supply of heat to the reactor through higher pressure steam. 1et us
assume that the reactor is isothermal along its length. &igure '%...b
%.2.
emperature
A+C
It
Steam
(a)
3pper bound
----------------r i
I
I
I
I
t$4$$$2$$$556.6$ !eaction pefiod2
I
I
I
o
ime
(b)
&igure 'l..
Part I 4 Control of a nical Process: Characteristics and Associated Problems
sho"s the temperature in the reactor .during the reaction period that
maximizes the profit from the operation of the tubular reactor.
(a) &ormulate the optimization problem. that yields the temperature
profile of &igure '%. .b as its solution.
(b) Develop a feedback control system that "ill regulate the tempera$
ture of the reactor to that sho"n in &igure '%..b.0hat is the control
objective here*
(c) Dra" '3 control system that uses a digital computer for the imple$
mentation of the feedback system in part (b). %nclude measuring
devices# transmission %ines# final control /elements# and "hatever
else is necessary.
7.78 "o li)uid streams "ith flo" rates F'I and F2and temperatures TI and
T2 flo" through t"o separate pipes "hich converge at a mixing junction
(&igure '%.S). 0e "ant to maintain constant 9the flo" rate Fl and the
temperature T7 of the li)uid stream resulting from the mixing of the
first t"o streams. 9
(a) %dentify the control $objectives# disturbances# available measure$
ments# and manipulated variables. %s thisa S%S: or a ;%;: sys$
/tem*
(b) Develop a control system that uses only feedback controllers.
< (c) Develop a control system that uses only9 feedfor"ard controllers.
(d) Develop t"o differentcontrol systems that use both feedback and
feedfor"ard controllers.
;ixing
junction
&igure'%#=
Modeling
the Dynamic
and Static Behavior
of Chemical Processes
I I
What goes on in the modellers head is not purely formalizable, either in
abstract terms ... or in taxonomic vies.... !t has structure, it has techni"ue
that can be taught and learned, but inv#$ves also a personal touch, not only
in trivialities but in deeper considerations a$s%ill and suitability ....
R. &ris and M. Penn'
In order to analyze the behavior of a chemical process and to
answer some of the questions raised in previous chapters about its
control, we need a mathematical representation of the physical and
chemical phenomena taking place in it. Such a mathematical repre-
sentation constitutes the model of the system, while the activities
leading to the construction of the model will be referred to as model-
ing"
Modeling a chemical process is a very synthetic activity, requiring
the use of all the basic principles of chemical engineering science,
such as thermodynamics, kinetics, transport phenomena, etc. For the
design of controllers for chemical processes, modeling is a very criti-
cal step. It shouldbe approached with care and thoughtfulness.
he purpose otthe followlnq.two chapters is!
"#.o e$plain why we need to develop a mathematical description
%model& of a chemical process as a prerequisite.to the design of
its controller
*"The Mere Notion of aMathematical Model," !nt. J. Math. Modeling, J, 1(1980).
44
Modeling the Dynamic and Static Behavior of ChE:. .al Processes
Part II
2. To describe a methodology for the modeling of a chemical prc!
ess "Sing the balance e#"ations and provide e$amples of Its
implementation .... . ..
%. To determine the scope and the diffic"lties of the mathematIcal
modeling for process control p"rposes
I t . sho"ld be noted that the s"bse#"ent chapters do not costitll&te'
complete treatment of all the aspects on mathematical modeling( b"t It
Islimited to those of interest for process control.
Development
of a Mathematical Model
)
Consider a general processing syst em wit h it s associat ed variables as
shown in Figure 2. 1. To invest igat e how t he behavior of a chemical
process (i. e. , it s out put s) changes wit h t ime under t he influence of
changes in t he et ernal dist urbances and manipulat ed variables and
conse!uent ly design an appropriat e cont roller, we can use t wo different
approaches"
1. Experimental approach; I n t his case t he physical e!uipment (s)
of t he chemical process# is available t o us, Conse!uent ly, we
change deliberat ely t he values of various input s (dist urbances,
manipulat ed variables) $and t hrough appropriat e measuring dev%
ices we observe how t he out put s (t emperat ures, pressures, flow
rat es, concent rat ions) of t he chemical process change wit h t ime.
&uch a procedure is t ime and effort consuming and it is usually
!uit e cost ly because, a large number of such eperiment s must be
performed.
2. Theoretical approach: I t is !uit e oft en, t he case t hat we have t o
design t he cont rol syst em for a chemical process before t he proc%
ess has been const ruct ed. I n such a case we cannot rely on t he
eperiment al procedure, and we need a different represent at ion of
t he chemical process in order t o st udy it s dynamic behavior. This
represent at ion is usually given in t erms of a set of mat hemat ical
e!uat ions (different ial,# algebraic) whose solut ion yields t he
dynamic or st at ic behavior of t he chemical process we eamine.
)fi
46 Modeling the Dynamic and Static Behavior of Chemical Processes Part II
In this text we discuss both. approaches for the development of a
model for a chemical process. Initially, we will examine the theoretical
approach, leaving the experimental for subsequent chapters (Chapters
16 and 1!.
4.1 Why Do We Need Mathematical
Modeling for Process Control?
"et us repeat that our goal is to develop a control system for a chemical
process which will guarantee that the operational ob#ectives of our
process are satisfied in the presence of ever'changing disturbances.
%hen, why do we need to develop a mathematical description (model!
for the process we want to control&
In the introductory paragraphs earlier we noted that often the physi'
cal equipment ofthe chemical process we want to control have not been
constructed. Consequently, we cannot experimentto determine how the
process reacts to various inputs and therefore we cannot design the
appropriate control system. (ut even if the process equipment is availa'
ble for experimentation, the procedure is usually very costly. %herefore,
we need a simple description of how the process reacts to various
inputs, and this is what the mathematical models can provide to the)
con troll designer.
"et us demonstrate now in terms of some examples the need for the)
development of a mathematical model before we design the control
system fin a chemical process.
Example 4.1) Design an Integral Controller for a Stirred Tank
Heater
Consider the problem of controlling the temperature of a liquid in a
tan* using integral control (+xample ,.1,!. -rom -igure ,.. we notice that
the quality of the control depends on the value of the parameter a'. (ut
the question is) Hodoes a! affect the quality of control, and what is its
best value& %o answer this question we need to *now how the value of the
liquid temperature T is affected by changes in the value of the inlet
temperature T/ or the integral action of the controller. %his is given by eq.
(,./!, which constitutes the mathematical model of the tan* with integral
control.
Example 4.,) Design a FeedforwardController for a Process
In the feedforward control.arrangement shown in -igure 4.1 we mea'
01f(2 the value of the disturbance and we anticipate what its effect will be
on the output of the process that we want to control. In order to *eep the
Cha". 4 Develo"ment of a Mathematical Model
4/
3isturbance
4anipulated
variable
#$t"$t
-igure 4.1 -eedforward control configuration.
value of this output at the desired level, weneed to change the value of
the manipulated variable by such an amount as to eliminate the impact
that the disturbance would have on the output. %he question is) (y how
much should we change the manipulated variable in order to cancel the
effect of the disturbance& %o answer this question we must *now the
following two relationships)
output %5I(disturbance!
output %6,(manipulated variable!
which are provided by a mathematical model of the process. Indeed, if
the output is to remain the same, the manipulated variable must ta*e
such a value that
7I (disturbance! ' h(manipulated variable! %8
%his example demonstrates very vividly how important mathematical
modeling is for the design ora feedforward control system. In fact, with'
out good and accurate mathematical modeling we cannot design efficient
feedforward control systems.
Example 4.) Design of an Inferential Control System
In the inferential control scheme shown in -igure 4., we measure the
measured output and try to regulate the value of the unmeasured control
ob#ective at a desired value. 0ince the control ob#ective is not measured
directly, it can only be estimated from the value of the measured output if
a relationship such as the following is available)
control ob#ective %5(measured output!
0uch a relationship in turn is not possible if we do not have a mathemati'
cal representation ofthe process (mathematical model!. 9nce the value of
the control ob#ective. can be estimated from a relationship such as the
above, it can be compared to the desired value (set point! and the control'
ler can be activated for appropriate action as in feedbac* control.
:e notice, therefore, that the availability. of a good mathematical
model for the process is indispensable for the design of good inferential
control systems.
48 Modeling the Dynamic and Static Behavior of Ch. al Processes Pail II
Disturbance
Manipulated
variable
Controlled
r----'----, variable
Figure 4.2. Inferential control configuration.
The three examples above indicate very clearly that mathematical
modeling of a process is of paramount importance for the design of
good and efficient control systems for a chemical process. In the follo6
ing sections e develop a methodology for the concise modeling of
chemical processes.
4.2 State aria!les and State "#$ations
for at Chemical Process
In order to characteri"e a processing system #tan$ heater% batch reactor%
distillation column% heat exchanger% etc.& and its behavior e need''
(. ) set of fundamental dependent *uantities hose values ill
describe the natural state of a given system
2. ) set of e*uations in the variables above hich ill describe ho
the natural state of the given system changes ith time
For most of the processing systems of interest to a chemical engineer
there are only three such fundamental *uantities' mass% energy% and
momentum. +uite often% though, the fundamental dependent variables
cannot be measured directly and conveniently. In such cases e select
other variables hich can be measured conveniently% and hen grouped
appropriately they determine the value of the fundamental variables.
Thus mass% energy% and momentum can be characteri"ed by variables
such as density% concentration% temperature% pressure% and flo. rate.
These characteri"ing variables are called state variables and their
values define the state of a processing system.
The e*uations that relate the state variables #dependent variables& to
the various independent variables are derived from application of the
conservation principle on the fundamental quantities and are called
state equations.
Cha%. 4 Develo&
t of a Mathematical Model
The principle 0/ conservation of a *uantity - states that'
.
accumulation ors/ . flo of S ' ( flo ors ) .
% ithin a system .. in 0the system. out of the system
time period 1 time period time period
#4.(&
*g2 '''''0' '2 t3 inl .4 ... + *co''''.' 2 t3 . in l
, - . the system 5 the system
time period time period
The *uantity - can be any of6the folloing fundamental *uantities'
Total mass,
Mass of individual components
Total energy
Momentum
Remark. It should be remembered that for the physical and chemical
processes e ill be studying% the total mass and total energy cannot be
generated from nothing, neither do they disappear.
. 5 et us r2 vie no the forms used most often for the balance e*ua6
tions. Consider the system shon in Figure 47. 8e have'
Q
Inlets
2
9utlets
w.
Figure 4.7 ) general system and its interactions ith the external orld.
50
Modeling the Dynamic and Static Behavior of Chemical Processes
Part II
Total mass balance:
d(pV) = L p;F; - L pjFj
dt ;:inlet j:outlet
(4.1a)
Mass balance on component A:
d(nA) d(CAV)
-- = = L CAjF; - L CAjFj rV
dt dt ;:inlet j:outlet
(4.1b)
Total energy balance:
dE
dt
d(U+ + !) = L !"F;#; - L pjFj#
j
$ %s
dt t:inlet j:outlet
(4.1c)
The variables appearing in the equations above have the folloing
!eaning:
& p ="ensit# of the !aterial in the s#ste!
!" $ $ "ensit# of the !aterial in the ith inlet strea!
p, $ "ensit# of the !aterial in the jth outlet strea!
V =total volu!e of the s#ste!
F; =volu!etric flo rate of the ith inlet strea!
F& =volu!etric flo rate of the jth outlet strea!
n A =nu!ber of !oles of co!ponent % in the s#ste!
CA $ !olar concentration (!oles&volu!e) of % in the s#ste!
CA' =!olar concentration of % in the " th inlet
CA" =!olar concentration of % in the jth outlet
=reaction rate per unit. volu!e for co!ponent % in the
s#ste!
#" =specific enthalp# of the !aterial in the ith inlet strea!
#
j
=specific enthalp# of the !aterial in the jth outlet strea!
U, K, P =internal' (inetic' an" potential energies of the s#ste!'
respectivel#
$ =a!ount of heat e)change" beteen the s#ste! an" its
surroun"ings per unit ti!e
%s =shaft or( e)change"* beteen the s#ste! an" its sur+
roun"ings per unit ti!e
,# convention' a quantit# is consi"ere" positive if it flos "n the
s#ste! an" negative if it floso't ( ( (
The state equations ith the associate" state vanables constitute the
mat#emat"cal model of a process' hich #iel"s the "#na!ic or static
behavior of the process. The application of the conservation' principle
Cha!" # Develo!ment of a Mathematical Model $%
as "efine" b# eqs. (4.1) ill #iel" a set of d"))erent"al e*'at"ons ith the
fun"a!ental quantities as the "epen"ent variables an" ti!e as the
in"epen"ent variable. The solution of the "ifferential equations ill
"eter!ine ho the fun"a!ental quantities' or equivalentl#' the state
variables' change ith ti!e; that is' it ill "eter!ine the dynam"c
be#a+"or of the process.
If the state variables "o not change ith ti!e' e sa# that the
process is at steady state( -n this case' the rate of accu!ulation of a
fun"a!ental quantit# . per unit of ti!e is /ero' an" the resulting
balances #iel" a set of algebra"c e*'at"ons(
E,ample 4.4: -tate Var"ables and -tate E*'at"ons )or a -t"rred
Tan. /eater; 0ts -tat"c and 1ynam"c 2e#a+"or
0onsi"er the stirre" tan( heater of 1)a!ple 1.1 (2igure 1.1). The
fun"a!ental quantities hose values provi"e the infor!ation about the
heater are:
(a) The total !ass of the liqui" in the tan(
(b) The total energ# of the !aterial in the tan(
(c) -ts !o!entu!
The !o!entu! of the heater .re!ains constant even hen the "istur+
bances change value an" ill not be consi"ere" further.
Let us no i"entif# the state variables for the tan( heater.
Total mass "n t#e tan.:
total !ass $ p V $ pAh (4.3)
here p the "ensit# of liqui"' V the volu!e of liqui"' A the cross+
sectional area of the tan(' an" h the height of the liqui" level.
Total energy o) t#e l"*'"d "n t#e tan.:
E3U++!
but since the tan( "oes not !ove' d4dt =d!4dt =0 an" dE4dt =dll4dt&
2or liqui" s#ste!s'
dU d/
-"'-
dt dt
here H is the total enthalp# of the liqui" in the tan(. 2urther!ore'
/ =p VCp( T -- T rer) =pA#cp( T - T rer) (4.4)
here Cp =heat capacit# of the liqui" in the tan(
T
ref
=reference te!perature here the specific enthalp# of the liq+
ui" is assu!e" to be /ero.
2ro! eqs. (4.3) an" (4.4) e conclu"e that the state +ar"ables for the
stirre" tan( heater are the folloing;
Modeling the Dynamic and Static Behavior of Chen r'rocesses
State variables: hand T
while the
Constant parameters: p, A, cp, T,
are characteristic of the tank system.
Part II
Note. It ,has been assumed that the density p is independent of the
temperature.
Let us now proceed to. develop the state equations for the stirred tank
heater. We will apply the conservation principle on the two. fundamental
quantities: the total mass and the total energy.
Total mass balance:
[
accumulatio.no.f! [in, put o.f [o.utput o.f
to.tal mass to.tal mass to.tal mass
o.r
time time
(4.4)
where F; and F are the volumetric flow rates [i.e., volume per unit of
time "fe#min, or ml#min$ for the inlet and outlet streams, respectively.
%ssuming constant density "independent of temperature$, eq. "&.&$
becomes
d(pAh) =pFi - pF
dt
dh
A-=F--F
dt I .
[
accumulatio.n 6
total energy
time
(.)!
[
input of [o.utput of
to.tal energy ,to.tal energy
time time
"&.&a$
"&.*$
where Q is the amount of heat supplied by the steam per unit of time. +he
equation above can take the following simpler form "assume that
Tlref= )!
[
energy s,--lied
by steam
" ::::./660666666
time
dpAh cp(T - +
ref
$ pF;cp(T; ! +
ref
$ 6 pFcp(T - T ref$ " Q
dt
d(hT) 'Q
A --, =FiT; !. FT "#
dt pc,
"&.*a$
Cha$% 4 1eveloi
lof a Mathematical M&del
%dditional algebraic manipulations 2n eq. "&.*a$ yield
A d(hT)= Ah:.
dT
" AT ("h =Ah dT " T(F; ! F) =F;T;- FT " ' ( ) '
dt dt dt : dt pc,
or
Ah
dT
=F;(T;- T)#,-Q $
dt pc,
Summari3ing the modeling steps above, we have:
%tate e&'ations:
"&.i*b$
dh
A-=()-F
dt $
dT, Q
Ah -=F;(T;- T)#-
dt pc,
+he variables in eqs. "&.&a$ and"&.*b$ can be classified asfollows "see also.
Section 4.5$:
"&.&a$
"&.,*b$
%tate *ariables: h, T
+'tp't *ariables: h, T "both measured$
,np't *ariables
-ist'rbances: T;, r,
.anip'lated *ariables: Q, F (for feedback control$
F; "for feedforward control$ .
/arameters: A, p, c
p
+he state equations "&.&a$ and "&.*b$, with the, state variables, the inputs,
and the parameters, constitute the mathematical model of the stirred
tank heater. We need only solve them in order to. find the tank!s dynamic
or steady6state behavior,
Let us now study the dynamic and static behavior of the stirred tank
heater using the state equations "&.&a$ and ."&.*b$. We will assume that
initially the tank heater is at steady state "i.e., nothing is changing$. +his
situation is described by the state equations if the rate of accumulation
[left6hand sides o.f"&.&a$ and "&.*b$ is set to. 3ero:
F;,s0$0 Fs =1
F;,s( Ti, - Ts) " Qs == ( ::
pc,
+he subscript s denotes the steady6state value of the corresponding varia6
ble.
+he system will be disturbed from the steady6state situation if any of
the input variables changes value. Let us e7amine the following two.
situations:
5. Consider that the inlet temperature T; decreases! by !5(8 from its
steady6state value. +he liquid level will remain the same at the
54 Modeling the Dynamic and Static Behavior of Chemical Processes
Part "
T
Old steady state
T,
New steady state
o Time
Figure 4.4 Temperature response of a stirred heater to a step decrease in
inlet temperature.
steady:state value h-, since T, does not influence the total mass in
the tank [see also eq. 4.4a!". On the contrary# the temperature of
the liquid will start decreasing with time. $ow the temperature T
changes with time will %e determined from the. solution of eq.
4.5%!using as initial condition the steady:state value of T:
T(t =0) =T,
Figure 4.4 indicates the static and dynamic &ehavior of the tank f'r
this case. (e o%serve that after a certain time the tank heater again
reaches steady:state conditions.
). *onsider that initially the tank heater is at steady state. Then# at
# time t =+# the inlet flow rate decreases %y ,+-. .t is clear that %oth
the level and the temperature of the liquid in the tank will start
changing [notice that F, is present in %oth state equations 4.4a! and
4.5%!!. $ow hand T change with time will %e given from the
solution of eqs. 4.4a! and 4.5%! using as initial conditions
h(t =+! =h, and T(t =+! =T,
Figure 4.5 summari/es the static and dynamic %ehavior of the tank
heater for this case.
h
Old steady state
&&&:::::&&&&&&&&&
C dy, t. t. .
o Time
.0:...1..2.. :::34
o Time
Figure 4.5 5ynamic response of a stirred tank heater to a step decrease
in inlet flow rate.
Chap. Development of a Mathematical Model
55
Remark. !t is worth noting that after F; has changed# the level hand
the temperature T reach their new steady states with different speeds. .n
particular# the level# h, achieves its new steady state faster than the
temperature. .n a su%sequent chapter we will analy/e the reasons for such
%ehavior.
. " #dditional $lements of the Mathematical
Models
.n addition to the %alance equations# we need other relationships to
e6press thermodynamic equili%ria# reaction rates# transport rates for
heat# mass# momentum# and so on. 7uch additional relationships
needed to complete. the mathematical modeling of various chemical
and8or physical processes can %e classified as follows9
%ransport rate e&'ations
They are needed to descri%e the rate of mass# energy# and mornen:
tum transfer %etween a system and its surroundings. These equations
are developed in courses on transport phenomena.
Example . (
The amount of heat Q supplied %y the steam to the liquid of the tank
heater ;6ample 4.4! is given %y the following heat transfer rate equation9
Q =UA,(Ts ,- T)
where U =overall heat transfer coefficient
A, =total area of heat transfer
T =temperature of the steam
)inetic rate e&'ations
They are needed to descri%e the rates of chemical reactions taking
place in a system. 7uch equations are developed in a course on chemical
kinetics. .
Example 4.<
The reaction rate of a first:order reaction taking place in a *7T= is
given %y
Modeling the Dynamic and Static Behavior of Cherrn. rocesses
. where ko :::I preexponential kinetic constant
E =activation energy for the reaction
R =ideal gas constant
T,eA =temperature and concentration of the reacting fluid.
Ate~lctionand phase equiliria relationships
These are needed to describe the equilibrium situations reached
during a chemical reaction or by two or more phases. These relation#
ships are developed in courses on thermodynamics.
Example 4.7
Consider a liquid stream composed of two components A and at a
high pressure PI and temperature T
I
!f the pressure PI is larger than t"e
bubble#point pressure of the liquid at temperature TI, no vapor phase $!ll
be present. The liquid stream passes through a restriction %valve& a'"dis
(flashed( in a drum) that is* its pressure is reduced from PI to P %+!gure
!.ifi". This abrupt expansion takes place under consta,t enthalpy. !f the
pressure P in the drum is smaller than the bubble#point pressure of the
liquid stream at the temperature TI, the liquid will partially vapori-e and
two phases at equilibrium with each other will be present in the flash
drum.
The thermodynamic equilibrium between the vapor and liquid phases
imposes certain restrictions on the state variables of the system* and
must be included in the mathematical model of the flash drum if it is to
be' consistent and correct. These equilibrium relationships* as known
from chemical thermodynamics* are'
.. Temperature of liquid phase / temperature of vapor phase
v
L
+igure 4.0 +lash drum unit.
#art II
Chap. ! Develor
.of a Mathematical Model
1
2. 3ressure of liquid phase =pressure of vapor phase
4. Chemical potential of component i in the liquid phase =chemical
potential of component i in the vapor phase
The equilibrium relationships introduce additional equations among
the state variables of a system. Care must be exercised so that all the
equilibrium relationships are. accounted for.
$quations of state
5quations of state are needed to describe the relationship among the
intensive variables describing the thermodynamic state of a system.
The ideal gas law and the van. der* $aals equation are two typical.
equations of state for gaseous systems.
Example 4.6 7
8et us return to the flash drum system discussed above in 5xample
4.7. +or the vapor phase* from the ideal gas law* we have
.p9vapor =%moles of A % moles of & . RT
%4.0& .
ut
moles of A % moles of
mass of A % mass of
average molecular weight
Therefore* from eq* %4.0& we have
mass of A % mass of7 .p .
3vapor . =&. %average molecular weight&
9(apor RT >
Considering that
average molecular weight =YAM A % yBM B
we have
p
3vapor =&.& [YAM A % yBM : %4.0a&
RT
where YA and YD are the molar fractions of components A and and M A
and MD are the molecular weights of A and . 5quation.%4.0a& indicates a
relationship among the state variables of the flash drum and must be
included in the mathematical model of the flash drum.
;tarting from an appropriate equation of thermodynamic state for the
liquid phase of the flash drum* we can develop an expression for its
density of the form
#liquid =p(T, XA)
where XA is the molar fraction of component A in the liquid.
4.4- DeadTime
In all of the modeling examples discussed in earlier sections it was
assumed that whenever a change takes place in one of the input. vari+
ables (disturbances, manipulated variables), its effect is instantaneously
obsened in the state variables and the outputs. !hus whenever the feed
composition, c"#, or the feed temperature, T;, or the coolant tempera+
ture, T$i% change in the $&!' of (igure ).*, the effect of the change is
felt immediately and the temperature T or concentration cA of the
outlet stream start changing.
!he oversimplified picture given above is contrary to our physical +
experience, which dictates that whenever an input variable of a system
changes, there is a time interval (short or long) during which no effect is
observed on the outputs of the system. !his time interval is called dead
time, or transportation lag, or pure delay, or distance-velocity lag.
Example 4.9
, $onsider the flow of an incompressible, nonreacting li,uid through a
pipe ((igure -.*a). If the pipe is completely thermally insulated and the
heat generated by the friction of the flowing fluid is negligible, it is easy to
see that at steady state the temperature !out of the outlet stream willIbe
e,ual to that of the inlet, Tin. "ssume now that starting at t =., the
temperature of the inlet changes as shown by curve " in (igure -.*b. It is
II+/ + --L-~I
(a)
r
(b)
(igure -.* (a) 0ipe flow of 1xample -.2# (b) delayed response of exit
temperature to inlet temperature change.
Chap. 4 Development of a Mathematical Model
!
clear that the temperature of the outlet, Tou,,3 will remain the same until
the change reaches the end of the pipe. !hen we will observe the tempera+
ture of the outlet changing, as shown by curve 4 in (igure -.*b. 5e notice
that the change of the outlet temperature follows the same pattern as the
change of the inlet temperature with a delay of td seconds. td is the dead
time and from physical considerations it is easy to see that
volume of the pipe A L L
td volumetric flow rate =A . Uay =Uay seconds
where Us; is the average velocity of the fluid over the cross+sectional area
of the pipe, assumed to be constant. (unctionally, we can relate Tin and
!out as follows6
(-.*)
!he ead time is an important element in the mathematical modeling
of chemical processes and has a serious impact on the design of effective
controllers. "s wewill see in $hapter )2, the presence of dead time can
very easily destabili7e the dynamic+behavior of a controlled system.
4. Additional "#amplesof Mathematical
Modeling
In this section we examine some typical chemical processes and
develop their mathematical models.
Example 4.1! "at#ematical "odel o$ a %ontinuous &tirred Tan'
(eactor )%&T(*
$onsider the continuous stirred tank reactor system discussed in
1xample ).8 ((igure +I. *).9" simple exothermic reaction " ...4 takes place
in the reactor, which is in turn cooled by a coolant that flows through a
:acket around the +reactor.
!he fundamental dependent ,uantities for the reactor are6
(a) !otal mass of the reacting mixture in tank
(b) ;ass of chemical " in the reacting mixture
(c) !otal energy of the reacting mixture 3in the tank
(emar's
). !he mass of component 4can be found from the total mass and the
mass of component ". !herefore, it is not an independent funda+
mental+ ,uantity.
8. !he momentum of the $&!' does not change under any operating
conditions for the reactor and will be neglected.
Modeling the Dynamic and Static Behavior of Chemic Part" icesses
Let us apply the conservation principle on the three fundamental
quantities:
Total mass balance:
[
aCCUmulation]
of total mass
time
[
input Of] [o.utput Of] [total mass g. enerat,ed]
total mass total mass or consumed
-----+ 33333333!33333
time time time
or
d(pV) =p;F; - pF 0
dt
"here p;,p =densities of the inlet and outlet streams
F;,F =volumetric flo" rates of the inlet and outlet streams, fe#min
or m
$
#min
V =volume of the reacting mi%ture in the tan&
Mass balance on component A:
'(.)*
[
aCCUmulation] [input] [output] [disappearanc+of ,]
of , of , of A due to reaction
---- =----
time time time time
or
.d(nA) =d(CA V) =cA.F
i
_ cAF - rV
dt dt I
"here r rate of reaction per unit volume
C,-,C, molar concentrations 'moles#volume* of , in the inlet and
outlet streams and
n , =num.er of moles of , in the reacting mi%ture
'(./*
[
accumulation Of]
total energy
time
[
input of total ] [ output of total 0
energy "ith feed. energy "ith outlet
[
energy removed]
.y coolant
time
time time
1n the .alance a.ove "e have neglected the shaft "or& done .y the
limpeller of the stirring mechanism. 2he total energy of the reacting
mi%ture is
E==.U+K+P
"here U is the internal energy, the &inetic energy, and ! the poten3
tial energy of the reacting mi%ture. 2herefore, assuming that the reac3
tor does not move 'i.e., d"dt =d!"dt =4*, the left3hand side of the
total energy .alance yields
Chap ! Develop" of a Mathematical Model
5
dE . d( U +K +P) dU
di# # dt =di
6in+e the system is a liquid system, "e can ma&e the follo"ing appro%i3
matron:
[
accumulation Of74t$70 . ... [accumUlation Oftotal0
energy of the dU d$ enthalpy of the
material in the C628 =-dt % di = material in the C628
per unit time per unit time
9urthermore,
input of total energy "ith feed per unit time =p;F; &;( T
i
)
and
output of total eriergy "ith the outlet stream per unit time =pF &(T)
"here h, is the specific enthalpy 'enthalpy per unit mass* of the feed
stream and h is the specific enthalpy of the outlet stream. Consequently,
the total energy .alance leads to the equation
d$
--;' t =p;Fi&;(T;) - pF&(T) - ( '(.74*
"here Q is the amount of heat removed .y the coolant per unit time.
:quations '(.)*, '(./* and '(.74* are not intheir final and most conve3
nient form for process control design studies. 2o .ring them to such form
)e need to identi*y t&e appropriate state +ariables.
C&a%acteri,e Total Mass. ;e need the density of the reacting mi%ture, p,
and 1ts volume, V. 2he !density "ill .e a function of the concentration CA
and CD and <fthe temperature2. =uite often the dependence of p on CA,
C>, and T 16 "ea& and the density can .e considered constant as the
reaction proceeds. 2herefore, the left3hand side of eq. '(.)* yields
d(pV) dV "hile
--;;;-# !di p, # p
Under the assumption a.ove, V is the only state varia.le that is needed
to characteri?e the total mass. 2hen eq. '(.)* .ecomes
dV
-s:-:-
'(.)a*
C&a.racteri,e t&e Mass o.*_Component A. 2his is simple. 9rom eq. '(./* "e
r+ah?e that the state vana.les needed are C A and V. ,lge.raic manipula3
tions on eq. '(./* lead to
d(CAV) dV dCA
-d-- =CA - +V -_ =cA,F; - cAF - .oe-/"0TcAV
t dt dt I
62
or
V d;; =--cA(F; - F) + cA;F; - ,cAF- koe-E/RTcAV
and finally,
Characterize the Total Energy. We know from thermodynamics that the
enthalpy of a liquid system is a function of the temperature and its
composition:
H =H(T, n i; no)
where n A and n B are the moles of A and B in the CSTR !ifferentiatin"
the e#pression a$o%e, we take
dH iJH dT iJH dn ; iJH dn
-=--+--.-+----
dt iJT dt iJnA dt iJnB dt
But
iJH ...
--= H!(T)
iJno
where C " is the specific heat capacity ofthe reactin" mi#ture and H A and
&oare the partial molar enthalpies ofA and B 'urthermore, from eq
()*),
and a similar $alance on component B,
dn! =d(co V) =+ , coF# rV
dt de
Su$stitute the quantities a$o%e in eq ()--)and take
.Part 11
()*a)
()--)
Su$stitute dH [dt $y its equal from the total ener"y $alance .eq ()-+)-
and take
dT
"Vc"-
dt
$ -HA%CA;F; - cAF - rV&- H'%-C!F +rV( +";F;h;- "Fh - )
()-+a)
Chap ! Development of a Mathematical Model
63
/et us now notice that
F;";h;(T;) 0 F;%*;h;(T) +";c";(T; - T)( =F+%CA;H A(T) +";c";(T; - T)&
and
F"h(T) =F%CAH A"t# +C!H'(T)(
Consequently, eq ()-+a) $ecomes
"Vc
"
,, $-,#,#HArV,-ii!r-
+1 A +F;";c";(T;- T) - , - ,- )
or
, dT F ... ...
* c
"
dt = +*;c";(Ti - T) +(H A 2 Ho)rV - )
'inally, since (+i A 2 lio) =(-~H,) =heat of reaction at temperature T,
and * =*i, C" =C
Pi
'
V dT =F.(T. . (-,H,)rV )
d
I I T)#. -- ()-+$)
I "c, "c;
'rom eq()-+$) we conclude that temperature T is the state %aria$le that
characten3es the total ener"y of the system
Summari3in" all the steps a$o%e in the mathematical modelin" of a
CSTR, we ha%e the followin": 4
/late -aria0le12 V, CA, T
/tate e34ation12
dV
-$F,5-F
dt .
dCA F;
- =- (CA4 22 CAl 2 koe,E+RTC
dt V ' A
dT F )
- =,,,5 (T/ - T) +Jkoe-E+RT CA 222
dt V "C"V
where 6=(-+&H,)/"c".
()7a)
()*a)
()-+$)
'4t"4t -aria0le12 V, C A, T
+n"4t -aria0le12 CA;~ F;, T;, ), F (when feed$ack control is used)
Amon" the input %aria$les the niost common distur$ances are:
6i1t4r0ance12 CAi4 F;, T;
while the usual manipulated %aria$les are:
7ani"4lated -aria0le12 Q, F (occasionally F; or T;)
Modeling the Dynamic and Static Behavior of Chemic
Part II
ocesses
The remaining variables are parameters characteristic of the reactor sys$
tem:
Constant parameters: p, cp. (-!lH,), ko E (activation energy),R
In the presence of changes in the input variables, the state variables
change, Integration of eqs. (.!a), (."a), and (.l#b) yields V(t), ~A(t),
and T(t) as functions of time.
The steady$state behavior of the C%TR is given by eqs. (.!a), (."a),
and (.l#b) if their left$hand sides are set equal to &ero.
Example .'': Mathematical Model of a Mixing Process
T(o streams ' and ) are being mi*ed in a (ell$stirred tan+, producing
a product stream , (-igure .!). .ach of the t(o feed streams is composed
of t(o components, / and 0,(ith molar concentrations C/l1 C0t and C/)1
C0)2 respectively. /lso let , and ! be the volum3tric flo( rat3s of the
t(o streams (fe4min, m
,
4min) and T, and "! their corresponding tem$
peratures. -inally, let C /51C0), F,, and " 5 be the concentrations, flo( rate,
and temperature of the product stream. A coil is. also immer3ed in the
liquid of the tan+ and it is used to supply heat to the system (ith steam,
or remove heat (ith cooling (ater.
The fundamental quantities needed to describe the mi*ing process
are:
(a) Total mass in the tan+
(b) /mounts of components / and 0 in the tan+,
(c) Total energy
(d) 6omentum of the material in the tan+
Remarks
'. The momentum does not change under any operating conditions
and it (ill be neglected in further treatment.
). 7e only need to consider t(o of the follo(ing three quantities: total
mass, mass of /, mass of 0. The .third can be computed from the
other t(o.
Q (8eat added
or removed)
-igure .! 6i*ing process.
Chap. 4 9: Developn. of a Mathematical Model
Consider no( the balances on the fundamental quantities:
"otal mass #alance:
;
accumulation or total<
mass in the tan+
;
., input of total < ; output of total <
mass in the tan+ mass from the tan+
time time time
or
(.'))
,,:here P$ , P!, and P% are the densities of streams ', ), and ,, respectively.
%ince the content of the tan+ 1is (ell mi*ed, the density of the product
str3am P% is equal to the density of the material in the tan+, P (i.e.2=5 =pl.
& I% the volume of the material in the tan+ and is equal to the product of
the cross$sectional area of the: tan+, A, and the height> h, of the liquid
level:
&'()h
In general, the densities, p, P$ , and P! depend on the corresponding con$
centrations and temperatures:
P'P* 'f(C(% ,C+ % , T% ) P$ 'f(C($ ,C+ $ , T$ ) P!'f(C(!,C+ !, T!)
?sually (but not al(ays) the dependencies above are (ea+ and (e assume
that the densities are independent of the concentrations and tempera$
tures. Therefore, (e assume that 1
p, 'P! ':'P% 'P
This transforms eq. (.')) to the follo(ing:
av , dh
- =( -, - @ (, + )) $ ,
dt dt
(.')a)
+ alance on component (:
;.
accumulation 3f<
component A III
the tan+
;
to.t,... al input Af< .;total output Af<
component A . component A
in the tan+ from the tan+
time time time
or
or
(.',)
%ubstituting d&- dt by its equal from eq. (.')a), (e ta+e
66
Modeling the Dynamic and Static Behavior of Chemical Processes Part"
and since CA =CAl due to the well:stirred assumption,
_ = 0
V d~;l == (CA, _ CA1)F, + (CA2 _ CA3)F2.;_ ~Fl (4.1a)
!
input "#t$,% tal ener&',( !output o# total e.ner
&'
(
with #eed streams with product stream
!
accumulation "#(
total ener&'
time
time
time
!
heat added or remo.)ed(
with the coil
=-----~-"'--.:.___--=
time
*he total ener&' o# the material in the tan+ is
E = U (internal) + K (+inetic) + P (potential)
,ince the tan+ is not mo)in&, dJ(/dt =dl'[dt =".*hus dE/dt =dll l dt
and #or li-uid s'stems,
d d!
_ %_ ::
dt dt
where ! is the total enthalp' o# the material in the tan+. Furthermore,
(
input o# total ener&')
, with #ee$ st$eams ,,% "#(F$%. + F2%2)
per unit time
and
(
output o# total ener&') .
with prod$ct.stream "#F3
%
3
per umt ume
where %&$ %2' and % $ are the speci#ic enthalpies (enthalp' per unit mass)
o# streams 1, 2, and . .ue to the per#ect stirrin& assumption, the speci#ic
enthalp' o# the material in stream is the same as the speci#ic enthalp' o#
the material in the tan+. *hus
! "#V%3
Conse-uentl', the total ener&' /alance 'ields
d(#V%) =#(F$%$ + F
2
%
2
) '' #F3%3 Q
dt
(4.14)
Chap. 4 Development of a Mathematical Model
60
*h$ -uesti1n now is how to $haracteri2e %&$ % 2, and % in terms o# other
)ana/les (i.e., temperatures, concentrations, etc.). 3e +now that
%3(T3) =%3(To) + C#((T3 _ To)
(4.14a)
(4.l4/)
% .(T$) =% $(To) + c#$(T$ _ To)
%2(T2) =%2(To) + c
#2
(T
2
_ To)
(4.l4c)
where To is the re#erence temperature. At this temperature
#%3(To) =cA56A 7c85i8 + CA A!
)3
(T
o
) (4.16a)
#% $(To) =CA$! A + C8,98 + CAl A!)$(T
o
) (4.l6/)
#%2*To) =CA2! A + C8298 + CA2 A!
)2
(T
o
) (4.16c)
wh.ere ! ! and ! B are the molar enthalpies (enthalp' per mole) o# com:
ponents.A and B at temperature 1%;0. A! s" A! ,2% and A! , are the heats
o# sol.utl$n #or streams 1, 2, and. per mole o# A at temperature To.
,u/stitutin& e-s. (4.14a,/,c) and (4.l6a,/,c) into the total ener&' /alance
e-, (4.14), we ta+e
d[ V(CA3! A 7 C+3! 8 7 cA<A9s) 7 # VC,J(T
3
_ To)(
di
" F'(CA$! A 7 C8,98 7 CAl ~!).) 7 #F$c#$(T$ _ To)
+ F2(CA2
!
A + C82987 CA2 ~!-2) + #F
2
c
#2
(T
2
_ To)
: F(CA9A + C898 + CA A!
)3
) ' #F
3
c
,3
(T
3
' To) Q'
or
=0 (/alance on A)
d[V(T3' To)( ' [.d( CA % , (
#c#( $ dt + ! A .$ : CAl , F2 + CA3F3
.&&.~.'F$(.t:.&&)$ d($<A%)
=" (/alance on B#
" F$CA$ A!)/ 7 #F$c#$(T$ i< To) 7 F2CA2 A!)2 7 #F
2
c
,2
(T
2
_ To)
' F3CA3 A!)3 _ #F
3
c
,3
(T
3
_ To) Q
or
dT3 ' dV '
#C,3 V ';Jt + #C#3(Tl' To) 'd + A!
)3
[cA$F$ + CA2F2 _ CA3F3(
; t
=F$CA$ A!)$ 7 #F$c#$(T$ $ % To) 7 F2CA2 A!)2 7 #F
2
c
,2
(T
2
''' To)
' F3CA3 A!)3 _ #F
3
c
#3
(T
3
' To)01 2
8
Modeling the Dynamic and Static Behavior of Chem
'ocesses
Part II
and finally,
pc V .d
T
3 =CA F,(AHs, - AH
s3
] + CA2F2[AHs2 - 6 1 1 s 3 1
1'3 dt ". ,
+ pF,[cp,(T, - To)-- Cp)(T3 - To))
+ pF2lcPl(T
2
6To) 6 cp3(T3 -: To)) Q
If we as s ume that c
PI
= cp2 = CP) = c
p
, we have
pc V !!_T3 = CA F,[AHs, - AHs 3 1 + CA2F2[AHs2'- AHs )l
P dt I. . ,
+ pF,cp(T
I
- T3) + pF
l
cp(T2 - T3) Q (. 1 a)
!umma"i#in$ the s te%s a&ove, we have'
Stt! "#$%l!s: V. CA3' T3
Stt! !&'t$o(s:,
dV:): (FI + F2) - F3
dt .
" (A3 =(CAl 6 )A*)+I + (CAl - cA3)Fl
dt
pc V dTJ =CA F,(AHsc AHs)*+ CA2F2(AHs2 - AHs3*
p dt I
+pFICp(TI - T)+ pF2cp(T2 - TJ) Q
(. 1 ,a) .
(. 1 3 a)
(. 1 a)
I(p't "#$%l!s: F .. CAl- T" F2, CA,. T2, F3 (f(" feed&()/ (ont"ol)
,'tp't "#$%l!s: V (o" e0uivalently the hei$ht of li0uid level, h) ,
CA3 - T3 _ _ -
P#-!t!#s (co(st(t): p, Cp, AHsl, AHs ,, AHs3
.!-#/s
3 1s ually a mi2in$ tan/is e0ui%%ed with a )oolin$ o" heatin$ ,)oil o"
. 3a)/et th"ou$h whi)h, flows a )oolant (if h(at is "el(as ed (unn$ t(e
mi2in$ of the two s olutions ) o" a heatin$ medl1( . (If ,heat I!
a&s o"&ed du"in$ mi2in$) in- an attem%t to /ee% the mi2m$ Is ome"6
mal. . ion Ii if
If the heats of s olution a"e s t"oll! fun)tions of )on)ent"a(l(n i. e. , 1 -
, 4AH
sl
- AHs)] and54AH
s2
- AH
s3
] a"e not s mall. 0uantltles ), then
f"om the total ene"$y &alan)e, e0. (. 1 a), we noti)e that tem%e"a6
tu"e T de%ends s t"on$ly on the )on)ent"ations of t78lefeed yt"eams
and thei" tem%e"atu"es . If on the othe" hand, [AH s (6 AH !3 * and
[AfT. !, 6 ll. H !3 * a"e nea"ly #e"o, then T 3 de%ends &as i)ally only on
TI and #0
Cha! " Develo! . t of a Mathematical Model
.. 12-pl! . 1 ,' 3t4!-t$cl 3od!l o5 T'%'l# H!t 12c4(6!#
Cons ide" the s hell6and6tu&e heat e2)han$e" s hown in +i$u"e ,9. A
li0uid flows th"ou$h the inne" tu&e and it is &ein$ heated &y s team that
flows )ounte")u""ently a"ound the tu&e. The tem%e"atu"e of the li0uid not
only )han$es with time &ut als o )han$es alon$ the a2ial di"e)tion 7 f"om
the value T I at the ent"an)e to the value T , at the e2it. :e will as s ume
that the tem%e"atu"e does not )han$e alon$ the "adius of the %i%e. Cons e6
0uently, we have two inde%endent va"ia&les , # and t . The s tate va"ia&le of
inte"es t fo" the heat e2)han$e" is the tem%e"atu"e T of the heated li0uid.
The"efo"e, we, need the ene"$y &alan)e fo" the )ha"a)te"i#ation of the
tem%e"atu"e. To %e"fo"m this &alan)e, )ons ide" the element of len$th Az
defined in +i$u"e . 9 &y the das hed lines . +o" this s ys tem and ove" a
%e"iod of time At,' we have'
;ne"$y &alan)e'
pcpA Az [(T) I,< t. , 6 (T) ,] =oc, "A(T) I = At - pcp"A(T) I#+t!# At
whe"e Q =amount of heat t"ans fe""ed f"om the s team to the li0uid %e"
unit of time and unit of heat t"ans fe" a"ea
A =)"os s 6s e)tional a"ea of the inne" tu&e
v =ave"a$e (as s umed )ons tant) velo)ity of the li0uid
,8 =e2te"nal diamete" of the inne" tu&e
>ividin$ &oth s ides ofe0. (. 1 ?) &y A# At and lettin$ Az -+ @ and At -+ @,
4
aCC1m1la, lion A f*
enthal%y du"in$
the time %e"iod,
At
4
flow in of . *. 4flA : out of *
entha. l%y du"in$ ,. enthal%y d$ring
the time %e"iod the time %e"iod
_ At At
< . Q At (TeD Az) (. 1 ?)
t
enthalBC. t"ans fe"". ed*-
f"om the s team to the
. , li0uid, th"ou$h the
wall, du"in$ the time
. %e"iod At
9 7
I
I
I
t% '& '!
!team
+i$u"e . 9 Tu&ula" heat e2)han$e".
70
Part 11
we take
a T . a T
pCpA . . ;_ +pc, vA ~ =ltD Q
a t . a z
In eq. (4.18) we can substitute Q by its equal,
Q = uir;> T)
(4.18)
and take
a T . a T
pCpA - + pCp vA - =ltD U(T st - T )
a t . . a z
(4.19)
'\ This is the equation o state that !odels the beha"io# o liquid's te!$e#a2
tu#e (state "a#iable) alon& the len&th o the e'chan&e#. (ince eq. (4.19) is a
$a#tial die#ential equation we say that the e'chan&e# has been !odelled
as a distributed pa ra meter system. )ote that U is the o"e#all heat t#anse#
coeicient between stea! and the liquid in the tube, and T' is the
te!$e#atu#e o satu#ated stea!.
Ea mple 4.1*+ !a t"ema tica l !#del $% a & 'dea l (i&a ry Distilla ti#&
C#lum&
,onside# a bina#y !i'tu#e o co!$onents - and ., to be se$a#at.ed
into two $#oduct st#ea!s usin& con"entional distillation. The !i'tu#e is
ed in the colu!n as a satu#ated liquid (i.e., at its bubble $oint), onto the
eed t#ay f (/i&u#e 4.10), with a !ola# low #ate (!ol0!in) )f and a !ola#
#action o co!$onent -, cf. The o"e#head "a$o# st#ea! is cooled and
co!$letely condensed, and then it lows into the #elu' d#u!. The coolin&
o the o"e#head "a$o# is acco!$lished with coolin& wate#. The liquid
#o! the #elu' d#u! is $a#tly $u!$ed back in the colu!n (to$ t#ay, N)
with a !ola# low #ate )* (re+lu st#ea!) and is $a#tly #e!o"ed as the
distilla te pr#duct with a !ola# low #ate )D. 1et us call !*D the liquid
holdlu$ in the #elu' d#u! and XD the !ola# #action o co!$onent - in
the liquid o the #elu' d#u!. It is dea# that XD is the co!$osition o#
both the #elu' and distillate st#ea!s.
-t the base o the distillation colu!n, a liquid $#oduct st#ea! (the
b#tt#ms pr#duct) is #e!o"ed with a low #ate )( and a co!$osition ,( .
(!ola# #action o A). A liquid st#ea! with a !ola# low #ate V is also
d#awn #o! the botto! o the colu!n and ate# it has been heated with
stea!, it #etu#ns to the base o the colu!n. The co!$osition o the
#eci#culatin& back to colu!n st#ea! is XB. 1et MD be the liquid holdu$ at
the base o the colu!n.
The colu!n contains N t#ays nu!be#ed #o! the. botto! o the
colu!n to the to$. 1et MI be the liquid holdu$ on the ith t#ay. The "a$o#
holdu$ on each t#ay will be assu!ed to be ne&li&ible.
In /i&u#e 4.11a we see the !ate#ial lows in and out o the eed t#ay.
(i!ila#ly, /i&u#e 4.llb and c show the !ate#iallows o# the to$ ()th) and
botto! (i#st) t#ays, while /i&u#e 4.11d #ee#s to any othe# t#ay.
To si!$liy the syste!, we will !ake the ollowin& assu!$tions+
Chap. 4 Development of a Mathematic1 Model
r!!!!!!"#!!!$!! !
%
%
%
%
%
&
&
%
&
%
/eed %
222++222232,
%
%
%
I ,oolin& wate#
%
%
&
%
I .otto!s
222224#22222454)(,,
(
%$#oduct
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~
/i&u#e 4.10 .ina#y distillation colu!n.
1. 6a$o# holdu$ on each t#ay will be ne&lected. ..
7. The !4la# heats o "a$o#i8ation o both co!$onents - and .a#e
a$$#o'i!ately equal. This !eans that 1 !ol o condensin& "a$o#
#eleases enou&h heat to "a$o#i8e 1 !ol o liquid.
*. The heat 4o4ses #o! the colu!n to the su##oundin&s a#e assu!ed
to be ne&li&ible.
4. The #elati"e. "olatility a o the two co!$onents #e!ains constant
th#ou&hout the colu!n.
(. 9ach t#ay. is. assu44d 4o be+ 100: eicient (i.e., the "a$o# lea"in&
each t#ay I( inequilib#iu! with the liquid on the t#ay).
The i#st th#ee assu!$tions i!$ly that
V =VI =-
.
=... = V
/
and the#e is no need o# ene#&y balance a#ound each t#ay.
. The la4t tw4 assu!$tions i!$ly that a si!$le "a$o#2liquid equilib2
nu! #elatl.onshl$ 4an be used to #elate the !ola# #action o - in the
"a$4# lea"in& the I th t#ay (Yi) wit+h the !ola# #action o - in the liquid
lea"in& the sa!e t#ay (,i)0 .
Yi - _ _ a _ x _ i _ _
1 + (a - l)x l
whe#e a is the #elati"e "olatility o the two co!$onents - and ..
71
(4.70)
2 Modeling the Dynamic and Static Behavior of Chem
'ocesses
Part "
The final assumptions that we will make are the following:
6. Neglect the dynamics of the condenser and the reboiler. It is clear
that these two units (heat exchangers constitute processing systems
on their own right and as such they. ha!e a dynamic beha!ior (see
"xample #.$%. Therefore& accurate modeling should include the
state e'uations6which describe the dynamic beha!ior of condenser
and reboiler.
). Neglect the momentum balance for each tray and assume that the
molar flow rate of the li'uid lea!ing each tray is related to the
li'uid holdup of the tray through the *rancis weir formula:
L; =J(M;) i + $& %& ... & I, ... , N (#.%$
,et us now dle!elopthe state e'uations that will describe the dynamic
beha!ior of a distillation .column& The fundamental 'uantities are total
mass and mass of component -. .ut the 'uestion is: /hat is the system
around which we will make the balances0 *rom a practical point of !iew&
LN
tVN
+
F,
t VN_1
c&
FO,x
D
*eed tray
(a
(b
~
-
~ r
tVI c,
L(+I
L;_I
h-II +
+ , '
~ _ --
ith tray
(d
(c
*igure #.$$ 1odeling details of the binary distillation' column: (a f2ed
section3 (b top section and o!erhead accumulator3 &(c bottom section
and reboiler3 (d general ith tray.
Chap.
Develop. , ! of a Math"ematical Model
t2e boundary of the system of interest is outlined by dashed lines in
*igure #.l0 4.u2ha boundary clearly identifies the inputs and outputs of
pract5cal 4lg2lflcance for the o!erall system. It is also e!ident that unless
we can d2scn0e how the conce2trations and li'uid holdups on each tray
change /5th time& we cannot find how the !ariables of practical signifi6
canc2& such as XD and XB, change with time. Therefore& we are forced to
. consider the balances around each tray. Thus /e ha!e (see also *igure
#.$$:
*eed tray (i + J):
. d(M
t
)
Total mass. 2 #Fj+ Lt+1+ Vt-, - L
t
- Vt= F
t
+ Lt+l - Lt (#.%%a
. 7omponent -' d(Mtxt) - F.' L .
. ~ - tCf+ 1+,Xt+'+ Vt-,Yt-, - Ltxt- JfYt (#.%%b
Top tray (i #N):
. d(MN)' .
Total mass. 2 #F + VN_, - L! - V
N
#F - L! (#.%8a
7omponent -: d(M! x! )
dt (#.%8b
.ottom tray (i + + I$"
-r- d(M
1
),
5otal mass: 2 + L % 6 L, + V - V, + L" # L,
C % d(M,x:,)
omponent: .$ % =L"X" + VYB - L1x, - V,&,
ith tray (i + %& ... & ! 9,and i+ : + f:
. d(M;) .
Total mass. 2 + &'+ , - L; + Vi.,., - Vi #L;+I - L; (#.%;a
(#.%#a
(#.%#b
C % d(M;Xi)
omponenr & : 2 #Li+,xl+' + V;-'Yi-' - Lix, - V;Y; (#.%;b
<eflux drum:
' (r ( I .d(MRD)
iora mass. 2 #VN - FR - FD (#.%6a
7
' d(MRDXD)
omponent -: '= dt # VNYN- (FR + FD)XD (#.%6b
7olumn base:
' (r . I .d(Ms) .
5ota mass. 62 #LI - V ..... FB
C
%
d(MBXB)
omponenr : > dt #L,xI ...; VYB - FBxB
(#.%)a
(#.%)b
74 Modeling the Dvnamic'and Static Behavior of Chemical Processes Part II
All the equations above are state equations and describe the dynamic
belhavior of the distillation column. The state variables of the model are:
Liquid holdups: MI. M2,' , M
f
, ... , M
N
; Miw and MB
Liquid concentrations: x I,. X 2, , xf,. ; . , .XN; XD and XiJ
To complete the modeling of the column, in addition to the state
equations, e need the folloing relationships:
I.!quilibrium relationships:
ax;
y;=-----
1 + (a -:-l)x;
i =",2, ... ., ... , N, B (4.20)
2. #ydraulic relationships $%rancis eir formula&:
L; =/(M
,
) i =I, 2, ... , ', ... , N $4,,2"&
(hen all the modeling equations above are solved, e find ho the
flo rates and concentrations of the to product streams $distillate, bot5
tom& change ith time, in the presence of changes in the various input
variables.
The modeling steps outlined above indicate that the overall procedure
may be tedious and full of simplifying assumptions. At times the resulting
model is overhelming in si*e and the solution of the corresponding
equations may be cumbersome .. %or the. binary distillation column e
have to solve a system of
2N + 4 nonlinear differential equations $state equations&
and
2N + " algebraic equations $equilibrium, and hydraulic relationships&
.! ModelingDiffic"lti#s
The: modeling e+amples discussed in previous sections of this chapter
should have alerted the reader to a series of difficulties that e may
encounter in our efforts to develop a meaningful and realistic mathe5
matical description of a chemical process.
!xa"ple 4."4: #ifficulties in the Modelin$ of a %&'(
,onsideringthe mathematical modeling of a ,-T. $!+ample 4."/&,
the folloing difficulties arise:
". 0etermine ith the desired accuracy the values of various parame5
ters such as the pree+ponential 1inetic constant k
o
; the activation
energy E, and the overall heat transfer coefficient U. . .
2. Although the specific heat capacities, %p and %)t' have been consid ...
ered constant, they are in general functions ofthe temperature T
Cha$.
Develo$ment of a Mathematical Model
75
and the concentration ,A. #o do e decide that this dependence is
ea1 $so that e can use constant values as in the e+ample& or
strong. $in hich case the modeling becomes very complicated&2
The same questions arise for the densities ) and )i and the heat of
reaction (-IlB,). .
3. 0uring the operation of the ,-T., scaling, fouling, and so on, ill
alter the value of the overall heat transfer coefficient. #o can e
account for this effect in the mathematical4model2
#(e have considered first5order 1inetics to describe the reaction
rate. Is this correct2
(ecan classify the difficulties encountered during the mathematical
modeling of a process in three categories:
". Those arising from poorly understood chemical or physical phe5
nomena
2. Those caused from inaccurate values of various parameters
3. Those caused from the si*e and the comple+ity of the resulting
model
Poorl% "nderstood $rocesses
To understand completely the physical and chemical phenomena
occurring in5a chemical process is virtually impossible. !ven an accept5
able degree of 1noledge is at times6 very difficult. Typical e+amples
7cl77 ,
Multico"ponent reaction s*ste"s with poorl* +nown interactions
a"on$ the various co"ponents and i"precisel* +nown +inetics
,apor.liquid or liquid.liquid ther"od*na"ic equilibria for "ul.
tico"ponent s*ste"s
/eat and "ass transfer interactions in distillation colu"ns with
nonideal "ultico"ponent "ixtures, a0eotropic "ixtures, and so on.
!xa"ple 1.2
,onsider the fluidi*ed catalytic crac1ing process shon in %igure 4."2.
An oil feed composed of heavy hydrocarbon molecules is mi+ed ith
catalyst and enters a fluidi*ed bed reactor. The long molecules. react on
the surface of the catalyst and are crac1ed into lighter product molecules
$such as gasoline&hich leave the reactor from the top. (hile crac1ing is
ta1ing place, carbon and other heavy uncrac1ed organic materials are
deposited on the surface of the catalyst, leading to its deactivation. The
catalyst is then ta1en into a regenerator, here the material deposited on
its surface is burned ith air. Then, the regenerated catalyst returns to the
reactor after it has been mi+ed ith fresh feed.
Modeling the Dynamic and Static Behavior of Chemil
Part II
Jcesses
__ ...... 'Product (to the separators)
gases
Reactor
Air Regenerated
catalyst
Heavy oil feed
Figure 4.12 Fluid catalytic 'cracing (F!!) syste".
#o "odel the t$o units% the follo$ing infor"ation "ust &e availa&le'
1 #he reaction rate of the. cracing% process ' .
2' #he rate $ith $hich car&on and heavy "aterial are de(osl(ed%on
the catalyst (this $ill deter"ine the rate of catalyst deactlvatl)n)
*. #he dependence of the t$o rates a&+ve on the te"perature of the
reactor and the ,uality of the feed (light (r heavy) .
4 #he rate $ith $hich car&onaceous "atenal deposited on the cata.
% . lyst is &urned off in the'regenerator% and its dependence on te"per.
ature
All of the foregoing infor"ation is not only difficult t( ac(uire% &ut at
ti"es it leads to contradicting contentions. For e/a"ple0 in Figure 4.1*(e
see t$o "odels that descri&e the effect of the heavy 1 112 feed rat( ond
t
&e
re(3ctorte"perature. 4e notice that the ,ualitative &ehavior predicte y
the t$o "odels is ,uite different. . . d i .
Finally the t$o units (reactor% regenerator) are flu5(l6ed &eds an . 5(78
$ell no$n ho$ poorly understood the fluid "echanical charactenstlcs
of such units are.
Reactor
te"perature
Figure 4.1* #$o different "odels to descri(e the effect of heavy oil feed
rate on reactor te"perature for the F!! u"t.
Chap;4 Developn of a Mathematical Model
Imprecisely known parameters
#he availa&ility of accurate values for the para"eters of a "odel is
indispensa&le for any ,uantitative analysis of the &ehavior of a process.
9nfortunately% this is not al$ays possi&le. #ypical e/a"ples include the
pree/ponential constant of a inetic rate e/pression.
It should also &e pointed &ut that the values of the para"eters do
not re"ain constant over long periods of ti"e. #herefore% for effective
"odeling $e need not only accurate. values &ut also so"e ,uantitative
description of ho$% the para"etric values change $ith ti"e. #ypical
e/a"ples of changing para"eters are the activity of a catalyst and the
overall heat transfer coefficient of heat transfer syste"s (heat
e/changers% :aceted reactors% etc.).
#he dead ti"e is also a critical para"eter $hose value is usually
i"precisely no$n and varying. As $e $ill see in a later section% poor
no$ledge of the dead ti"e can lead to serious sta&ility pro&le"s for
the process.
4hen no relia&le values for the para"eters are availa&le% $e resort
to e/peri"ents on the real process in an effort to esti"ate so"e ;good;
values for the". #he e/peri"ental procedures $ill &e discussed further
in !hapter *1.
Sie and comple!ity of a model
5n an effort to develop as accurate and precise a "athe"atical
"odel as possi&le% its si6e and 'co"ple/ity increase significantly.
Example 4.16
!onsider a distillation colu"n $ith 21 trays% a re&oiler% and a con.
denser. #he feed is a t$o.co"ponent "i/ture. #hen. as $e have seen in
</a"ple 4.1*% the "athe"atical "odel is co"posed of
2N " 4 #2(21 ) " 4 #44 differential e,uations
and
2N " 1#2(21 ) " 1#41 alge&raic e,uations
#he si6e of the "odel for such a si"ple syste" is already prohi&itive.
8ince the co""on distillation syste"s include feeds $ith "ore than t$o
co"ponents and possess larger nu"&ers of trays% it is clear that such an
e/tensive "odeling $ould lead to cu"&erso"e and hard.to.use "odels.
#herefore% care' "ust &e e/ercised that the si6e and co"ple/ity of a
"odel do not e/ceed certain "anagea&le levels% &eyond $hich the
"odel loses its value and &eco"es less attractive.
78 Modeling the Dynamic and Static Behaviorof Chemical Processes
Part"
THINGS T THIN! "B#T
1. What is a mathematical model of a physical process, and what do we mean
when we talk about mathematical modeling?
2. In Figure 4.13 we see two different cures that relate the temperature and
the feed rate of the reactor for the fluid catalytic cracking unit discussed in
!"ample 4.1#, Is the term $model$ appropriate for each of these cures?
3. %et us recall that the steam tables gie the temperature at which water
li&uid and water apor are at e&uilibrium for a gien pressure. 'hey also
gie the specific alues for enthalpy, entropy, and olume of both li&uid
and apor phases. (o) these) tables of alues constitute a mathematical
model?
4. *onsider the graphs shown in Figure +4.1, 'hese graphs were produced by
measuring the concentration of , in the reaction - ... ,, oer time, and at
arious temperatures, (o these graphs represent a mathematical model?
*oncentration of .
'emperature T)
'ime
Figure +4.1
#. Why do you need to deelop. the mathematical model of a process you want
to control?
/. What are the state ariables, and what are the state e&uations? What are
they used for? .
0. 1ow many state ariables do you need to )describe a system that is com;
posed of M phases and Ncomponents?
.. We know that when two phases are at thermodynamic e&uilibrium, the
chemical potential /1i,) of eery component (i) in phase I is e&ual to the
chemical potential 31i.1I of the same component in phase II4
/1i.1 $31i.lI, i $1,2, .. $ N
!"press the e&uilibrium relationship aboe in terms of the mole concentra;
tions of the N components in the two phases. 'he answer to this &uestion
will demonstrate to you that we do not need the concentrations of the N
components in both phases in order to describe the system,
5. Write a relationship that will gie you the molar or the specific enthalpy of
Cha%& '
Develo%ment of a Mathematical Model
05
a multicomponent li&uid at temperature T and pressure p, with known
composition for the Ncomponents.
16.. 7epeat &uestion 5, but with a gas instead of a li&uid.
11.. *onsider the flash drum of !"amples 40 and 4.) ( I .
f h ,... . ) ).) ee op an e"pressIon
or t e density of the ap,or phase, using the an der Waals e&uation of
state. 8tate also an e"pressron for the density of the li&uid phase.
12. When is a system at steady state?
13. What is the main reason for the presence of dead time in a process?
14. (o you know of any systems that do not possess dead time?
1#. 1ow would you find the dead time ofa system?
1/. In Figure +4.2 we see the behaior of the concentration at the outlet of two
processes after concentration at the inlets and at .time t 6 wa . d
3 by 169, Which process possesses dead time? :. $ s increase
*oncentration
1=0
'ime
Figure +4.2 )
10. What are the assumptions leading to e&uimolar apor flow
V V V ;rates <i.e.,
, I = 2 $( ) ) * $( 'N = V) for a binary distillation column?
1.. Why hae we neglected the energy balances for the binary ideal distillation
column of !"ample 4.13?
15. What are. t>e as>umptions leading to the e&uilibrium relationship <4.26?
and how I8 It dened? )
26. *ould you hae dead time between the oerhead apor and the distillate
product? If yes, why?
21. *onsider again ,!"ample. 4.5. 8how that the dead time can be computed
from the followmg e&uation
J ~ t d F (J )d (J $olume of the pipe
$>her> F (J ) i.s the olumetric flow rate of the li&uid through the pipe as a
function of trme, 'he aboe e&uation is more general than that of !"ample
4,5, where the olumetric flow rate was assumed to be constant.
Model ing Considerations
for Control Purposes
5
The mathematical modeling of physical and che~ical p~enome~a,
encountered in processing systems of interest to chemical engineers, 1S a
form of scientific art. Like every type of art it does not co~form to, nor
obey dearly specified rules and recipes. It is an expression of all t~le
edu~ational background and previous practical expenence of. t ie
modeler, Therefore, if previous sections have g~nerated more questlns
to the reader than ans!ers to specific modebn~ pr~bl~ms" he or sl~e
shoulld not despair. #ood and efficient modehng 1S acquired slo! y
!ith ever*increasing ability. . . . .
%n this chapter !e attempt to focus the ma~hemat1cal m~del~ng o~
control purposes and needs. Thus !e !ill exarmne the follo!ing issues&
1. Starting from the state*variables. model, ho~ one can develop an
input*output model !hich is very convement for control pur*
~'~ . . dt
( )sing the mathematical model of a process, ho! can one e er*
. mine the degrees of freedom inherent in the process, and conse*
quently, identify the extent of the control problem to be solved+
,e !ill close this chapter !ith some general guidelin~s that !ill help
the control designer to formulate the scope of modehng for control
purposes.
Chap. 5 Modeling - 3iderations for Control Purposes
5.1 The Input-Output Model
. .very chemical process and, its associated variables can be described
pictorially as sho!n in /igure 5.1. The main block represents the proc*
ess, !hile the arro!s indicate the inputs and outputs ofthe process.
0 mathematical model that is convenient and useful to a control
system designer should conform !ith the picture above, 1i.e., be such
that, given the values ofthe inputs, it provides directly the values of the
outputs2. %n particular, the model should have the follo!ing general
form for every output3
output 4 "1input variables2
)sing /igure 5.1, the relationship above implies that
for i 4 %, (, ... , m
Such a model, describing directly the relationship bet!een the input
and output variables of a process, is called an input-output model. Itis
a very convenient form since it represents directly the cause*and*effect
relationship in processing systems. /or this reason it is also appealing to
process engineers and control designers.
The mathematical models !e learned to develop in 5hapter 6 using
state variables are not of the. direct input*output type. 7evertheless,
they constitute the basis for the development of an input*output model.
This is particularly easy and straightfor!ard when the state variables
coincide completely with the output variables of a process. %n such a case
!e can integrate the state model to produce the input*output model of
the process. 8
istu rbanccs
m
l
9anipulated m2
variables
Yl
Y2 utputs
Ym
/igure S.l 0 chemical process and its associated inputs and outputs .
Example 5.1& Input-utput Model for the !tirred "an# $eater
5onsider again the stirred tank heater discussed in .xample 6.6.
0Ssume that %& =%' !hich yields d()dt =:, leaving the total energy
82
Part II
(4.5b)
or
dT 1
- + aT =- T; + KTsl
dt' r
(5.1)
where
F;
---=-
I
d=-+K
r
r V
Equation (5! is the mathematical model of the stirred tank heater with
T the state variable, while T; and TSI are the input variables. Let us see
how we can develop the corresponding input(output model.
!t stead" state, eq. (5.1) "ields
1
0+ aT, # ( Tu + KTsI,s
r
(5.$)
where Ts, T;. _ t, and T, are the stead"(state values of the corresponding
variables. %ubtract (5.$) from (5.1) and take
d (T - Ts) ITT )
-'-d-- + a(T -Ts) =-,(Ti - T,. s) + K( 51 ( 51,%
t r
or
dT' T' 1 T' KT'
-'-+a # (&' sr
dt r
where T' =T - Ts, T', =T; - Ti; and T~t =T' - T, indicate the devia(
tions from the corresponding stead"(state values.
(5"#!
)he solution of (5.*) is
T'(t) =Cle-
at
+ e-
at
Sot eat [~ Ti + KT;Jdl
(5.4)
!ssuming that initiall" the heater is at stead" state, +i.e., at t # ,,
$% =,-, we easil" find that ./ =0. )herefore, eq, (5.4) gives
Cha&" 5 Modeling Considerations for Control P'r&oses
1*
~---------------------------------
I
: r;(t)
/nputs
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
( )
* + + + + + + In&'t-o't&'t model I
---------------------------~
2igure 5.$ /nput(output model of a stirred tank heater.
T'(t) ~ e: " f eO ' [~ T; ' KT~] di (5.5)
Equation (5.5) e3presses 4the relationship between the inputs (T' T') d
the output (T') d . I, st an
, . 4. an 506stltutes the input(output model for the tank
heater. )his relationship /% also depicted pictoriall" in 2igure 5.$.
Ea!"le 5.17 I#"$t-O $t"$t %odel &o' a %ii#( )'o*ess
, .onsider ag5in the process. of mi3ing of two streams discussed in
d5mp5e 4.51 (2igure 4.1). !ssume that FI + F2 =F
+
, which implies that
h
Idt - , (/.e.7 V # constant). )he heats of solutions are independent of
t e concentration, which implies that
. [,-.s'- ,-.
sJ
/ =[,-.s0 - ,-.
S+
/ # ,
ihll
en
5he. state equations +eqs. (4.1*a) and (4.14a)) are reduced to the
8, owmg.
(5.9a) ,
and
dT * + (F / + F $) T =F 1 F $ Q
dt V V # " T ( + - T 2 - --
V V pCpV
!t stead" state eqs. (5.9a) and (5.9b) "ield
0+ (FI + F2) _ FI F2
V V C1+,s - V C1l,s + V C10,s
(5.9b)
(5.:a)
and
. (F F)
.+ ++++/ + ___ T # FI F2 2s
V V +. s T3. s + - T0,s - -- (5.:b)
V V pCpV
Modeling the Dynamic and Static Behavior of Chemic
Part II icesses
r - - - - - - - - - - ~ - - - ~ - ~ - - - - - - ~ - - - - - - - l
I I
, I J
CAt(l) I I
,. '
Inputs 9___"~9iI~
T't(t)
CA2(t)
_ ___.;~-~ F1IV 1------'
Ti(t)
Q'(I)
(~ T'l + ~ Ti KQ') L---' ----. . . :
J
I
I
I
J I
I Input9output model I
L ~ ~ - - - - - - - - ~ ~
Figure 5.:~.Input9output model of a miing process.
!u"tract (5.#a) from (5.$a) and (5.#") from (5.$") and ta%e
d CA3 ' F" F
2
,
--+ aCA)=- CAl +-CA&
d t . V V
dTJ ..T, _ FIT' + F
&
T' + KQ'
-+a -- I . !-
d t V V
(5.'a)
(5.'")
()ere CAt* cA&* cA+ * T' T'i; ,J - and .* are de/iation /aria"les defined as
follo(s:
and
n:0 TI- TI"
Also
"I Fz
a=- 199-9
V V
#
K=--
pCpV
and
,)e solution of(5.'a) and (5.'") 2ields
r' I [ F I- F
&
- J d O t
c A3 (t) 0 c . e " + e " J o e " V CAl + V CA&
and
(5.3a)
(!.3")
4utputs
C)apo5 $% Modeling . &ideration& for Control P'r(o&e&
If t)e s2stem is initiall2 (i.e.- at t )5) at stead2 state- t)en
CA3 (t )5) )5 and (t 0 5) 0 5
and it results in C I )C2;= o.
67uations (5.3a) and (5.3") represent t)e input9output model for t)e
miing process- and is s)o(n sc)ematicall2 in Figure 5.+ .
!"#a$%&
8. In 6amples 5.8 and 5.& t)e output /aria"les coincide (it) t)e
state /aria"les of t)e t(o processes. Conse7uentl2- in order to
de/elop t)e input9output model (e need onl2 sol/e t)e differen9
tial e7uations of t)e mass and energ2 "alances. ,)is is not al(a2s
true. ,a%e as an eample t)e "inar2 distillation column model
(6ample :.8+ and Figure :.85). For t)is s2stem (e )a/e:
!tate /aria"les:
, Liquid hold up! " ) " &-. ;;- "#o. . . $ "'. "
!(
%&d "'
Liquid c o&c e &t(%tio&! )" ) &- ;;; - )*+ .. " )IV. ), %&d )-
4utput /aria"les:
*itill%te p(od uc t #lo+ (%te %&d c o,poitio&! F, %&d ),
'otto, p(od uc t#lo+ (%te %&d c o,poitio&! F- %&d )-
<e notice t)at (e )a/e man2 more state /aria"les t)an outputs.
For suc) s2stems-* t)e de/elopment of t)e input9output model is
7uite in/ol/ed and difficult. Figure 5.: depicts pictoriall2 t)e
input9output model t)at (e (ould li%e to de/elop for t)e "inar2
ideal distillation column.
&. In su"se7uent c)apters (e (ill stud2 t)e met)od of =aplace
transforms- ()ic) allo(s a muc) simpler de/elopment of input9
output models from t)e corresponding state models.
>istur"ances
F$ c
*
FD
?anipulated F-
/aria"les F.
".*
./ 4utputs
Xo
X8
Figure 5.: Inputs and outputs of a "inar2 distillation c@lumn.
5.2 Degrees of Freedom
The degrees of freedom of a processing system are the independent
variables that must be specified in order to define the process corn/
pletely. Consequently, the desired control of a process will be achieved
when and only when. all the degrees of freedom have been specified.
A good understanding of how many degrees of freedom are inherent
in a process, and which they are, is very crucial for the design of
effective controllers; For a specified system, its mathematical model is
the basis for finding the degrees of freedom under both dynamic and
static conditions. Let us start with two characteristic eamples.
Example !."# Degrees of Freedom in a Stirred Tank Heater
The mathematical model of a stirred tan$ heater %&ample '.'( is
given by
A~: =Fi - F %'.'a(
~ dT . Q
Ah-=Fi(T;-T)+- %'.!b(
dt pc
)hen eqs, %'.'a( and %'.!b( are solved simultaneously, we can find how h
%liquid level( and T %liquid temperature( change with time when the
inputs (T~,F
i
Q! change. Let us as$ though the following two questions#
1. *s solution of the equations possible+
,. *f solution is possible, how many solutions eist+
To answer these questions, let us count equations and variables#
number of equations =,;
number of variables =-;
eqs. %'.'a( and %'.!b(
h T F" F t;and Q
)e have assumed that A, p, and cp are parameters with given constant
values.
)e notice that
number of variables. number of equations
Consequently, the answer to the first question is# yes, there eists at least
one solution to the equations modeling the tan$ heater. )ith respect to
the second question we easily conclude that there is an infinite number of
solutions since we can specify arbitrarily the values of four variables
%' =- / ,( and solve eqs. %'.'a( and %'.!b( for the remaining two vari/
ables.
The arbitrarily specified variables are the degrees of freedom and
their number is given by the following obvious relationship#
j =%number of variables( / %number of equations(
0uppose that we specify the values of the four variables Fi. T;, F, and
Q. Then we can integrate eqs. %'.'a( and %'.!b( and f1r 2how hand T
Part II Chap. 5
Modeling Considerations for Control Prposes
!"
%#2ange with time. If we give different values to F
i
, or Ti, or F or Q, we
hnd that hand T change differe2tl3 than. before. Consequently, if we
want hand Tto cha2ge Ina 4prescribedmanner, we should not have any
degrees of freedom %5.2., vana+les that can ta$e arbitrary values(. This
leads us to the conclusion that #n $order to specify a process completely the
n%mber of degrees of freedom sho%ld be &ero.
Example !.'# Degrees of Freedom in an #deal 'inary Distillation
(ol%mn .
. Consider the model for an ideal binary distillation column developed
In &ample '.5". )e have# .
6umber of
equations
7rigin
N # I
N
,
,
2
)*+ , "(
,
,
&quilibrium relationships Ceq. %'.,8(9
:ydraulic relationships Ceq. %'.,5(9
;alances around the feed tray Ceq. %'.,,a(, %'.,,b(9
;alances around the top tray <eqs. %'.,"a(, %'.,"b(9
;alances around the bottom tray <eqs. %'.,'a(, %'.,'b((
;alances around the ith tray; i $ *, 6,f<eqs. %'.,!a(, %'.,!b(9
;alances around the reflu drum <eqs. %'.,-a(, %'.,-b(9
;alances around the column base <eqs. %'.,=a(, %'.,=b(9
Total -.+ # !
6umber of variables
Type
+/)
N > 5
+/)
+
-
0i i = *, ,, , f, ,+ D ' liquid compositions
1i i = *, ,, , f, ,+ ' vapor compositions
23 i ? *, ,, , f, ,+ 4D ' liquid holdups
5 t ? 5,,, ,f, ,+ liquid flows
FI,c6 FD, FH, FR, V
Total ? .+ # **
The 2umber of degrees of freedom for the ideal binary distillation col/
umn *0 @
f=*.+ # 55( / *.+ # !( =-
That is, we need to specify the values of si variables before we can solve
the model of the binary distillation.
The observations made and the conclusions drawn from the two
eam4ples above can now. be generaliAed for any processing system
descnb2d by a .s2t of E independent equations %differential andBor
algebraic( containing 7 independent variables. The number of degrees
of freedom for suchC a system is given by
8-7,E
8 Modeling the Dynamic and Static Behavior of Chern rocesses Part II
According to the value of I, we can distinguish the following cases:
Case 1. IfI=0, we have a system of equations with equal number of
variables. The solution ofthe E equations yields unique values for the
V variables. In this case we say that the process is exactly specified,
Case . If I> 0, we have more variables than equations. !ultiple
solutions result from the E equations since we can specify arbitrarily I
of the variables. In this case we say that the process is underspecified by
Iequations "i.e., we need f additional equations to have a unique
solution#.
Case $.. IfI< 0, we have more equations than variables and in general
there is no solution to the E equations. In this case we say that the .
system is overspecified by Iequations "i.e., we need to remove% equa3
tions to have at solution for the system#.
Remarks
1. It is clear from the analysis above that sloppy modeling of a
process may lead to a model that does not include all the relevant
equations and variables or includes redundant equations and
variables. In either case we have an erroneous determination of
the degrees of freedom, which may imply incorrectly that we have
an infinite number of solutions or no solution at all.
. The presence of a control loop in a chemical process introduces a.n
additional equation between the corresponding measured and
manipulated variables, thus reducing by one the initial number of
degrees of freedom for the process.
Example 5.5
The stirred tan' heater is modeled by two equations containing si(
variables, thus yielding four degrees of freedom ")(ample *.$#. This is
true if the effluent flow rate F is determined by a pump, valve, and so on.
+et us suppose that this is not the case and that the liquid flows out from
the tan' freely under the hydrostatic pressure of the liquid in the tan'. In
this case there is an additional equation relating F to h "e.g., F =PJ/i),
which reduces the number of degrees of freedom by one.
Example 5.
,onsider again the stirred tan' heater, but now under feedbac' con3
trol- ".igure *.*#. ,ontrol loop 1 maintains the liquid level at a desired
value by measuring the level of the liquid and ad/usting the value otthe
effluent flow rate. Therefore, .control loop 1 introduces a relationship
between F and h. 0imilarly, control loop maintains the temperature of
the liquid at the desired value by manipulating the flow of steam and thus
the flowof heat 1. ,onsequently, control loop introduces a relationship
he tween 0and T.
Chap. 5 Modell, .onsiderations for Control P!rposes
F
.2 2 ,2 on2 ,tr,2 .ol2 le2 r 3-4 .s!
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
"
+oop I
+oop
,ondensate
.igure *.* .eedbac' loops of a stirred tan' heater.
It is clear from the analysis above that the two control loops -introduce
two additional equations, thus reducing the degrees of freedom by two.
5.# Degrees of $reedomand Process
Controllers
In general, a c4 refully modeled process will possess one or more degrees
of freedom. 0ince for I" 0 the process will have an infinite number of
solutions, the following question arises:
5ow do you reduce the number of degrees of freedom to 6ero so
that you can have a completely specified system with unique
behavior7
It is clear that for an underspecified system with Idegrees of freedom,
we need to introduce Iadditional equations to ma'e the system com3
pletely specified. There are two sources which provide the additional
equat4 ons: %&' the -e(ternal world and "# the control system. +et us
e(amine them closer using the stirred tan' heater as our e(ample.
8ecall from )(ample *.$ that the stirred tan' heater possesses four
7tegrees.of freedom. Therefore, we need four additional relationships,
mde,7endent of -the modeling equations 9eqs. ":.:a#, ":.*b#;. These are
provided from the following considerations:
1. T.he feed flow rate F, and feed temperature T, are the main- two
4 Isturbances for the stirred tan' heater and they are both speci3
fled by the e(ternal world "e.g., the unit that precedes the tan'
heater#. Although the equations that specify F, and T, may not be
'nown to us, nevertheless they e(ist and remove two degrees of
freedom. Thus we have : 3 , =7 rp<,4 i,.,i<ft rf(.... )... A.. ,..4-"4-"_~~..I~_
2. Acceptable operation of the tank heater requires that the .liquid
level and liquid temperature in the tank heater be maintained at
desired values. These two control objectives can be achieved with
the two control loops shown in Figure 5.5 and discussed in !am"
ple 5.#. $ut the introduction of the two control loops adds two
equations %see !ample 5.#&' thus removing the remaining two
degrees of freedom.
(ummari)ing the observations above we conclude the following*
+. The e!ternal world' b, specif,ing the values of the disturbances'
removes as man, degrees of freedom as the number of distur-
bances.
2. The control s,stem required to achieve the control objec+tives
removes as man, degrees of freedom as the number of control
objectives.
-uring the reduction in the number of degrees of freedom for a
chemical process' care must be e!ercised not to specif, more control
objectives. than it is possible for the particular s,stem. Thus we can
have at most two control objectives for the stirred tank heater. .hen we
attempt* to have three control objectives' we are led to an overspecified
s,stem with f< /.
Example 5.0* Reduce the Degrees 0/ Freedom 0/ an deal !inar"
Distillation .#olumn
1eturn to the ideal binar, distillation column %Figure 2.+0&. The s,s"
tern possesses si! degrees of freedom %see !ample 5.2&' which are speci"
fied as follows*
$pecification of the Disturbances. Two are the main disturbances for the
binar, distillation column* the feed flow rate Ff and the feed composition
#f. Their values are specified b, the e!ternal world %e.g.' a reactor whose
effluent stream is the feed to the distillation column&* Although the equa"
tions specif,ing Ff and #f are not known to us' the, do e!ist and remove
two degrees of freedom' leaving four for additional specifications.
$pecification oj the #ontrol %bjectives. .e can have up to four control
objectives since there are four remaining degrees of freedom. Acceptable
operation of the binar, column requires that the following variables be
maintained at desired values*
I.3omposition of the distillate stream' &D
2. 3omposition of the bottoms stream' &!
4. 5iquid holdup in the reflu! drum' 'RD
2. 5iquid holdup at the base of the column' '!
(pecifications + and 2 characteri)e the two product streams' (pecifica"
tions 4 and 2 are required for operational feasibilit, %if e do not want
Part II Chap. 5
Modeling Considerations for Control Purposes
91
Feed
3ontroller !."
$ottoms
product
5oop 2
IXn. . I
#$$% "&
Figure 5.# Feedback loops of a binar, distillation column.
to flood or dr, up the reflu! drum or the base of the column&. Figure 5.#
shows the four control loops that satisf, the foregoing four objectives.
.6 must note .that these four specifications of the control objectives
7na, 68ffer' accord.mg.to'the particular operating objectives. For e!ample'
1'a different application we ma, impose the following control objectives*
9eep at the desired values the distillate flow rate F
D
, its composi"
non &D( and the two liquid holdups 'RD and 'n
or
6eep at the desired values the bottoms flow rate F
B
, its composi"
tion &!( and the two liquid holdups' M
RD
( and M
!
.
6are must be e!ercised not to specif" more control objectives than the
available number of degrees of freedom. 8n such a case the s,stem
be6o8:es overspeci6ied and it is impossible to design a control s,stem that
satisfies all the desired control objectives. Thus it is impossible to design
a control s,stem for th6 ideal binar, distillation column that can satisf,
the followmg (8;operational %control& objectives*
9eep at the desired values the F
D
( &D) F, &!) 'RD and M.
Example 5.<* Deg*ees 0/ Freedom 0/ a 'ixing +rocess
3onsider the
=tisothermal .mi!ing of two streams discussed in
2
Modeling the Dynamic and Static Behavior of Chemi ocesses Part II
Example 4 . 1 1(Figure 4.8). The mathematical model is given by the equa*
tions
number of variables =1!" V, F" F2, F3, #$l% #$2% #$&
T" T2' T&' Q, p, cp, Ail ()% AiI (2% Ails3
number of state equations =&
initial degrees of freedom =1! * & =1&
Further limitations o+ the degrees o+ +reedom are as +ollo,s"
(4.12a)
(4.l&a)
(4.l4a)
Physical properties of the liquids are specified i!e!, p and cp).
The heats of solution Ail ()% Ail (2% and Ail (& are functions of the
corresponding concentrations, and the reference temperature To"
A#sl -+l(c$)% #.)% To$ A#s2 %f2cA2& #.2% To$ tl#s3 - 'l
(A
3& #/&% To$
These three equations reduce the degrees o+ +reedom by &. #onse*
quently' a+ter the speci+ications above ,e have le+t'
1&* 0 =8 degrees o+ +reedom
The eight degrees o+ +reedom are no, speci+ied as +ollo,s"
)T
_ _ _ _ _ _ . . . J
Fleure 0.1 Feedbac2 loons o+a mixing process.
Chap, 5 Modeling C lerations fr Control P!rposes 93
)pecification of the *isturbances! There are +ive main disturbances com*
ing +rom the t,o +eed streams"
Feed stream 1" Flo TI Feed stream 2" F2' T2 and c$2
The values o+ the disturbances% are speci+ied by the external ,orld.
)pecification of the (ontrol +b,ectives! #onsidering +ive disturbances
speci+ied by the external ,orld' ,e have only 8 * 0 =& degrees o+ +reedom
le+t. There+ore' ,e can speci+y up to three control ob3ectives. These are"
4eep the volume (V) o+ the mixture in the tan2 as ,ell as the
temperature (T) and composition (#$&) o+ the e++luent stream at
desired values.
Figure 0.1 sho,s three possible +eedbac2 control loops that satis+y the
ob3ectives above. %
5. . 4 "orm!lating the Scope of. Modeling for
Process. Control
It should be clear by no, that e++icient modeling o+ a chemical process
is a nontrivial tas2 but also very crucial +or the design o+ a control
system. .e+ore closing the present chapter' let us emphasi5e some o+ the
+actors that ,ill determine the scope o+ modeling +or control purposes.
.e+ore attempting to mode6.a process' ,e must pose the +ollo,ing
questions and try to understand ,ell their implications"
1. 7hat are the control ob3ectives that ,e must satis+y8
2. 7hat are the expected disturbances and their impact8
&. 7hat are the dominant physical and chemical phenomena ta2ing
place in*the process to be controlled8
$ clear understanding o+ these questions and theirans,ers ,ill help
greatly to de+ine and simpli+y"
1. The system that ,e ,ill attempt to model
2. The mass' energy' and momentum balances that ,e should
develop
&. The additional equations ithat ,ill be needed to complete the
mathematical model o+ the .process (i.e.' transport and 2inetic rate
expressions' reaction and phase equilibria relationships' etc.)
They ,ill also help to identi+y"
1. The state variables
2. The input variables (manipulated and disturbances) and
&. The output variables
that the mathematical model should include.
Part"
Let us now examine each of the three questions posed above and see
how they affect the modeling of a process for control purposes through a
series of examples.
Control objectives
As discussed in Chapter 2,. the objectives that a!control system is
called on to satisfy may have to do with
Ensuring the stability in the operation of a process, or
Suppressing the influence of external disturbances, or
Optimizing the economic performance of a plant, or usually
A combination of the above
All the objectives above are translated into quantitative expressions
in terms of flowrates, temperatures, pressures, compositions, volumes,
and so on, of the form
variable x =desired value
or
variable x > or < bounding value
where variable x =flow rate, temperature, pressure, volume, composi!
tion, and so on.
"t is clear, therefore, that if we have identified the variables x which
define quantitatively our control objectives, the mathematical model
that we will develop must describe how these variables change with time.
Also, it will help us determine what balances are needed for the devel!
opment of the mathematical model.
Example 5.9
Consider the stirred tan# heater discussed in $xample %.%.
". "f our control objective is to #eep the liquid level at a desired value,
the only state variable ofinterest is the volume of the liquid in the
tan# &or equivalently the height of the liquid level' and conse!
quently we need only consider the total mass balance. (he disturb!
ance of interest is the flow rate of the inlet stream, i! .while the
manipulated variables to be considered are the outlet flow rate
and the inlet flow rate. Fi.
2. "f, on the other hand, our control objective is to #eep the tempera!
ture of the outlet stream, T, at a desired value, we must consider
both state variables the temperature and the level of the liquid in
the tan#. (his implies that we need write both total mass and energy
balances. (he disturbances of interest are the temperature and the
flow rate of the inlet stream, while the available ,.... ... nipulated vari!
ables are
i
, and Q.
Cha! " )* Modeling Considerations for Control P#roses
+. ,inally, if our control objectives are to #eep the temperature of the
effluent stream and the liquid level at desired values, we have a
situation similar to case 2 above.
ExampleS.lO
Consider the continuous mixing process discussed in $xample %.-"
&,igure %..'. /e can distinguish the following control situations
$! "f our control objective is to #eep the concentration of the effluent
stream in A at a desired value, the state variables of interest are the
volume of the mixture in the tan# and its concentration in A.
(he relevant balances are those on total mass and on component A.
(he disturbances of interest are CAl &or C0"'1 F., CA2 &or C02'1 and F"#
(he available manipulated variables are F., F2, F-, or the ratio
FdF"#
2. "f, on the other hand, our control objectives are to #eep the compo!
sition and the temperature of effluent stream at desired values we
need consider all three state variables &CAl1 V, T
3
) and formulate
all three balances &total mass, component A, total energy'. "n this
case the important disturbances are CAl1 it $it CA21 2, and $ ".
(he available manipulated variables are F., F2, F+, the ratio
FdF", and Q.
%&'ected dist#rbances and their imact
(he external disturbances which are expected to appear and affect
the operation of a process will influence the mathematical model that
we need to develop. ,urthermore, disturbances with a very small
impact on the operation of the process can be neglected, whereas distur!
bances with significant impact on the process must be included in the
mod.el.(his will determine the complexity of the model needed that is,
what balances and what state variables should be included in the model.
2tate variables that are affected very little by the expected distur!
bances can be eliminated from the model and, together with them, the
corresponding balances.
Example 5.%%
Let us return to the stirred tan# heater &$xample %.%'. %f the feed flow
rate &disturbance' is not expected .to vary significantly, the volume of the
liquid in the tan# will remain almost constant. "n this case
d&'dt 3 A dh'dt 3 4 and we can neglect the total mass balance and the
associated state variable h. (he mathematical model of interest for con!
trol purposes is given by the total energy balance alone 5eq. &%.*b6', with
temperature the only state variable.
(emar)s. 7ote that if the feed temperature $' is not expected to vary
significantly, but the feed flow rate F, is expected to change substantially,
the mathematical1 !! !8elcannot .be simplified as above, but it will be
given by both eqs. 9 a' and &%.*b'.
6 Modeling the Dynamic and Static Behavior of Chemi, .ocesses
Similar results to those above can be deduced for the CSTR system
(Example 4.10. !f the feed flo" rate is not expected to chan#e si#nifi)
cantly% the model can be simplified (i.e.% dV/dt =0 and it is #iven by
e&s% (4.'a and (4.10b.
Physlcal-chemlcal phenomena in a process
( #ood understandin# of the physical)chemical phenomena ta*in#
place in a process can lead to si#nificant model simplifications for
control purposes. Such simplifications can be done by excludin# from
the balances (model those terms that have small contributions.
Example 5.12
+(,tus return to the continuous mixin# process discussed in Exam)
ple 4.11.(ssume that for the particular components ( and - of the mix)
ture% the heat of solution does not depend si#nificantly on the composi)
tion of ( and -. !n this case (see Example 4.11
[~Hs, - ~Hs)] ~/[~Hs2 - (.s/ , 0
and the total ener#y balance 0e&. (4.14a can be simplified to the follo")
in#11
pc, V~TJ =pFlcp(TI - T
3
) +pF2Cp(T2 - T) Q
dt
!n other "ords% "e see that the nature of the mixin# phenomenon leads to
a simplification of the model.
2urthermore% 3assumin#3 that from all possible% disturbances only the
feed compositions CAl and CA are expected to chan#e si#nificantly
"hereas the feed flo" rates F. and F4 and feed temperatures T. and T4
are expected to remain almost the same% "e can omit from the mathemat)
ical model the total mass and ener#y balances and from the set of state
variables volume V and temperature T5. Thus the simplified model is
#iven only by the balance on component ( 0e&. (4.15a.
Example 5.13
Consider a#ain the3 CSTR 6discussed in Example 4.10. !f the heat of
reaction for the particular reaction ( , -is very small and the temper)
ature of the feed stream is not expected to chan#e si#nificantly% the tem)
perature of the reactin# mixture "ill not chan#e appreciably. !n this case
the reactor can be assumed isothermal. 7e can exclude the total)ener#y
balance from the mathematical) model and the temperature from the set
of state variables.
Examples 8.' throu#h 8.15demonstrate very simply but vividly ho"
the mathematical model of a process can be simplified "hen "e ta*e
Part !!
Chap. " Modeling,
.derations for Control P#rposes
'9
into account various considerations related to the nature of the process
and the characteristics of the control problems.
The control desi#ner al"ays loo*s out for such simplifications.
$%!&'S T: $%!&( AB)*$
! # 7hat is an input)output model% and ho" can you develop it from a state
model; 7hen is this possible; 3
., <escribe a procedure that "ould allo" you to develop the input)output
model for an ideal% binary distillation column.
5. <efine the concept of de#rees of freedom and relate it to the solution of E
e&uations "ith V variables.
4. .o" many de#rees of freedom do you have in a system composed of P
phases "ith C components; (Recall =ibbs3 rule.
8. .o" many de#rees of freedom do you have in a system composed of P
phases "ith C components if the mass of each phase is #iven (i.e.% M.. M
2
,
... , p)! (Recall<uhern3s rule.
6. .o" does the number of de#rees of freedom affect the number and the
selection of the control ob>ectives in a chemical process;
9. 7hy do "e claim that"d disturbances reduce the number of de#rees of
freedom by d!
?. 7hy can a control system not be desi#ned for an overspecified process;
'. Can you have the desired operation for an underspecified process; !f yes%
explain "hy. !f no% explain ho" can you lift the underspecification.
10. Consider a system modeled by the follo"in# set of state e&uations1
dx.
--#$t%&l'x( .x2, ms, m-, m-# dt, d
2
)
d)2 f '
--#$t = 2')( )3, m i, d2)
d)3 " *-
--#$t =&3') ( )2, )3, m-, m-# d i, d
2
, d)
"he,e x .. )2, and x) are the state variables% m .. m-, and m , are the
manipulated variables% and d .. d
2
, and d) are the external disturbances.
(a .o" many de#rees of freedom does the system possess;
(b .o" many control ob>ectives can you specify at most;
(c Consider this system at steady state. .o" many de#rees of freedom
does it possess;@ %
98
Part II
11. A system is described by the following set of state equations:
dx.. dX2 f d )
- =f.(m., m-, ds, d2) and -d = 2(m., ms,
'dt t
Find the degrees offreedom for the system at its dynamic state and steady
state. Are they equal? If not, why? What are the implications on control in
this case?
12. What are the principal control considerations that affect the scope of math4
ematical modeling of a chemical process?
1!. In what sense do the control considerations affect the mathematical model4
ing of a chemical process?
1". What are the usual, general quantitati#e representations of the control
ob$ecti#es? In terms of what #ariables are they e%pressed?
1&. 'ow can the e%pected impact of the disturbances simplify the model of a
process? (i#e an e%ample other than that discussed in the te%t.
1). (i#e e%amples to demonstrate how you can simplify the model ofa process
by disregarding physical and chemical phenomena with a limited impact
on the beha#ior of the process.
1*. +utline the steps that you should ta,e during the de#elopment of a mathe4
matical model for chemical process control purposes.
REFERENCES FOR PAR II!
-hapter ". .hree e%ceptional references with a large number of process
modeling e%amples are:
1. Process Dynamics and Control, /ol. l,by 0. 1. 2ouglas, 3rentice4'all, Inc.,
5nglewood -liffs, 6.0. 718*29.
2. Process Modeling, Simulation, and Control for Chemical ngineers, by W.
"# :uyben, 1c(raw4'ill ;oo, -ompany, 6ew <or, 718*!9.
!. Dynamic "eha#ior of Processes, by 0. C# Friedly, 3rentice4'all, Inc., 5ngle4
wood -liffs, 6.0. 718*29.
For the de#elopment of the dynamic material and energy balances, the reader
could also consult the followingboo,, from which 5%amples ".1= and ".11 are
adapted:
4. $ntroduction to Chemical ngineering %nalysis, by.. W. 5 >ussell and 1.
1. 2enn, 0ohn Wiley ? @ons, Inc., 6ew <or,, 718*29.
Part II 99 Modeling the Dynamic and Static Behavior of Chemical Processes
Additional references for material and energy balances are:
&. "asic Princi'les and Calculations in Chemical ngineering, !rd ed., by 2.
1. 'immelblau, 3rentice4'all, Inc., 5nglewood -liffs, 6.0. 718*"9.
6. lementary Princi'les of Chemical Processes, by >. 1A Felder and >. W.
>ousseau, 0ohn Wiley ? @ons, Inc., 6ew <or, 718*B9.
For the modeling of specific unit Coperations and reactors, there e%ist a large
number of te%tboo,s that the reader could use. 6ot all models included in these
boo,s are con#enient for process control purposes, but they could help you to
de#elop simplified and useful models. Among all the a#ailable references the
following constitute a partial list:
For the modeling of chemical reactors:
(. Chemical )eaction ngineering, by +. :e#enspiel, 0ohn Wiley ? @ons,
Inc., 6ew <or,, 718)29.
'8. %n $ntroduction to Chemical ngineering *inetics and )eactor Design, by
-. (. 'ill, 0r., 0ohn Wiley ? @ons, Inc., 6ew <or, 718**9.
9. lementary Chemical )eactor %nalysis, by >. Aris, 3rentice4'all, Inc.,
5nglewood -liffs, 6.0. 718)89.
10. Chemical and Catalytic )eaction ngineering, by 0. 0. -arberry, 1c(raw4
'ill ;oo, -ompany, 6ew <or, 718*)9.
For the modeling of transport processes:
1" +rans'ort Phenomena, by >. B# ;ird, W. 5. @tewart, and 5. 6. :ightfoot,
0ohn Wiley ?@ons, Inc., 6ew <or, 718)=9.
12. Mass-+ransfer ,'erations, 2nd ed., by >. 5. .reybal, 1c(raw4'ili ;oo,
-ompany, 6ew <or, 718)B9.
13. -eat and Mass +ransfer, 2nd ed., by 5. R# (. 5c,ert and >. 1. 2ra,e, 0r.,
1c(raw4'ill ;oo, -ompany, 6ew <or, 718&89.
For more on reaction equilibria and phase equilibria the reader may consult the
foillowing boo,s:
14. $ntroduction to Chemical ngineering +hermodynamics, !rd ed., by 0. 1.
@mith and $# C# /an 6ess, 1c(raw4'ill ;oo, -ompany, 6ew <or, 718*&9.
15. Chemical ngineering *inetics, 2nd ed., by 0. 1. @mith, 1c(raw4'ill
;oo, -ompany, 6ew <or,, 718*=9.
For an e%tensi#e discussion of the mathematical modeling of an ideal, binary
distillation column and of a nonideal multieomponent column, the reader can
consult the boo,s by 2ouglas D>ef. 1E, :uyben D>ef. 2E, and Friedly D>ef. !E. An
100 Modeling the Dynamic and Static Behavior of Cheri , Processes Part II'
interesting discussion of the difficulties encountered during the modeling of
chemical processes can be found in:
16. "Critique of Chemical Process Control Theory," by A. . !oss, AIChE J "
1", #0" $1"%&'.
1%. "Ad(anced Control Practice in the Chemical Process )ndustry: A *ie+
from )ndustry," by ,. -ee and V. ,.,ee.man, /r., AIChE J " ##, #% $1"%6'.
Chapter 0. !or additional study on the degrees of freedom and their impact
on the design of process control systems, the reader should consult the follo+=
ing references:
18. Automatic Control of Processes, by P. ,. 2urrill, )nte3t 4ducational Pub=
lishers, cranton, Pa. $1"6%'.
19. The Chemical Engineer's Handbook, 0th ed., /. 5. Perry $ed.', 2c6ra+=
5ill 7oo. Company, 8e+9or. $1"%:'.
PROBLEMS FOR PART II
Chapter 4
II.ll Consider the t+o systems sho+n in !igure P)).l. ystem ) differs from
system # by the fact that the le(el of liquid in tan. # does not affect the
effluent flo+ rate from tan. 1, +hich is the case for system #.
$a' ;e(elop the mathematical model for each of the t+o systems.
$b' ,hat are the state (ariables for each system, and +hat type of
balance equations ha(e you used<
$c' ,hich mathematical model is easier to sol(e, that for system 1 or
that for system #1,hy<
Assume that the flo+ rate of an effluent stream from a tan. is propor=
tional to the hydrostatic liquid pressure that causes the flo+ of liquid.
The cross=sectional area of tan. 1is A ) (fr' and of tan. # is A # (ft
#
'$for
both systems'. The flo+ rates .. F
!
, and " are in ft&>min.
r, 'r,
==? ======.@
? n.l t!" F, .t#$F,
? Tan. # T,n. ) TAn. # ?
system? " ystem #
!igure P)).1
Part II
Modeling the , ' .amic and Static Behavior of Chemical Processes
%&%
11.# ;e(elop the mathematical model for the system sho+n in !igure P)).#.
,hat are the state (ariables for this system and +hatA type of balance
equations ha(e you used< All the flo+ rates are (olumetric and the
cross=sectional areas of the three tan.s are A .. A #, and A & (ft
i
#, respec=
ti(ely. The flo+ rate!, is constant and does not depend on h s, +hile all
other effiuent flo+ rates are proportional to the corresponding hydro=
static liquid pressures that cause the flo+.
r,
!igure P)).#
11.& Consider the t+o stirred tan. heaters sho+n in !igure P)).&.
$a' )dentify the state (ariables of the system.
$b' ;etermine +hat balances you should perform.
$c' ;e(elop the state model that describes the dynamic beha(ior of the
system.
$d' 5o+ +ould you e3press the heats gi(en by the t+o steam flo+s in
terms of other (ariables<
The flo+ rates of the effluent streams are assumed to be proportional to
the liquid static pressure that causes the flo+ of the liquid. The cross=
sectional areas of the t+o tan.s are A ) and A # (fr' and the flo+ rates are
(olumetric. 8o (apor is produced either in the first or the second tan..
A,) and A'! are the heat e3change areas for the t+o steam coils.
FI.T
I
team
100 psi
Q
I
$)b>min'
team
&00 psi
$! $)b>min'
!igure P)).&
Steam, 40 psi
Water vapor
Water
Q
I
(Ib/min)
produced
F
I
, TI
l
~
F
2
, T2 A2 F), T)
Steam, 200 psi
Q
2
(Ib/min)
11.7
Figure II.4
Part "
11.4 !o t"e same #or$ as in rob%em 11.&'or t"e stirred tan$ "eaters( s)stem
s"o#n in Figure II.4. For tan$ 1, t"e steam is in*ected direct%) in t"e
%i+uid #ater. Water vapor is produced% in t"e second tan$. A Iand A2 are
t"e cross9sectiona% areas o' t"e t#o tan$s. -ssume t"at t"e e''iuent '%o#
rates are proportiona% to t"e %i+uid static pressure t"at causes t"eir '%o#.
A, is t"e "eat trans'er area 'or t"e steam coi%.
11.. /onsider t"e mi0ing process ta$ing p%ace in a t#o9tan$ s)stem
(Figure 1..).
(a) Identi') t"e state variab%es o' t"e s)stem.
(b) !etermine #"at ba%ances )ou s"o2%dper'orm.. .
(c) !eve%op t"e state mode% t"at descnbes t2e d)namic be"av%o2 o' t"e
process, assuming t"at t"e "eats o' so%ution are strong 'unctions o'
t"e composition.
(d) 1o# is t"e mode% simp%i'ied i' t"e "eats o' so%ution are ver) #ea$
'unctions o' t"e composition3
-ssume t"at t"e '%o# rates are vo%umetric and t"e compositions are in
mo%es per vo%ume. 4"e e''%uent '%o# rates are proportiona% to t"e %i+uid
static pressure t"at causes t"eir '%o#. A I and -
2
are t"e cross9se.55tIon2.%
areas o' t"e t#o tan$s and A, is t"e "eat trans'er area 'or t"e steam c6I7
Steam, .0 psi
Q
I
(Ib/min)
Figure II..
11.8 !eve%op t"e state mode% 'or t"e batc" mi0ing o' t#o so%ut2o%1%s
(Figure II.8). Initia%%), t"e tan$ is empt). 4"e vo%ume o' t"e tan$ IS V
Part II
10&
(fr!" 4"e '%o# rates are vo%umetric and t"e concentrations are in mo%es
per vo%ume.
(a) 1o# %ong does it ta$e to 'i%% up t"e tan$3
(b) S"o# "o# #ou%d )ou 'ind t"e composition and temperature o' t"e
mi0ture in t"e tan$ during t"e time t"at t"e tan$ is being 'i%%ed up.
-ssume t"at t"e '%o# rates are vo%umetric, t"e compositions in mo%es
per vo%ume, and t"at t"e "eat o' so%ution depends on t"e composition.
So%ution I So%ution 2
r; TI, CAl' cal ~ F
2
, T
2
, CAl' 'cB
2
#
Figure II.8
!eve%op t"e state mode% 'or a batc" reactor #"ere t"e 'o%%o#ing reac9
tions ta$e p%ace5
-2:2/
-2!
-%% reactions are endot"ermic and "ave 'irst9order $inetics. 4"e react9
ing mi0ture is "eated b) steam o' 1.0psig, #"ic" '%o#s t"roug" a *ac$et
around t"e reactor #it" a rate o' Q (%b/min).
11.; /onsider t"e continuous stirred .tan$ reactor s)stem s"o#n in
Figure II. 7. Stream 1is a mi0ture o' - and :#it" composition CAl and
CDI (mo%es/vo%ume) and "as a vo%umetric '%o# rate $I and a tempera9
ture TI Stream 2 is pure R. 4"e reactions ta$ing p%ace are5
<eaction 15 - % R ~ PI
<eaction 25 : % 2R ~ P2
F
2
T
2
, pure R
2 Stream 2 Stream 1
1.0 psi
steam
Q (Ib/"r) = ......... 2
Figure II.7
:ot" reactions are endot"ermic and "ave second9order (reaction 1) and
t"ird9order (reaction 2) $inetics .. 1eat is supp%ied to t"e reaction mi09
ture b) steam #"ic" '%o#s t"roug" a coi%, immersed in t"e reactor(s
content, #it" a "eat trans'er area A"
(a) W"at are t"e state variab%es describing t"e natura% state o' t"e
s)stem3
Modeling the Dynamic and Static Behavior of Chen
!'rocesses
11.9
(b) What are the balances that you should consider?
(c) Develop the state model for the CSTR sytem. 5"
(d) #o$ can you simplify the state model %f k2 ::::: 1& . k, for a lar'e
ran'e of temperatures? .
(e) Define the assumptions that should be made m order to have an (
isothermal reactor.
Develop the state model for the t$o CSTR)s system of *i'ure +%%.S. ,
simple reaction , - $ith first5order .inetics ta.e place.. ,sume
isothermal conditions. *lo$ rates F % and F / are determined b vaabe
speed pumps and thus are independent of the correspondm' li0uid
levels.
/nd CSTR
*i'ure +%%.1
11.1& ,ssumin' plu' flo$ conditions fo a 2ac.eted tublar rector (r
+# 9) develop its state model. , Simple e3othermic reaction ,
$ith first5order .inetics ta.es place. Due to4 the very lar'e. heat .of
reaction4 molten salt4 $hich flo$s countercurrently to the reaction mi35
ture around the tube of the reactor4 is used as coolant to .eep the
reaction temperature at acceptable levels. ,ssume constant teperature
for the molten salt alon' the len'th of the reactor. The reatl6n ta.es
place in the 'aseous phase. The flo$ rates are volumetnc and the
compositions are in moles per volume. The internal diameter of the
tube is d (in.) and its len'th I.. ..'
(a) %s the system a lumped parameter (described by ordinary differen5
tial e0uations) or a distributed parameter system? Develop the
model. 7 . 8. . t d o' tputs?
(b) Does the reactor possess dead time bet$een inpu s an ou .
93plain.
*i'ure +%%.9
Part "
Part II 1&: Modeling the irnic and Static Behavior of Chemical Processes
11.11 *i'ure +%;l6 sho$s a simplified representation of a drum boiler. *eed
$ater enters the boiler $ith a flo$ rate F I (mass<hr) and a temperature
T I and it is heated by an amount of heat =(Btu/hr) $hich is supplied
by burned fuel. The 'enerated steam flo$s out from the top of the
boiler4 $ith a flo$ rate F / 8(mass<hr) and a pressure P (psi'). , simple
feedbac. control system has been installed to .eep the level of.the $ater
in the drum boiler constant by manipulatin' the flo$ rate of the feed$a5
ter stream. 8
(a) What are the state variables describin' the system?
(b) What balances are appropriate for the drum boiler system?
(c) Develop the state model of the system. *or the feedbac. control8
system4 use a relationship of the form F % f(h - h desired).
....5555>>.>. +roduced steam
F
2
,p
)... Controller I
t554..4..5555.2?4>>>5 ... <8 I
p
h
T
Q
Combustion
of fuel
*i'ure +%%.%6
11.1/ Consider a pipe of len'th L (in.) $ith an internal diameter D (in.).
Water flo$s throu'h the pipe $ith a volumetric flo$ rate F. ;et P I be
the pressure at the entrance of the pipe and P2 the pressure at the e3it.
(a) %dentify the appropriate state variables to describe the system.
(b) What are the relevant balances for the system?
(c) Develop the state model for this laminar flo$ system.
11.1@ Consider turbulence in the flo$ system of the +roblem n.1/. ,t time
t & a stream containin' pure component , is mi3ed $ith the enterin'
$ater4 causin' a concentration C! (moles<volume) as the $ater enters
the pipe. ,ssumin' that , does not diffuse alon' the len'th of the pipe)
(a) Developa state model that describes ho$the concentration of ,
chan'es $ith time and alon' the len'th of the pipe.
(b) Sho$ that the system possesses dead time bet$een input and output
and compute the value of the dead time.
11.1A , li0uid stream is a mi3ture) of t$o components , and - and has a
volumetric (volume<hr) flo$ rate F, temperature Tj, and pressure Pf'
;et C! and CB be the mole fractions of , and - in the li0uid stream. %t is
assumed that the pressure PI is lar'er than the bubble point pressure of
the mi3ture , and -4 so that there is no vapor present.
The li0uid stream passes throu'h an isenthalpic e3pansion valve
and is "flashed" into a flash drum (Figure 4.6). The pressure p in the'
drum is assumed to be lower than the bubble point pressure of the
liuid mi!ture at Tj: "s a result# two phases at euilibrium with ea$h
other appear in the flash drum% a &apor phase with a $omposition y"
and YB (molar fra$tions)whi$h is drawn with a &olumetri$ flow I'a'e V,
and a liuid phase with a $omposition x A and XB (molar fra$tions)
drawn with a &olumetri$ flow rate L. (et T be the temperature of the
two phases at euilibrium in the flash drum.
(a) )hat are the fundamental dependent uantities whose &alues
# des$ribe the natural state of the flash drum*
(b) )hat are the boundaries of the s+stem(s) around whi$h +ou will
perform the &arious balan$es*
($) )hat are the rele&ant balan$es* . '.' .. .' .
(d) ,esides the balan$e euations# what additional relationships do +ou
need to $omplete the state model for the flash drum*
(e) Identif+ the state &ariables and the input &ariables (manipulations#
disturban$es) of the s+stem.
(f) -e&elop the $omplete state.model of the s+stem.
Chapter 5
I./ /tarting with the state models for the two s+stems of Problem II. I
(Figure' PII.I)# de&elop the $orresponding input5output models. "lso%
(a) Find the degrees of freedom for ea$h s+stem.
(b) /pe$if+ how man+ $ontrol ob1e$ti&es +ou $an ha&e for ea$h s+stem.
11.14' For ea$h of the following s+stems# find%
(a) The number of degrees of freedom. . .
(b) The number of independent $ontrol ob1e$ti&es +ou $an spe$if+.
($) The input5output model.
System A: The three5tan2 s+stem of Figure PI. (Problem I.).
System B: The two stirred tan2 heaters s+stem of# Figure PII.4
(Problem 11.4).
System 3% The two5tan2 mi!ing pro$ess of Figure PII.4 (Prob5
lem II.4).
11.16 For the 3/T7 s+stem of Figure PII.6 (Problem II./)# find%
(a) The number of degrees of freedom. 5 . . .
(b) The number of independent $ontrol ob1e$ti&es that +ou $an spe$if+#
($) For the number of $ontrol ob1e$ti&es +ou ha&e spe$ified# do +ou
ha&e an eual number of manipulated &ariables so that +ou $an
a$hie&e +our $ontrol ob1e$ti&es*
(d) Identif+ what +ou would use for $ontrol ob1e$ti&es.
(e) /how how +ou would form the $orresponding input5output model#
but do not de&elop its anal+ti$al form.
Part "
106
I./ -o the same wor2 as in Problem 11.16 for the two 3/T7s s+stem of
.Figure PII./ (Problem 11.8).
11..18 For the flash drum s+stem of Problem 11.14(see also Figure 4.6)# find%
(a) The number of degrees of freedom.
(b) The number of independent $ontrol ob1e$ti&es +ou $an spe$if+.
($) Identif+ a set of $ontrol ob1e$ti&es that are meaningful from a
pra$ti$al operation point of &iew.
(d) /how how +ou would de&elop an input5output model for the flash
drum# but do not deri&e its $omplete anal+ti$al form.
11.90 " simple $hemi$al rea$tion#." :%::::::. ,# with first5order 2ineti$s ta2es
p'a'e i'# a 3/T7. The effluent of the rea$tor enters an ideal binar+
distillation $olumn. where the unrea$ted " is ta2en as the o&erhead
produ$t with a $omposition Y " (molar fra$tion) and is re$+$led ba$2 to
the rea$tor after it has been mi!ed with fresh feed (Figure PII.II).
"ssume that the mi!er and the 3/T7 are both isothermal.
(a) Identif+ the fundamental dependent &ariables that des$ribe the nat5
ural state of the plant.
(b) )hat are the rele&ant balan$es# and what.are the boundaries ofthe
s+stems around whi$h +ou will perform the balan$es*
($) Formulate all the rele&ant balan$e euations ..
(d) Identif+ the state &ariables of the plant.
r,
55:..#
Fresh feed
(pure ")
A
-istillation
Figure PII.l1
11.91 3onsider the small plant des$ribed in Problem 11.90(Figure PII.ll).
(a) -etermine the number of degrees of freedom for the plant.
(b) If (number of degrees of freedom) > 0# how would +ou spe$if+ the
additional euations needed to render an e!a$tl+ spe$ified s+stem
(i.e.# number of degrees of freedom ;)*
($) <ow man+ disturban$e spe$ifi$ations do +ou ha&e# and how man+
$ontrol ob1e$ti&es $an +ou identif+*
108 Modelinq the Dynamic and StaticBehavlor of Chen )rocesses Part II
(d) Specify the control objectives that have a practical meaning for the
plant.
(e) Develop a simple input-output model for the plant without per-
forming the required analytic computations.
11. Develop the! state model for an ideal binary batch distillation column
with N ideal plates ("igure #$$.1). %t t =&' the composition of the
initial mi(ture is CA and CD (molar fractions)' and its total mass is M
(moles).
(a) )ist all assumptions' that you ma*e for modeling the system.
(b) $dentify the relevant balance equations.
(c) $n addition to the balance equations' what other relationships do
you need to complete the state model+
(d) Show how you can find the time when the' composition of the
overhead product has reached a composition Y A (molar fraction)'
(e) ,ow many degrees of freedom does the system possess+
(f) ,ow many control objectives can you specify+
Additional questions:
(g) Does the vapor flow rate remain constant if the heat input Q
remains constant with time+
(h) -hat about F
R
; does it remain constant+ .nder what conditions
would you change it+
Steam
Q (/tu0hr)
$nitially
mass =M (moles)
composition1 cA' cD (molar fraction)
"igure #$$.1
11.2 Develop the state model for a gas absorption column ("igure #$$..t2)
with N ideal transfer units. 3he flow rate (mol0hr) of the entering gas
stream is Fg with a composition (molar fraction) Y %' while the composi-
tion of the effluent gas stream should be y;" (molar fraction). 3he flow
rate ofthe liquid absorbing stream is FI (mol0hr) and at its entrance it
is free of component %.
Part II
Modelin
!ynamic and Static Behavior of Chemical Processes
10"#1
Ff J .
r----4)iquid stream
(
%
5 &
$$$$$$
$$$$$$ %
&%#$%%& ' $
$ # $$.1
6aseous stream
"igure #$$.l2
11.7 Develop the state model for $88 .
nonideal distillation column wit1 9:r!:s;$tis:::nt (< c:mponents)
' (tu)reSdevelopedin =(ample 7.12 for the ide:l bina9 1:s:>t:1ti::mencla-
. a tate your assumpt$ons. . .
(b) $nclude the dynamic: of the condenser and .reboiler considerin
(c) ::: as1 i-erfe::$?stirred tan* co+ler and heater' respectively. g
tions+ re a $ons $#Sdo you need 1D addition to the balance equa-
@(d) ,ow many degrees of freedom does the system possess+
(e) ,ow many control objectives can you specify+
Analysis of the
Dynamic Behavior
of ChemicalProcesses
In
In process control. the%processes are analytically complex but relatively
simple to control. in practice ... These processes act quantitatively like
nothing. e kno! but qualitatively "an# forcertain quantitative purposes$!
they can be mo#ele# in terms of simple gains! #ea#times! lags or combina%
lions thereof. ...
&. '. Bristol(
In Part III we study the dynamic and static behavior of several',
simple processing systems. Understanding the dynamics of such sim-
ple systems allows us to .analyze the behavior of more complex sys-
tems such as the chemical processes.
The analysis is limited to linear dynamic systems. This may seem
incompatible, with the fact that most of the chemical engineering
processes are modeled by nonlinear euations. !owever, linear tech-
niues are very valuable and. of great practical importance for the
following reasons" #$% There is no general theory for the analytic solu-
tion of nonlinear differential euations, and conseuently no compre-
hensive analysis of nonlinear. dynamic systems. (2) & nonlinear sys-
tem can be adeuately approximated by a linear system near some
operatin conditions. #'% (ignificant advances in the linear control
"Industrial Needs and Requirements for Multivariable Control," in Chemical Proc%
ess Control! A. S. Foss and M. M. Denn (eds.), AIC! S"m#. Ser. $2, No. %&'(%'$().
$$$
11 : 2
Analysis of the Dvnamic Behavior of Chemic .ocesses
Part III
theory permit the synthesis and design of very effective controllers
even for nonlinear processes. ..... . .
Fundamental, therefore, is the concept of hnear~atl~n and the
procedure for appro!imating nonlinear systems "ith linear ones
"hiich "ill #e studied in Chapter$. .. %
&he 'aplace transforms, "hich "e "indiscus~ in Ch~pter (,.offer a
very simple and elegant procedure for the solution of linear ~Ifferen/
tial e*uations +Chapter ,- and conse*uently for the analysts of the
#ehavior of linear systems.
In the remaining chapters of Part III"e "ill discuss.
1. &he development of simple input/output models for chemical
processes, using the 'aplac~ transf0rms +Chapter 1- . c2
: 2 . &he dynamic analysis of vanous t3Pical processes +Chapter4, 15
through 16-
Computer Simulation
and the Linearization
of Nonlinear Systems.
$
In order to find the dynamic behavior of a chemical process, we
have to integrate the state equations used to model the process. But
most of the processing systems that we will be interested in are modeled
by nonlinear differential equations, and it is well known that there is no
general mathematical theory 'for the analytical solution of nonlinear
equations. Only for linear differential equations are closed%form, ana%
lytic solutions available. ' %
!hen confronted with the' dynamic analysis of nonlinear systems,
there are several things we can do, such as:
". #imulate the nonlinear system on an analog or digital computer
and compute its solution numerically, or
2 . $ransform the nonlinear system into a linear one by an appropri%
ate transformation of its variables, or
&. 'evelop a linear model that appro(imates the dynamic behavior
of a nonlinear system in the neighborhood of specified operating
conditions.
)lternative 2 can be used in very few cases, whereas alternatives I
and & are, in principle* always feasible. In this chapter we discuss the
computer simulation of nonlinear processes very briefly because it is a
sub+ect to be covered primarily in a course on numerical analysis. ,ore
emphasis will be given on the appro(imation of nonlinear models by
linear ones. It should be noted that all the theory for the design of
control systems, available from past work, is based on linear systenis,
" " '-
114
Analysis of the Dynamic Behavior of Chemical Processes
Part III
and that very small advances have been made toward the development
of a control theory for nonlinear systems.
6.1 Computer Simulation of Process
Dynamics
Nonlinear differential and/or algebraic equations cannot, in general,
be solved analytically, and computer!aided numerical solutions are
required, Numerical solutions are also preferred for the equations
which can be solved analytically, when the analytic solutions are very
complex and provide little insight in the behavior of the system.
Let us consider two processes we have already modeled the continu!
ous stirred tan" reactor and the ideal, binary distillation column.
#he model for the $%#& 'see (xample 4.1)* is given by eqs. '4.+a*,
'4.,a*, and '4.-*b*. #hese constitute a set of nonlinear equations for
which there is no analytic solution available. #herefore, in order to
study the dynamic behavior of the $%#&, we must solve the modeling
equations numerically using a computer.
#he model for the ideal, binary distillation column 'see (xample
4.1.* is composed of
2N + 4 nonlinear differential equations
and
2N + 1 nonlinear algebraic equations
It is not only the nonlinearity of the equations but also the si/e of model
'04 d.ifferential and 01 algebraic equations for a modest 1)!traycolumn*
that necessitates a numerical solution in order to study the dynamic
behavior of the column.
#oday, computer simulation is used extensively to analy/e the
dynamics of chemical processes or aid in the design of controllers and
study their effectiveness in controlling a given process. 1nalog mid
digital computers have been. used for this purpose, with the emphasis
having shifted almost entirely in favor of the digital computers.
2istorically, analog computers were the first to be used tosimulate
the dynamics of chemical processes with or without control. #hey per!
mitted a rapid solution of the modeling equations, thus providing use!
ful insight as to how a process would react to. external disturbances or
how effective was the control of the process using various measure!
ments, manipulated variables, and control configurations. #he analog
computers have several serious drawbac"s '1* %ignificant time is
required to set up the problem and get it running3 '0* the need of one
hardware element per mathematical operation prr 4vits the simulation
, Chap. 6 Computer Simulation and the ineari!ation of "onlinear Systems 11#
of large, com.plex systems3 '.* the nonlinear terms are simulated by
rat5e5 5xpenslve hardware elements 'function generators* with limited
flexibility3 and'4* theydo not possess memory li"e the digital comput!
ers. #he subsequent revolution, brought about by the digital computers,
made the analog computers obsolete. #oday, they are still used on a
small sc5le and primarily. to train operators on the dynamic operation
of chemical plants. .
#he c678putational 5ower introduced with the digital computers,
together 97th the resulting low cost of computations, has expanded
tremendously the scope and the practical significance of computer sim!
ulation for process dynamics arid control. #he availability of sophisti!
cated eq5ation!solvi5g. ro48t.ines for almost every digital computer sys!
tem available has simplified the required groundwor" for process
simulation and has relieved the engineer of the need to be an expert in
numerical analysis.
:igital computer simulation of process dynamics involves the solu!
tion of a set of differential and algebraic equations, which describe the
process. #here are several categories of numerical methods which can
be used to integrate differential equations and solve algebraic ones. Let
us examine briefly the simplest and most popular among them.
"umerical solution of al$e%raic e&uations
1t steady state, the state equations turn to simple algebraic equa!
tions, since the rate of accumulation becomes /ero. #herefore, in order
to determine the steady!state behavior of a process under given condi!
tions, we should be able to solve sets of algebraic equations. 1ll availa!
ble methods use an iterative trial!and!error procedure, which
approaches 'hopefully* closer and closer to the solution with each itera!
tion. #he "ey question is to select the appropriate method, which for the
given set of equations converges; rapidly to the correct solution. 'nfor!
tunately, this is a very difficult tas" and in all but a few instances is
impossible to "now a priori how successful a method will be in finding
the solution to a particular set of equations. <uite often, a method will
not converge to the solution, or in other instances it approaches the
solution very slowly. 1mong the most commonly used techniques are
the following '7* interval halving, '0* successive substitution, and
'.* Newton!&aphson,
"umerical inte$ration of differential e&uations
2ere again we have a very large number of available techniques.
Numerical integration implies an approximation of the continuous dif!
ferential equations !;5lith discrete finite!difference equations. #he vari!
1113 Analysis of the Dynamic Behavior of Chern, rocesses Part III
ous integration methods differ in the way they implement this approxi!
mation. Thus we have explicit methods which march on in. time
yiellding the solution in one pass, or we have implicit methods with
predictor-corrector capabilities. The key questions for an integration
technique are the stability of the procedure and the speed with which it
reaches the solution. But again, these are questions which, in general,
cannot be answered to our satisfaction ahead of time. mong the most
popular integration methods is the explicit fourth!order Runge-Kutta,
which provides satisfactory accuracy and stability of computations as
well as low cost.
"igital computer simulation of the chemical process dynamics is
used extensively at the present. It allows the engineer to anticipate the
behavior of a process not only qualitatively but also quantitatively, It
has helped to design more complex and sophisticated control systems.
The ma#or drawback of computer simulation is that $it only gives you
numbers$ and not a general analytic solution in terms of arbitrary,
unspecified parameters, which in .turn you taylor to your particular
problem. Therefore, the results of computer simulation are of ad hoc
nature, and you will have to make several runs with different values for
the input variables and parameters before you can establish a good
understanding of the process dynamics for a range of operating condi!
tions.
6.2 Linearization of Systems with One
Variale
Linearization is the process by which we approximate nonlinear sys!
tems with linear ones. It is widely used in the study of process dynamics
and design of control systems for the following reasons%
1. &e can have closed!form, analytic solutions for linear systems.
Thus we can have a complete and general picture of a process's
behavior independently of the particular values of the parameters
and input variables. This is not possible for nonlinear systems,
and computer simulation provides us only with the behavior of
the system at specified values of inputs and parameters.
(. ll the significant developments toward the design of effective
control systems have been limited to linear processes.
)irst, we will study the lineari*ation of a nonlinear equation with
one variable and then we will extend it to multi variable systems.
+onsider the following nonlinear differential equation, modeling a
given process%
Cha!. 6 Corn!"is, Sim"lation an# the Linearization of $onlinear Systems
%%&
dx .
-. =f(x)
dt
,-.1.
/xpand the nonlinear function f(x) into a Taylor series around the
pomt 0o and take
f(x) 1 f(xo) ' ( d f ) :x - 0o ' (d
2f
) (x - XO)2
. dx xo l( dx? xo (2
,-.(.
' ).... ' (dnf) ( x - xot ' ...
. d x" xo n!
If we neglect all terms of order two and higher, we take the following
approx3mat34n for the value of f(x):
f(x) f(xo) ' (d
f
) (x - xo) (!.")
dx *o
It is well known that the error introduced in the approximation ,- 3. is
of the same order of magnitude as the term .
# * (:d) (x - XO)2
dx xo (2
+5nsequently,6the linear approximation ,-.3. is satisfactory only when
x 37very close to 0o, where the value of the term Iis very small.
3n )igure -.1 we can see the nonlinear function f(x) and its linear
appr5x3mat3on around Xo. )rom the same picture it is also clear that
the l3near. approximation depends on the location of the point x
a%round &h3+h. we 5ake the expansion into a Taylor series. +ompare th8
ll5near5ppr5035at34n of f(x) at the points 0o and Xl ,)igure -.1.. $%e
approxlmatlf&n IS exact onl' at t%e point of linearization.
,-.9.
f(x)
x
)igure -.1 :inear approximation of a nonlinear function.
118 Analysis of the Dynamic Behavior of Chemical Processes Part III
In eq. (6.1), replace f(x) by its linear approximation given by eq.
(6.3) and take
dx ,(d
f
)
-' =f(xo) + -. (x - xo)
dt dx xo
(6.5)
This eqation is the lineari!ed approximation o" the initial dynamic
system given by eq. (6.1). In later chapters the design o" the process
controller #ill be based on sch approximate lineari!ed models.
Example 6.1
$onsider the tank system sho#n in %igre 6.&a. The total mass bal)
.ance(yields
dh
A-=F;-Fo
dt
(6.6)
#here A is the cross)sectional area o" the tank and h the height o" the
liqid level. If the otlet "lo# rate F is a linear "nction o" the liqid*s
level,
F: =Olh
#e take
#here Ol=constant
dh
A -+Olh =F;
dt
#hich is a linear di""erential eqation (modeling a linear dynamic sys)
tern) and no approximation is needed.
I", on the other hand,
(a)
h
(b)
~ - - - - - - ~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - , ~ -
t
%igre 6.& (a) Tank system o" +xample 6.1, (b) approximation o" liqid level response.
Chap. Comp!ter "im!lation an# the $ineari%ation of &onlinear "ystems
11'
the reslting total mass balance yields a nonlinear dynamic model,
dh II:
A s:P yh =F; (6.)
-et s develop the lineari!ed approximation "or this nonlinear model.
The only nonlinear term in eq.. (6..) is P Jh. Take the Taylor series
expansion o" this term arond a point h! .
)~Jh =PJho+ [dd
h
(PJh)]' (h - h
o
) + / 0 "1 (pJh)] (h - h
o
)& +...
h=h.. dh & h=ho &0
=pJho+ _p_ (h - h
o
) "."p" (h - h
o
)2 + ...
& ( ho 3 )i*
4eglecting terms o" order t#o and higher, #e take
P Jh ~ p Jho+-.-
p
- (h - h
o
)
& ( ho
#hich, i" introdced in the nonlinear dynamic system (6..), yields the
"ollo#ing lineari!ed approximate model(
dh P : ' P
A-:-+-- h =F; -_ ( ho
dt & ( ho+ &
(6.3)
. -et s compare the lineari!ed, approximate model given by eq, (6.3)
to the nonlinear one, given by eq. (6..). 5ssme that the tank is at steady
state #ith a liqid level h6 e Then at time t =7, #e stop the spply o"
liqid to the tank, #hile #e allo# the liqid to "lo# ot. Ths at t =7 the
liqid level is at the steady)state vale / i.e., h(t =7) =h
o
8 . $rve 5 in
%igre 6.&b is the soltion o" eq. (6.3) and crve 9 in the same "igre is
the soltion o" eq. (6..). :e notice that the t#o crves are very close to
each other "or a certain period o" time. This indicates that the lineari!ed
model approximates at the beginning very #ell the nonlinear model.
5s the time increases and the liqid level contines to "all, its vale h
deviates more and more "rom the initial vale ho arond #hich the
lineari!ed model #as developed. %igre 6.&b indicates very clearly that as
the di""erence ho ) h increases, the lineari!ed approximation becomes
progressively less accrate, as #as expected.
6.a Deviation ,aria-les
-et s no# introdce the concept o" the de#$at$o% #a&$a'le, #hich #e
#ill "ind very help"l in later chapters "or the control o" processing
systems.
;ppose that xs is the steady)state vale o" x describing the initial
120 Analysis of the Dynamic Behavior of Chemic. )Gesses Parll1l
dynamic system (6.1).Then
dx s =0 = f( x s )
dt
(6.9)
Consider x, the point of linearization for eq. (6.1) (i.e., Xo 55 xs ) . Then
eq. (6.1)yields the folloin! linearized model"
dx ... (d
f
)
- =f(x
s
) + -.. (x - x.)
dt dx Xs
(6.10)
#$%tract eq. (6.9) from (6.10) and ta&e
d(x - x
s
) =(d
f
) (x _ x s )
dt dx Xs
If e definethe deviation variable x'. as
(6.11)
x'=x-x
s
then eq. (6.11)ta&es the form
~'=!)"
'q$a.tion (6.12) is the linearized appro(imation of the nonlinear
dynamic system (6.1), e(pressed in terms of the de)iation )aria%le x'.
The notion of the de)iation )aria%le is )ery $sef$l in process con.
trol. +s$ally e ill %e concerned ith maintainin! the )al$e of a
process )aria%le (temperat$re, concentration, press$re, flo rate, )ol.
$me, etc.) at some desired steady state. Conseq$ently, the steady state
%ecomes a nat$ral candidate point aro$nd hich to de)elop the appro(.
imate linearized model, ,n s$ch cases the de)iation )aria%le descri%es
directly the ma!nit$de of the dislocation of a system from the desired
le)el of operation. -$rthermore, if the controller of the !i)en process
has %een desi!ned ell, it ill not allo the process )aria%le to mo)e far
aay from the desired steady.state )al$e. Conseq$ently, the appro(i.
mate linearized model e(pressed in terms of de)iation )aria%les ill %e
satisfactory to descri%e the dynamic %eha)ior of the process /near the
steady state.
,n s$%seq$ent chapters e ill ma&e e(tensi)e $se of the linearized
forms of differential eq$ations, in terms of de)iation )aria%les.
(6.12)
Example 6.2
Consider the linearized model of the tan& system !i)en %y eq. (6.,0) of
'(ample 6.1. 1et h , %e the steady.state )al$e of the liq$id le)el for a !i)en
)al$e, F;,$ of the inlet flo rate. Then the linearized model aro$nd ,
Cha#. $ Com#%tl n%lation an&the 'ineari(ation of )onlinear *ystems
1+,
!i)es
!d"#=F;_#.$s
dt 2.$s 2 s
2t steady state from eq. (6.3) e also ha)e
o#f"%$;=F&,'
#$%tract eq, (6.14) from (6.15),
! d( - s ) . %
d' + -..- ( - s ) =F; - E,
t + .$s I,S
6efinin! the de)iation )aria%les
(6.15)
(6.14)
'=-s and Fi=F;-F
i
,$
e ta&e the folloin! linearized form in terms of de)iation )aria%les"
!d'"_%_'=r
dt : 2.$s I
(6.15)
$.- 'ineari(ation of *ystems .ith /any
0aria1les
,n p7e)io$s secti7ns e de)eloped the linearized appro(imation of a
nonlinear dynamic system that had only one )aria%le. 1et $s no
e(tend t7at approach to systems ith more than one )aria%le.
Consider the folloin! dynamic system"
dXI
dt =fl(Xt,
X
2) (6.(6)
dX2
-;J i' =)2(X I, X2)
(6.13)
and
12(X" X2) =12(X 1,0, X2,O ) + [a
/2
] (x I x 1,0) + [a
/2
]. (X2 - X2,O )
ax I (x I,O ,X2,O ) ax 2 (x I,O ,X2,O )
+ [a
2/2
] , (XI - X 1,0)2 + [a
2/2
] (X2 - X2,o)2
axi (XI,O ,X2,O ) 2! ax~ . (XI,O ,X2,O ) 2!
+ [- 02
/2
_ J (XI - XI,O )(X2 -X2,O ) + .. "
(JX
l
iJX2 (XI,O,X2,O)
Neglect terms of order two and higher and take the following approxi
mations!
and
[
a/2] [aI2] ,
12(X" Xl) ~ 12(XI,O , X2,O ) + -.'. (XI - X 1,0) + -. (X2 - X2,O )
ax I (XI,O,X2,O) aX2 (XI,O,X2,O)
"#$stit#te the foregoing linear approximations of II(x" X2) and
12(X" X2) into e%s& ('&1') and ('&1() of the initial nonlinear d)namic
s)stem and take
dx, [all] . [all] ..
*!+1 (x 1,0, X2,O ) + - (XI X 1,0) + -. - (X2- X2,O ) (6.18)
dt aXI (XI,O,X2,O) aX2 (XI,O ,X2,O )
dX2 *!+2(XI,O, X2,O )+ [a
/2
] (XI X 1,0) + [a
I2
] . (X2 - X2,O ) (6.19)
dt ax I (XI,O,X2,O) aX2 (XI,O,X2,O)
,hese last two e%#ations are linear differential e%#ations and constit#te
the lineari-ed, approximate &model of the initial nonlinear s)stem
descri$ed $) e%s& ('&1') and ('&1()&
,he comments made earlier for the onedimensional case appl) also
here!
1& ,he approximation deteriorates as the point (XI, X2) mo.es awa)
from the point (x 1,0, X2,O ) oflineari-ation&
2& ,he lineari-ed approximate model depends on the point
(x 1,0, x 2,0) aro#nd which we make the ,a)lor series expansion&
/et #s now express the lineari-ed s)stem in0 terms of de.iation
.aria$les& "elect the stead) state (XI,s, X2,s) as the point aro#nd which
)o# will make the lineari-ation 1i&e&, in e%s& ('&12) and ('&13) ,p#t
XI,O ==; XI,s and X2.0 * X2,s]. 4t the stead) state, e%s& ('&1') and ('&1()
)ield
o = /I(X I,s, X2,s) ('&20)
Chap. 6
Compter !imlation an" the #ineari$ation of %onlinear !ystems
&'(
0::; 12(XI,s, X2,s) (6.21)
"#$tract e%& ('&20) from ('&12) and ('&21) from ('&13) and take
d(xl - XI,s) =[ail] , [ail]
dt ax, (Xls
X
2 ,< x'-X1,s)+ ax .. ' (X2-X2,s){6.22)
"
" .s 2 (XI,s,X2,s)
an
d(X2 - X2,s) =[a
I2
] i [a
I2
]
, . dt ax, (XI',X2,){XI - XI,s) + aX2 (X',,X2,)(X2 - X2,s) (6.2!)
5efmtng the de.iation .aria$les $)
xi * XI - XI,s and X2 * X2 - X2,s
e%s! ('&22) and ('&26) take the following form0 in terms of de 0 ti
.ana$les! ! & .Ia Ion
where
[
ail]
all= -
a x I (x l,s,X2,s)
[
af] :
a 21* 72 8 a 22 =. al
2
ax, (x""X1,,) [ax 21""X2,,)
9 final comment is in order& In the pre.io#s and present sections we
c&onsldered the presence of state .aria$les onl) in the nonlinear f#nc
9Ions&,h#s for,s)stems with one .aria$le, we had onl) the state x and
Ol9 s)ste9s :Ith two .aria$le9 we had onl) states x I and x 2&0 ,he
for m#lation 9$o.e sho#ld not $e percei.ed as restricti.e, $#t it is easil)
expande9 to incl#de the presence of inp#t .aria$les, like the mani #
lated .aI;a$le9 and the dist#r$ances& ,he following example dem9n
strates this pomt,
"xa#$l% 6.!
d
<hon9dera,d)namic s)stem descri$ed $) two state .aria$les x I and x
an t e following state e%#ations! 2
dx, & '
d[ =J I(X" X2, # i, #-, d.)
124
Analysis of the Dynamic Behavior of Cherni
Part III 'ocssses
where m I and m 2 are two manipulated variables and d I .and d2 are two
disturbances affecting the system.
Linearization of the equations above around the nominal values (x 1,0,
x 2,0, m 1,0, m 2,(, d 1,0, d 2,0! will yield
dXI ..d (afl) ( ) (a
fl
) (' )
--=fl(XI,O, X 2,0, ml,O, m2,O'. 1,0!"4 X-XI,O " 4 X2-
X
2,0
dt cJXI 0 aX2 0
(
af ) i:) (. a
f
) (6.24)
+ -~ (m I ~ m 1,0) + --1 (m2 - m2,O) + -!
l
(d 1- d 1,0)
am I 0 am2 0 a I 0
and
dX2 . '(af2) . ) (a
f2
) ( .)
-- "f2(XI,O, X2,O, m 1,0, m2,0, d2,0) + - (XI - X 1,0 + ~ X2 4$2,0.
dt . aXI o% UX2 0
#
if$ ) (a
f
) (af) . (&.2'!
" ( (m 14 m 1,0!" )) 2 .. (m2 - m2,0) ". -d
2
(d2 - d
2
,O)
Bm, 0 am2 0 a 2 0
where all the derivatives have been computed at the point of linearization
(denoted by the subscript 0!.
*ssuming that the point of linearization corresponds to the steady4
state operation of the system, we can define the deviation variables by
XI "$I4 X 1,0 m+t "ml;_ ml,O d; "dl - dl,o
X2 "X2 - $2,, m2 "m i - m2,O d2 "d i+d
2
,o
Introducing these deviation variables in eqs. (&.2-! and (&.2'!, we ta.e
dx'. ,., b ," b ., d'
-- "a II X I " a 12X2 " II m I " 12m2 " / I I
dt .
(&.2&!
and
dX2 , '., b' , .. b ' + C d'
-- "a21xI + a22x2 + 21
m
I + 22
m
2 2 2
dt
where the constants a ih b i%, and C i are the appropriate derivatives in the
eqs. (&.2-! and (&.2'!0
(&.21!
an "(a
fl
) al2 2 ( a
fl
) bll=(~ )
aXI 0
aX2 0
sm, 0
(a
f
)
/I =(a
fl
)
ba= __ I
em 0 ad I 0
and
a2' 2 (a
f2
)
a22 2 (a
f2
)
&
21
"# af2 )
ax, 0 aX2 0
amI 0
b22 2 (a
f2
)
!2= "#2)
am2 0 ad$ 0
Cha' ( Com't
im)lation an! the *ineari+ation of ,onlinear -ystems
It should be note3 that the modeling eqs. (&.2&! and (&.21! are in the
(ormthat w(wo(ld li.e to have, for process control purposes (i.e., linear4
ized appro5imanon of the nonlinear state equations!, in terms of devia4
tion variables.
%xam&l' &.-0 (i)'a*i$ati+) 0# a ,+)i-+th'*mal !./0
6he modeling equations for a /768 were given in 95ample -.10by
eq,s. (-.:a!, (-.3a!, and (-.10b!. *ssume that the volume V of the reacting
mi5ture remains constant. 6hen .the dynamic model of the reactor is
reduced to the following0 . +
d!1 1
- "- (/*+ 4 c*l 4 2+'-%I0/ /*
dt r I
(&.2:!
and
d/ 1, U1
-d =-(T; - 6!+" J2+'-%I0/c1 --. _, (T - Te) (6.29)
t r pCp V
where, lit' "t! V. 6his model is nonlinear due to the presence of the
(onli(ear term '-
%10/
! *, while all the other terms are linear. 6hus to
hneanze eqs. (&.2:! and (&.2;!, we need only to linearize the nonlinear
term around some point (/*,,, ;/+).
'-
%10/
/* ( '-%I0/+!1,O + 3a3'/%I0/ /*l< (/ - /+)
'* (6,,/*,,!
3
a3'-
%10/
/*1<
+ (/* 4 /*,,!
ac * (6,,/*,,!
= '-%10/!1,O + (0~ 4 '-%I0/O!1,O)5/ - /+) + '-%I0/+(!1 - /*,,!
7ubstituti(g th.eappro5imation+above into eqs. (&.2:! and (&.2;!, we ta.e
the following hneanzed model for a nonisothermal /7680
d!1 1
dt "~ (/*= 4 c*l (&.>0!
- 2+3 '-%I0/+!1,O + 0~ i6 '-%I0/+!1,O(/ - /+) + '-%I0/+(!1 - /*,,!<
d/ 1 .,?. %
- "- (T; - /) + "#
+
'-%I0/+!1. 0 + -- '-%I0/+c . (/ - T)
dt t+ + 0/i6 *,,.% . 0
+'-%I0/+(!1 _ /*,,!< ) U17. (T- /c) (6.$%)
p&pV
@ecan proceed a step further to develop a more convenient form for eqs.
(&.>0! and (&.>1! using the deviation variables. *ssume that /+ and C
(re the steady4state conditions for the /768 and for given input con(i(
tions /*=,,+ /#,+, and /c,+. 6hen from eqs. (&.2:! and (&.2;!, we ta.e
I( )k -EIRT
oC
o =- CAi 0 4 C A,O 4 oe A,O
r '
(6.32)
and
O= ! (TiO - To) +Jkoe-EIRToCA.O - UAv
'
(To - Tc.o) (6.33)
r pCp
Subtract eqs. (6.32) and (6.33) from (6.30) and (6.31), respectie!", and,
ta#e
dT =![(T;- T;.o)-(T- To)]+Jk{R~2e-EIRTOCA'O(T- To)
dt r ,0 (6.3$)
+ e-EIRTo(CA - % A,O),& 4 v ,A, [(T - To) - cr . - Tc.o)]
pCpV
'efine t(e fo!!o)in* deiation ariab!es+
cA.; =CA; - % A,,O
r; =T;- T
!
"O
T~ =T# - Tc.o
-(en eqs. (6.3.) and (6.3$) ta#e t(e fo!!o)in* form, in terms of t(e
deiation ariab!es+
dcA. =!(cA; - cA$ - [. ko~ e-EIRTOCA, O], T' - [koe-EIRTo]CA (6.36)
dt r , RTo
d% & ' ~ (n-T') +Jk.[ (R~! e-E( ) Tc A/ O) -/ +e-E') T'cAJ
T'= T- To
_ UA, (T' - T~)
pcpv
(6.30)
!I"#$ % !I"& AB%'
1. 1(at is computer simu!ation, and )(at is it used for2
2 'iscuss t(e met(ods of intera! (a!in*, successie substitution, and 3e+/ 4
. ton45ap(son for so!in* non!inear a!*ebraic equations. 1(at are t(eir
re!atie adanta*es and disadanta*es2
*. +;o t(e same )it( 6u!er/ s and t(e fourt(4order 5un*e47utta inte*ration
met(ods.
.. 1(at is !ineari8ation2
Cha() 6
Com(*ter $im*lation an+ the lineari,ation of "-onlinear $ystems
12-
S. 1(" are t(e !ineari8ed appro9imate mode!s usefu! for process contro!
purposes2
6. 1(en is t(e !ineari8ed mode! more accurate4near or far from t(e point of
!ineari8ation4and )("2
0. 1(at is t(e most attractie point of!ineari8ation for contro! purposes, and
)("2
:. 1(ic( !ineari8ation / is more usefu!, t(e one around .point A or t(e one
around point ;, and )("2 (See <i*ure =6.!.)
,(-)
B
-
<i*ure=6.1
>. 1(at are t(e deiation ariab!es2 1(at is t(e point of !ineari8ation in
order to define t(e deiation+ ariab!es t(at )i!! be usefu! for process
contro! purposes2
10. % onsider t(e tan# s"stem discussed in 69amp!e 6.1 (<i*ure 6.2a), )(ere t(e
f!o) rate of t(e out!et stream, is proportiona! to t(e square root of t(e
(ei*(t of t(e !iquid !ee!. S(o) t(at )e s(ou!d r e$!.e/r !0e t1e 2/$/.ce
e34/t!o. ev er 5 t!6e 7e c1/.8e t1e de9!r ed $!34!d $ev e$ /t 9te/d5 9t/te.
11. -(e fo!!o)in* differentia! equations proide t(e mat(ematica! mode!s for
seera! processes. 1(ic( of t(em are !inear and )(ic( non!inear2
x dx +x =!Ot +$
dt
dXI d-
2
al-+ a2- !l(") +dl(")
dt dt
2
dXI dX2
:-+ 22 -' =62(t) ? d
2
(t)
d" dt
dXI, dX2
@rocess AAA+/ / 14 ? XI - =6 l#")
dt dt
@rocess A+
@rocess AA+
$
dXI dX2
:-+ 22- cos o.
dt ' dt
Laplace Transforms
7
The use of Laplace transforms offers a very simple and elegant
method of solving linear or linearized differential equations which
result from the mathematical modeling of chemical processes.
The Laplace transforms also allow:
Simple development of input-output models which are very useful for
control purposes (see Chapter 9)
Straightforward qualitative analysis ofhow chemicalprocesses react
to various external influences
Itis for all the reasons cited above that the Laplace transforms have
been included in a process control book, although they constitute a
purely mathematical subject.
7.1 Definition of the Laplace Transform
onsider the function f(t). The Laplace transform (s) of the function
f( t) is defined as follows:
L(f(t)! = = "(s) = fooo f(t)e-
st
dt (#.$)
!ote that a bar on top of a variable will signify the Laplace transform of
that variable. This convention will be used throughout the te"t.
1,,)0
Chap. 7 Laplace isforms
12~
%emar&s
#. $ more rigorous definition of the Laplace transform is given by
eq. %7.la&: :
L'f(t)"("(s) = ' ' tpiT)(t)e-
st
dt
T*oo
%7.la&
If the fun(tionf%t& is piecewise continuous and defined for every
value of time from t ) * to t ) **, the rigorous definition %7.#a&
reduces to that of%7.l&. +or almost all the problems that we will be
c(ncern(d with in this book, the simpler definition given by %7.#&
will suffice.
,. +ro( th( definition %7.q or %7.la& we notice that Laplace transfor0
mation ./ a transformation of a function from the time domain
%wh(re time is the independent variable& to the s0domain %with s
the independent va1able&. s is a variable defined in the comple"
plane %i.e., s ) a +jb).
2. +rom the definition %7.#& or %7.#a&, we notice that the Laplace
transform of the function j'r) e"ists if the integral I.~"tt+e-, dt
takes a finite value %i.e., remains bounded&. onsider the function
f(t) ) eat- where a ! 3.Then
L'e
at
! = #
**
ea$e-
st
dt = 1
**
e(a-S)ldt (7.2)
!ow, if a - s ! * or s ".a- then the integral in %7.,& becomes
unbounded. onsequently, the Laplace transform of eat is defined
only for ( ! a- which4 yields finite values for the integral in %7.,&.
$ll functions we are concerned with in this book will possess
Laplace transforms so that we will not test their e"istence every
time we need them5
6. The Laplace transformation is a linear operation:
L'atft(t) + ad/*t)! ) a IL#f,t)l + a/L(f/(t)! (7.3)
where a t and a, are constant parameters. The proof is straightfor0
ward:4 .
L'adl(t) + ad/(t)l( 1
**
'adl(t) 0ad/(t)!e-
S)
dt 1.
=at L33 fl(t)e-
st
dt 0a/ L33 f/(t)e-
st
dt
=a)L'f-(t)! + a/..'(f/(t)!
7.2 Laplace Transforms o f Some Basic
Functions
Let us no w. apply the Laplace transf o rmatio n o n so me basic f unctio ns
that we will use repeatedly in the f o llo wing chapters.
E!ponential function
This f unctio n is def ined as:
/(t) "e-
at
f o r t ~ 0
Then
.L[ e-
at
] "#I#
. s+ a
(7.4)
Proof:
l
ao lo o ) $ [-(s+a),]oo II
! -at] " e-ate-
st
dt "% e-(s+a t dt " # ##.. e 0 " ##
.. e 0 0 s+a s+a
$ro m (7.4) it is clear that
$
.L[e
Q 1
] "&&
s-a
(7.%)
'(I)
L# &&''&&&&&&&&&'
t "* t
(b)
+amp
7
(&'
)tep f unctio n
o f si*e +
01####0
I()
(a)
$igure 7.1 (a) ,amp f unctio n- (b) step f unctio n o f si*e A.
Ftamp function (fi,ure 7.$a)
This f unctio n is def ined as:
f(t) "at f o r t .~ 0 with a "co nstant
Chap. 7 LaplaceTransforms
$-$
Then
a
..e[at] ".
. S2 (7.()
Proof:
.i[at] "rate= dt
.ntegrating by parts/ where t and e-
st
are the two f unctio ns/ we ta0e
.i[at] " (oo.ate-
Sl
dt " !&at -: / (00 !!..e-st dt
1 o . s 0 1 o s
(
20 0) a !#1 #t a
" ' / /&. -e "'
.' 1 .' 1 0 .' 1
2
Tri,onometric functions
o nsider the sinuso idal f unctio n3(t) "sin rot. Then
.i!sin rot] ".' 1
2
: ro
4 (7.7)
Proof:
.)imilarly it can be pro 5ed that
.' 1
.i!co s mt] "&&
S2 / ro
4
(7.6)
' Note. .n the pro o f abo 5e we ha5e used the 7uler identity
132 Analysis of the Dynamic Behavior of Cher. Processes
. e
ja
_ e-
ja
sIn cx =+++++,..+
2j
For the proof of (7.8) use
e!" + e-
ja
cOsO!=++++
2
Step function (figure 7.1!
This function is defined by
f(t)= {~
and its ap!ace transfor" is
#step function of si$e A] =%
s
for t " &
for t ' &
Part ###
(7.()
Proof: )e notice that a discontinuity in the *a!ue of the function exists
at t = & such thatf(t = &) is undefined. The definition of ap!ace trans+
for" fro" e,, (7..-)re,uires the .no/!ed0e of the function at t $O. The
dra/bac. is o*erco"e if /e consider the "ore precise "athe"atica!
definition of the ap!ace transfor"ation fro" e,. (7.!a)1
L[f(t),':l $ !i" fTf(t)e-:
st
dt
23&4 52
T34oo
Thus for the step function, the upper !i"it is T $&& but the !o/er !i"it
is t $&6 (i.e., a *ery s"a!! but finite positi*e ti"e) instead of t :: O.
7ence for step function /e ha*e
L[A ] = [O O A e-
st
dt= A[, e-stl~ = %
% o+ -s' s
lranslate& functions
8onsider the function f(t) sho/n in Fi0ure 7.2a. If this function is
de!ayed by to seconds, /e ta.e the function sho/n in Fi0ure 7.2b, and. if
it is ad*anced by to seconds, then /e ha*e the cur*e of Fi0ure 7.2c. The
re!ationship a"on0 the three cur*es is 4
f(t + to) = f( t ) $f(t - to)
cur*e in cur*e in cur*e in
Fi0ure 7.2c Fi0ure 7.2a Fi0ure 7.2b
Chap. 7 'aplace ... nsforms
133
(
(
9or"a!
function
[(I)
:e!ayed
function
[(t - to)
1=0
t= &
(a)
(b)
f
;d*anced
function
[V + 1
0
)
(c)
Fi0ure 7.2 Ti"e de!ayed and ad*anced for"s of a 0i*en function.
et L[f(t)] $f(s) be the ap!ace transfor" off(t). Then
L[f(t T to)1 $e-
S1o
f(s) (.1!)
and
L[f(t + to)] =e
sto
f(s) (.11)
Proof:
"[f(l- (!# ) $1!!f(1 - lo)e-"fll = e$"o 1!!ftl - lo)e-"%o) d(1 - (
!
)
since dt $d (t - to). et t - t ) * r< then
e-"&loof(t - to)e-,el-'
o
) d(1 - (
0
) - e:st . J J tr > e -" d t
= e-stoL$of(r)e-(f d t $e-sto f(s)
9O!ice,that in the !ast.e,ua!ity /e rep!aced the !o/er bound -t /ith &
Th!% /I!I.not chan0e t%e *a!ue of+ithe inte0ra! since f( r) = & for % ' ,. +.
=,uation (7.-&),/I!! be particu!ar!y usefu! in the co"putation of
ap!ace transfor"s of syste"s /ith dead ti"e.
134
Part III
Example 7.1
Let us recall the flow of an incompressible liquid through a pipe
(Example 4.9 and Figure 4.7a). From eq, (4.7) we hae
(4!7)
where "out is the temperature oftheliquid flowing out of the pipe and "in
is the .temperature of the fluid flowing in the pipe. "he temperature of t#e
outletis equal.to the temperature ofthe inlet but dela$ed b$ td, wherer, %&
the dead time (transportation lag), that is, the time required for a change
in the inlet to reach the outlet of the pipe.
If L[Tin(t)] = Tin(s), then, using (7.l'), we hae
"out(s) == L[ Tout(t)] =(!)Tin(t - td )] * * e-
s td
Tin(s)
Unit pulse function
+onsider the function in Figure 7.,a. "he height is l/A and the
width A. "hus the area under the cure is
1
area =.z: A =(
A
"his function is called unit puls e function of duration A .and is defined
b$
for t <'
for ' < t - A
for t . A
It can also be described as the difference of two step functions of equal
si/e (0A. "he first step function occurs at time t =' while the second is
dela$ed b$ A units of time. "hus if
first step function! 1.( I)* f ~
t<O
t>O
second step function! 2,(t) =~
t <A }
, =l(t -A)
t ! A
then
JAt) * unit pulse of duration A * l(1) ! /"(1)
=fl(t)~II(t -A)
Chap" # $aplace %ransforms 13&
.(/)
O ~ - - ~ - - - - - - - - -
"f'(
3nit impulse
(4irac function)
# 5 # 66 .... 3nit
I pulse
I
I
I
I
1 =0
'))
Figure 7., (a) 3nit pulse7 (b) unit impulse.
"he Laplace transform of the unit pulse function of duration A is
L)t85(t)9 =* + * ( : e!
SA
A s
(7.(;)
$%oo:
L[JA(t)] =L[fl(t) - l(t ! A)]
::;;L[fl(t)] -. e-
sA
L[/I(t)] * * 1 * e-sA * 1 * 21 , e!
SA
As As A s
Unit impulse function
+onsider that the duration A of a unit pulse function is allowed to
shrin<, approaching /ero, while the height (0A approaches infinit$. "he
area under the cure remains alwa$s equal to (!
i' I)
lim => A_. =I
A&O, A
5s A ...' we ta<e the function shown in Figure 7.,b. "his function is
caned the unit impuls e or 'i%a( un(tion and it is usuall$ represented
b$ t5(t). %t is defined as equal to /ero for all times except for t =?. &ince
the area under the unit pulse remains equal to (, it is clear that this is
true for the unit impulse!
i:,J(t) dt ~ (
"he Laplace transform of a unit impulse is
L[t5(t)] * ( (7.(,)
1 ~36 Analysis of the Dynamic Behavior of Cher, ?rocesses
Proof: Since c>(t) =lim C > A { t ) ,
A~O
=lim J . < X ! <5A(t)e-
SI
dt =.lim[ _ ! _ 1 + e-
SA
]
A~O 0 A~O A s
Using L'Hospital's rule, we a!e
lim [ _ ! _ 1 + e -
SA
.] " lim [ s e - .
SA
] " 1
A O A s A ~O S
#n $a%le &.1 te Laplace trans'orms o' some %asic 'unctions a!e %een
ta%ulate(.
Re mark. It is important. to notice tat te Laplace trans'orms o' all
te %asic 'unctions e)amine( in tis section an( o' a((itional 'unctions
sown in $a%le &.1 are rat ios oj t wo po!"omias i" s . $e onl* e)cep+
tions are te Laplace trans'orms o' 'unctions translate( in time, wic
inclu(e te e)ponential terms e -
1os
$ere'ore,'or an* 'unction,-t. -not
inclu(ing a time+translate( term., we will a!e
#$s ) =%[ #$t ) ] =&, $s i
&'$S)
were &, $s ) an( &($s ) are two pol*nomials in s :
&$S) " kms
m
+ km)*s
m
- , + ,+k.s + ko
&'$S) " "s " + I"), s "~ + + Is + o
Part III
+,ampe -.'
Iff$t ) =cos o", ten
l(s) =_s_ =q.(s)
S2 + Q)2 q2(S)
, wit & .(s) =1/s + 0an( &($s ) =1/S' + ..
'
/ 0rom $a%le &.1 if!(t) =e :0 cos on,
ten
!(s) = s 1a q.(s)
. (s + a) ' + $*) ' q2(S)
wit q.(s) "1 l/s + a an( q2(S) =1.s
2
+ 2a -s + (a
+ (l)).
Cha. ! "alace
~ime 'unction $I # $ $ 0.
Unit impulse, !(1
.
)
Unit pulse, %A $I)
Unit step
2amp, f$t ) =t
ttl
. forrns
$34L5 &.1
L36L375 $238S092:S 90 ;32#9US 0U87$#98S
Laplace trans'orm
# 1 + e -
fA
"i-s-
I
#i
n!
s 0 +.
I
s 1a
* " *.
A
1<
&'
1$i
e:" sin (wt)
e-
al
cos (wt)"
w
($ +a)
(s + a)2 + w
2
~ -
Chap. 7 Laplace Transforms
139
7.3 Laplace Transforms of Darivatives
L[ d~~)] ~ s/(s) - 1(0)
(7.14)
where J(s) =L[f(t)].
Proof:
L[d, If(t)] = J .oo df(t) e-
st
dt = [e-
st
f(t)]oo+ (0 0 se:" f(t) dt
dt 0 dt 0 J o
=[0- f(O)] + s Loof(t)e-
S I
dt =sA's) - f(O)
Similarly, it can be proved that
'L[d
f
(t)] = S J(S ) - si ' (o ) - 1' (0)
dt! ",
(7.15)
where 1' (0) ,=df( t)/ dt evaluated at t =. !n "eneral,
L[ tf: ~t)# $ s"J( s )- s%$ &'(0 ). s"~'f' (0 ) . . . . . S J" '~'(O) - '&%$ 1)(0 ) 7.1!"
)rom e*s. (7.14) throu"h (7.1+) we notice that in order to 'ind the
,aplace trans'orm o' any derivative, we need to have a number o'
initial conditions. -o 'ind the ,aplace trans'orm o' an nth.order deriv.
ative, we need # initial conditions,
f(O), 1' (0), f"(O), $$$ , #$- %"&"
7.' Laplace Transforms of %nte(rals
$% [J .' ft
t
) dt ] ~ ~ J(s) (7.17)
whe'($ J (s) =L[f(t)].
Proof:
140
Part III Analysis of the Dynamic Behavior of CI .al Processes
Integrate by parts. Put u =e-
s
' and v = ' f(t) dt. Then
du =-se-
S I
dt dv =f(t) dt and
Now
flf.'f(1) dt}-" dt =- ; f vdu =-;[(VU)I : - f U dV]
=- ; [f f(t)dtoe-' r+ ;ff(t)e-" dt
o
1 . L- 1-
= - :._; (0 - 0) + -f(s) =-f(s)
s s s
.! "inal-#al$e %heorem
limf(t) =l! [sJ(s)]
t+cc "#$
where %&(s ) =L[f(t)].
!oof: 'sng the (apla)e transf or! of a der*at*e [e+, (-../)0, we ha*e
roo df(t) e-
si
dt =s1"s) -f(#)
1 o dt .
Ta2e the l!t of both sdes as s - 3 0:
l.! r f j d$i.(t) e= dt =l! [s1"s) -:-f(#)]
s% o 1 o dt s% o
"n)e *arable s s ndependent of t!e t& we ta2e
roo l! df(t) e= dt= l! [s1"s) - f(#)]
1 o s% o dt s% o
or
roo df(t) dt =l! f(t) - f(#) =l.! [s](s)] - f(#)
1 o dt t+o' s% o
()*m+le ,.-
(et
1<s) s +.
s(.s + 1)(s + /)(s + 4) .
&.1'(
Cha). La)lace sforrns
./
5nd the *alue of I (t) as t -+ 00. 'sng the f nal- *alue theore!, we ha*e
l!6(t) =l![s$(s)] = l! s[ s+ /. 0
1-00 s-o s-o s1s + 1)(s + /)(s + 4)
r7 [ s + / 0 /
= :# (s + 1)(s + /)(s + 4) =- *
23e fi4*l-v*lue t3eo!em *llo5s us to com+ute t3e v*lue t3*t *fu4ctio4
*++!o*c3es *s t -+ 00 53e4 its L*+l*ce t!*4sfo!m is 64o54.
. j '.6 Initial-#al$e %heorem.
l! f( t) =l! [sl( s ).
t% # s+oo
(-..8)
where
J(s) = (oo f (t)e-
S I
dt7 = (apla)e transf or! of $(t)
The proof f ollows the sa!e pattern as f or the f nal- *alue theore!.
()*m+le ,..
(et
1<s) (s - 1)(s + .)
s(s + -)(s - /)
5nd $(t =0). 'sng the ntal- *alue theore!, we ha*e
limf(t) =l! [s.1(s)] =l! s[. (s - 1)(s + 1( ,
.- 0 s~oo s--eo s(s + 3)(s - /)
I
, [. s 3.. 0 . I& s + .. .
= 1m + = + 1m =
S -#8) .. S / - S - 1- s~oo S / - S - 1-
%.I/01 %2 %.I/3 AB24%
t. If r s == L [f.(t)] and r s = L [3t)]& )an we f nd the L [f.(t)f/(9)] f or
general f un)tons 11(9) and f/(t):
9. :oes the f un)ton II= 19(t - .) possess a (apla)e transf or!;
4. <hat s the (apla)e transf or! of the f un)tonf (t) = = )os .t + ' + ;t:
142
Part III
4. What is the Laplace transform of the vector function
[
a sin t + be-l:' J
f(t) = a + bt
cos t + b sin (1- td)
5. Using Euler's identity,
cos O!
2
sho that
s
COS(1)t =--
S2 + (1)2
!. "ho that
here l(s) =L[/(I)].
#. "tarting from the e$uation yielding the Laplace transform of a derivative,
% e& ' d/(t) e-s~ dt ( sf{s) - (!)
) o dt
prove the initial value theorem.
*. What functions have Laplace transforms hich cannot +e cast as ratios of
to polynomials in s?
Solution of Linear
Differential Equations
Using Laplace Transforms
"
,s mentioned earlier, the primary use for the Laplace transforms is
to solve linear differential e$uations or systems oflinear % or lineari-ed
nonlinear. differential e$uations ith constant coefficients. /he proce0
dure as developed +y the English engineer Oliver 1eaviside and it
ena+les us to solve many pro+lems ithout going through the trou+le of
finding the complementary and the particular solutions for linear dif0
ferential e$uations. /he same procedure can +e e& tended to simple or
systems of partial differential e$uations and to integral e$uations.
"#1 A Characteristic $%am&le an' the
(ol)tion Proce')re
,ssuming that ! = % i.e., that the li$uid level remains unchanged., the
energy +alance for a stirred tan2 heater % see E& ample 5.3. is
dT .. 3
-+aT=- r"# sr$
dt /
E$uation % 5.3. can +e e& pressed interms of deviation varia+les,
dT' T' 3 T' KT'
-%a (4.5 t
d
'5
t T
% 5.3.
% 5.6.
here T& =T - T'; T$ =T! '$""" Tu, and T~t =T
st
- T
st
"
s
are the deviation
varia+les from the steady state defined +y the values Ts! Ti!s! and T
st
"
s
"
14*
144
Analysis of the Dynamic Behavior of Chern
Part III
rocesses
Assume that the heater is initially at steady state [i.e., T'(O) =0]. At
t =1 0, the temperature of the inlet stream increases by a step of lOOF
from its steady7state value and remains at this new level. Thus
Ti(t) =lOOFfor t > O. The temperature of the li!uid in the tan" will
start increasin# and we want to "now how it chan#es with time. $n other
words, we must solve e!. %&0'(.
)!uation %&.'( is a linear e!uation with constant coefficients. *e can
use +aplace transforms to solve it. +et us e,amine the solution proce7
dure,
Ta"e the +aplace transforms of both sides of e!. %&.'(-
L[dT'J + a L[ T'] =.L[ Ti] + K .l[T;t]
dt r
or
- 1- -
[s T'(s) ) T'(O)] + a T'(s) =- Ti(s) + KT;t(s) %/.1 (
r .
0ecall that T(O) =0, Ti(s) = +[step function of lOOF] = lOis and
T;t == O. Then e!. %1.1 ( becomes
T'(s) 2.31 3 1 0 %/.. 4(
r s + a s
The function T'( t) whose +aplace transform is #iven by the ri#ht7hand
side of e!. %1.4( is our solution. It is easy to show that
T'(s) 2.7.31 3 1 0 =3..43[. 7 7. I_ J %/.'(
r s + a s t a s s + a
From Table 5.1 we find easily that-
The function with Laplace transform lis is a unit step function.
The function with Laplace transform l!(s + a) is ".
Therefore, from e!, %1.'( we find that
T'(t) #iven by e!. %/.6( is the solution to our initial differential e!ua7
tion 1 %&.'(. $ndeed, ta"in# the +aplace of e!. %/.6(, it yields e!. %1.'(.The
procedure by which we find the time function when its +aplace trans7
form is "nown is called the inerse Laplace transformation .and is the
most critical step while solvin# linear differential e!uations usin#
+aplace transforms. To summari8e the solution procedure described in
the e,ample above, we can identify the followin# steps-
%/.6(
Cha. ! "ol#tion c ar Differential $%#ations &sin' (alace )ransforms 14*
1 . Ta"e the +aplace transform of both sides of the differential e!ua7
tion. 9se e!s. %5.1 6(, %5.1 &( and %5.1 :( to develop the +aplace
transforms of the various.derivatives. The initial conditions #iven
for the differential e!uation are incorporated in this step with the
transforms of the derivatives.
4. /olve the resultin# al#ebraic e!uation in terms of the +aplace
transform of the un"nown function.
'. Find the time function that has as its +aplace transform the ri#ht7
hand side of the e!uation obtained in step 4. This function is the
desired solution since it satisfies the differential e!uation and the
initial conditions.
/tep ' is the most tedious. ;iven a #eneral e,pression such as
!() (s
4
+ a. s + b ,)( s + c $(
" s =-+----+---,
#(#$ + a%# + &)s + '%)
it is not obvious at all what the function ((t) is, that hasthe fore#oin#
+aplace transform. $n /ection /<4 we will study a particular methodol7
o#y for the inversion of +aplace transforms by partial)fractions e(pan)
sion.
!.- Inversion of (alace )ransforms.
/eavisi0e $1ansion
As pointed out above, the critical point in findin# the solution to a
differential e!uation usin# +aplace transforms is the inversion of the
+aplace transforms. $n this section we will study a method developed
by =eaviside for the inversion of +aplace transforms "nown as *eai)
side or partial)fractions e(pansion.
Assume that the +aplace transform of an un"nown function x{ t) is
#iven by
. ((s) =+(s)
,(s)
%1.&(
where +(s) and ,(s) are polynomials in s of orderm and n- respec7
tively. The inversion of +aplace transforms usin# the e,pansion to
partial fractions is composed of the followin# three steps-
1 . ),pand the Q (s )1 P( s) in to a series of fractions,
((s) =+(s) =,+*..2_ + ... +,
,(s) rl.s) r/(s) rn.s)
%1.:(
where r .(s)- r%.s)- ... - rn(s) - are low7order polynomials such as
first order, second order, and so on.
2..Compute the values of the constants C
I
, C2, , e n from
eq. (8.6).
3 . , Find the inverse aplace transform of ever! partial fraction. "hem
the un#no$n function x(t) is %iven &!
E t( C
I
] . L - t[ C2 ) . L -
t
[ c, ] x(t)=. L - . _. +. -- +. . . + -. -
r I(*) r2(s) rn(s)
$here .+E 1 s!m&oli,es the inverse aplace transform of the
e-pression $ithin the &rac#ets. "he inversion of each fraction can
&e done rather easil! &! inspection usin% ta&les of aplace
transforms for t!pical functions such as "a&les ..1and 8.1.
"/01 82
I3415*1 /6/C1 "5/3*F758* 7F *11C"19 1:651**I73*
aplace transform; l(s)
ll.
(*< a)(s +b)
2.
1
(s +a)(s +b)(s +c)
).
s+a
(s+b)(s+c)
4.
a
(s +b)2
;= .
a
--
(s +&)l
6.
a
(s +b)n+1
..
1
s(as +I)
8.
1
s(as+ 1)2
>.
a i
S(S2 +2(ws +w
2
)
1 0 .
S
(l +as)(s2 +w
2
)
11.
S
(s2 +?I)I
12.
ft
(s +a)[ (s E IE b)2 <$
l
]
"ime function; f( t)
e -al _ e -bt
b- a
e -
al
i
bl
. e -
cl
-----+ . +------
(b - a)( c E a) (c E b)( a - b) (a - c)( b - c)
_1_. _ [ (a _ b)e- bt _ (a _ c)e- ct]
c- b
ate :"
~ r e"
n !
l_a+1e- l/a
a
-{rl
1 +- e- - sin(w~ t -!)
"
$here cos cP @ E (
___1_e -t/a +. 1 co s (l} t E fA 2)
1+a
2
(l} 2 ~ ,
$here fA 2 @ tanB aw
C D C t sin o n
2w
Cha#. $ %oltion of &inear Differential '(ations )sin* &a#lace +ransforms
14.
?hen x(s) is %iven as the ratio of t$o pol!nomials ( eq. (8.= )), its
e-pansion into a series of fractions is %overned &! the form and the
roots of the pol!nomial in the denominator, P(s). In %eneral, $e $ill
distin%uish t$o cases;
1. 6ol!nomial P(s) has n distinct (all different) roots, real or comE
ple-, or
2. 6ol!nomial P(s) has multiple roots.
?cF$ill e-amine each case separatel! usin% characteristic e-amples.
Distinct real roots of the #olynomial P(s)
Consider the aplace transform of the function x( t) %iven &!
(8..)
"he pol!nomial in the denominator is of third order,
P(s) ,S3 - 2S2 - S +-
and has three roots,
PI ,1 P 2 @E 1
"herefore,
P(s) @ *l E GE 2S2 - S +2 @ (s - 1)(s +1)(s - 2)
and eq, (8..) &ecomes
_(. ). . S 2 E S - .
x s ,--/-------
(s ,__1)(s +1)(s - 2)
(8.8)
1-pand (8.8) into partial fractions and ta#e
- () s2- s. . . . :. CI C2 C
H
X S , ,--+--+--
(s - 1)(s +1)(s - 2) s - 1 s, +I s - 2
$here C., C2, and C1 are un#no$n constants to &e evaluated.
From eq. (8.>) it.is clear thatG .
x(t) ,. L - t[ _S_! +. &-
t
( C I C ) +. L - t[ _S_! .
. s- 1 s+1 s- 2
and usin% "a&le ..1$e find that
x(t) ,/ Cle
l
.
t
+"
2
e +
1
+"
3
e
2
" (#. 1$)
$hich is the inverse aplace transform of the e-pression in (8..).
et us see no$ ho$ $e can compute the constants CB C2, and CH.
(8.>)
148 Analysis of the Dynamic Behavior of Chem rocesses Part III
Compute CI. Multiply both sides of (8.9) by (s - 1):
(S2 - S - 6)(J:.--t). C c2(S - 1) C3(S - 1)
-----!!!!:"....".!--#.- $ I % %---
(..s.----1)(s % 1)(s - 2) s % 1 s - 2
Equation (8.11) holds for all values of s. Set s - 1 $ (i.e.! s $1).
"he last t#o ter$s in the ri%ht&hand side of (8.11) beco$e 'ero and
#e ta(e:
[
S2 - S - ) *
C
1
+ +,
(s % 1)(s - 2) s~
Compute C
2
Multiply both sides of(8.9) by (s+ 1):
(S2 - S - 6)&s-rl) $C1(s &- % C
2
% Cj(s % 1)
(s - 1)(,s...;.rl)(s - 2) s - 1 s &.2
Set s % 1 + ' (i.e.! s + -1):
[
S2 - S - ) * &2
C
2
- $-
(s - 1)(s - 2) s--I ,
Compute C
3
Multiply both sides of(8.9) by (s - 2):
(S2 - S - 6)(.s--() + C ,(s - () % C2(s - () % C
3
(s - 1)(s % I)(s--() s - 1 s % 1
Set s - 2 + (i.e.! s $2):
)
*( - * - ) * &.
C
,
$ (s ! 1)(s % 1) sa2 $+,
"herefore! eq. (8.1) yields
x(t)= 3e
t
- - e'-t - ~ e"
Distinct com.le/ roots of the .olynomial P(s)
(8.11)
Consider the /aplace transfor$
x(s) ++ s % 1
S2 - 2s % 0
"he polyno$ial P(s) is of second order and has t#o distinc:t roots
#hich are not real (as in the previous case) but co$ple1 con2u%ates:
PI $1% 2j and P2 + 1 - 2j
Cha.. 8 *ol0tion l ear Differential 120ations 3sin4 5a.lace 6ransforms
"herefore!
1.S
P(s) $*( - 2s % 0 $3s & (1 % 2j)][s - (1 & 2j)]
E1pansion into partial fractions yields
-( ) s.+ 1 s % 1
xs $----
S2 - 2s % 0 3s 4 (1 % 2j)][s _ (1 & 2j)]
C5 C
2
----+----
S - (1% 2j) s _ (1 ! 2j)
and usin% the transfor$s of "able 6.1! #e find that
x(t) $C,e(l+2
j
)t % C
2
e(l-2
j
)t (8.13)
"he constants C! and C( are co$puted as in the case #ith distinct real
roots:
Set s _ (1 % 2j) $ (i.e.! s $1 %2j) and ta(e
C! + 1& j
(
(8.12)
Compute C2. Multiply both sides of (8.12) by [s - (1 - 2j)] and then set
s -- (1 !2j) $' (i.e. s + 1.: 22) to find7
C
2
=1+j
2
8otice that the coefficients C! and C( are co$ple1 con2u%ates of each
other. 9ut the values of C! and C2 in (8.1,) and find that
x(t) .;,.1 !- e(l+2j)t % 1 % - e('-2j)t
2 2
or
x(t) $e
t
)(1 !j)e
2jt
% (1 % j)e-
2jt
]
(
/et us recall Euler7s identity
e
ja
$cos X % j sin X
(8.1.)
(8.10)
150
Part III
Then we' ha.ve .
e
2j
' =cos 2t +j sin 2t
and
e-
2j
, =cos (-2t) + j sin (-2t)
=cos 2t - j sin 2t
In eq. (8.14), replace e
2j
, and e-
2j
, by their equal ro! the equations
above and ta"e
x(t) =s : #(I 6 j)%cos 2t + j sin 2t] + (1 + j)%cos 2t - j sin 2t])
2
or
xl(t) =e'%cos 2t + sin 2t]
&ecall the tri'ono!etric identity
a I cos b + a 2 sin b =a ( sin (b + c f
(8..1))
(8..1*)
where
,I,. -I ( a
l
)
'+, tan . a2
and
-pply (8.1*) to eq, (8..1)) and ind
x(t) =e' J 2 sin (2t + < p )
where . / 0 t = tan1' (l/ l) =423. Thereore, whenever the polyno!ial P(s)
has co!ple4 roots1
1. They will always be in co!ple4 pairs. . .5
2. The coeicients o the correspondin' ter!s ! the partial rac6
, tions e4pansion will also be co!ple4 conju'ates o each other.
(. They will 'ive rise to a periodic ter! (e.'., sinusoidal wave).
!"lti#le roots of the #olynomial P$s%
The e4pansion into partial ractions and the co!putation o the
coeicients chan'e when the polyno!ial P(s) has !ultiple roots. 7on6
sider the 8aplace transor!
9 1
~(s) , -(s-+-I-i-(s-+___"'2)
(8.18)
Cha#. & 'ol"tion of (inear Differential )*"ations +sin, (a#lace -ransforms
The polyno!ial P(s) has three roots equal and the ourth dierent1
PI , P 2 , P . , -1 and
:4pand (8.18) into partial ractions
P4= -2
x(s) , 1 .. ,;<;<;<9s9
(s + 1)3(s + 2) s + 1 (s + 1)2 (s + 1)( S + 2
=ro! Tables *.1 and 8.1, we ind that
.> 6t%;0 =72te-
i
and
(s + 1)2
r6t% 7
(
? 7
(
2 -I
_,_ --- =-te
(s + 1)( 2
151
(8.1@)
7onsequently, the inverse 8aplace transor! o (8.1@) is easily ound to
be
x(t) =71e6' + C
2
te-"+ 7
(
t'e" + C
4
e-
2 t
2
8et us see then how can we co!pute the constants 7h 72, 7(, and 74.
(8.2A)
Compute 74B This constant corresponds to the distinct root and can be
cC!puted usin' the procedure described earlier. Thus !ultiply both
sides o (8.1@) by (s + 2) and then set s + 2 , A (i.e., s =62) and ind
that C
/
,61.
Compute 7(. Dse the a!iliar procedure %i.e., !ultiply both sides o
(8.1@) by (s + 1)(?
919 =C(s + 1)2 + C
2
(s + 1% + C
(
+ C
4
(s + 1)(
s+2 - s+2
Eet (s < 1)( =A (i.e., s , 61) and ind that 7( , <1.
(8.21)
Compute 72B The a!iliar procedure used above cannot be e!ployed
or the co!putation o 72. Thus i we !ultiply both sides o (8.1@) by
(s <1)2, we ta"e .
1 =C(s < 1)< C2+~+ C
4
(s < 1)
(s + 1)(s + 2) s + 1 s + 2
Then, settin' s =-1, the ter! involvin' 7
(
beco!es ininite. The sa!e
proble! is encountered i we try to co!pute C .Thereore, an alterna6
tive procedure is needed to co!pute 7 2 and CI6
Fierentiate both sides o (8.21) with respect to s and ta"e
9 1 =2C(s+I)+C2+C4(s+I)2(2s+!)-
(s + 2)2. . (s +2)2
Eet s =-1and ind that 7
2
,61.
(8.22)
52
Analysis of the Dynamic Behavior of Chemic, .cesses
Part III
Compute CI. To obtain the value of C" differentiate (8.22) once more
and .. take
2 . 52 + 55 + 7
111=2C
I
+ C
4
2(s + 1)11!.!..11
(s + 2)" (s #2)"
$et s =11and find C
I
=#1. $ubstitute the values of CI, C2, e3, and C!
in (8.2%) and find that . .
x(t) =e-'(l - t +! t
2
) 5 e-
2t
Remark.
If the &ol'nomial P(5) has multi&le roots! the denominator ofx(s) bas
a term (s - Pi)m, (here Pi is the multi&le root (hich is re&eated m
times. )n such case the &artial1fractions e*&ansion &roduces terms such
as
c, C
2
. Cm51 em
---+ +...+ .. #1+.
S 5 Pi (s - Pi)2 (S 5 Pi)m5I (S 5 Pi)m
,rom Table 7.1(e kno( that
L[tn e5at] = n!
(s + a)n+1
Therefore! the terms of the e*&ansion. above lead to the follo(in-
inverse .a&lace transform/
1
-CI + C
2
t + C
3
t
2
+... + em~1 t
m
5
2
+ C
m
. tm5IJePil
. 20 (m - 2)0 (m - 1)1
The constant em can be com&uted in the usual manner b' multi&l'in-
both sides of the e*&ansion (ith (s - Pi)m and settin- s =Pi. The
remainin- constants C
m
5
h
. , e2! C) are com&uted b' successive dif1
ferentiations of the e2uation resultin- from the multi&lication of the
e*&ansion b' (s - Pi)m. .
.3 !"am#les of the $ol%tion of &inear
Differential !'%ations (sin) &a#lace
*ransforms
)n this section (e (ill -ive t(o characteristic e*am&les of solvin- linear
differential e2uations usin- the .a&lace transforms. The first e*am&le is
the solution of a second1order differential e2uation! (hile in the second
e*am&le (e find the solution to a s'stem of t(o differential e2uations.
Cha#. $ol%tion +,
ar Differential !'%ations (sin) &a#lace *ransforms
1 ,3
3he sol3tion of.an' other linear differential e2uation or ofa s'stem
of l3near. differential e2uations (ill follo( the same -eneral &attern
outlined 1 1 1 the t(o e*am&les.
Example 8.1/ Sl!tin " a Se#n$5%r$er &i""erential E'!atin
Consider the follo(in- second1order differential e2uation
$
2
x . $x
a2$i2( a, $t + ax )"(t) (8.2")
(here x(t) is considered to be in the form of a deviation variable (ith
initial conditions
x(%) =($* ) =%
$t ,)+
(8.24)
Take the .a&lace transform of (85.2")!
a,s2
x
(s) 5 sx(%) 5 (-- -,. + a,[sx(s) 5 x(%)] + ax(s) ="(s)
or
xes) ./s) + a2
S*
(%) + a2($x0$t),)+ + a,x(%)
ass1 + a,s + a a2s
2
+ a,s + a (8.25)
.3t us assu3e that "(t) is a unit ste& function! -ivin- n2 =1/s. 6sin-
this e*&ression for "(s) and the initial conditions -iven b' (8.24)!
e2. (8.25) becomes
x(s) s(a2s2 + a,s + a) (8.26)
The 3ol'nomia)78(s) $!! a2s
2
+ a,s +a is called the #3ara#teristi# pl45
nmial of a second1order e2uation. To invert the ri-ht1hand side of (8.29)
(e need to kno( the roots of the &ol'nomial P6(s). :e&endin- on the
values of the constants a2, a7 and a, (e can distin-uish three cases.
Case 1/ a-..8..4a2a% / ;..Then (e have t9 $istin#t real rts,
5a, 0 .Ja- 5 4a2a%
S1,2
2 a 2 .
,or e*am&le! let a, =4! ai =1! a ="+ then a- 5 4a2a% =19 1 12 =4 / %
and s, =111and S2 =1".
1 1
s(a2s2 + a,s + a) =5s(55s51525(545s + ") =s(s + 3)(s +1)
)C1(-(-
s s(3 s#l
<ulti&l' (8.27) b' s and set s =;. ,ind C! =3. <ulti&l' (8.27) b' s + "
(8.27)
and set s =E3. Find C2 =A. Multiply (8.27) by s - + 1 and set s =E1. Find
C
3
=- ~. Then '
x( t) =.L-
t
[ 1/ 3J + . Et[ J + . E1[ E1/ 2 J =!+ !e-
31
~ !e-
I
s s+3 s+1 3 6 .
Case 2" af - 4a2aO =#. Then $e ha%e two equal roots:
-a,
SI=S2=-
2a2
&et a, ' 2( a2 =1( a) =1* then at E 4azao ' + E + ,1,1 =-"
s, =S2 =- 1
s(a2s2 + a ./ + ao) S(S2+ 2s + 1) s(s + 1)2
C( C
2
C
3
' E + - - ! + - - (8.28)
s s + 1 (s + 1)2
Multiply (8.28) by s and set s ' #. Find C( ' 1. Multiply (8.28) by (s + 1)2
and ta0e
1 C,(s 1 1)2 C " 1# C
- = + 2S+ + 3
S S
/et s ' - 1 and 2ind C
3
' E1. 3i22e4entiate (8.25) $ith 4espe6t t) s:
1 s + 1 (s + 1)2
--=2C,--- C,--+C
2
S2 's S2
(8.25)
/et s =- 1 and 2ind C
2
=E1. Then
. x(t) =. E1[ !7 + . E1[ 8 8 ( 1 $ + . E1[ 8 8 1 7
s s + 1 (s + 1)2
=1 E (1 + t)e-
I
Case 3" ai E 4a2aO % #.Then $e ha%e two complex co!u"ate roots.
&et a, ' 2( a1.=2( ao =1* then at - 4a2aO =+ E98 ' E+ % -( and the t$)
4))ts a4e"
- 1 + &
s,=---
and
- 1- &
s2=-2-
1/ 2
'
( - 1 + : J [ - 1 - (: 7
ss--- s---
2 2
S(2S2 + 2s + 1#
(8.3-)
C( C
2
C
3
=- + + - - -
S . - 1 + & - 1 - &
s--- s---
2 2
Cha). * +ol,tion of -inear Differential ./,ations 0sin1 -a)lace 2ransforms
1;;
Multiply (8.3-) by s, set s =-( and 2ind C
I
=1.
Multiply (8.3-) by (s - - 31+ !), set s =- 1
+ i; and 2ind
C
2
E8
l
8 E. -1+j -(-I+!)#2
. -1-! (-1-!)(-I+!)
Multiply (8.3-) by (s - E1
2
E !), set s =E1
2
E : ( and 2ind
C
3
=4! 414 5 - 1 - & ="- 1 + 1)#2
- 11 & "- I + &#"- I -j)
C)nse<uently(
x(t) ' . E1[ 7 + (E1 + : ) . 8 1[ . *21: J + (E. .(.. : ) .1:.$ % -1& $ 128 : J
s--- s---
(
)4
x(t)= 1+ ((E1 +!)e
H
+
j
)I#2+('I'!)e
H
-
j
)I/2 7 / 2 (8.31)
=e6all >ule4's identity"
, e
jal
=6)s at 1 : sin at
(8.1;)
Then e<. (8.31) be6)?es
x(t) =1+ e-
112
@(E. + : )[ 6)s (t/2) 1 : sin (t/2)]
+ "- 1 - : )[ 6)s (t#2) - : sin (t#2)() #2
)4
x(t) ' 1 -e--)#
2
[cos (t#2) + sin (t#2)(
Ase the t4iB)n)?et4i6 identity (8.17)"
a . 6)s b + a 2 sin b =a 3 sin (b + 6/ J )
(8.31a)
(8.17)
$he4e
a3=*at+a+ and
Then e<. (8.31a) be6)?es
x(t) =1 --Ii e-
I
/
2
sin (i + 6/ J )
$he4e c =tanE'(l2l) =tanE
I
"l# ' +;C.
The use )2 &apla6e t4ans2)4?s is n)t li?ited t) the s)luti)n )2
si?ple di22e4ential e<uati)ns( li0e the se6)ndE)4de4 e<uati)n )2 >Da?E
ple 8.1. It eDtends t) the s)luti)n )2 sets )2 di22e4ential e<uati)ns. C)nE
(8.32)
56 Analysis of the Dynamic Behavior of Chemic icesses Part til
sider, forexample, the following system of linear differential equations::
~]_=allXI + al2X2 + bllfl(t) + b,dlt)
dt
(8.33)
(8.34)
with initial conditions XI(O) = X2(O) = O . a!ing the "aplace transforms
of the equations a#o$e and after appropriate grouping, we find
(s - all)x,(s) - aI2X2(s) =bll[.(s) + bI2];(S)
-a2Ix,(s) + (s - a 22)X2(S) =b21[.(s) + b22!2(S)
he last two equations form a set of two linear algebraic e!ations with
xl(s)%and X2(S) as the two un!nown $aria#les, and can #e sol$ed easily
using, for example, &ramer's rule. hus we find .
XI(S) "#bll[.(s) + b1d2(S)](S - a ( ( ) + a12[b21!I(S) + b22.$(S)] (%.&')
S2- (a ))+ a22)s - (a l2a21- a (a22)
X2(S) == *#( )+,(-) + b22.$(S))(s - all) + a21[bll!I(S) + bI2];(S)) (%.&*)
S2- (a ))+ a22)s - (a l( a( ) . a (a22)
he expressions a#o$e can now #e in$erted using the partial.frac:tions
expansion, as it was descri#ed in -ection 8.( , to find the un!nown
solution x ,( t) and x ( / t ).
he solution procedure descri#ed a#o$e can #e extended to larger
systems of equations, #ut it is computationally more cum#ersome. "et
us now discuss the details of the solution procedure, in terms of an
example.
Example 8.( : Solution of a Set of Linear Differential Equations
0ind the solut.ionofthe following set of equations:
dx , 1
.. = 2x. + 3X2 +
dt
with x.(O) = 1
d
X
2 2 t
--= XI+X2+e
dt
with
a!e the "aplace transforms and after rearrangement find
.. 3. )
(s - 2)xl(s),,; . X2(S) =-
S
2 2 )
-2xl(s) + (s - 1)x2(s) =-- .
s ...;1
Solution of .. ar Differential !"uations #sin$ %a&lace 'ransforms
1()
3sing &ramer's rule to sol$e the foregoing system of linear alge#raic,
equations in XI(S), X2(S), we find
* l-s
-3 * * s - 2
1-s *
XI (S)
1-(s - )) s - 1
and X2(S)
-2 1-(s - ))
* s - 2
.3 * * S ~2
.3 *
-2 s-1
-2 S - )
or
x,(s)
S2 + s + 1
and X2(S)
S2 - 2
s(s - 1)(s - .)(s + ))
s(s - 1)(s - .)(s + ))
4xpand into partial fractions:
XI(S) = s2+s+1 , "/ 0.+1+1+1
s(s - ,)(s . .)(s -1 ,) s s - , s - 4 . s + )
- X2(S) S2 - 2 .+ ,* D2 D3 D-
--------.-/-- =- 5 .. +-- +--
s(s - ,)(s . .)(s + ,) s s - ) s - 4 s t ,
&ompute the constants using the procedure descri#ed in -ection 8.( and
find
X.(s) = )64 + 2.f6( + ( )671 2 )6)1
s s - ) s .4 s + )
X2(S) = 8)6( + + )67 + )4671 + )6)1
s s-1 s-. s+1
a!ing the in$erses, we finally ha$e
XI(t) =+ . 8e
2
+ ~e
41
-lh e32
'0* 12S '3 '0* 14 AB3#'
). 9hat is the characteristic polynomial for a first.order and a second.order
system: 0ind its roots.
( . 9hy are we interested in the roots of the characteristic polynomial of an
nth.order linear differential equation, or a system of linear differential
equations:
3. ;ow does the procedure to compute the constants of the terms resulting
from the partial fractions expansion $ary in the presence of multiple
roots:
4. 9hat is the complementary solution, and what is the particular solution
for (a) an nth.order linear differential equation, and (#) a ( x ( system of
linear differential equations: 9hat do these solutions mean: 9hat factors
determine them:
158
Analysis of the Dynamic Behavior of Chemical Processes Part III
5. Consider the following system of simultaneous linear differential equa-
tions:
dx, f
-- =allx. + a.2X2 + .(t)
dt
dX2 f )
-:" ' - = = a2.X. + a22X2 + 2(t
dt
Show that this system can be converted to the following equivalent
system:
and
with
with
x.(O) =
dX2 _ a22X2 = = a2.X. +!2(t)
dt
where b i, and b
2
de!end on all, a.2, a2h a22 and h(t) de!ends on jjtr),
f2(1), and their derivatives. "otice that the modified ' system can be
solved sequentially and thus more easily than the original system# which
requires simultaneous solution.
Transfer Functions
and the Input-Output
odels
$
%he use of &a!lace transforms allows us to form a very sim!le#
convenient# and meaningful re!resentation of chemical !rocess dynam-
ics. 't is sim!le because it uses only algebraic equations (not differential
equations# as we have seen in )art ''*. 't is convenient because it allows
a quic+ analysis of !rocess dynamics and finally# it is meaningful
because it. !rovides directly the relationshi! between the inputs (distur-
bances# mani!ulated variables* ' and the outputs (controlled variables*
of a !rocess. '
91 !ransfer "#nction of a Process $ith a
%in&le '#t(#t
Consider a sim!le !rocessing system with a single in!ut and a single
out!ut (,igure $.la*.-%he dynamic behavior of the !rocess is described
by an nth-order linear (or lineari.ed nonlinear* differential equation:
let)
in!ut
res) I
---)l*+) G(s)
(b*
! es)
..
,igure $./ (a* Single-in!ut# single-out!ut !rocess0 (b* its bloc+ diagram.
1),,,-
160
Part III Analysis of the Dynamic Behaviorof Chen Processes
d"y , d"'*'y dy
an ** + a
n
*,** + ... + a,* + aoy = b[(t) (9.1)
dt" dt"*' dt
where f(t) and y(t) are the input and output of the process, respec2
tivelly.Both are expressed in terms of deviation variables. '
Assume that the system is initially at steady state. hen
y(O) = = [dYJ '=[d2~J = ... = [dll~'~J = 0 !".#$
dt 1=0 dt 1=0 dt 1=0
After ta%in& the 'aplace transform of both sides of !".1$ and usin& the
initial conditions !".#$, we find that
~(s) == G(s) b (9,,3)
[(s) a.s" + a".."s"*' + ... + als + ao
G(s) is called the transfer [unction of the system above, and in a simple
al&ebraic form it relates the output ofa process to its input !(i&ure ".1b$.
he dia&ram of (i&ure ".1b is also %nown as the block diara! for the
system.
If the process has two inputs,),!t* and)#!t$, as shown in (i&ure ".#a,
its dynamic model is
d"y d"*'y dy
all * + a
ll
",** + ... + al* + a'JY = bl[,(t) + bd2(t) (9.4)
dt" dt"" dt
with the same initial conditions !".#$. (rom !".+$ we ta%e
y(s) = II ,'lI_l
bl
" II(s)
ans + an"#$ + ... + a ,- + ao
b % *
+ ' , [2($)
a ss" + an"#$
n
*
1
+ ... + a #$ + ao
or, e.uivalently,
::::
!"# r ' (t )
/', 0rocess ,
1
2
(&) '.
r$$$$$$$$$,
I I
f'(s) I I
I
I
I
f
2
(s) I
I
1 I
__ +: 2,2/3
!b$
!a$
(i&ure ".# !a$ wo2input, sin&le2output process4 !b$ its bloc% dia&ram.
!".5$
Cha%. & 'ransfer, _"ctions an( the ln%)t$*)t%)t+o(els
(i&ure ".6 Bloc% dia&ram of a process with several inputs and sin&le
o)t%)t,
with
, , (s) 44e b I and
I "II II$I
ans + an"#$ + ... + a IS + ao
!".6$
b2
G2($) == II ' II$I .
a liS +an*# $ +. . . + a #$ + a 0
O,(s) and G
2
(s) are the two transfer functions which relate the output
of the process to each one of its two inputs. hus 7,!s$ relates the y(s)
to the first input 1.(s), and G
2
(s) relates y(s) to the other input,#!s$.
hese reiationships are shown by the block diara!. of (i&ure ".#b. A
similar procedure can be applied to any .system with one output and
several inputs. (i&ure ".6 shows the bloc% dia&ram for such a system.
-ummari8in& all the above, we can define the, transfer function
between an input and an output as follows9
transfer function 44e G(s)
'aplace transform of the output, in deviation form
'aplace transform of the input, in deviation form
(e!arks
1. he transfer function allows the development of.a simpler in)ut*
out)ut !odel than that discussed in -ection 5.1.
#. It describes completely the dynamic behavior of the output when
the correspondin& input chan&es are &iven. hus, for a particular
variation of the input:!r$, we can find its transform l(s), and
from !".;$ we see that the response of the system is
y(s) = G(slf(s)
!".;$
162 Analysis of the Dynamic Behavior of Chemical Processes
Ta.ke the inverse Laplace transform of G(s)J(s) and you have the
response y(t) in the time domain.
3. To find the transfer function for a nonlinear system, it must first
he linearized around a steady state and be expressed in terms of
deviation variables.
Example 9.1: Transfer Functions of a Stirred Tank Heater
The mathematical model of the stirred tank heater in terms of devia*
tion variables as developed in !xample ".1 and is #iven by e$. (5.3):
dT' + t: %& t: + KT~t (5.3)
dt r
here T', Ti, and T~tare deviation varialbles, and
1 r, UA
a=-+K K=-' __'
r '% V Vpc
p
Take the Laplace transforms of both sides oft(.3):
- 1- -
(s + a)T'(s) =- Ti(s) + KT;t(s)
r
or
* 1+1, * K-
T'(s) =__ - Ti(s) + -- T~t(s)
s+a s+a
-9..)
/efine the to transfer functions
0 (s) =!'(s)
, Ti(s)
and
G
2
(s) =!'(s)
T~t(s)
-9..a)
and. 1i#ure 9.2 shos the block dia#ram for the tank heater. Gi(S relates
r***********,
1 G,(s) I
I I
T,....;_-;(_S )___,.I --..I 3iL :
S !a I
I
I T"(s
I
1
T,"t(s I K
....4.4555.54..'
I S + a
I
: G
2
(s)
,*** ..3
1t#ure 9.2 6lock dia#ram of a tank hea, ,
Part III
Chap. 9 ransfer !"nctions an# the Inp"t-$"tp"t %o#els
16&
the temperature of the li$uid in the tank to that of the inlet stream, hile
2(S ) relates the temperature of the li$uid in the tank to that of the steam.
#ote$ 7ompare the input*output model #iven by e$. -9..) and 1i#ure
9.2 to the more complex model developed in !xample ".1 8e$. -".") and
1i#ure 5.2!.
9.'' ransfer !"nction %atri( of a Process
)ith %"ltiple $"tp"ts
7onsider a process -1i#ure 9."a) ith to inputs,+.-t) and&9-t), and
to outputs, y.(t) .and "2.(t). Let. its mathematical model be #iven by
the fol'om# to linear differential e$uations, ith all the variables in
deviation form:
d%,
d't= a##"# + a##"# + $##!I (t) + $.%&#(t)
#'"#
d't =a##"# + a22"2+ $#t!.(t) + $
#
%&2(t)
The initial conditions are
-9.9a)
-9.9b)
y.(() ="#(() % :
Take the. Laplacetran'orms of both sides of e$s. -9.9a) and -9.9b)
and solve ;<th respect to "I (S ) and "2(S ). -1or the details of this proce*
dure, see (ection ..3 and !xample ..9.) Then
r---------------,
I I
<< (s)) + I = < (s)
fl(t&
'
'2(( )2(t
-a)
+ I
I
I
*I
I
1
I
I
I
I "2(S )
I
< 1
+--- ' ...3
-b)
1i#ure 9." -a>*>,-)*input, to*output process4 -b) its block dia#ram.
function matrix is nonsquare since the number of inputs is not equal to
the number of outputs:
. .. . [Gil GI2 GI3J
transfer function matnx =G(s) = G G G
21 22 23
Figure 9. sho!s the input4output mo#el for the $%&' in bloc( #iagram
form.
TABLE 9.1
COMPONENTSOFTE T!ANSFE! F"NCT#ON MAT!#$ FO!TE CST!
)utput Input Gjj *lement &ransfer function
c~(s)
C~i(S) Gil b,(s' % a22)/P(s)
Tj(s)
Gil -a '2btI P(s)
&'i()s*
Gil -a,2b2/P(s)
1"(s) C~i(S) G
2
, -a2,btlP(s)
T/(s) G22 b,(s +att)/P(s)
J+as,
G23 b2(s - all)/P(s)
c~(s)
#
#
#
#
#
#
T~(s) #
#
#
#
#
# T'(s)
#
L ~ ~
Figure 9. .loc( #iagram of a CST!+
Part 1111
Cha,+ - Transfer F.nctions an/ the #n,.t0O.t,.t Mo/els
161
-+2 Poles an/ 3eros of a Transfer F.nction
/ccor#ing to the #efinition of a transfer function0 !e ha1e
~(s~ 2 G(s)
f(s)
In general0 the transfer function G(s) !ill be the ratio of t!o pol3nomi4
als0 .
G(s) =0= Q(s)
P(s)
&he onl3 exception are s3stems !ith time #ela3s !hich intro#uce expo4
nential terms 5see %ection 6.2,. For ph3sicall3 reali7able s3stems08 the
pol3nomial Q(s) !ill al!a3s be of lo!er or#er than the pol3nomial
P(s). &he reasons !ill become clear in subsequent chapters. For the
time being0 all the examples !e ha1e co1ere# satisf3 this restriction.
&he roots of the pol3nomial Q(s) are calle# the zeros of the transfer
function, or the zeros of the system !hose #3namics are #escribe# b3
the transfer function G(s). 9hen the 1ariable s ta(es on as 1alues the
7eros of G(s), the transfer function becomes 7ero.
&he roots of the pol3nomial P(s) are calle# the poles of the transfer
function, or equi1alentl30 the poles of the system. /t the poles of a
s3stem the transfer function becomes infinit3.
&he poles an# the 7eros of a s3stem pla3 an important role in the
#3namic anal3sis of processing s3stems an# the #esign of effecti1e
controllers. /s !e procee#0 their usefulness !ill become clearer.
Example 9.3: Poles an !eros of the Stirre "an# $eater
&he input4output mo#el of the tan( heater !as #e1elope# in *xample
9J an# it is gi1en b3
T'(s) =GI(s)Ti(s)+ G
2
(s)T;t(s)
&he transfer function GI(s) is
59.:a,
4I5%, =+5f67
s%a
an# has no zeros an# one ole at s' =-a! %imilarl30 the transfer function
G2"(s), !hich is gi1en b3
G2&~
s%a
ha:s no zeros an# one ole at s = -a! ;otice that the t!o transfer
functions ha1e a common pole.
168
Analysis of the Dynamic Behavior of Chen
'rocesses
Example 9.4: Poles and Zeros in a CSTR
The transfer functions corresponding to the CSTR were developed in
Example 9.2and are summarized in Tale 9.!. "ll six transfer functions
halvea common denominator#
P(s) $$% S2+ (all + ads + (alla22 - a12
a
21)
and therefore common poles. Since P(s) is a second2order pol'nomial#
the s'stem has two poles# which are given '
-(au + a22) J(all - a22)2 + 4at2ait
PI.2 2
(ith respect to the zeros# the sixtransfer functions differ.
)
12
*s+# Gu(s), and G
2
1(s) have no zeros.
G
22
(S) and G23(S) have one common zero at s =-a II
) ,,(s) has one zero at s =-a22.
9.4 Qalitativ!"Analysis of the #es$onse'.
ota %ystem
The d'namic response of an output y is given '
yes) =G(s)1(s)
,or given input-ell we can find easil' its .aplace transform /0*s+# while
the transfer function. G(s) is 1nown0 for2the particular s'stem. There2
fore# the response yet) in the time domain can e found if we invert the
term G(s)1(s).
,urthermore# in general#
G(s) =Q(s)
P(s)
while the .aplace transform of all common inputs can also e expressed
as the ratio of two pol'nomials *see examples in Chapters 3 and 4 as
well as Tales 3.! and 4.!+:
1(s) =res)
q(s)
Conse5uentl'#
yes) =Q(s) res)
pes) q(s)
To inv6rt the right2hand side of *9.!7+ using the method of partial
Part III
&'.16(
Cha$. ' )ransfer *+ ons an, the In$t-.t$t /o,els 16'
fractions we need to. 1now the roots of the pol'nomial pes) 8i.e.# the
poles of the s'stem9 and the roots of the 0pol'nomial q(s). The terms
resulting from the inversion ' partial fractions are uni5uel' character2
ized ' the poles of the s'stem and the roots of q(s). Therefore# i we
know where the poles o a system are lo!ated" we !an determine the
q#alitati$e !hara!teristi!s %& the system s response to a parti!#lar inp#t"
witho#t additional !omp#tations.
.et us use the following general example to clarif' the statement
aove. Suppose that the transfer function of a s'stem is given '
G(s) : !(s)" . Q(s)
pes) (s ' P()(S ')' P*)(S )' P+),(S 'P.-)(S , p.)(s ' Ps) (#.1$)
where p/ P*")P+" P-" P." and Ps are the roots of P(s) 8i.e.# the poles of
the s'stem located. at various points of the complex plane *see ,igure
9.3;+60 The0 partial2fractions expansion of G(s) will 'ield the following
terms:
G(S)"%&'#'&('S'& C
<2
+... + )
+m
0
S ' PI* S ' P* S - P+ (s - P+)* . (s ..+.. P+)m
C0 c: !"
+--+--+--
S ..1.. P- S ' P- s ' Ps
The following oservations can e made for the location of the poles:
1. Real. distin!t poles " such as P I and P*" are located on the real axis
*,igure 9.3+. =uring the inversion# the' give rise to exponential
>maginar' axis
P-
... 6....:...
I
I
I
I
I Ps
I
I
I
..222
P~
(,%
Real axis
I
I
I
I
--1------e&$l(
.,igure 9.3 .ocation of poles in the complex plane.
(a)
~ ~ - - - - - - - - - - - - + -
t
Figure 9.8 (a) Exponential decay; (b) exponential growth.
(b)
terms such as 1 e
p,t
and 2e
PJt
. !ince "# < 0$ 1e
p,t
decays
exponentially to %ero as t ... 00 (Figure 9.8a). &lso$ because P2 ' 0$
C
2
e
P1t
grows exponentially to in(inity with time (Figure 9.8b).
)here(ore$ distinct poles on the negative real axis produce terms
that decay to zero with time, while real positive poles make the
response of the system grow toward infinity with time.
2. Multiple, real poles, such as "*$which is repeated m times. !uch
poles gi+e rise to terms such as
[
c +
*,
t + C
(, + ... + e
m
. tm2l"ePlt (9.18)
. *1 l! . ,- (m - #)-
)he term within the brac.ets grows toward in(inity with time.
)he beha+ior o( the exponential term depends on the +alue/ o( the
pole P#
$f p , 0 then e
P1t
00
$f p ,% 0 then e
P1t
0
$f p , =0 then e
P1t
=#
as t &&.
as t &&.
for all times.
)here(ore$ a real, multiple pole gives rise to terms which either
grow to infinity, if the pole is positive or zero, or decay to zero if the
pole is negative.
. Complex con'ugate poles, such as P( and pt 0e should empha<
si%e that complex poles always appear in con'ugate pairs and
ne+er alone. 2et P( 3 &1. +'p and P# =a- 'p. #n !ection 8., we
ha+e seen that con4ugate pairs o( complex roots gi+e rise to terms
such as eat sin (Bt + CP) . )he sin *pt + CP) is a periodic$ oscillating
(unction$ .while the beha+ior o( eat depends on the +alue o( the
real part &1.. )hus/
$f &1. > &, then e+ ... 00 as t ... 00$ and e+ sin *pt + cp) grows to
infinity in an oscillating manner *,igure -.-a) .
$f a < &, then e.tt... & as t ... 00$ and e+,## /*pt + CP) decays to
Part III
Chap. 9 ransfer !"nctions an# the Inp"t$%"tp"t &o#els
171
%"tp"t
%"tp"t
(a)
(b)
%"tp"t
)ime
Figure 9.9 5scillations with (a)growing$ (b) decaying$ and (c) sustained
amplitude.
zero in an oscillating manner with ever2decreasing amplitude
*,igure -.-0) . ..
$f &1. =0, then e.tt=1Jar all times, and e+ sin *pt + CP) =
1in *Pt + cp) , which oscillates continuously *,igure -.-c) with
constant amplitude.
)here(ore$ apairof complex con'ugate poles gives rise to oscilla2
tory 0ehavior, whose amplitude may grow continuously if the real
part of the complex poles is positive, decay to zero if it is negative,
or remain unchanged, if the real part of the poles is zero.
4. Poles at the origin# "ole Psis located at the origin o( the complex
. plane (i.e.$ Ps =0 +'60). )here(ore$ Cs3*s 2Ps) 3 Cs3s and a(ter
in+ersion it gi+es a cons-ant term s$
4emarks
1. )he obser+ations abo+e are general and can be applied to any
system. )hus we can (ind the 7ualitati+e characteristics o( a sys<
tem8s response i( we .now where the poles o( the corresponding
9rans(er (unction are located. It is ob+ious that (or a particular
mput f* t) 9e should:consider the additional. roots introduced by
the denominator off*s) , be(ore we can ha+e the complete picture
o( the 7ualitati+e response o( a system.
,. "oles to the right o( the imaginary axis gi+e rise to terms which
grow to in(init6668;ith time. !uch systems with unbounded beha+<
172 Analysis of the Dynamic Behavior of Chen. r'rocesses Part III
ior are caned unstable. Therefore, a system will be stable (i.e.,
with bounded behavior) if all the poles of its transfer function are
located to the left of the imaginary axis (Figure 9.7). In subse*
!uent chapters we will define more precisely the stability of a
system.
THINGS TTHIN! AB"T
". #efine the transfer function. $hy is it useful%
&. For a process with four inputs (disturbances and manipulated variables)
and three measured outputs, how many transfer functions should you
formulate, and why% $hat is the corresponding transfer function matrix%
'. III (ection )." we developed a different type of input*output model. $oulld
you prefer that over the input*output+ model based on the transfer function
concept% ,laborate on your answer.
-. $hat is the bloc. diagram of a process% $hat type of information does it
convey%
). ,!uations (-.-a) and (-.)b) constitute the complete mathematical model of
a stirred tan. heater. #evelop the input*output model for the process by
formulating the necessary transfer functions. #raw the corresponding
bloc. diagram. /naly0e the interactions among inputs and outputs. $hat
do you observe% (Hint: (tart by lineari0ing the modeling e!uations and
expressing the variables in deviation form.)
1. 2Iraw the bloc. diagram of the distillation column shown in Figure -."3.
4an you develop analytically the transfer functions among the various
inputs and outputs% If yes, explain how, but do not do it.
7. 4onsider the stirred tan. heater of ,xample 9.". Is it a stable system or not,
and why% For what values ofthe parameters a, T, and K is it stable% 4an it
become unstable%
5. #oes the location of the 0eros of a system affect its response to external
inputs% ,laborate on your answer.
9. 6epeat !uestion 5, but7 ta.e the location of the poles of a system into
account.
"3. (how that the poles of a & x & system are also the eigenvalues of the matrix
of constant coefficients in the dynamic model of the system.
"". 8nder what conditions can the 4(T6 of ,xample 9.& become unstable%
"&. / multiple pole P3 which is repeated m times gives rise to terms such as
those given in (9."5). The terms within the brac.ets grow toward infinity
with time, independently of where the pole P3 is located. ,xplain then, why
the overall term of (9."5) decays to 0ero when P3 is located on the negative
n9al axis%
Dynamic Behaoio
o/First-Order Systems
10
The+ previous chapters of :art ;I have provided us with all the tools
we need to analy0e the dynamic behavior of typical processing systems
when their inputs change in some fashion (e.g.., step, ramp, impulse,
sinusoid, etc.). In this section we examine the so*called first-order sys-
terns. In particular, we will study9
". $hat a first*order system is and what physical phenomena give
rise to first*order systems.
&. $hat its characteristic parameters are.
'. ;ow it responds to the various changes in the input variables
(disturbances and<or manipulated variables).
1#.1 $hatis a %irst&r'er System(
/ first*order system is one whose output y(t} is modeled by a first*
order differential e!uation. Thus in the case of linear (or lineari0ed)
system, we have -c
dy
a. - ) aoy *bf(t}
dt
("3.")
wheref(t) is. the input (forcing function). If ao = > = 3, then e!. ("3.")yields
a, dy. b
--+y=-/(t}
ao dt! ao
17+
174
Part m
Defim :
and
b
-=Kp
ao
and take
(10.2)
T is known as the time constant of the process and Kp is called the:
s;eady-state gain or static gain or sim ply the gain of the ~rocess. Their
physical m eaning will ecom e clear in the ne!t three sections.
If y(t) and f( t) are in term s of de"iation "ariales aro#nd a steady
state$ the initial conditions are
y(O) =0 and f(O) =0
%rom e&. (10.2) it is easily fo#nd that the transfer f#nction of a first,
order process is gi"en y
G(s) =~(s) =()( (10.*)
f(s) TpS + 1
+ first,order process with a transfer f#nction gi"en y e&. (10.*) is also
known as first-order lag, linear lag, or exponential transfer lag.
If,on the other hand$ ao - 0$ then from e&. (10.1) we take
dy -..(f(t) =/ 0 p f(t)
dt at
which gi"es a transfer f#nction
G(s) - ~(s) :: K~
f(s) s
1n s#ch case the process is called purely capacitive or pure integrator.
10.2 Processes Modeled as First!rder
"ystems
The first,order processes are characteri2ed y:
1. Their capacity to store m aterial$ energy$ or m om ent#m
2. The resistance associated with the flow of m ass$ energy$ 0#r
m om ent#m in reaching the capacity.
Th#s the dynam ic response of tanks that ha"e the capacity to stor.e
li&#ids or gases can e m odeled as first,order. The ,,34~1stance 15a5560 l3
(10.4)
Cha$. 10 Dynamic Behavior of First!rder "ystems 1%&
ated with the p#m ps$ "al"es$ weirs$ and pipes which are attached tothe
inflowing or o#tflowing li&#ids or gases. 5im ilarly$ the tem perat#re
response of solid$ li&#id$ or gaseo#s system s which can store therm al
energy (therm al capacity$ c
p
) is m odeled as first,order. %or s#ch system s
the resistance is associated with the transfer of heat thro#gh walls$
li&#ids$ or gases. 1n other words$ a process that possesses a capacity to
store m ass or energy and th#s act as a #ffer etween inflowing and
o#tflowing stream s will e m odeled as a first,order system . The stirred
tank heater of 7!am ple 4.4 and the m i!ing processes of 7!am ple 4.11
are typical e!am ples of first,order processes.
It is clear from the ao"e that the first,order lags sho#ld e the m ost
com m on class of dynam ic com ponents in a chem ical plant$ with the
capacity to store prim arily m ass and energy.
8et #s e!am ine now som e typical capacity processes m odeled as
first,order system s.
Example 10.1 !irst-Order "ystem #it$ a %apacity for &ass
"torage
0 onsider the tank shown in %ig#re l6.1a. The "ol#m etric ("ol,
#m e9tim e) flowin is F, and the o#tlet "ol#m etric flow rate is E; 1n the
o#tlet stream there is a resistance to flow$ s#ch as a pipe$ "al"e$ or weir.
+ss#m e thai the effi#ent flow rate F; is related linearly to the hydrostatic
press#re of the li&#id le"el h, thro#gh the resistance R:
F; -..:( - dri"ing,force for flow
' resistance to flow
(to.:)
+t any tim e point$ the tank has the capacity to store m ass. The total m ass
alance gi"es
d$ $
( - =!i - !o =!i - -
dt '
r, !;
'
(a) ()
%ig#re 10.1 5ystem s with capacity for m ass storage: (a) first,order lag;
() p#re capaciti4 ,,
-Analysis of the Dynamic Behavior of Chemic ocesses
or
dh
AR -+h = RF; .' (10.6)
dt
where A is the cross,sectional area 'of the tank. At steady state
h, =RF
i
.
s
' (1O.6a)
and from eqs. (10.6) and (10.6a), we take the followin eq!ation in terms
of de"iation "aria#les$ '
AR dh' % h' = RFi
dt
where h' =h - h, and F. '= F, - Fi, . .&et
rp =AR =time constant of the 'rocess
Kp =R =steady,state ain of the 'rocess
(hen the transfer f!nction is
. G(s)=~(s) = )
Fi(s) TpS+1
(10.*)
(10.+)
Certain notes are in order.
1. (he cross,sectional area of the tank, A, is a meas!re of its ca'aci,
tance to store mass. (h!s the larer,the "al!e of A, the larer the
storae ca'acity of the tank.
-. .ince (' =:,AR, we can say that for the tank we ha"e
(time constant) = (storae ca'acitance) / (resistance to flow) (10.0)
Example 10.2: First-Order System with' a apa!ity "#r' E$er%y
St#ra%e
(he liq!id of a tank is heated with sat!rated steam, which flows
thro!h a coil immersed in the liq!id (1i!re 10.-). (he enery #alance
for the system yields
(10.10)
1i!re 10.- .ystem with ca'acity for enery storae.
Part III Chap.. 10' Dynamic B- .orot First-Orer !ystems
1""
where & ="ol!me of liq!id in .the tank
p, p =liq!id's density and$ heat ca'acity
U :::;: o"erall heat transfer coefficient #etween 'steam and liq!id
A, =total heat transfer area
'( =tem'erat!re of the sat!rated steam
(he steady.state is i"en #y
0= )*,('s1,s - 's) (10.11)
.!#tract (10.11) from (lO.10) and take the followin eq!ation in terms of
de"iation "aria#les$ .
(10.1-)
where '' = ' - ', and '~t='st - 'st,s. (he &a'lace transform of (10.1-)
will yield, the followin transfer f!nction$ .
G(S)+, +'(s.).= = )
'-t(s) &p!, 1 TpS+1
--s..
UA;
where r, =time constant of the 'rocess2 Vpcp/UA
"
/p = steady,state ain =1
(lO.13)
0emar1s.
1. 4q. (10.13) demonstrates clearly,that this is a first,order,la system.
-. (he system 'ossesses ca'acity to store thermal enery and a resist, .
ance to the flow of heat characteri5ed #y U.
3. (he ca'acity to store. thermal enery is meas!red #y the."al!e of
the term &pp- (he resistance to the flow of heat from the steam to
the .liq!id is e/'ressed #y the term 1/(UA,). (herefore, we notice
that the time.constant of this system is i"en #y the same eq!ation
as that of the tank system in 4/am'le 10.1$
. ..... Vpc
p
time constant #Tp'=--
UA,
=(storae ca'acitance) / (resistance to flow) .
Example 10.2: 34re apa!iti5e System
Consider the tank disc!ssed in 4/am'le lO.1 with the followin
.difference$
(he effl!ent flow rate F 0 is determined #y a constant,dis'lacement
'!m' and not. #y. the hydrostatic 'ress!re of the. liq!id le"el h
(1i!re lO.1#)
In such case the total mass balance around the tank yields
dh
A-=..,-.
dt I 0
(10.14)
At steady state
0= Fi,s - r, (10.15)
Subtract eq. (10.15) from (10.14) and take the following equation in terms
of deiation ariables!
which yields the following transfer function!
G(s) ="E_'(s) =I"A (10.1#)
Fi(s) s
10.3 Dynamic Response of a Pure
Capacitive Process
$he transfer function for such %rocess is gien by eq. (10.4)!
G(s) =~(s) =K~ (l&A)
f(s) s
'et us e(amine how y(t) changes with time) whenf(t) undergoes a unit
ste% change!
f(t) =1 for t 0
*e know that for a unit ste% change)
+ 1
f(s) =!
s
$herefore) eq. (10.4) yields
K'
y(s)=-p
S2
and after inersion we find (see $able ,.1) that
y(t) =K;t
*e notice that the out%ut grows linearly with time in an unbounded
fashion (-igure 1&..).$hus
y(t) ~ 00 as t / oo
Part "I Chap. 10 Dynamic Behavior of #irst!$r%er &ystems
),(t)
-igure 10.. 0nbounded res%onse of %ure ca%acitie %rocess.
Such res%onse) characteristic of a %ure ca%acitie %rocess) lends the
name pure integratr because it behaes as if there were an integrator
between its in%ut and out%ut.
A %ure ca%acitie %rocess will cause serious control %roblems)
because it cannot balance itself. In the tank of 1(am%le 10..) we can
ad2ust manually the s%eed of the constant+dis%lacement%um%) so as to
balance the flow coming in and thus kee% the leel constant. 3ut any
small change in the flow rate of the inlet stream will make the tank
flood or run dry (em%ty). $his attribute is known as nn-se!f-regu!atin.
4rocesses with integrating action most commonly encountered in a
chemical %rocess are tanks with liquids) essels with gases) inentory
systems for raw materials or %roducts) and so on.
10.' Dynamic Response of a #irst!$r%er
(a) &ystef*1
$he transfer function for such systems is gien by eq. (10..)!
G(s) =~(s)=_&_ (10.3)
f(s) 't"ps + 1
'et us e(amine how it res%onds to a unit ste% change in f(t). Since
l(s) =us, from eq. (10..) we take
y(s) 5 Kp 5 Kp _ Kp't"p
s('l'pS + 1, s 'l'pS + 1
(10.1,)
Inerting eq. (1&.1,)/ we take
y(t) =Kp(1 - e-
I
/
" p
)
(10.16)
If the ste% change in f( t) were of magnitude A, the res%onse would be
y(t) 5 AKp(! - e-
t
#
" p
) (10.19)
Analysis of the Dynamic Behavior of Chemi ocesses P art 1 I I 1
Fi,~ure 10.4 Dimensionless response of firstorder lag to step input
change.
Figure 10.4shows how y(t) changes with time. The plot is in terms of
the dimensionless coordinates
t
versus
and as such can be used to determine the response of any typical first
order system, independently of the particular values of A , K
p
, and ' C
p
!everal features of the plot of Figure 10.4 arecharacteristic of the

. response of firstorder systems and thus worth remembering. These
features are"
#. $ firstorder lag process is self#regulating. %nli&e a purely capaci
tive process, it reaches 3' new steady state.. #n terms of the tan&
system in the '(ample 10.1, when the inlet flow rate increases by
unit step, the li)uid level goes up. $s the li)uid level goes up, the
hydrostatic pressure increases, which in turn increases the flow
rate Fo of the effluent stream *see e). +10.,-...This action wor&s
toward the restoration of an e)uilibrium state +steady state-.
/. The slope of the response at t =0 is e)ual to 1 .
d[y(t)/A K p] I 0 (e#t/Tp)t=o0 I
d(t/' C
p
) ,~1 ,
This implies that if the initial rate of change of y(t) were to be
maintained, the response would reach its final value in one time
Dynamic Be, ( of First-Orer !ystems 1 "1
constant +see the dashed line of Figure 10.4-.The corollary conclu
sions are"
The saller the !alue of the tie "onstant ' C
p
, the steeper the initial
response of the syste.
')uivalently,
The tie "onstant ' C p of a pro"ess is a easure of the tie ne"es#
sary for the pro"ess to ad$ust to a "hange in its. input.
2. The value of the response y(t) reaches 32./4 of its final value
when the time elapsed is e)ual to one time constant, ' C
p
!ubse
)uently, we have"
Time elapsed /15, 215, 415,
y(t) as percentage 5of its ultimate value 63., 7, 98
Thus8 after 9four time constants, the response has essentially
reached its ultimate value.
4. The ultimate value of the response +i.e., its value at the new steady
state- is e)ual to K p for a unit step change in the input, or A K p for
a step of si:e A. This is easily seen.from e). +10.17-, which yields
y --#A K p as5 t .%&%. 00. This characteristic e(plains the name
steady state or stati" gain given to the parameter K p, since for any
step change .1+input-, in the input, the resulting change in the
output steady state is given by
.1+output- =K p .1+input- +10./0-
')uation +10./0- also tells us by how much we should change the
value of the input in order to achieve a5 desired change in the
output, for a process with given gain, K p. Thus, to effect the same
change in the output, we need"
A sall "hange in theinput ifK pis large, '!ery sensiti!e sys#
tes)
A large "hange in' the input if K p, is sall&'
()aple *+.,& (ffe"t of -araeters#on. the .esponse ofa First#
/rder 0yste
;onsider the tan& system of '(ample 10.1.I t possesses two parame
ters"
182
The cross-sectional area of the tank, A
The resistance to the flow of the liquid, R
or from another but equivalent point of view:
The time constant of the process, 1:
p
The static gain, Kp
Consider two tanks with different cross)sectional areas A I and A 2, where
A I > A 2, and the same resistance, R. From eq. (!."# we find that $%I> rpz
(i.e., the tank with the larger capacity has a larger time constant) while the
static &ains remain the same. 'hen we sub(ect the two tanks to the same
unit step chan&es in the inlet flow rates, the liquid level in each tank
responds accordin& to eq. (!."# and its behavior is shown in Fi&)
ure '.*a. 'e notice that the level of the tank with the smaller cross)
sectional area responds faster at the be&innin&+ but ultimatel,, both levels
reach the same stead,)state values. $his is in a&reement with our ph,sical
e-perience, .uppose now that both. tanks have different cross)sectional
areas A Iand A2 and different flow resistances R Iand Rz, such that
(!.2#
h
(a#
h
(b#
Fi&ure !.* /ffect of (a# time constant and (b# static &ain. in the response
of first)order la& s,stems.
Part III
Chap. 10 Dynamic Behavior of First-Order ystems
18!
/quation (!.2#,ields
$pi " A IR 1" A2Rz "Tp2
0ut since A I # A 2, then from eq. (!.2# R 2 # R I, which implies that
Kj'2 Kpl! Fi&ure !.*b shows the responses of the two tanks to a unit
step chan&e in the input. .ince both tanks have the same time constant,
the, have the same initial speed of response. 0ut as time &oes on, the tank
with the lar&er resistance R2 allows less liquid out of the tank. $hus the
liquid level &rows more in this tank and its ultimate value is iar&er than
the value of the level in the tank with resistance R I. $his a&ain a&rees
with our ph,sical e-perience and. also demonstrates the fact that the
larger the static gain of a process, the larger the steady-state "alue of its
output for the same input change#
10$% First-Order ystems &ith 'aria(le )ime
Constant and *ain
In previous sections we assumed that the coefficients of the first)order
differential equation 1see eq. +to.1,- were constant. $his led to the con)
clusion that the time constant $p and stead,)state &ain K,of the process
were constant. 0ut this is not true for a lar&e number of components in
a chemical process. 2s a matter of fact, in a chemical plant, we will
more often encounter processes with variable time constants and &ains
than not.
3et us e-amine two characteristic e-amples.
$%ample &'#() Tank *ystem with +aria,le Time -onstant and .ain
For the tank s,stem discussed in /-ample !.,assume that the efflu)
ent flow rate, / ', is not a linear function of the liquid level, but is &iven
b, the followin& relationship (which holds for turbulent flow#+
p "constant
$hen the material balance ,ields the followin& nonlinear equation:
A dh +pJli 0/i
dt
3ineari4e this equation around a stead, state and put it in terms of
deviation variables (this problem was solved in /-amples 5. and 5.2#:
(5.*#
or
dh' h' KF'
Tp-+ " p ;
dt
.84 Analysis of the Dynamic Behavior of Ch
1
f'" ocesses Part III
I
where fp =2A AlP and K, =2jJi;IP. We notice ~hat both the tirne con-
stant fp and the steady-state. gain s, depend on t~e steadY-s. tate value of
the liquid level, h.. Since we can vary the valu~ of h, by varying the
steady-state value of the inlet flow rate Fi,s, we co.. rclude that the system
has variable time constant and static gain. \
I
Example iO.6: Heater with Variable Time C()n~tant
et us return to the heater system discussed! in "#ample $%.&.. 'he
time constant and the static gain for the heater wete found to be
and
VPCp
f ---
p >: VA,
'he overall heat transfer coefficient, V, does not remain the same for a
long period of operation. (orrosion, dirt, or vari)us other solids depos-
ited on the internal or e#ternal surfaces of the h~ating coil result in a
gradual decrease of the heat transfer coefficient. ' is, in turn, will cause
the time constant of the system. to vary. 'his e#ample is characteristic of
what can happen to even simple first-order systemr.
'he question then arises as to how one handles first-order systems
with variable time constants and static gains $ in order to find the
dynamic response of such systems. 'here are tW*possible solutions+
$. We can use the, analytical solutions that $re- available for first-
order differential equations with variable ~oefficients. Such solu-
tions are quite complicated and of very \little value to us for
process control purposes. $
2 . We can assume that such systems possess c.nstant time constants
and static gains for a certain .limited perid$dof time only. /t the
end of such a period we will change the v~lues of rp and K, and
consider that we have a newfi,rst!r"erl#stem with new but
constant t! and K
p
, which will be changed gain at the end of the
ne#t period. Such an a"apti$e pr!%e"&re' c .0nbe used successfully
if the time constant. and the static gain of a process change slowly,
in which case the time period of relatively constant values is
rather long. I
\
\
. "#I$%& "' "#I$( AB)*"
$. What is a first-order system, and how do you derivethe transfer functions of
a first-order lag or of a purely capacitive process. . I. .
&. What is the principal characteristic of the first-order processes, and what
causes the appearance of a purely capacitive process.
\
Cha!. 1+ Dynamic E ior of ,irst-'r-er &ystems
18.
1. 0ri "#amples $%.$ and $%.&it was found that for a first-order process
2time constant3 =2storage capacity3 # 2resistance to flow3
0s this appropriate for an isothermal, constant-volume (S'4, where a sim-
ple, irreversible reaction, / ---/5, ta6es place.
7. Show that a tan6 with variable cross-sectional area along its height also has
variable time constant and static gain.
S. 8iscuss a system that stores momentum and e#hibits first-order dynamics.
*. 9ow would you regulate the purely capacitive process of the tan6 in "#am-
ple $%.1so that it does not flood or run dry.
:. (onsider a closed vessel with air flowing in it. 0s this a pure capacitive or a
first-order lag system. /nswer the same question if,the vessel is also supplied
with an e#it for the air.
;. Study the response of a first-order lag to a unit impulse input. <4ecall. that
for a unit impulse, n( =$.=
). Study the response of a first-order lag to a sinusoidal input ..What do you
observe in its behavior after a long time 2i.e., as t oo3.
Dynamic Behavior
of"Second-Order Systems
Systems with first-order dynamic behavior are not the only ones
encountered in a chemical process. An output may change, under the
influence of an input, in a drastically different way from that ofa first-
order system, following higher-order dynamics. In this. chapter ~e ana-
lyze (!the physical origin of systems with second-order dyna~mcs~and
("! their dynamic characteristics. #he analysis of systems with higher
than second-order dynamics is left for $hapter ".
11.1 What Is a Second-Order System?
A second-order system is onewhose output% y(t), is described by the
solution ofa second-order differential e&uation ..'or e(ample, the fol-
lowing e&uation. describes a second-order linear system) ~
d
2
y dy
a " - + a I - + aoy * b f( t)
dt? dt
If as ::/:: +, then e&. (.!yields
(tl!
where 'f2=a-f a; 2('f =a/ao! and "# * b/a$: ,&uation(l."! is in the)
standa.rd form of a second-order system, where
'f = nat%ra& #eriod of oscillation of the system
1RR
(.!
Chap. 11 Dynamic eha!ior of Second-Order-Systems 1"#
(* dam#in' factor
"# = steady state! or static! or simply 'ain of the system
#he physical meaning of theparameters r and (will become clear in the
ne(t two sections, while "# has the same significance as for first-order
systems.
Ife&. (."!is in terms of deviation variables, the initial conditions
are zero and its -aplace transformation yields the following standard
transfer function for a second-order system%
(..!
Systems with second- or higher-order dynamics can arise from several
physical situations. #hese can be classified into three categories)
. (%&tica#acity #rocesses; processes that consist of two or more
capacities (first-order systems! in series, through which material
or energy must flow. In Section ..we discuss the characertistics
of such systems.
2 )nherent&y second-order systems! such as the fluid or mechanical
solid components of a process that possess inertia and are sub-
/ected to acceleration. Such systems are rare in chemical
processes. #hey will be discussed briefly in Section .0and three
e(amples are given inAppendi( Aat the end of this chapter.
* + #rocessin' system ,ith its contro&&er! may e(hibit second- or
higher-order dynamics. In such cases, the controller which has
been installed on a processing unit introduces additional dynam-
ics which, when coupled with the dynamics of the unit, give rise to
second- or higher-order behavior. An e(ample in Section .1will 2
demonstrate this point.
#he very large ma/ority of the second- or. higher-order systems
encountered in a chemical plant come from multicapacity processes or
the effect of process control systems. 3ery2 rarely we will find systems
with appreciable inherent second- or higher-order dynamics.
11.$$Dynamic Response of aSecond-Order
System
4efore we proceed to e(amine the physical origin of second- and higher-
order systems, let us analyze the dynamic response of a second-order
system to a unit step input. Such analysis will provide us with all the
fundamental dynamic features ofa second-order system.
.88
Analysis of the Dynamic Behavior of Chemic
Part III icesses
For a unit step changein the input/(t), eq. (11.3)yields
y(s) = " ,K
p
(11.4f
s(r
2
s2 + 2Crs + 1)
The two poles of the second<order transfet function are gien !y the
roots of the characteristic polyno"ial,
r
2
s2 + 2Crs + 1 =#
and they are
$ %
PI =--+
r r
, &r'c(T
P 2 =---"
r r
(11.))
and
Therefore, eq. (11.4) !eco"es
y(s) * Kp/r
2
(11.6)
s(s - p I)(S - P 2)
and the for" of the response y( t) will depend on the location of the two
poles, PI and P2, in the co"ple+ plane (see ,ection -.4). Thus we can
distiguish three cases(
Case A: When ,. /, we have two distinct and real poles.
Case B: When ,* /. we have two equal poles (multiple pole) .
Case C: When' < 1, we have two comple con!u"ate poles.
0et us e+a"ine each case separately.
CaseA: #verdamped response, when1 1. , 1 , . .
/n this case the inersion of eq. (11.2) !y partial<fractions e+pansion
yields
$
(t) %K, 31 -e-,tlf(COS h &r'c(T 4 ..+!-,"-, C_ , _ ' sinh ..',5 < 1 4 ..)6 (1,1 .. 7)
p r ..',5 <1 . r
where cosh ( 8) and sinh ( 8) are the hy!er!olic trigono"etric functions
defined !y
e&' e(
#)
sinha*<<<
2
e& + e(
OI
and .1 . cosh a =----!--
5
The response has !een plotted in Figure l1.1afor arious al% es of r9
$ . 1. It is :nown as overdamped response and rese"!les a little the
response of a first<order syste" to a unit step input. ;ut when co"<
paredl to a first<order response we notice that the syste" initially delays
to respond and then its response is rather slu""ish. /t !eco".es "ore
sluggish as , increases (i.e., as the syste" !eco"es "ore heaily oer<
Cha"# 11
Dynamic I## ##svior of $econ%-&r%er ,'ystems
$ ritically da"ped
response = f * /)
o
(a)
5 .# r<<<<>((((<a<"<p% in<g <((19 fa<(ct<or<<<<<,r<<<<..,<<<<<r<<<<< ....
f*?.1
@nderda"ped
response (t < /)
t
T
(!)
Figure 11.1 >i"ensionless response of second<order syste" to input
step change.
da"ped). Finally, we notice that as ti"e goes on, the response
approaches its ulti"ate1 alue asy"ptotically. As it was the case with
first<ordersyste", the gain is gien !y
K, =0l(output steady state)
<, 0l(input steady state)
#verdamped are the responses o* multicapacit+ processes, which result
fro" the co"!ination of first<order syste"s in series, as we will see in
,ection 11.3.
1)*
15
Case B:' Critically damped response, when' =1.
In this case, the inversion of eq. (11.4) gives the result
y(t) = K { 1 - (
1
+ ? ] [ " ']
The resonse is also shown in !igure 1l.la. "e notice that a secon#8
or#er s%ste& with critical damping aroaches its ulti&ate value faster
than #oes an over#a&e# s%ste&.
(11.')
Case () Underdamped response, when' < 1.
The inversion of eq. (11.4) in this case %iel#s
y(t) =K p[ 1 - . 1 e-I;t/t sin (wt +cf J *1.+)
!
where
*1.1*) (J)
an#
The resonse has ,een lotte# in !igure ll.1, for various va.lues of the
#a&ing factor, ,. !ro& the lots we can o,serve the following)
1. The un#er#a&e# resonse is initiall% faster than the criticall%
#a&e# or over#a&e# resonses, which are. characteri-e# as
sluggish. ' . '
.. /lthough the un#er#a&e# resonse is initiall% faster an#. reaches
its ulti&ate value quic0l%, it #oes not sta% there, ,ut It starts
oscillating' with rogressivel% #ecreasing a&litu#e. This oscilla8
tor% ,ehavior &a0es an un#er#a&e# resonse quite #istinct
fro& all revious ones.
1. The oscillator% ,ehavior ,eco&es &ore ronounce# with s&aller
values of the #a&ing factor, (.
It &ust ,e e&hasi-e# that al&ost all the un#er#a&e# resonses in
a che&ical lant an) cause# ,% the interaction of the contf2l13rs44),ilhthe
rocess units the% control. Therefore, it is a t%e ofresons3t3at3)e w.illl
encounter ver% often, an# it is wise to ,eco&e well acquainte# with 1t5
characteristics.
Cha"# 11
Dynamic Behavior of $econ%-&r%er'$ystems
191
O
~--~~-----------------------L----~Timc
t(risc ti&e) t(re.on.e ti&e)
!igure 11.. (haracteristics' of an un#er#a&e# resonse.
Characterlstlcs of an (n%er%am"e% res"onse
6et us use asreference the un#er#a&e# resonse shown in !igure
11.., in ot#er to #efine the ter&s e&lo%e# to #escri,e an un#er#a&e#
resonse"
1 . Overshoot: Is the ratio AlB, where B is the ulti&ate value of the
resonse an# A is the &a7i&u& a&ount ,% which the resonse
e7cee#s its ulti&ate value. The overshoot is a function of (, an# it
can ,e shown that it is given ,% the following e7ression)
overshoot = e7 ( 87( ) (11.11)
!
!igure 11.1 shows the lot of overshoot versus C given ,% eq.
(11.11). "e notice, that the overshoot increases with #ecreasing (,
while as C aroaches 1 the overshoot aroaches -ero (criticall%
#a&e# resonse).
. !ecay ratio: Is the ratio C"A (i.e., the ratio of the a&ounts a,ove
the ulti&ate value of two su.ccessive ea0s). The #eca% ratio can
,e shown to ,e relate# to the #a&ing factor C through the equa8
tion
#eca% ratio9 e7 (3) = (overshoot)' (11.1.)
:quation (I6l.) has ,een also lotte# in !igure 11.1.
#. $eriod o% oscillation: !ro& eq, (11.1*) we see that the ra#ian
frequenc% (ra#;ti&e) of the oscillations of an un#er#a&e#
resonse is given ,%
!
(J) =ra#ian frequenc% = #
r
(11.1*)
,92
Analysis of the Dynamic Behavior of Chemic,
P a r t 1 1 1
)cesses
Figur e n.3 Effect of da mping fa ct or on over shoot a nd deca y r a t io.
To find t he per iod of t he oscilla t ion T (i.e., t he t ime. ela psed
bet ween t wo successive pea ks, use t he well1known r ela t ionships
"# $ 21t/ a nd f $ 1 % T wher e % $ cyclica l fr e&uency. Thus
T = .2m: (1 1 .1 3
Jl- , 2
4 Natural period %scillation: A second1or der sy't e' wit h ( $ 0 is
. a syst em fr ee of a ny da mping. )t s t r a nsfer funct ion )*
K p . . . K
p
/ , r
2
(1 1 1 +
G (s);::: ,,- 1 =.. ( .1 ( .1 .
r s S-j- s+j-
f r
t ha t is, it ha s t wo pur ely ima gina r y poles (on.t he 'ma gi.a r y a /is
a nd a ccor ding t o t he a na lysis of *ect ion 0.+, )t will oscilla t e con1
t inuously wit h a const a nt a mplit ude a nd a ,na t ur a l fr e&uency 2see
e&. (1 1 .1 +3
1
(J)n ==%
"t
The cor r esponding cyclica l per iod T; is given by
T $$ 21t"t
t is t his pr oper t y of t he pa r a met er i! t ha t ga ve it it s na me.
(1 1 .1 4
(1 1 .1 5
Dynamic
19" .vior of #econ$% &r$er #ystems
5. Response time: The r esponse of a n under da mped syst em will
r ea ch it s ult ima t e va lue in a n oscilla t or y ma nner a s t % ' 66. For
pr a ct ica l pur poses, it ha s been a gr eed t o consider t ha t t he
r esponse. r ea ched it s fina l va lue when it ca me wit hin 748 of it s
fina l va lue a nd st a yed t her e. The t ime needed for t he r esponse t o
r ea ch t his sit ua t ion is known a s t he response time, a nd it is a lso
shown in Figur e 1 1 .,.
6. Rise time: This t er m is used t o cha r a ct er i9e t he speed wit h which
a n under da mped syst em r esponds. t is defined a s t he t ime
r e&uir ed for t he r esponse t o r ea ch it s fina l va lue for t he fir st t ime
(see Figur e 1 1 .,. Fr om Figur e l1 .lb we not ice t ha t t he sma ller t he
va lue of : , t he shor t er t he r ise t ime (i.e., t he fa st er t he r esponse of
t he syst em, but a t t he sa me t ime t he la r ger t he va lue of t he
over shoot .
Remark. )n .subse&uent cha pt er s (P a r t );, our ob<ect ive dur ing t he
design of a cont r oller will be pr oper select ion of t he cor r esponding C a nd
r va lues, so t ha t t he over shoot is sma ll, t he r ise t ime shor t , t he deca y
r a t io sma ll, a nd t he r esponse t ime shor t . =e will r ea li9e t ha t it will not
be possible t o a chieve a ll t hese ob<ect ives for t he sa me va lues of C a nd f,
a nd t ha t a n a ccept a ble compr omise should be defined. >ood under 1
st a nding of t he under da mped beha vior of a second1or der syst em will
help t r emendously in t he design of efficient cont r oller s.
1 1 .a ()ltica*acity +rocesses as
#econ$% &r$er #ystems
=hen ma t er ia l or ener gy flows t hr ough a single ca pa cit y? we get a fir st 1
or der syst em. f on t he ot her ha nd, ma ss or ener gy flows t hr ough a
ser ies of t wo ca pa cit ies, t he beha vior of t he syst em is descr ibed by
second1or der dyna mics. Two mult ica pa cit y syst ems a r e shown in Figur e
1 1 .+, ea ch wit h t wo ma ss ca pa cit ies (t he t wo t a nks.
E/a mine t he t wo syst ems of Figur e 1 1 .+ mor e closely t o ident ify a
significa nt &ua lit a t ive differ ence bet ween t hem. )n syst em 1 (Figur e
l1 .+a , t a nk 1 feeds t a nk , a nd t hus it a ffect s it s dyna mic beha vior ,
wher ea s t he opposit e is not t r ue. *uch a syst em is cha r a ct er ist ic of a
la r ge cla ss of non interactin capacities or noninteractin !irst"order
s#stems in series. "n t he cont r a r y, in syst em ,, t a nk 1 a ffect s t he
dyna mic beha vior of t a nk ,, a nd vice ver sa , beca use t he flow r a t e $
depends on t he differ ence bet ween li&uid levels h t a nd h ,. This syst em
r epr esent s interactin capacities or interactin !irst"order s#stems in
series.
@ult ica pa cit y pr ocesses do not ha ve t o involve mor e t ha n one phys1
ica l pr ocessing unit . )t is &uit e possible t ha t a ll ca pa cit ies a r e a ssocia t ed
194
F.
I
Tank 2
(a)
Part 111
(b)
Figure li.4 (a) Noninteracting and (b) interacting tanks.
with the same processingunit. For example, the stirred tank heater is a
multicapacity process with capacity to store mass and energy. A distilla&
tion column is another example o! a multicapacity process. "#ery tray
has a mass storage capacity (li$uid holdup), which, in turn, also allows
!or thermal energy storage capacity.
%et us now see how multicapacity processes result in second&order
systems. 'e start with noninteracting capacities.(
Noninteracting capacities
'hen a system is composed o! two noninteracting capacities, it is
described by a set o! two di!!erential e$uations o! the general !orm)
'l"pl .dYI + * + =Kp.!l(t) !irst capacity (,l,.,-a)
dt .
second capacity
(ll,.,-b)
+ n other words, the !irst system a!!ects the second by its output, but it is
not a!!ected by it (Figure + ,..a). "$uation (,,.,-a) can be sol#ed !irst
Chap. 11 Dynamic Behavior of Secon!"rer Systems
~ G
I
(,) I/il(0 !IG,(,) I/i,(,) &
(a)
(b)
Figure ,,.. Noninteracting capacities in series.
19#
and then we can sol#e e$. (l,.l-b). This sequential solution is character-
istic of noninteracting capacities in series. The corresponding trans!er
!unctions are
The overall transfer function between the external input /(1r) and Y2(t)
is
or .
where
(,,.,2)
(,,.,3)
"$uation (,,.,3) indicates #ery clearly that the o#erall response o! the
system is second&order. From e$. (,,.,2) we also notice that the two
poles o! the o#erall trans!er !unction are real and distinct)
and
+ ! the time constants 'l"pl and 'l"P2 are e$ual, we ha#e two e$ual poles.
There!ore, noninteracting capacities always result in an overdamped or
critically damped second-order system and ne#er in an underdamped
system. The response o! two noninteracting capacities to a unit step
change in the input will be gi#en by e$. (,,.-) !or the o#erdamped case,
or e$. (,,.2) !or the critically damped. + nstead o! e$. (,,.-), we can use
the !ollowing e$ui#alent !orm !or the response)
196 Analysis of the Dynamic Behavior of Cherr 'rocesses
y(t):= K~[I + .. 1 (Tp,e-'ITp, - Tp2e-I'TP2)] (11:20)
Lp2 6 Lp,
where K~ = K
pfl
K
p2
Equation (11.20) can be derived easily by simplle
inversion of eq. (11.1), where 1,(s) =1!s.
"or the case of N noninteractin# capacities ("i#ure 11.$b), it is easy
to show that the overall transfer function is #iven by
K K' K
G II(s) =%&(s)%
2
(s) ... G N(s) ' ' . (& 1'2 PN .. (11.21) .
(L(&) + 1)(Tpis + 1)* .. (TpNS + 1)
. Example 11.1+ Two Noninteractlng Material apacities in !eries
)ystem 1 in "i#ure 11.,a is such a system. -he .transfer functions for
the two tan.s. are
%1()) =~;(s) ' /
F';(s) rp1s + 1
where, accordin# to E0ample 10.1, we have
K
p,
' " I K
p#
' 12 r
p1
' $ ,", r
p2
=$%"#
and variables hi, h 2' &i, and F', are in deviation form. )ince
r: =' ' i
,
WI~ can easily find that the overall transfer function is
,,(s) ' ~#(!) = ... Kp( .
)i(s) (rp,s + I!"rp#s+ I!
(3.22)
Equation (11.22) indicates 4that5he relationship between the e0ternal
input, Fi(!), and the final output, *%(l), is that of an overdamped second6
order system. 7sin# eq. (11.20) for the response of two noninteractin#
capacities with rp$ '% r
p2
we find that*
*
;(!) =K &I +. ' ' I' '."r e":# - r e+
,
-
Tp#
).
- 1'], . (& . p8 .
r
n
9: r
pl
"i#ure 11.; shows the qualitative features of the response, which are the
same as those of an overdamped system. < comparison with the first6
order response would be instructive. -hus from "i#ure 11.; we notice that+
&. -he response of the overdamped rnulticapacity system to step input
chan#e is )6shaped (i.e., initially chan#es slowly and then it pic.s up
speed). -his is in contrast to a4 first6order response which has the
lar#est rate of chan#e at thebe#innin#. -his sl/ggis*ness or 0elay is
also .nown as trans)er lag and is characteristic of multicapacity
systems.
&n order to analy2e the characteristics of such a system, we will use
the two6capacity system 2 of "i#ure 3.,b. -he mass balancesyield
0*
l
$ 1( ' &1 + &, tan. 1 (l1.2=a)
0t
, $h ,
%#-& &I' - &#
0t
)art III
Chap. 11 Dynamic B or of *econ+(,r+er *ystems
19-
I
"irst6order response (sin#le tan.)
"i#ure 11.; Effects of interaction on response to input step chan#es.
2/ <s the number of capacities, in series increases, the delay in the
initial response (slu##ishness) becomes more pronounced.
Interactin. capacities
tan. 2
<ssume linear resistances to flow+
F
' hi (*#
1=
R.
-hen eqs. (11.2=a) and (1l.2=b) become
-ime
(l1.2=b)
and
(11.2,a)
(l1.2,b)
>e notice that eqs. (11.2,a) and (1l.2,b) m/st 2e sol3e0 sim/ltaneo/sly.
?hi.s is the distin#uishin# characteristic of interactin# capacities and
indicates the mutual effect of the two capacities.
-he steady6state equivalents of eqs. (11.2,a) and (lL2,b) are
*i,s + *2,s =" ,&1,s
(& + ~/2.$(~:h '.'~0
(lL2$a)
(1l.2$b)
198
Part III
Subtract (11.25a) from (11.24a) and .(11.25b) from (11.24b) and after
introducing the deviation variables, take
, dh't h' h' ' R ' 'F
' A,R ,-, '-+ ,- 2= , ;
dt
dh2 ( R 2)hl R 2h' - 0
A 2R 2 111 + 1 +-. 2 1 1 ,1
~ R, R,
h e h
' h h h
2
' - h2 - h2 and F',. =F, . ; F; s- ake the !a"lace
w er ,= ,1 's, - , ,s,. '
transforms of e#s. $(l1.2%a) and (11.2%b) and find
(A ,R ,s +l)h't(s) -h
2
(s) R ,Fi(s)
!11.2%&a)
(11. 2%1b)
-~ h,(s) +[ A,R,S +(' +~: )r '(S ) =(
Solve these algebraic e#uations )ith res"ect to h. (s) and h2(S ) and find
h,(s) (T
p2
R ,)s +(R, +R
2
) Fi(s) (11.2*a)
Tp,T
P2
S
2
+(Tp, +Tp2 +A ,R 2)s +1
R 2 - ( )
h2(s) " , F, S
Tp,T
P2
S
2
+(Tp, +Tp2 +A ,R 2)s +1
h
# - A +and # "A 2R $ are the time constants 0,f the t)o
) ere p, - "P2 h h s of
tanks. ,#uations (11.2*a) and (11.2*b) indicate t at t e res"onse ,
both tanks follo) second1order d-namics. .om"are e#. (1l.2*b/ for t.he
interacting tanks )ith e#. (11.22), )hich corres"onds t0 t0e nom0t0ract1
ing tanks. 2e notice that the- differ onl- in the coefficient of s 13 the
denominator b- the term, A ,R
2
his term m0- be t0ought of as the
inter actin !actr and indicates the degree of interaction b0t)een 0the
t)o tanks. he larger the value of A ,R 2, the larger the mteraction
bet)een the t)o tanks.
i(11.2*b)
Re"ar #s
1. 4rom e#. (l1.2*b) itis easil- found that the t)o "oles of the
transfer function are giver. b-
- - - - - - - - ~ ~ 7 r ~ - - - -
!r
%
, +Tp2 +A ,R 2) +.J(rp, +Tp2 +A ,R 2)2 -' 4T
p
,Tp2 (11.28)
5' ,2 2
"
,f
52
6ut
(Tp, +
52
+ A lR2)2 - 4
"'
52
&0
herefore, p, and P2 are distinct and real "oles. .onse#uentl-; the
r espnse ! inter actin$ capacities is a%&a's (er da"ped. .
2. Since the res"onse isoverdam"ed )ith "oles PI and P2 given b-
e#. (11.27), then e#. (11.2*b) can be )rittenas follo)s&
Dynamic Behavior of 'econ(-)r(er 'ystems
199
n2(s) _ R dT:Pl T:PI _ (T:,T:2)R 2/' lPl1:
P2
Fi(s) - (s - PI)(S - P2) - (TIS +1)(T2s +1*
I
(11.28)
wherer, -lJp, and 1&2 -1/P2. ,#uation (11.28) im"lies that t)o
inter actin$ capacities can )e (ie&ed as nn inter actin$ capacities
)*t &ith "di!ied e!!ecti(e ti"e cnstants. hus, )hereas initiall-
the t)o interacting tanks had effective time constants T:
p
, and T
p2
,
)hen the- are vie)ed as noninteracting, the- have different time
constants , and 2.
9. :ssume that the t)o tanks have the same time constants, "i T:P2
. hen, from e#. (11.27), )e take
;.; =P2 =-(2T: +A ,R 2) +.JA iR ~ +4T:A,R + , 1
#+ $ p, 1(2 +A IR
2
) - .JAiR ~ +4T:A ,R
hus )e see that the effect of interaction is to chan$e the r ati !
the e!!ecti(e ti"e cnstants !r the t& tan#s (i.e., one tank
becomes faster in its res"onse and the other slo)er). Since the
overall res"onse of h 2( ) is affected b- both tanks, the slo)er tank
becomes the controlling and the overall res"onse becomes more
sluggish due to the interaction. herefore, inter actin$ capacities
ar e "r e sl*$$ish than the nninter actin$.
+,a"ple 11.2& -'na"ics ! T & .nter actin$ T an#s
.onsider t)o interacting tanks such as those of 4igure 6.4b. !et
A 1= A! and R I =R !~2. hen r
pl
= r
"2
<2 . 4rom e#. (11.2*b) )e take
" 22(s) ,R
2
Fi(s) = ,R
2
Fi(s) (11.#$)
21'
2
s2 +%1' S +1 . ($.44TS +1)(4.5%rs +1)
4or a unit ste" change in Fi() =i.e., for Fi(s) 1/s&, e#. (11.9( ) after
inversion -ields
h
2
(/) R
2
(1 - 1.11e1$<4.5%r +( .11 e-.01. 22r )
or
F2(.) 1 1 1.11-
,
... /
5%r
+( .11 e1' <>.44r
' f the t)o tanks )ere noninteracting, the transfer function of the s-stem
)ould be given b- e#. (11.22)&
" 22(s) R2 R2
F2(s) (TpIS +1)(T
p!
s +1* (TS +1)(2Ts +1*
)hich after inversion -ields
h
2
() R 2(l +e1
I
.
r
1 2e1
$
<
2r
)
200 Analysis of the Dynamic Behavior of Cherni, .ocesses
or
F
2
(t) = 1 + e-
t
/
t
:- 2e-
t
/
2t
Let us compare the responses of the two systems:
1. They are both overdamped. As such they have the characteristics
discussed in 'Section tt2 (i.e., they are S!shaped with no oscia!
tions".
#. $or the system of the two noninteractin% tan&s the time constants
are, and 2 'l'. $or the case of the interactin% tan&s, the effectivetime
constants have become '.((, and (.)*T(i.e., one was decreased and
the other was increased". Their ratio from 1+# chan%ed to '.((+(.)*
= '.1'.
,. As a resut of the chan%e in the effective time constants, the
response ofthe interactin% tan&s is more su%%ish, or more damped..
than the response of the noninteractin% tan&s. $i%ure 11.* drama!
ti-es this resut, '
Example 11.,: The Stirred Tank Heater as a System with Two
Interacting 'Capacities
The stirred tan& heater of ./ampe (.( is characteri-ed by its capacity
to store mass and ener%y. 0t is easy to show that these two capacities
interact when the inet fowrate, chan%es. Thus, a chan%e in' the inet
fowrate affects the i1uid eve in the tan&, which in turn.' affects the
temperature of the i1uid. 2onse1uenty. the temperature response to an
inet fowrate chan%e e/hibits second!order overdamped characteristics.
The reader shoud note that the two capacities do not interact when the
inet temperature chan%es. Therefore, the temperature response to inet
temperature chan%es e/hibits first!order characteristics.
This' e/ampe demonstrates, that mutipe capacities need not corre!
spond to physicay different units (as in the case of interactin% tan&s,
./ampe 11.#", but coud be present within the same processin% unit.
Remark. 2onsider the ineari-ed mass and ener%y baances for a con!
stant. hodup 2ST3 4see e1s, (5.1(a" and (5.(b" in ./ampe 5.#6. The
reader shoud note that these two e1uations coud be perceived as charac!
teri-in% two interactin% capacities. Therefore, he or she coud erroneousy
concude that the response of C A or, Tto inet chan%es is aways second!
order overdamped (as is the case with the stirred tan& 'heater, above". 7ut,
thiis iis not true. A 2ST3 is not ony characteri-ed byits capacity to store .
materia A and ener%y. 0ts distin%uishin% characteristic is the &inetic rate,
, term, which denotes disappearance of component A and which is not
present in the stirred tan& heater. Such reaction terms may produce not
ony overdamped but aso urtderdamped orinverse responses (for inverse
response see Section 1#.,". Therefore, interactin% capacities wi aways
yied overdamped response, uness they aso incude mass or+and ener%y
'%eneration (or disappearance" terms, in which. case they may yied a
variety of responses.
Part III
Chap. 11
Dynamic b. vior of Second-rder Systems
201
11.! Inherently Second-rder Processes
Such a process can e8hi.bit under9amp: behavior, and conse1uenty it
cannot. be dec;mpos;d into t;o n;st;o;der systems in series (interactin%
9r no.nmtera;tm%" with physica si%nificance, i&e the systems we e/am!
med 10 previous sectio;s< They. =ccur rather rarey in a chemica proc!
ess, and. they are. associated with the motion of i1uid masses or the
me(:ha.mca transation of.soid parts, possessin%: "I# inertia to motion
(;" res0st;nce to motion, a;d (," capacitance to store mechanica ener%y;
Since resistance and capacitance are characteristic of the first!order sys!
te;s, we. con;;de t9at the ;erenty second!order systems are charac!
teri-ed $y their 0nertia to motion. The three e/ampes in Appendi/ 00A
ceary demonstrate this feature.
>ewton's aw appied on a %iven system yieds
(
' baance of forces" <
the sv %(ma,ss of system" / (acceeration" (11.,1"
on e system '
Since
acceeration %d!elocity"
dt
and
, I' d
ve =20ty%- (spatia dispacement"
dt
we concude that
(
b?aance of forces"'
on the system
d
#
%(mass of system" / !. ! (spatia dispacement"
dt
2
The s;cond term of the ri%ht!hand side %ives rise to the second!order
beha:@=r o; the system. .1uation (11.,1" or its e1uivaent (11.,#" is the
startin% point for the e/ampes of Appendi/ A.
(11.,#"
11.& Second-rder Systems Ca'sed $y the
Presence of Controllers
, The presence of a contro system in a chemica process can chan%e the
order of th; ;roc;ss and produce a dynamic behavior which the process
cannot e/hibit without the controer. 0n the chapters of Aart 0@ we wi
202
have the opportunity to examine many such situations. For the time
being, let us consider a simple example.
Example 11.4: First-Order Process with Second-Order Dynamics
nile to the Presence of a Control System
Consider the tank shown in Figure !a "#xample to.1). $his is a
simple %irst&order system with a trans%er %unction given by e'. (to.8): e
would like to control the li'uid level at a desired value when the inlet
%low rate F, undergoes step changes. $o do that we use the %eedback
control system shown in Figure 11. ( a. $his control system measures the
li'uid level and compares it with the desired steady&state value. If the
level is higher than the desired value, it increases the e%%luent %low rate ~o
by opening the control valve v, while it closes the valve when the level ~s
lower than the desired value .. )et us now see how the presence o% this
controller changes the order o% the dynamic behavior o% the tank %rom
%irst& to second&order.
$he dynamic mass balance around the tank gives
A dh =FI - F; "11.**+
dt
v
"a+
h(t)
"b+
Ftgure 11.( "a+ Feedback control, "b+ the resulting second&order behavior
o% the li'uid level.
Part III
Dynamic Behavior of Second!rder Systems
20*
while at the desired steady state we have
o =E; s - fo s "11.*4+
-ubtract "11.*4+ %rom ".t**+ and take
A dh
!
"Fi-F~
dt
"11.*/+
where the deviation variables are de%ined by hi =h - h., F; =F; - F; s,
and F~ =F; - Fo#s# hen the li'uid level is not at the desired value, then
hi " # 0 . $he measuring device measures h and this value is compared to
the desired value h $he deviation "error+ hi is used by the controller to
increase. or decrease the e%%luent %low rate according to the relationship
r.=Fo#s $ $ch
!
$ ~ i' h!%t& dt %'' ()&
where K; and 'I are constant parameters with positive values. 1ccording
to "11.*2+:
1. hen hi =0, then F * "'* s and the valve 3 stays where it is.
2. hen hi % 0 "i.e., the level goes down+, then %rom e'. "11.*2+ we
have F; % Fo#s "i.e., the controller reduces the e%%luent rate and the
level starts increasing+.
*. hen h' & 0 "i.e., the level goes up+, then %rom e'. "11.*2+ we %ind
that Fo 4 Fo s "i.e., the controller increases the e%%luent rate and the
level decreases+. 56.
$he control action described by e',5 "11.*2+ is called proportional-inte+ral
control, because the value o% the manipulated variable is determined by
two terms, one o% which is proportional to the error hI, and the other
proportional to the time inte+ral of the error
.n e'. "11.*/+ replace F~ with its e'ual given by "11.*2+ and take
"11.*( +
$he )aplace trans%orm o%"l1.*( + gives
Asn/(s) $ $,i-%S& $ $c. ''-%S& =Fi(s)
'I s
or
/
A 'r ( " ! & 'IS-
- S $ %,- $ Ih'(s) = Fi(s).
$c0 s,
From e'. "11.*7+ we %ind that the trans%er %unction between the external
input F/(s} and the output ''-%S& is that o% a second&order system and
given by
"11.*7+
h'(S) Kps
Pi(s) ,1S $ 1%,s $ 1
204 Analysis of the Dynamic Behavior of Che. ... 1Processes
where 1'2 = A ,dKe, 2{, = " , and Kp =1'IIK
e
. From the equations above we
find that
and
Depending on the values of the control parameters K, and 'I, we may
have the following cases:
1. .[i{;'IIA- < 2. hen,! " 1 and the response h'(s) to a step input in
Fi(s) is that of an underdamped system.
2. JKcTIIA- =2. hen {=# and the response is critically damped.
$. Finally, JKcTIIA %2. hen {> # and we have an overdamped
response. &n Figure ##.'b we can see the dynamic response of the
liquid level to a step change in the inlet flow rate, with and without
control.
()ample ##.* demonstrates very clearly how the simple first.order
dynamic behavior of a tan, can change to that of a second.order when a
proportional.integral controller is added to the process. -lso, it indicates
that the control parameters K, and & can have a very profound effect on
the dynamic behavior of the system, which can range from an under.
damped to an overdamped response.
T H I ! " T# T H I$ AB# %T
#. /hat is a second.order system0 /rite the differential equation describing
its behavior in the time domain and give its transfer function.
2.& ()plain the physical significance of the two parameters T and {of a second.
order system. 1onsult 2efs. 11 34ecti5n.#6.&&7and 8231hapter 97..
$. &dentify the three classesof second.order systems and give one representa ..
tive e)ample for each class. /hat is the origin of the most second.order
systems in chemical processes0
& ' .& Discuss the overdamped, critically damped, and underdamped responses
of a second.order system.:&dentify their distinguishing characteristics.
( .& Describe the characteristics ofan underdamped response.
:. Develop the e)pressions for the overshoot and the decay ratio ;eqs, )ll1.l1*
and 3##.#27<.
'. =ow do you understand the interaction or noninteraction of several capaci..
ties in multicapacity processes0 >ive the general set of two differential
equations describing 3a7 two noninteracting capacities, and3b7 two interact.
ing capacities.
9. ()plain why two interacting capacities have m,ore sluggish response than
two equivalent but noninteracting capacities. !
Part III
1hap. ##
Dvnai. .sehavior of "econ+,#r+er "ystems
2L~
?. 4how that as the number of noninteracting first.order systems in series
increases, the response of the system becomes more sluggish.
#@. Develop the equations giving the response of a second.order system to a
unit impulse input for {> #" { =#, and {< 1.
##. Arove eq. 3##.2@7 for two noninteracting capacities.
#2. - drum boiler 3Figure A&ll67 has a capacity to store material and thermal
energy. -re these capacities interacting or not0
#$. /hat is the origin of the most common systems with inherent second.order
dynamics0 Describe an e)ample. B5Ccan use 2efs. ## and #2.
#*. &n ()ample ##.*, ifB5Cuse proportional control only, would you change the
order 5fthe tan,!s dynamic behavior0
APP-DI. 11A
-/am0les of Physical "ystems 1ith Inherent "econ+,#r+er Dynamics
4ystems with inherent second.order dynamics can e)hibit oscilla.
tory 3underdamped7 behavior but are rather rare in chemical processes.
&n this appendi) we present three simple units which can be encoun.
tered in chemical plants and which possess second.order dynamics.
"im0le manometers an+ e/ternally mo2nte+
level in+icators
1onsider the simple C.tube manometer shown in Figure ll-.la.
/hen the pressures at the top i of the two legs are equal, the two liquid
A&
Deg I
3a7
Figure ll-.l 3a7 EanometerF 3b7 e)ternally mounted level indicator.
3b7
206
Part III
levels are at rest at the same horizontal plane. Let us assume that
suddenly a pressure difference dp =PI ) P2 is imposed on the two legs
of the manometer ..We like to know the dynamic response of the levels
in the two legs. .
Let us apply Newton's law given by eq. (11.1! on the plane " of the
manometer. We take
(
force due to pressure! # .(.force due to p.ressure!
P $ on leg $ p % on leg %
(
force due to liq&id! ( force due to !
: . level differen.ce . : fl id fri (
&1 nction z)
in the two legs
=(mass of liq&id!. * (acceleration!
in the. tube
or
g ( force due to ! # m dv
PIA 1-P2
A
2 )) p)A
2
(2h) ) fl id fri ti : g dt (ll+..l!
gc U1 ric ton c
where PI, P2 =pressures at the top of legs 1 and,( respectiv-ly .
A $( A % == cross:sectional areas of legs $ and %( respectively. typi:
cally A $ / A % =A
p =density of liquid in manometer
g =acceleration gravity
gc =conversion constant
m =mass ofliquid in the manometer =pAL
v =average velocity of the liquid in the tube
h =deviation of liquid level from the initial plane of refit
L=length of liquid in the manometer tubes
0oiseuille's equation for laminar flow in a pipe can be used to relate the
force due to fluid friction with the flow velocity. 1hus we have
(0oiseuille's equation!
dh 1lR4 dP
volumetric flow rate / A - / :. :::
dt 811 L
where R =radius of the pipe through which liquid flows
11=viscosity of the flowing liquid
L=length of the pipe
I:lP =pressure drop due tofluid friction along the tube
of length L
1herefore( applying 0oiseuille's equation to the flow of liquid in the
manometer we take
(11+..%!
Chap. 11 Dynamic Behavior of Second-Order Systems 207
(
force due to! =dP1lR
2
=A BI1. L dh.
fluid friction gc R % gc dt
(ll+.!
where dp / PI ) P2~2ecall also that the fluid velocityand acceleration
are given by
dh dv d
2
h
v =dt and dt / dt
2
(ll+.3!
0ut eq. (ll+.! and (ll+.3! in equation (ll+.1! and take
+p A _ 2pgA h _ BilLA dh / pAL d
2
h
s. R2gc dt s. dt?
4inally( after dividing both sides by 2pgA/g
c
, we take
(
L ) d
2
h 4#L dh s.
2g dt2 +pgR2 dt + h / 2pg dp (ll+.5!
6efine t
=L/2g, %(1 =4I1L/pgR2, and p =gc/2pg and take

1% d
2
h + %(1 dh + h =K, dp
dt? dt
1herefore( the transfer function between hand dp is
h(s) p
!" /#lp(s) =$
2
%2+ 2($% + 1
($l+.7!
($$+.8!
9oth eq. (ll+.7! and (ll+.8! indicate the inherent second:order dynam:
ics of the manometer.
4or the measurement of liquid levels quite often we use the &'t&()
*+ll, m-.*t&d displ+c&m&*t)t,p& t(+*smitt&(, which is shown in 4igure
ll+.lb. We notice that the system of the tank:displacer chamber has
many similarities with the manometer. 1he cross:sectional areas of the
two legs are unequal and the /#lp (e*ternal! pressure difference is caused
by a change in the liquid level of the main tank. 1herefore( we e*pect
that the response of the level in the displacer chamber( hm, will follow
second:order dynamics with respect to a change in the liquid level of
the tank( h#
hm(s) ; 0m
h(s) =$~%2 + 2(m$m% + 1
(ll+.<!
!aria"le capacitance differential press#re
transd#cer
1he variable capacitance differential pressure transducer is avery
popular device which is used to sense and transmit pressure differences.
4igure 11+.% show '= schematic of such a device. + pressure signal is
208
Chep.rl l Dynamic, vier of Second-Order Systems 209
transferred through an isolating diaphragm and fill liquid in a sealed
capillary system with a differential-pressure sensing element (Figure
llA.2a) attached at the other end of the capillary (Figure llA.2). !ere"
the pressure is transmitted through a second isolating diaphragm and
fill liquid (silicone oil)" to a sensing diaphragm. A reference pressure
will alance the sensing diaphragm on the other side of this diaphragm.
#he position of the sensing diaphragm is detected y capacitor plates on
oth sides of the diaphragm. A change in pressure PI of a processing
unit (e.g." a change in the pressure of a $essel" or a change in the liquid
le$el in a tan%" etc.) will ma%e the pressure P2 change at the end of the
capillary tue.
A force alance around the capillary will yield
(
force due to the .)" ( force due to the )
&.pressure PI of the process '.... pressure. P.2 e(ercised .
e(ercised at the end 1 . - at the end 2 of the
of the capillary i capillary
=(mass) ( (acceleration)
or
P I A - p , A - ( ~ p ) ~ ~
where A ) cross-sectional area of the capillary
L=length of the capillary &tue
p ) density of the liquid in the capillary tue
x ) fluid displacement in the capillary tue
=displacement of diaphragm
#he force P2A at the end of the capillary is alanced y two forces*
(llA.9)
(
resistance e(erted +)." (. friction f )
. . ,-.C/0. nction 10rce
P2
A
=. the diaphragm + . d h fluid (llA2/)
. . .& e(ercise y t e Ul
which acts li%e a spnng
d x
=Kx+C-
dt
where K=!oo%e&s constant for the diaphragm
C ) damping coefficient of the $iscous liquid in front of the
diaphragm
.ustitute P
2
A in eq. (llA.9) y its equal gi$en y equation (llA.10) and
ta%e
(llA2l)
210 Analvsis of the Dynamic:8ehavior of Chemical Processes Part III
Equation (llAJl) clearly indicates that the response of the device (i.e.,
the diaphragm displacement, x) follows second#order dynamics to any
changes in process pressure PI. If we define ,2 =ALPIKgc, 2(, =CIK,
and K, =AIK, we ta!e the transfer function
PnE~umatic valve
"he pneumatic valve is the most commonly used final control elle#
ment. It is a system that e$hi%its inherent second#order dynamics.
&onsider a typical pneumatic valve li!e that of 'igure llA.(. "he
position of the stem (or, equivalently, of the plug at the end of the stem)
will determine the si)e of the opening for flow and consequently the si)e
of the flow (flow rate). "he position of the stem is determined %y the
%alance of all forces acting on it. "hese forces are*
p~ =force e$erted %y+ the compressed air at the top of the dia#+
phragm, pressure p is the signal that opens or closes the
valve and A is the area of the diaphragm, this force acts
downward.
Kx =force e$erted %y the spring attached to the stem and the
diaphragm, K is the -oo!e+s constant for the spring and x is
the displacement, it acts upward.
'igure llA.( .neumatic valve.
Chap. 11 Dynamic Behavior of Secon!"rer Systems
#11
C
d
x
fri $
d = rictional force e$erted upward and resulting from the close
t contact of the stem with valve pac!ing, e is the friction
coefficient %etween stern and pac!ing.
Apply /ewton+s law and ta!e
dx ( M ) d
2
x
pA-Kx-e~= - -
dt gc dt?
or
(*,J ~%~~& + x-: p
0et ,2 =M IKgc, 2(, =elK, and .K, =AIK and ta!e
2 d': : dx
'--2 + 2( ,-+ x=K
p
p
dt dt
"he last equation indicates that the stem position. x follows inherent
second#order dynamics. "he transfer function is
xes) = A_ : _ / _ 'K _
pes)
(llA.l2)
( M / Kg
c
) S2 ' es ' 1
K
1sually, M2 Kg and as a result, the dynamics of a pneumatic valve
can %e appro$imated %y that of first#order system.
Dynamic Behavior
o f Higher-Order Systems
12
Systems with higher than second-order dynamics are not uncom-
mon in chemical processes. Three classes of higher-order systems are
most often encountered:
L N first-order processes in series (multicapacity processes)
2. Processes with dead time
3. Processes with inerse response
!n t"is chapter we analy#e their typical dynamic characteristics.
12.1 N Capacities in Series
!n Section $$.3 we found that two capacities in series% interacting or
noninteracting% gie rise to a second-order system. Ifwe e&tend the
same procedure to N capacities (first-order systems) in series% we find
that the oerall response is of 'th order( that is% the denominator of the
oerall transfer function is an 'th-order polynomial% .
a es" + aN_.s
N
-. + ... + a.s + ao
Ifthe N capacities are noninteracting% the oerall transfer function
is gien "y e). ($$.2$):
?1?
Dvnarn., ~dhavior of Higher-Order Systems
21
where G.(s), G2(s), ... , GN(s): are the transfer functions of the N
capacities. *or interacting capacities the oerall transfer function is
more comple&.
!n Section $$.3 we studied the "asic dynamic characteristics of two
capacities in series when the input is changed "y a step. Similar analysis
is possi"le for N capacities in series. The following general conclusions
can easily "e drawn from the discussion in Section $$.3.
!. N nonintetacting capacities in series:
(a) The response has the. characteristics of an .oerdamped sys-
tem( that is% it is Ssshaped and sluggish.
(") !ncreasing the num"er of capacities in series increases the
sluggishness of the response.
2. N interacting capacities in series:
!nteraction increases the sluggishness of the oerall response.
It is clear% therefore% that a process with N capacities in series will
necessitate a controller that will not only +eep the final output at a
desired alue "ut will also try, to improe the speed of the system,s
response.
Let us now e&amine some typical e&amples of processes with N
capacities in series.
Example $2.$: Jacketed Coolers as !lticapacity "rocesses
-onsider the "atch cooler shown in *igure $2.la. The content of the
tan+ is a mi&ture of components. and / and is "eing cooled "y constant
flow of cold water circulating through the 0ac+et. 1e can identify the
following threecaoaciues in series:
Heat capacity o# the mixt!re in the tank$
Heat capacity o# the tank$s %all
Heat capacity o# the coolant in the &acket.
(a)
(")
*igure $2.$ 2ac+eted coolers: (a) "atch( (") continuous flow
It is easy to show that the three capacities interact.
For the jacketed continuous flow cooler of Figure 12.1bwe have more
interacting capacities:
Total material capacity of the tank
Tank's capacity for component A
Heat capacity of the tank's content
Heat capacity of the tank's wall
Heat capacity of the cold water in the jacket
Again, all five capacities are interacting.
According to what we have said above, we epect that the response of
the coolers to input changes will be overdamped and rather sluggish.
Example 12.2: Staged Processes as MulticajJacity Systems
!istillation and gas absorption columns are very often encountered in
chemical processesfor the separation ofa miture into its components,
"oth systems have a number of trays. #ach tray has material and heat
capacities. $herefore, each column with N trays can be considered as a
system with ! capacities in series. From the physics of distillation and
absorption it is easy to see that the ! capacities interact.
$herefore, a step change in the li%uid flow rate of the solvent at the
top of the absorption column produces a very delayed, sluggish response
for the content of solvent in the valuable component A &see Figure '(.1)*.
$his is because the input change has to travel through a large number of
interacting capacities in series.
. +imilarly, a step change in the reflu ratio of a distillation column &see
Figure ,.1-* will %uickly have an effect on the composition of the over4
head product while the composition of the bottoms stream will respond
very sluggishlly&delayed and slow*.
Finally, a step change in the steam flow rate of the reboiler will have
almost an immediate effect on the composition of the bottoms stream.
/n the contrary, the effect on the composition of the overhead product
will be delayed and slow.
12.2 Dynamic Systems with Dead Time
For all the systems we eamined in 0hapters 1-and 11and +ection 12.1,
we have assumed that there is no dead time between an input and the
output1 that is, whenever a change took place in the input variable, its
effect was instantaneously observed in the behavior of the output varia4
ble. $his is not true and contrary to our physical eperience. 2irtually
all physical processes will involve some time delay between the input
and the output. 3 .
Chap. 12 Dynamic Behavior of Hiher!"rder Systems
f"t#
&a*
#$%
Figure 12.2 &a* 'rocess with dead time1 &b* its block diagram.
21&
0onsider a first4order system with a dead time t between the input
f"t# and the output y"t #$%5e can represent such system by a series of
two systems as shown in Figure .l2.2a &i.e., a first4order system in series
with a dead time*. For the first4order system we have the following
transfer function:
.L[y(t)] 'Y(s) 6 7
.L[f(t)] 1(s) 'T&pS ( I
while for the dead time we have 8see +ection 9.2, e%. &9.1-*:
.L[y(t - t d#' 'e(
tds
.L[y(t)]
$herefore, the transfer function between the inputf&t* and the delayed
output y(t _ t d# is given by &see also Figure 12.2b*
&12.1*
L[y(t -.. t d#' Kpe-
tds
L [ f ( t ) ] 'T&pS + 1
+imilarly, the transfer function. for a second4order system with delay is
given by
1. Figure 12.) shows the response of first4 and second4order systems
with dead time to a step change in the input.
2. ;uite often the eponential term is approimated by the first4 or
second4order 'ade approimations
1_i ! ! . s
2
e(
tds
) ((%((
.L[y(t _ td#'
.L[f(t)]
*emarks
first4order approimation
&12.2*
&12.)a*
~16 Analysis of the Dynamic Behavior of Cherni. ocesses
y y
-.--~~ ....-----
/~/_.-.--- .
I
I
I
Time
(a) (b)
Figure 12.3 Response of time-delayed systems to step input cange! (a)
first order" (b) second-order.
- I d S ( t d ) 2 S 2 - 6 t d S + 12
e ~ second-order appro#imation(12.3b)
( t d ) 2 S 2 + 6 t d S + 12
3. $rocesses %it dead time are difficult to control because te
output does not contain information about current e&ents.
12.3 Dynamic Systems with Inverse
Response
Te dynamic bea&ior of certain processes de&iates drastically from
%at %e a&e seen so far. Figures 12.'band 12.(bso% te response of
suc systems to a step cange in te input. )e notice tat initially. te
response is in te opposite direction to %ere it e&entually ends up..
*uc bea&ior .is called inverse response or non minimum phase
response and it is e#ibited by a small number of processing units.
Example 12.3! I nverse Response of t he Liquid Level in a Boiler
S yst em
+onsider te simple drum, boiler so%n in Figure $--.l.. -f te flo%
rate of te cold feed%ater is inreased by a step/ te total &olume of te
boiling %ater and conse0uently te .li0uid le&el !ill "e d ereased for a
sort period and ten it %ill start increasing/ as so%n by te response in
Figure 12.'b. *uc bea&ior is te net result of t !o opposin# effet s and
can be e#plained as follo%s!
1. Te cold feed%ater causes a temperature drop %ic decreases te
&olume of te entrained &apor bubbles. Tis leads to a decrease of
te li0uid le&el of te boiling %ater/ follo%ing first-order bea&ior
(cur&e 1 in Figure 12.'b)/ tat is/ ~$t %( rls + 1).
2. )it constant eat supply/ te steam production remains constant
and conse0uently te li0uid le&el of te boiling %ater %ill start
art III
Time
Chap. 12 Dynamic .avior of !i"her#$r%er Systems 211
-nput
&( s)
(a)
y(t) .utput
.&
2 (-)
----------
(b)
Figure 12.' (a) 3loc4 diagram of li0uid le&el in a boiler system" (b) its
in&erse response.
increasing in an integral form (pure capacity)/ leading to a pure
capaciti&e response/ K
2
's (cur&e 2 in Figure 12.'b).
3. Te result of te t%o opposing effects is gi&en by (see also Figure
12.'a) .
$2 ~~ '(2rl ~ $() s + $2
s rls + 1 s'rls + 1)
(12.')
and for
K2r) <K.
te second term &~$t '( %)s + -)5 dominates initially and %e ta4e te
in&erse response. If te condition abo&e is not satisfied/ %e do not
a&e in&erse response.
*ot e) )en $2 r) ) $1 , ten from e*& (12.')%e notice tat t he t ransfer
funt ion has a posit ive +ero, at te point s +- $
2
'( $
2
%) ~$)) , ..
Tis e#ample demonstrates tat te in&erse response is te result of t%o
opposing effects. Table 12.1so%s se&eral suc opposing effects bet%een
first .. or second-order systems. -n all cases %e notice tat !hen t he
syst em possesses an inverse response, it s t ransfer funt ion has a posit ive
+ero) -n general/ te transfer function of a system %it in&erse response
TABLE 12.1
SYSTEMS WITH INVERSE RESPONSE
1. Pure capacitive minus first-orer response !"i#ure 12.$%&
G(s) ' K2 _~ (K2TI- KI)s+ K2
S TIS + 1 S(TIS ( 1%
for KzTI < KI )ero =-K2/(K2TI - KI) O.
2. *ifference +et,een t,o first-orer responses !"i#ure 12.-%&
G(s)=~- K2 (KIT2-K2TI)S+(KI-Kl2
'tIS + 1 T2S + 1 ('t,s + 1%!T2s + 1%
for&. E! 1 )ero ' -(K, - K
2
)/(K
I
't2 - K
2
't1) /
102 10!2
1. *ifference +et,een t,o first-orer responses ,it2 ea time&
for K I K 2 an II 12 ~ O.
$. Secon-orer minus first-orer response&
for KI K2
-. *ifference +et,een t,o secon-orer responses&
G(s)- KI K2
0tis
2
+ 2!IT3S + 1 't~S2 + 2(2't2S + 1
for ti4T. K tIKl 1.
5. *ifference +et,een t,o secon-orer responses ,it2 ea time&
for K I K 2 an t I t 2 . O.
is #iven +6
bms
m
+ bm_ts
m
-
,
+ + bls +b
o
a ss" + an_IS
n
-
1
+ + a,s + ao
,2ere one of t2e roots of t2e numerator !i.e.3 one of t2e )eros of t2e
transfer function% 2as positive rea7 part.
S6stems ,it2 inverse response are particu7ar76 ifficu7t to contro7
an re8uire specia7 attention.
G(s)
Example 1.2.$& Inverse Response from To !ppos"n# $"rst-!r%er
S&stems
"i#ure 12.-a s2o,s anot2er possi+i7it6 of inverse response. T,o
opposin# effects resu7t from t,o ifferent first-orer processes3 6ie7in#
Pal1111 Cha"# 12
Dynamic Behavior of $i%her&'r(er )ystems
21*
an overa77 response e8ua7 to
-() (KI Kl)-
' S =## & +#&&&&#& f(s)
TIS + 1 T2S + 1
or
&es)
,K
I
T
2 - K2TI%S + (KI - K2) 1(s)
!TIS + 1%!r2s + 1%
We 2ave inverse response ,2en&
In"t"all& (at t =()) *ro+ess 23 ,"+, rea+ts faster t,an *ro+ess 1 ("-e-
K
2
. r2 9 :;4rr3 see Se+t"on 1(-/), %om"nates t,e response of t,e overall
s&stem, b0t
1lt"matel& *ro+ess 1 rea+,es a ,"#,er stea%&-state val0e t,an *ro+ess 2
("-e-, KI K2)' an% for+es t,e response of t,e overall s&stem "n t,e
oppos"te %"re+t"on-
'-t"-t
y(s)
t<
!a%
y(t) '-t"-t
Response of process I
. . . . . ---
_ -
3.=
33=- Overa77 response
334
4
44
!+%
"i#ure 12.- !a% >7oc? ia#ram of t,o opposin# first-orer s6stems@
!+% t2e resu7tin# inverse response.
220 Analysis of the Dynamic Behavior of Che dl Processes
Figure 12.5b shows the.inverse response of the overall system.
Note. When ("Ct/T2) (Kt/K2) 1 the pro!ess e"hibits inverse response#
an$ we fin$ that the system's transfer function has a positive zero:
K
1
-K
2
>0
K1 "C2 - K
2
"C1
z=
THINGS TO THINK ABOUT
1. %ow woul$ you $efine a higher7or$er system'
2. (sing the $efinition above# why is a system with $ea$ time ahigher7or$er
system' (Hint: Consi$er the Taylor series e"pansion of an e"ponential
term. )ee also item *.)
+. )how that as the number of nonintera!ting or intera!ting !apa!ities in
series in!reases# the response of the system be!omes more sluggish.
*. Consi$er N i$enti!al nonintera!ting !apa!ities inseries# with gain K, an$
time !onstant "C
p
for ea!h !apa!ity.)how that as N'" ,,# the response ofthe
system approa!hes the response of a system with $ea$ time r p an$ overall
gain Kp.
). -n an i$eal binary $istillation !olumn the $ynami!s of ea!h tray !an be
$es!ribe$ by first7or$er systems. .re these !apa!ities intera!ting or 1-l,t'
What general types of responses woul$ you e"pe!t for the overhea$ an$
bottoms !ompositions to a step !hange in the fee$ !omposition'
/. %ow many !apa!ities !an you i$entify in the mi"ing pro!ess of 0"ample
*.11' .re they intera!ting or not'
1. What is the most. !ommon transfer fun!tion en!ountere$ in !hemi!al
pro!esses' Why' .
2. What is an inverse response# an$ what !auses it'
3. )how 4ualitatively that the response of the bottoms !omposition of a
$istillation !olumn to a step !hange in the vapor boilup# V, !an e"hibit
inverse behavior. Consult 5efs. 1 an$ 1/.
1,. Why $o you thin6 a system with inverse response is $iffi!ult to !ontrol'
!"!!N#!S "O PAT III
Chapter /. Two very goo$ referen!es on !omputer simulation ($igital or ana7
log89 are the following boo6s by :uyben an$ Fran6s;
1. Process Modelin! "imulation! and #ontrol for #hemical $nineers% by
W. $% :uyben# <!=raw7%ill >oo6 Company# ?ew @or6 (131+).
Part III Part III Analysis of & %'ynamic Behavior of #hemical Processes 22)
2. Modelin and "imulation in #hemical $nineerin! by 5. =. 0. Fran6s#
Aohn Wiley B )ons# -n!.# ?ew @or6 (1312).
>oth boo6s provi$e a series of e"amples $rawn from the area of !hemi!al
engineering an$ $emonstrate how $igital !omputer simulation of !hemi!al
pro!esses !an enhan!e our ability; to un$erstan$ the $ynami!s an$ $evelop
better !ontrollers for su!h systems. Computer programs in FC5T5.? for
typi!al systems are also in!lu$e$. For more $etails on the numeri!al te!hni4ues
for the solution of algebrai! or $ifferential e4uations# the rea$er is en!ourage$
to !onsult the following two !lassi! boo6s;
&. 'iital #omputation for #hemical $nineers! by $% :api$us# <!=raw7%ill
>oo6 Company# ?ew @or6 (13/2).
4. (pplied Numerical Methods! by >. Carnahan# H% 5. :uther# an$ A. D.E
Wil6es# Aohn Wiley ()ons# -n!.# ?ew @or6 (13/3).
The notion an$ the !hara!teristi!s of the Taylor series e"pansion as well as the
linear appro"imation of nonlinear i systems !an be foun$ in all the stan$ar$
te"ts on !al!ulus.
-n )e!tion. /.1 of the followingFboo6# Douglas $is!usses a pro!e$ure that
allows us to as!ertain the range of values aroun$ the point of lineariGation for
whi!h the lineariGe$ mo$el is a!!eptable; .
). Process'ynamics and #ontrol! Hol. 1# by A. <. Douglas# Irenti!e7%all# -n!.#
0nglewoo$ Cliffs# ?.A. (1312).
0"ample )%* was motivate$ by the physi!al system analyGe$ in )e!tion 2.+ of
the following wor6# where the rea$er !an fin$ more information;
*. +ntroduction to #hemical $nineerin (nalysis! by T. W. F. 5ussell an$
<. <. Denn# Aohn Wiley ()ons# -n!.# ?ew @or6 (1312)9
Chapters 1 an$ 2. The :apla!e transformation has been the obFe!t of a large
bo$y of mathemati!al resear!h. For more $etails on the theoreti!al aspe!ts of
:apla!e transforms# the rea$er will fin$ useful the following boo6;
1. ,perational Mathematics! 2n$ e$.# by 5. H.Chur!hill# <!=raw7%ill >oo6
Company# ?ew @or6 (1352).
For the use of :apla!e "transforms to the solution of $ifferential e4uations
(or$inary# partial# or sets of)# the boo6 by Aenson an$ Aeffreys !an be very
valuable;
-.. Mathematical Methods in #hemical $nineerin! byH. =. Aenson an$ =. H.
Aeffreys# .!a$emi! Iress :t$.# $ondon (13/+).
-n the following two referen!es the9 rea$er !an fin$ tables with the :apla!e
transformation of a large number of fun!tions;
9. Feedback and Control Systems , by J. J. DiStefano III, A. R. Stubberud, and
J. J. Williams, Schaums Outline Series, McGraw.,.Hill Boo !om"any, #ew
$or %&'()*.
10. Handbook of MathematicalFunctions; by M. Abramowit+ and I. A. Ste,un
%eds.*, Do-er .ublications, #ew $or %&')/*.
!ha"ter &0. 1he followin, boo, by Weber, is an e2cellent reference for the
dynamics offirst>order systems. 1he interested reader will find %!ha"ters 4 and
'* an e2tensi-e co-era,e of first>order systems based on mass, ener,y, and
momentum balances, with a lar,e number of e2am"les, It also "ro-ides a
-aluable "hysical inter"retation of the notion of ca"acity for -arious "rocessin,
systems5
11. An Introduction to Process Dynamics and Control, by 1. W. Weber, John
Wiley &SOilS, Inc., #ew $or %&')6*.
In the boos by Dou,las 78ef. 9: and. !ou,hanowr and ;o""ell 78ef. &/: the
reader can study the res"onse of first>order systems to im"ulse or sinusoidal
in"uts. 1he res"onse of a ca"acity "rocess to a sinusoidal in"ut is also ,i-en in
!ha"ter &) of the "resent te2t. .
12. Process Systems Analysis and Control, by D. 8. !ou,hanowr and L. B.
;o""ell, McGraw>Hill Boo !om"any, #ew $or %&'(9*.
!ha"ter &&. 1he boo by Weber 78ef. II: is also an e2cellent reference for the
de-elo"ment and "hysical inter"retation of second>order systems %!ha"ter &0*.
It contains e2am"les of inherently second>order systems which the reader will
find <uite useful. In the boos by !ou,hanowr and ;o""ell 78ef. &/: and
Dou,las 78ef. 9: the reader can find discussions of the res"onse of second>order
systems to im"ulse and sinusoidal in"uts. =or more information on e2ternally
mounted le-el measurin, systems, manometers, and their dynamic second>
order characteristics, the reader can consult 8efs. &? %!ha"ter &4*, && %!ha"ter
&0*, or the boo by Shinsey %8ef. &6, !ha"ter 6:.
13. Process Control Systems, /nd ed., by @ G. Shinsey, McGraw>Hill Boo
!om"any, #ew $or %&')'*.
14. echni!ues of Process Control, by .. S. Bucley, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
#ew $or %&'(?*.
1he followin, two references can be consulted for further details on the -ariable
ca"acitance differential "ressure transducer and the "neumatic control -al-eA
&9. 5.rocess DynamicsA .art /B .rocess !ontrol Coo"s,5 by J. !. Guy, Chem.
Eng., ". &&& %Au,. /?, &'4&*.
&(. Measurements and ControlA""lications forPracticin# $n#ineers, by J. O.
Hou,en, !ahners Boos, Boston %&')/*.
Part III
Part '"
223
!ha"ter &/. Cuyben 78ef. &, Section &&.9: has a ,ood discussion on the in-erse
res"onse of the bottoms com"osition ofa distillation column to a chan,e in the
-a"or boilu". Iinoya and Alt"eter %8ef. &): discuss the characteristics of sys>
tems that e2hibit in-erse res"onse and ,i-e a table of the most common
"hysical situations %transfer functions* that ,i-e rise to in-erse res"onse.
&). 5In-erse 8es"onse in .rocess !ontrol,5 by K. Iinoyaand 8. i Alt"eter,
Ind. $n#. Chem. ,9?%)*,6' %&'(/*.
In the boo by Shinsey 78ef. &6: the reader can find further discussion on the
in-erse res"onse of a drum boiler.
PROBLt:MS FOR PART III
Chapter 6
III. 1 @<uations %?.4a*, %?.'a*, and %?.lOb* in @2am"le ?.&0 describe the
dynamic beha-ior of a continuous stirred tan reactor with a sim"le,
e2othermic and irre-ersible reaction, A ....B. De-elo" a numerical "ro>
cedure that sol-es these e<uations and can be im"lemented on a di,ital
com"uter. Also, describe a numerical "rocedure for sol-in, the al,e>
braic steady>state e<uations of the reactor abo-e. %&ote' =or this "rob>
lem you need to be familiar with numerical techni<ues for the solution
of differential and al,ebraic e<uations on a com"uter.*
&&&./ Do the. same as in .roblem III.l for the e<uations describin, the
dynamic and steady>state beha-ior of the binary distillation column
modeled in @2am"le ?.&6.
&&&.6 Cineari+e the followin, sin,le>in"ut, sin,le>out"ut nonlinear dynamic
models.
%a* dy ay D py2 D *E In y a, p, }' : constants
dt
%b* dy F 1!y m D ym( D sin am aA constant
dt y
"c# dy ym - )y $ m
dt
lIlA Cineari+e the followin, multi"le>in"ut, multi"le>out"ut nonlinear
dynamic models.
( )
d Y J % & / ' . 6
a di* y, $ y,+), m,- ml
d+) rt'
-;. t* -$l>? m/n,
. %b dy , d+) /
# % dt - J>BJt +,+) - 0.1+)m, $ m)+'
dy , d+) . m;
>D>Fln$/D y, cos/m,> m 2
dt dt3.
224 Analysis of the Dynamic Behavior of Chern rocesses
III.~5 Linearize 'the nonlinear models of the following processes and place
them in deviation variables form.
(a) Stirred tank heater (Eample 4.4).
(b) !iing process (Eample ".##).
(c) $%b%lar heat echanger (Eample ".#&' be caref%l here).
II(' Linearize the nonlinear models of the following processes and place
them in deviation variables form) .
(a) *atch reactor where+ the following reactions with first,order kinetics
take place)
A-'-B-C
-an we %se stead.,state operation as the point of linearization for
this s.stem/
(b) *atch miing s.stem of 0roblem ##.1 (2ig%re 0II.1). Identif. the
point of linearization for this s.stem.
(c) -ontin%o%s stirred+ tank reactor+ s.stem of 0roblem ##.3 (2ig%re
0II.'l).
(d) 4r%m boiler of 0roblem ##.##'(2ig%re 0Il.l5).
(e) 2lash dr%m of 0roblem ##.#" (2ig%re ".1).
###.'6 4evelop the linearized models for the following processes.
(a) 0acked absorption col%mn with N ideal plates. $he mass balance)of
component i at the nth ideal plate isgiven b.
H dX
n
=LXn+1 - (L + mV)Xn + mVxn-1
dt
where II=hold%p of li7%id solvent at the nth plate
L=flow rate of the li7%id solvent
V =flow rate of the gaseo%s stream
x n =mole fraction of component i at the nth plate
m =slope of the e7%ilibri%m c%rve for component i
(b) 8onisothermal t%b%lar reactor with a simple reaction 9': * (see
also 0roblem ##.#; and 2ig%re 0II.<). $he mass and heat balances
are given b.
a x a x
-+D-=-kx
at az
er er
cppA -- + cppvA - =hYl,(Te - T) + ("';'tlH,)kAx
a t a z '
where x and T are the composition and temperat%re of the reacting
mit%re within the reactor' p, cp, A, D, h, A" Te, and (-tlH,) are
constant,val%e parameters' and k is the kinetic rate parameter
given b.
k =ko ep (~~)
with ko , E, and R being constants.
Part III
Analysis of thl
225 amic Behavior of Chemical Processes
Chapter
III.S 2ind anal.ticall. the Laplace transforms of the following f%nctions.
(a) J(t) =t"
(b) f(t) =e" sin !o t
(c) J(t) =cosh o n
!") J(t) =r e"
(e) J(t) =5 +t +e-
"1
- cos 0.5t +t
"
e-
t
###.< 0rove the initial val%e theorem.
###.#; (sing the final val%e theorem find the val%e that each of the following
f%nctions reaches as t ### -= > '
!a) y(t) =e-$%' t
!#) y(t) =$ .%&.. &e-
$
#
&t
sin ('t ", 2)
(c) y!t) =2 - e
&
'?cosh t + 4 sinh t"
C'apter (
###.## Solve the following linear differential e7%ations %sing Laplace
transforms.
d
"
( # d( , (d))
(a) , + @ , , y =5t with , =; and y(#) =&
dt
dt # dt $%0
d
*
( d
"
( ##
!#) 2d(i +,dt
+ *( = $ + sm t with y"(#) A y'(#) A y(#) =)

d
"
(
(c) , , & A ; with y'(#) A y(#) A ;
dt-
###.#& (sing Laplace transforms+ solve the following sets oflinear differential
e7%ations. B
d). d)" /
(a) , , & , =# , ). + )" ,
dt dt
@
d( , d)" -I
-+-=)"-e
dt dt
(b) d( I , ) i + &) & =& sin t
dt
d)" d( # *' -) II
-+2--+,I- )"=1-e #
dt dt
).($) A $
).($) =;
m.#@ (Sing Laplace transforms+ find the sol%tion of the following linear
partial differential e7%ations.
(a) ay + & ay =& with y!#"&-) =; and y!t, ;) =5
a t a z
(b) ay ' y ' ay =$. !-
(
.
)l
. with y!#, z) A & and y!t, )) A )
at az
###.#" 2ind the inverse Laplace transforms of the following epressions.
- )' $ r *
(a) y() = where ...)'' $
+
"
) + &ers + #
(b) %( ) s - 1
Y s = s(s + 1)(s + 2)
_ 2s + 1
(c) yes) =S2(S + 1)(s _ 2)
(d) Y(s) . s2+4s +3
(s,! + 1)(s2 - 7s + 12)
(e) yes) (s - 1)(s + 2)
(s + 1)2(s + 2)(S2 - 2s + 5)
(f) yes) = S3 + 2S2 - S - 2
S3 + 6s
2
+ lIs + 30
III.lS Using Laplace transforms, solve te follo!ing partial "ifferential e#$a%
tion !ic "escribes te "&namic beavior of a t$b$lar eat e'canger
(see ('ample ).12)*
et .aT
pCpA -. -. +pcpvA-=nDU(Tst- T)
at az
!ere p, cp, A, V, U, an" D are constant parameters. +ss$me tat te
s&stem is at stea"& state !en te steam temperat$re T
st
e'periences a
$nit step cange.
1I1.1,) Using Laplace transforms fin" te lineari-e" "&namic beavior of*
(a) + stirre" tan. eater (('ample ).))
(b) + mi'ing process (('ample ).11)
to $nit step canges in teir inp$ts. +ss$me tat te s&stems are ini%
tiall& at stea"& state.
111.1/ Use Laplace transforms an" fin" te "&namic response .of te follo!ing
lineari-e" s&stems to $nit step Inp$t canges.
(a) Storage tan. s&stems of 0roblem ILl (1ig$re 0II.l).
(b) .Storage tan. s&stem of 0roblem 11.2(1ig$re 0II.2).
(c) 2ontin$o$s stirre" tan. reactor (('ample 3.)).
+ss$me tat eac s&stem is initiall& at stea"& state.
111.1*4 Using Laplace transforms fin" te "&namic beavior of an isotermal
batc reactor !ere te follo!ing reactions ta.e place*
+56 52
+ss$me first%or"er .inetics for te t!o reactions. +lso, plot.te concen%
tration of +, 6, an" 2 vers$s time.
Chapter 9
III.l55 7erive te transfer f$nction bet!een effl$ent F 3 an" inlet F for*
(a) 8e t!o storage tan. s&stems of 0roblem ILl (1ig$re 0ILl).
(b) 8e storage tan. s&stem of 0roblem 11.2(1ig$re 0II.2).
I"entif& te poles an" -eros of eac s&stem an" s.etc te* "&namic
response of F 3 to $nit step canges in Fl.
Part !!!
Part Analysis of the Dynamic Behavior of Chemical Processes 227
111.1.0 7erive te transfer f$nctions* relating te o$tp$ts to te inp$ts of te
mi'ing9 process "escribe" in i ('ample ).11. 7ra! te correspon"ing
bloc. "iagram. Is te process stable: 7etermine its ne! stea"&%state
composition !en CAt canges b& a $nit step. (Note: +ss$me tat te
eat of sol$tion is not a f$nction of te concentration.)
111.1.1 Let G(s) be te transfer f$nction bet!een an inp$t an" an o$tp$t y.
So! tat te ne! stea"& state res$lting from a step cange in te inp$t
m, is givenb& A!G(s)"s=#, !ere A is te si-e of te step cange in m.
111.22 1in" te transfer f$nction bet!een te effl$ent temperat$re T3 an" te
inlet temperat$re T$ for te s&stem of t!o stirre" tan. eaters "escribe"
in 0roblem 11.3(1ig$re 0II.3). 7ra! te correspon"ing bloc. "iagram.
S.etc te response of T3 to a $nit imp$lse cange in T
1
Is te process
stable:
111.23 7o te same !or. as in 0roblem9 111.22for te eaters9 s&stem of .
0roblem 11.)(1ig$re 0II.)).
111.2) ;ito$t comp$ting anal&ticall& te transfer f$nctions, "evelop te
bloc. "iagrams for te follo!ing processes*
(a) 8e t!o%tan. mi'ing process of 0roblem 11.5(1ig$re 0II.5).
(b) 8e t!o%tan. mi'ing process of 0roblem 11.5, ass$ming tat te
eat of sol$tion is in"epen"ent of te concentrations.
(c) 8e "r$m boiler of 0roblem 11.11(1ig$re 0II.I0).
(") 8e flas "r$m of 0roblem 11.1)(1ig$re ).3).
111.25 ;ito$t comp$ting anal&ticall& te transfer f$nctions bet!een te vari%
o$s e'ternal inp$ts an" o$tp$ts "evelop te bloc. "iagrams an" te
correspon"ing inp$t%o$tp$t mo"els for te follo!ing s&stems.
(a) +n i"eal binar& "istillation col$mn (see ('ample ).13).
(b) + gasabsorption col$mn 9(see0roblem 11.23an" 1ig$re 0II.t3).
111.237evelop te bloc. "iagram< for te plant of 0roblem 11.20 (1ig$re
0II.II) !ito$t comp$ting e'plicitl& te transfer f$nctions bet!een te
vario$s inp$ts an" o$tp$ts. .
111.2/ In ('ample =.2 !e "evelope" te transfer f$nction matri' for a contin$%
o$s stirre" tan. reactor. 7etermine*
(a) 8e location of te t!o poles of te reactor.
(b) 8e t!o con"itions tat parameters % II, % 12, %21& an" %22 so$l"
satisf& in or"er to ave stable response to e'ternal "ist$rbances.
111.24 S.etc, #$alitativel&, te response of s&stems !it te follo!ing trans%
fer f$nctions. +ss$me $nit step inp$t canges.
s + 1
(a) G(s)
(s + 2)(s + 3)
(") G(s) s + e-
o
.
ss
(s + 2)(s + 3)
s + 1
(c) G(s)
s(s + 2)(s + 3)
228 Analysis of the Dynamic Behavior of Chen "rocesses
(d) G(s) __ S2 + 4s + 3
(S2 + 1)(s2 7" 7s + 12)
(e) G(s) (s _; 1)(s + 3)
(s + 1)2(s + 2)(S2 - 2s + 5)
Chapter 10
IH.29 Find the dynamic response ofa first6order lag system ith time con!"!
stant #p =$.5 and static gain K; =: I to (a) a %nit imp%lse inp%t change&
(') a %nit p%lse inp%t change of d%ration 5& and (c) a sin%soidal inp%t
change& sin 0.5t. (etermine the 'eha)ior of the o%tp%t after long time
(as t -+ co) for each of the inp%t changes a'o)e.
1Il*.3$ +epeat ,ro'lem 111.29'%t for a p%re capacity process ith gain K~ =#
111*.31 -onsider a process hose o%tp%t e.hi'its first6order 'eha)ior to inp%t
changes"
#p dy / y =Kpm(t)
dt
0he )al%es of the time constant #p and static gain K; are" not ell
1non. (e)elop an e.periment here'y changing met) in a certainay
and recording the )al%es of y( t) ith time yo% can comp%te the )al%es
of the %n1non parameters #p and Kp.
111.32 -onsider a first6order system ith #p =$.5 min and K, =1. Initially" the
system is at steady state. 0hen the inp%t changes linearly ith time"
met) =t
(a) (e)elop an e.pression that shos ho the o%tp%t changes ith
time in response to the inp%t a'o)e.
(') 2hat is the minim%m and hat is the ma.im%m difference
'eteen the o%tp%t yet) and inp%t met)? 2hen do these e.treme
points occ%r3
(c) ,lot the inp%t met) and o%tp%t y(t) in the same graph as f%nctions
of time.
111.33 -onsider the three storage tan1s in Fig%re ,IlI. I. For each of these
systems& (a) de)elop the transfer f%nctions 'eteen the li4%id le)els and
the inlet streams& (') determine the time constants and process static
gains& and (c) determine hich of the three systems ha)e constant and
hich )aria'le time constants and process gains. 5ss%me that the flo
rates of all free effi%ent streams are linear f%nctions of the correspond6
ing li4%id le)els" *Florates in fig%re are steady state )al%es7
F =2(! ~)h(ft)
n6 rmn
Part III Part III Analysis of 8"
namic Behavior of Chemical Processes
22!
,%mp
(a)
(')
(c)
Fig%re ,III.I
111.39 +epeat ,ro'lem III.33 ass%ming nonlinear dependence of an effi%ent
flo rate on the li4%id le)el"
F =$.5 Jli
"" #$
IH.35 -onsider the storage tan1 of Fig%re ,III.la. :%ppose! that e ant to
control the li4%id le)el in the tan1 at the height of 5 ft& 'y manip%lating
the effl%ent flo rate F2, according to the folloing proportional control
la"; .
F2 =1$(5 6 h) + I
(a) (e)elop the transfer f%nction 'et<een hand F,.
(') (etermine the time constant and static gain of the tan1& %nder
control.! .
(c) <omp%te th< d<na<ic r<sponse of the li4%id le)el to a step change
In F, 'y I ft =mm *i.e.& find ho h(t) changes ith time7.
(d) -omp%te the ne steady6state )al%e for the li4%id le)el.
111.3>+epeat ,ro'lem nI.3: for the storage tan1s shon in Fig%re ,IlI. 1'
andc. "
111.37 -onsider the gas storage tan1! shon in Fig%re ,III.2a.
230
(a) (b)
Figure PIII.2
Part "'
(a) Write the material balance for this tank if the gas flow rates are
determined by the pressure difference between' an upstream and a
downstream point:
e! constant
(b)' "eri#e the transfer functions between the tank pressure p and the
inlet and outlet pressures$ P I and P2, respecti#ely. "raw the
corresponding block diagram.
(c) %ow do you define the mass storage capacity for this tank&
(d) "etermine the time constant and static gain for the system.
(e) Find the dynamic response of tank's pressure to a unit step change
in the inlet or outlet pressure. Flowrates are per minute.
'''.() *epeat the work of Problem lII.(+ but for the gas storage tank of Figure
PIlI.2b. ,otice the presence of an additional effluent stream.
III.(-t .onsider the gas storage tank of Figure PIII.2c. /uppose that we wantto
. control the tank pressure at the desired #alue of +0 psig$ by manipulat4
ing the downstream pressure P2. 2 proportional controller is used for
this purpose:
P2 ='3(+04 p) + 03
2ssume that the gases are ideal.
(a) "eri#e the transfer functions between the tank pressure P and the
possible disturbances P I(inlet) and p:\ (outlet).
Part III Analysis of the Dynamic Behavior of Chemical Processes 231
(b) "etermine the time constant when the temperature of the gas in the
system is T ='335For T ! ! 23356
(c) Find the dynamic response of the pressure in the tank to a to4psig
step change in the' inlet stream$ for both temperatures in the tank.
(d) .ompare the dynamic beha#ior for the two cases in part (c) and
indicate how the gas temperature affects the response of the tank's
pressure.
'''.73Figure PIII.(a shows a cross4sectional #iew of the bulb of a mercury
thermometer. 8et T be the temperature of the surrounding fluid and
T m the thermometer reading. 2ssume that the film coefficient of heat
transfer$ hI (9tu:hr. fe$ ;F)$determines the amount of heat transferred
from the surrounding fluid to i the mercury of the bulb (i.e.$ the resist4
ance of the glass wall to heat transfer is negligible). 2lso$ assume that
the heat capacity of the mercury is much larger than that of the glass
wall. Finally$ the wall is assumed not to epand or contract.
(a) /how thatthe thermometer reading follows a first4order beha#ior to
any changes in the surrouriding temperature.
(b) "eri#e the transfer function between Tm and T.
(c) "e#elop the e<uations that define the time constant and static gain
and compare them to those deri#ed in =ampleIfl.>$
(d) /ketch the <ualitati#e response of Tm to a step change in T for
#arious #alues ofthe film coefficient hi. ?sing physical arguments$
eplain the obser#ed beha#ior.
(b
@hermowell wall
T
I
I/urrounding
I;uid
!
I
@hermocouple
reading
Figure P%I.(
'''.7''@hermocouples are commonly used to measure the temperature of a
process fluid. Figure PIlI.(b -hows a thermocouple within its ther4
mowell. 2ssume that all resistance to heat transfer resides' with the
eternal film around the thermowell wall (see Figure PIII.(c). In other
232 Analysis of the Dynamic Behavior of CI ..:al Processes
words, there is no resistance to the heat transfer between the thermowell
wall and the thermocouple.
(a) Show that the thermocouple reading Tm follows first-order behav-
ior to any changes in the surrounding temperature T.
(b) Derive the transfer function between Tm and T, anddevelop the
equations definingthe time constant and static gain ofthe thermo-
couple's response.
(c) he e!ternal film heat transfer coefficient, hf, depends on the physi-
cal properties of the surrounding fluid, as well as the flow condi-
tions. S"etch the qualitative response of Tm to a step change in T
for various values of hI' #sing physical arguments, e!plain the
observed behavior.
$$$.%&'onsider the mi!ing tan" shown in (igure )***.%a. +ssume that all inlet
and outlet flow rates remain constant but that the compositions of the
inlets can change.
(a) Show that the effluent composition follows first-order behavior to
any changes in the composition of the inlet streams.
(b) Derive the transfer functions between the composition of the efflu-
ent and the compositions of the inlet streams. Draw the correspond-
ing bloc" diagram.
(c) Describe what is the characteristic capacity of the mi!ing tan" and
define the time constant and static gains for this system.
FI, c+l' ',ll
)ump
(a) (b)
(igure )***.%
*-.%. /epeat the wor" of )roblem ***.%& but for the mi!ing tan" system of
(igure )***.%b.
*-.%% Show that the concentration '+ of reactant + in an isotherma.l continu-
ous stirred tan" reactor e!hibits first-order dynamics to changes ill the
inlet composition, CAi' he reaction is irreversible, + ....,, and has first-
order "inetics (i.e., r : : ; : kCA). (urthermore0 (a) identify the time constant
and static gain for the system, (b) derive the transfer function between
CA and '+1' (c) draw the corresponding bloc" diagram, and (d) s"etch
the qualitative response ofc + to a unit pulse change in C Ai' he reactor
has a volume V, and the inlet and outlet flow rates are equal to F.
Part III
Part III Analysis of
)ynamic Behavior of Chemical Processes
23~
*-.%2 'onsider an isothermal batch reactor, where the following reactions
with first-order "inetics ta"e place0
A. ----I B --+C
Show that the concentration ' + of reactant + in the reacting mi!ture
e!hibits first-order dynamic behavior with respect to the initial concen-
tration, c +( t=3). *dentify the time constant and e!plain what it means
in physical terms.
Chapter
$$$.%4Show that the following systems e!hibit second-order overdamped
response.
(a) 5ffluent temperature nto changes in inlet temperature T. (see
(igure )**.. for the two tan" heaters of )roblem $$..).
(b) 5ffluent temperature . to changes in inlet temperature T. (see
)roblem $$.%and (igure ')**.%).
(c) 5ffluent.concentration CA2 to changes in inlet composition CAD (see
the two *soth6rmal 'S/s of )roblem $$.7,(igure )**.8).
$$$.%9*n +ppendi! **+ we found that simple manometers, e!ternally
mounted level indicators, variable capacitance transducers, and pneu-
matic valves e!hibit inherent second-order dynamic behavior. Design
all the systems above so that-they e!hibit underdamped behavior with a
decay ratio equal to !. *n other words, find the conditions that the
values of the physical parameters of these systems should satisfy in
order for the device to e!hibit underdamped behavior with decay ratio
equal to $:%.
$$$.%8Determine the dynamic response of an overdamped second-order sys-
tem to the following changes ;ofinput0 (a) unit impulse, (b) unit pulse of
duration 2 min., and (c) sinusoid, sin 2t. Determine the resulting
steady-state behaviour.
***.%7 /epeat )roblem $$$.%8but for an underdamped second-order system.
***.23 'onsider an underdamped second-order system whose and t; are not
well "nown. Develop an e!periment whereby changing the input m(t)
in a certain way and. recording the output y( t) with time you can
determine the values of " and ,.
***.2$ 'onsider a second-order system with the following transfer function0
G(s) =Y(s) = I
m(s) S2 +s +$
*ntroduce a step change of magnitude 2 into the system and find (a) per
cent overshoot, (b) decay ratio, (c) ma!imum value of y(t), (d) ultimate
value of y(t), (e) rise time, and (f) period of oscillation.
234
1I1.5~~Let the input of a second*order system change in a sinusoidal manner,
m(t) =1 sin2t
Show that the ultimate response of the system (a) is also a sustained
sinusoidal wae, (!) has an amplitude e"ual to
.#(l * $r2)2+ ($(r)2
and (c) lags !ehind the input wae !y an angle i P e"ual to
1 > =tan% ( *$&r 2)
1* $t
III.5~1'se the results of (ro!lem 111.52and descri!e an e)perimental proce*
dure that allows us, to compute the un+nown, alues of r and , for a.
second*order system.
111.5$ ,hich ofthe following second*order systems are e"uialent to two first*
order systems in series and which are not-
(a) G(s) =1/(s2 + 3s + 2)
(!) G(s) = 1/(s2 + 1.9s ./.01
(c) G(s) = 1/(s2 + 5)
(d) G(s) =1/(s2 . s . 2)
III.523 4onsider a thermocouple inside a thermowell as shown in 5igure
(III.6!. 7ssume that the resistance to heat transfer. does not come onlly
from the e)ternal film !etween the surrounding, fluid and the ther*
mowell wall !ut also from the internal film !etween the thermowell wall
and the thermocouple (5igure (IlL 5). Let h- and hint !e the heat
transfer coefficients for these ,two films.
(a) Show that the thermocouple reading T", follo~s a second.,.or~~~r
dynamic !ehaior with respect to any changes In thesurrounding
, fluid temperature.
(!) Is it an oerdampedor underdamped response. and ~h~- . .
(c) 8esign the thermocouple in such a way that it e)hi!its a slightly
oerdamped !ehaior (e.g., , 9 1.2).
:hermowell wall
Surrounding
fluid
T
:hermocouple
reading
Tm
5igure (III.S
Part III Analysis of the Dynamic Behavior of Chemical Processes 235
5igure (III.;
Chapter 1 2
111.5; 4onsider a li"uid mi)ture of 7 and < which flows through a cylindrical
tu!e (5igure (III.;). 7ssume that the flow is tur!ulent and conse"uently
that the plug*flow appro)imation is alid. (lug flow implies that the
concentration of 7 or < is a function of time and the position along the
length of the tu!e only (i.e., there are no radial concentration gradients).
(a) Show that the material !alance around a cylindrical element of
length dz (see 5igure (III.;) leads to the following e"uation=
c#(> 47) +,aCA 9 9 ?
: az at
where CA 55 CA(Z, t ).i s the concentration of 7 at time t and a cross*
sectional area at distance i from the inlet of the tu!e. 7lso, V is the&
linear elocity of the li"uid through the tu!e, which is assumed to
!e constant (it is a poor assumption for long tu!e lengths).
(!) Show that the transfer function !etween 47(@ , t) and the inlet con*
centration 47(/, t ) is gien hy
G(s).= 47(@ , s) =e:-1dJ
, 47(/, s)
where t d = zf (i.e., the time re"uired !y the li"uid to trael a
distance z). .
(c) 5ind the transient response of the. concentration at z =2? when a
unit impulse in the inlet concentration is applied at time t 9 /.
(d) 5ind the transient response of the concentration along the tu!e
, length when the inlet concentration changes !y a unit step at t =?.,
1II.50 (ro!lein I1L5; implies that a dead*time element is !asically a distri!*
uted system, descri!ed !y a partial differential e"uation. Suppose that
the tu!e of (ro!lem III.5; (5igure (III.;) is appro)imated !y a series of
N identical well*stirred tan+s (5igure (III.0).
(a) 5ind the transfer function !etween the concentration of the effluent
from tan+ N and the inlet concentration to the first tan+.
(!) 7ssuming that the total olume of the N tan+s remains the same,
show that the transfer function !etween the effluent concentration
2a6 Analysis of the Dynamic Behavior of Cherr 'rocesses Part III
. ~
Tonk I t= i- - . - l
T.nk2~
. ~ .
TankNH__ . _
~CA'N
Figure PIII.7
from tank N and the inlet concentration tothe first tank, as N ....00,
is given by
G(s) = CA,N(S ) = e-1dS
CA,O (S )
t d is the time required by the liquid to travel from the inlet of the
first tank to the outlet of the Nth tank.
111.! "onsider the mercury thermometer e#amined in Problem I$.%&. In that
'roblem, assuming that the glass bulb (see Figure PIII.)a* does not
e#'and or contract, +e found that the thermometer reading e#hibits
first1order dynamics to changes in the surrounding tem'erature. In the
'resent 'roblem assume that the glass bulb does e#'and and contract.
significantly +ith changes in surrounding tem'erature.
(a* -ho+ qualitatively that the reading of the mercury thermometer
may e#hibit inverse res'onse.
(b* .e have t+o mercury thermometers, +hose mercury bulbs are
constructed from t+o different materials +ith different /thermal
e#'ansion or contraction coefficients. .hich one is more likely to
e#hibit inverse res'onse0
(c* -u''ose that the volume of a glass bulb e#hibits first1order dynam1
ics to changes in the surrounding tem'erature +ith a time constant
rp = a and gain K p = p. If the volume occu'ied by the mercury of
the thermometer2s bulb e#hibits first1order dynamics +ith 1:p = &.1
and K, = ! to any change in the tem'erature of the surrounding
fluid, find the conditions that a and p should satisfy so that the
thermometer reading e#hibits inverse res'onse.
(d* 3ra+ the corres'onding block diagram for 'art (c*.
111.4 "onsider a system +ith the follo+ing transfer function5
KJe~l,s K
2
e-
12S
G(s)=--.---.--
T, s " I t22 S " 1
(a* 3ra+ the block diagram for this system.
Analysis of the . rnic Behavior of Chemical Processes 237
I
(b* Find the conditions that must be satisfied by the si# 'arameters K #
K
2
, r., t22, t" and hso that the system e#hibits inverse res'onse.
(c* If the system e#hibits inverse res'onse, 'lot the res'onse of the
system to a unit ste' in'ut change.
111.6& Find the conditions that 'arameters K" K2, r, (, and t22 must satisfy so
that a system +ith the follo+ing transfer function e#hibits inverse
res'onse5
3ra+ its res'onse to a unit ste' change +hen $% ! and +hen ( 7 1.
111.61 For each of the systems +ith transfer functions given belo+, (a* dra+
the corres'onding block diagram, (b* identify the 'oles and 8eros of the
transfer function, (c* 'lot the res'onse to a unit ste' in'ut change, and
determine the ultimate res'onse to a sinusoidal in'ut sin 2t.
1&
$a& G(s) = O .ls " 1 1 0.04s " 1
1 1&
$#& G(s) = 0.2s " !- 0.3s " !
. 1&9e-
s
5
(c* G(s) = O .ls " ! - 0.04s ~ !
10 e-
s
'(
(d* G(s)-----
0.2s " 1 0.3s " 1
Analysis IV
and Design
of Feedback Control
Systems
An important feature of a good control system design algorithm is that it
provides the practicing engineer with a framework within which to cast his
problem and provides a systematic design procedure which can be applied
to a larger number of similar problems.
A. Kestenbaum, . Shinnar! and " ". #hau$
In Part III we studied the dynamic behavior of various typical
processing systems under the lnfluence of changes in the input vari*
ables (disturbances _or manipulated variables). In dolnq so, we were
not concerned about having the system respond in.a specific manner.
In other words, we were not interested in controllinq the behavior of
the process.
Starting with Part I, our main concern will be! "ow can we control
a process in order to e#hibit a certain desired response in the pres*
ence of input changes$ %irst, we will study the most common control
configuration, &nown as feedbac&, which we touched upon very
briefly in 'hapter (. )hen, in Parts and I we will discuss additional
control configurations such as feedforward, cascade, ratio, override,
split range, and multivariable.
)hus in the subsequent si# chapters of Part *I, we will do the
following!
+. ,iscuss the notion of the feedbac& loop and describe the hard*
ware elements needed for its implementation.
'"Design Concepts for Process Control," %nd. "ng. Chern. &roc. Des. Dev .' 15 (I), 2
(1976).
240 Analysis and Design of Feedback Cor jystems Part IV
2. IldEmtifythe types of feedback controllers which are aailable for
process control and e!amine their effect onthe response of a
chemical process.
". Analy#e the stability characteristics of a feedback control sys$$
ltern and learn how to design the appropriate feedback system to
control a gien process.
%. &ole some special problems that are enco'ntered d'ring the
design of feedback controllers.
I ntrod uction
to Feedback Control
13
In Chapter 1we introduced the notion of a feedback control system.
In this chapter we expand the discussion by introducing the hardware
elements ofafeedback system and the types of the available controllers.
(".( Concept of Feedback Control
Consider the generalized process shown in Figure 13.la. It has an output
y, a potential disturbance d, and an available manipulated variable m.
)a*
Controller mechanism
(b
Figure 13.1 (a process and (b corresponding feedback loop.
2%(
y
242 Analysis and Design of Feedback Control Systems Part IV
The disturbance d (also known as load or process load) changes in an
unpredictable manner and our control objective is to keep the value of
the output y at desired levels. A feedback control action takes the
following steps:
1. Measures the value of the output (flow, pressure, liquid levell,
temperature, composition using the appropriate measuring
device. !et Ym be the value indicated b" the measuring sensor.
#. $ompares the indicated value Ym .to the desired value Ysp (set
point) of the output. !et the deviation (error) be E =' YsP Ym.
%. The value of the deviation & is supplied to the main controller.
The controller inturn changes the value of the manipulated varia.+
ble m in such a wa" as to reduce the magnitude of the deviation &:.
(suall", the controller does not. affect the manipulated variable
directl" but through another device (usuall" a control valve,
known as the final control element.
)igure 1%.1b summari*es pictoriall" the foregoing three steps.
The s"stem in )igure 1%.1a is known as open loop, in contrast to the
feedback+controlled s"stem of )igure 1%.1b, which is called closed loop.
Also, when the value of d or m changes, the response of the first is
called open-loop response while that of the second is the closed-loop
response. The origin of the. term closed+loop is evident from )ig+
ure 1%.1b.
Example 1%.1: Feedback Control Systems
The following represent some t"pical feedback control s"stems:which
are often encountered in chemical processes.
!" Flow control: Two feedback s"stems are shown in )igure 1%.#a and
b, controlling the flow rate F at the desired value Fs,.
2. ress!re control: The feedback s"stem in )igure l%.#c controls the
pressure of the gases in the tank, at the desired pressure s ..
". #i$!id-le%el control: )igure 1%.#dand e show two feedback s"stems
used for the control of the liquid levels at the bottom of a distilla+
tion column and its condenser accumulation tank.
&. 'emperat!re control: The s"stem in )igure 1%.#f controls the tem+
perature of the e-iting hot stream at the desired value 's,.
(. Composition control: $omposition is the controlled variable in the
blending s"stem of )igure 1%.#g.The desired value is $s,.
)emark. To simplif" the presentation of a feedback control s"stem, we
will usuall" replace the diagrammatic details of a controller mechanism
with a simple circle carr"ing one of the following characteri*ations:
FC for .flow control
Cfor press!re control
#C for li$!id-le%el control
'C for temperat!re control
$$ for composition control
C#a$" !% Introd&ction to Feedback Control
24%
(a
'c(
(b
(e
(d
$ontroller mechanism
r+++++++++l
I . I
I
I
I
)
)
I
*+
',
)igure 1%.# &-amples of feedback s"stems: (a and (b flow control/ (c
pressure contr+ + . 0 and (e liquid+level control/ 'f( temperature control/
(g compositic ntrol.
244 Analysis and Design of Feedback ( )1Systems
(3)
(b)
Figure 13.3 Simplified representations of feedback loops.
Also, little squares with the characterizations !,!!, "!, F!, and #! are
used to indicate le$el, temperature, pressure, flow, and concentration
measurement and transmission. Figure 13.3a and b is equi$alent to Fig.
ure 13.&band d, respecti$el'.
All the e(amples abo$e. indicate that the basic hardware com.
ponents of a feedback control loop are the following)
I " Process: the material equipment along with the ph'sical or chemi.
cal operations which take place (tanks, heat e(changers, reactors*
separators, etc.).
2 . , Measuring instruments or sensors: for e(ample, thermocouples
(for terhl"++a.ture), bellows, or diaphragms (for pressure or liquid
le$el), orifice plates (for flow), gas chromatographs or $arious
t'pes of spectroscopic anal'zers (for composition), and so on.
, 3. Transmission lines: used to carr' the measurement signa.l from
the sensor to the controller and the control signal from the con.
troller to the final control element !hese lines can be either
pneumatic (compressed air or liquid) or electrical.
4. Controller: also, includes the function, of the comparator. !his is
the unit with logic thatdecides b' how much to change the $alue
of the manipulated $ariable. ,t requires the specification of the
desired $alue (set point).
"art ,-
Chap. 13 Intod!c. (" Feedback Contol 24#
5. Final control element: usuall', a control $al$e or a $ariable.speed
metering pump. !his is the de$ice that recei$es the control signal
from the controller and implements it b' ph'sicall' ad/usting the
$alue of the manipulated $ariable.
Each of the elements above shoul be vie!e as a "h#sical s#stem
!ith an in"ut an an out"ut. #onsequentl', their beha$ior can be r
described b' a differential equation or equi$alentl' b' a transfer func.
tion. ,n the following sections of this chapter we take a closer look at the
d'namics of these hardware elements.
13.2 $ypesof Feedback Contolles
0etween the measuring de$ice and the final control element comes the
controller (Figure 13.1b). ,ts function is to recei$e the measured output
signal $m%t& and after comparing it with the set point $sP to produce the
actuating signal c%t& in such a wa' as to return the output to the desired
$alue %s&. !herefore, the input to the controller is the error
E%t& '$sP * $m%t&, while its outputis c%t&. !he $arious t'pes ofcontinu.
123 feedback controllers differ in the wa' the' relate e(t) to c( t).
!he output signal of a feedback controller depends on its construc.
tion and ma' be a pneumatic signal (compressed air) for pneumatic
controllers or an electrical one for electronic controllers.
!here are three basic t'pes of feedback controllers) (1) proportional,
(&) proportional.integral, and (3) proportional.integral.deri$ati$e. !he
details of construction ma' differ among the $arious manufacturers,
but their functions are essentiall' the same. et us stud' each one
separatel'.
&opotional contolle (o & contolle)
,ts actuating output is proportional to the error)
c%t& '(ce%t& ( c, (13.1)
where () 'proportional gain ofthe controller and c, 'controller4S bias
signal (i.e., its actuating signal when e '5).
A proportional controller is, described b' the $alue of its "ro"or*
tional gain K, or equi$alentl' b' its "ro"ortional ban "0, where
"0 '1556 () !he proportional band characterizes the range o$er which
the error must change in order to dri$e the actuating signal of the
controller o$er its full range. 2suall',
I )"0 + 355
It is clear that
The larger the gain K; or equivalently, the smaller the propor:
tional band, the: higher the sensitivity of controllers actuating
signal to deviations E !ill be"
#efine the deviation c'(t) of the actuating signal by
c'(t) =c(t) -~c
s
and ta$e
c'(t) =KcE(t) %&"2'
The last" equation yields the follo!ing transfer function for a propor:
tional controller
()&&'
Proportional-integral controller
(or PIcontroller)
*ost commonly it is $no!n as proportional!plus!reset controller" Its
actuating signal isrelated to the error by the equation
, c(t) ;;!KcE(.t) + Ke ('E(t) dt + c, (13.4)
):+ , o
!here 1:1 is the integral timeconstant or resettime in minutes" The reset
time is an ad-ustable parameter and is sometimes referred to as minutes
per.repeat, .sually it varies in the range
%") / ):+ / 0% min
1ome manufacturers do not" calibrate their controllers in terms ofrl but
in terms of its reciprocal, l+T+ (repeats per minute', !hich is $no!n as
the reset rate.
2t this point it is instructive to e3amine the origin of the term
4reset"4 5onsider that the error changes by a step of magnitude 6 :"
7igure )&"4 sho!s the response of the output of a controller as is
computed from eq" ()&"4'" 8e observe that initially the controller out:
put is KeE (the contribution of the integral term is 9ero'" 2fter a period
oftrrninutes:the contribution of the integral term is
that is, the integral control action has 4repeated4 the response of the
C!ap" #$ Introd%ction to Feedback Control
24;
c(1)
Time
7igure )&"4 <esponse of PI controller to step change in error"
proportional action" This repetition ta$es" place every r 1 minutes and
has lent its name to the reset time= Therefore: ""
<eset time is the time needed by the controller to repeat"the initial
proportional actionchange in its output"
The integral action causes the controller output c(t) to change as
long as an error e3ists in the process output" Therefore, such a controller
can eliminate even small errors.
7rom eq" ()&"4' it is easy to sho! that the transfer function of a
proportional:integral controller is given by
G,(sh K,( ) + r& ' ()&"0'
Remark
The integral term of a PI controller causes its output to continue
changing as long as there is a non:9ero error" >ften the errors cannot be
eliminated quic$ly, and given enough time they produce larger and
larger values for the integral term, !hich in turn $eeps increasing the
, control action until it is saturated (e"g" the valve completely open or
closed'" This condition is called integral indup and occurs during
manual operational changes li$e= shut:do!n, change:over, etc" 8hen
the process is returned to automatic operation, the control action !ill
remain" saturated leading to large overshoots" 2 PI controller needs
special provisions to cope !ith integral !indup"
( Proportional-integral-deri)ati)e controller
(or PID controller) (
In the industrial practice it is commonly $no!n as proportional!
plus!reset!plus!rate controller"
248 Analysis and Design of Feedback Co. Systems Part IV
The output of this controller is given by
K I.' .. . de
c(t) =KcE(t) ! e(t) dt +KcTD - c
s
; '[ 0 dt
(13.6)
where'D is the derivative time constant in minutes.
ith the presence of the !eriv"tive term# (de/dt), the $%D controller
anticipates what the error will be in the immediate future "n! "pplies "
control "ction which is proportion"l to the current r"te of ch"nge in the
error. Due to this property# the !eriv"tive control "ction is sometimes
referre! to "s anticipatory control.
The m"&or !r"wb"c's of the !eriv"tive control "ction "re the follow1
ing)
1. *or " response with const"nt non+ero error it gives no control
"ction since de/ dt =,.
-. *or " noisy response with "lmost +ero error it c"n compute l"rge
!eriv"tives "n! thus yiel! l"rge control "ction# "lthough it is not
nee!e!.
*rom e.. (13.6)we c"n e"sily !erive the tr"nsfer function of " $%D
controller#
(13./)
"#.# $eas%rin!&De'ices (Sensors&
The successful oper"tion of "ny fee!b"c' control system !epen!s# in "
very critic"l m"nner# on the goo! me"surement of the controlle! output
"n! the uncorrupte! tr"nsmission ofthe me"surement to the controller.
The first re.uirement implies the nee! for "n "ccur"te me"suring
!evice while the secon! necessit"tes goo! "n! effective tr"nsmission
lines.
There "re " l"rge number of commerci"l sensors. They !iffer either
in the b"sic me"suring principle they employ or in their construction
ch"r"cteristics. *or more !et"ils the re"!er c"n consult the v"rious
references "t the en! of $"rt %0 or the1technic"l boo'lets circul"te! by
the v"rious m"nuf"cturers. T"ble 13.1 lists typic"l me"suring !evices
encountere! in v"rious "pplic"tions of process control.
2et us loo' more closely "t the v"rious typic"l sensors use! to
me"sure the most common process outputs. '
C)a*. "# lntrod%ci. .0 Feedback Control 24+
T3425 13.1
T6$%732 8539:;%<= D50%759 *,; $;,7599 7,<T;,2
>e"sure!process
v"ri"ble 8e"suring '!evice 7omments
?
8ost common for rel"tively
low temper"tures
2i.ui! he"! pressure !evices
7on!uctivity me"surement
Dielectric me"surement
9onic reson"nce
7hrom"togr"phic "n"ly+ers
%nfr"re! "n"ly+ers
:ltr"violet "n"ly+ers
0isible1r"!i"tion "n"ly+ers
Turbi!imetry "n"ly+ers
$"r"m"gnetism "n"ly+ers
<ephelometry "n"ly+ers
$otentiometry
7on!uctimetry
,scillometric "n"ly+ers
p@ 8eters
$ol"rogr"phic "n"ly+ers
7oulometers
9pectrometers (A1r"y# electron# ?. 5Apensive for low1cost
ion# 8ossb"uer# ;"m"n# etc.) control loops
Differenti"l therm"l "n"ly+ers
Temper"ture Thermocouples
;esist"nce thermometers
*ille!1system thermometers
4imet"l thermometers
;"!i"tion pyrometers
,scill"ting .u"rt+ cryst"l
$ressure 8"nometers
4our!on1tube elements
4ellows elements
Di"phr"gm elements
9tr"in g"ges
$ie+oresistivity elements
$ie+oelectric elements
*low ,rifice pl"tes
0enturi flow no++le
D"hl flow tube
Bennison flow no++le
Turbine flow meters
:ltr"soun!
@ot1wire "nemometry
2i.ui! level *lo"t1"ctu"te! !evices
Displ"cer !evices
7omposition
:se! for high temper"tures
ith flo"ts or !ispl"cers
"
4"se! on the el"stic
!eform"tion of m"teri"ls
?
use!. to convert pressure
to electric"l sign"l
?
8e"suring pressure !rop
"cross " flow constriction
*or high precision
1
7ouple! with v"rious types
of in!ic"tors "n! sign"l
converters
?
=oo! for. systems with
two ph"ses
2ong times re.uire! for
"n"lysis
?
7onvenient for one or
two chemic"ls
?
<ot very convenient for
process control
LPI,,,w;th
i I h orifice
~ C= X : ~ ~
.... I. I
L_~p__j
(a) (b)
Figure 13.5 Fow !e"!or!# (a) orifice pate; (b) $e"turi tube.
Flo sensors
%he fow !e"!or! &o!t co&&o"' e&po'e( i" the i"(u!tria prac*
tice are tho!e that &ea!ure the pre!!ure gra(ie"t (e$eope( acro!! a
fow co"!trictio", %he", u!i"g the we*+"ow" (fro& fui( &echa"ic!)
e,uatio" of -er"oui, we ca" co&pute the fow rate, .uch (e$ice! ca"
be u!e( for both ga!e! a"( .i,ui(!. %he orifice plate. (Figure 13..a),
venturi tube (Figure -..b), a"( Dall flow tube are t'pica e/a&pe! of
!e"!or! ba!e( o" the foregoi"g pri"cipe. %he fir!t i! &ore popuar (ue
to it! !i&picit' a"( ow co!t. %he a!t two are &ore e/pe"!i$e but a!o
&ore accurate.
0 (iffere"t !e"!or i! the turbine flow meter, which u!e! the "u&ber
of turbi"e re$outio"! to co&pute the fow rate of i,ui(! ,uite accu*
rate'.
Fow !e"!or! ha$e $er' fa!t ('"a&ic! a"( the' are u!ua' &o(ee(
b' !i&pe agebraic e,uatio"!#
fow = aJifP (13.1)
where ai! a co"!ta"t (eter&i"e( b' the co"!tructio" characteri!tic! of
the fow !e"!or, a"( ~p i! the pre!!ure (iffere"cebetwee" a poi"t at the
fow co"!trictio" a"( a poi"t with fu' (e$eope( fow.
Press!re or "ress!re#act!ated sensors
.uch !e"!or! are u!e( to &ea!ure the pre!!ure of a proce!! or the
pre!!ure (iffere"ce which i! e&po'e( to co&pute a i,ui( e$e or a
fow rate (orifice pate, $e"turi tube). %he variable capacitancedifferen"
tial pressure transducer ha! beco&e $er' popuar. Figure II0.2 !how! a
!che&atic of !uch a (e$ice. Pre!!ure (iffere"ce! cau!e !&a (i!pace*
&e"t! of the !e"!i"g (iaphrag&. %he po!itio" of ~pp.,!e"!i"g (iaphrag&
C$a". %& Introd!ction to Feedback Control
251
Proce!!
te&perature
T
%her&owe
wa
%her&owe
wa
%her&ocoupe
%her&ocoupe
te&perature
r;
Proce!!
te&perature
T
t
I"ter"a fi&
re!i!ta"ce ho
t
2/ter"a fi&
re!i!ta"ce, h
t
2/ter"a fi&
re!i!ta"ce h
(a)
(b)
Figure 13.3 %her&ocoupe! with# (a) e/ter"a fi& re!i!ta"ce o"';
4, (b) e/ter"a a"( i"ter"a fi& re!i!ta"ce!.
i! (etecte( b' capacitor pate! o" both !i(e! of the (iaphrag&. %he
(iffere"tia capacita"ce betwee" the !e"!i"g (iaphrag& a"( the capaci*
tor pate! i! co"$erte( i"to (e $otage. 0 force baa"ce arou"( the
!e"!i"g (iaphrag& ea(! to the foowi"g !eco"(*or(er &o(e#
2d2Z . dz
t* ' 25t* ' z = K ~p
dt . dt P
(13.6)
where z = (i!pace&e"t of the !e"!i"g (iaphrag&
~p = actuati"g pre!!ure (iffere"ce
r, (, !, = three para&eter! of a !eco"(*or(er !'!te&, (efi"e( i" thi!
ca!e b' the co"!tructio"a characteri!tic! of the (e$ice
For (etai! o" the (e$eop&e"t of e,. (13.6), !ee 0ppe"(i/ It0. 7ariou!
other t'pe! of !e"!or!, a of the& &ea!uri"g the (i!pace&e"t of a
&echa"ica part u"(er the i"fue"ce of t"p, are a!o i" u!e.
(em"erat!re sensors
%he &o!t co&&o" are thermocouples, resistance bulb thermome"#
ters, a"( thermistors. 0 pro$i(e &ea!ure&e"t i" ter&! of eectrica
!ig"a!. I"(epe"(e"t' of their; co"!tructio"a (iffere"ce!, their ba!ic
('"a&ic beha$ior ca" be e/a&i"e( i" ter&! of the te&perature profie!
i" Figure 13.3a a"( b. %he te&perature*!e"!i"g ee&e"t i! awa'! i"!i(e
a ther&owe (Figure 13. 8). I" the fir!t ca!e (Figure 13.3a) we a!!u&e
%her&ocoupe
%herr"owe wa
Fk)~ ~ 13.8 %'pica ther&ocoupe arra"ge&e"t.
252
Analysis and Design of Feedback 0
Systems Part IV
Figure 13.8 Response of thermocouples with single film resistance
(curve a) and two film resistances (curve b).
that the major resistance to heat transfer is located outside the ther&
mowell casing. n such a case we have a single capacit! with resistance
and as we "now from #hapter 1$% it is modeled b! a first&order s!stem'
(13.1$)
n the second case (Figure 13.(b) we have major heat transfer film
resistances inside and outside the therrnowell casing. )his is e*uivalent
to two capacities in series and as we "now from #hapter 11% the thermo&
couple reading will e+hibit second&order (overdamped) behavior'
, d
2
Tm 2Y d'T.m T T
t &&&-.'%t&&-m=
dt
2
dt
(13.11)
)he parameters r and% depend on the /constructional and material
characteristics of the temperature&sensing device (i.e.% thermocouple%
casing% materials of construction). It is clear that the response. of a
thermocouple modeled b! e*. (13.11)is slower than that ofa thermocou&
ple modeled b! e*. (13.1$)(see Figure 13.8).
Composition analyzers
)!pical e+amples of such sensors are gas chromatographs and vari&
ous t!pes of spectroscopic analyzers. )he! are used to measure the
composition ofli*uids or gases in terms of one or two "e! components
or in terms of all components present in a process stream.
)he dominant d!namic feature of composition anal!0ers is the time
dela! (dead time) in their response% which can be *uite large. )hus% for a
chromatographic column% the time re*uired b! the sample to 1ravel
from the process stream to the column% plus the time re*uired to travel
through the column% plus the time needed b! the detector at the end of
the column to respond% can be *uite large. 2uch long time dela!s result'
in ineffective control.
Chap. 1 Introd! "#$$% to Feedback Control
3ther features characteristic of composition anal!0ers are' (1)their
low operational reliabilit! (eas! decalibration or brea"down)% and
(,) their relativel! high cost.
1.& 'ransmission(ines
)hese are used to carr! the measurement signal to the controller and
the control signal to the final control element. )here are two t!pes of
transmission lines' the pneumatic (compressed air% li*uids) and the
electrical%
4nless the .process changes .ver! fast or the transmission lines are
ver! long% the d!namic behavior of a pneumatic transmission line can
be neglected from consideration. 5hen the assumptions above do not
hold6 it has been found that the following transfer function correlates
successfull! the pressure at the outlet (Po) to the pressure at the inlet
(Pi) of a pneumatic transmission line'
p o(s) 7 e!
TdS
Pi(s) tps ) 1
Note. n the subse*uent chapters% as a rule% we will neglect the
d!namics of pneumatic transmission lines.
1.# Final #ontrol *lements
)hese are the hardware components of the control loops that imple&
ment the control action. )he! receive the output of a controller (actuat&
ing signal) and adjust accordingl! the value of the manipulated varia&
ble.
)he most common final control element is the pneumatic valve
(Figure ll8.3). )his is an air&operated valve which controls the flow
through an orifice b! positioning appropriatel! a plug. )he plug is
attached at the end of a stem which is supported on a diaphragm at the
other end. 8s the air pressure (controller output) above the diaphragm
increases% the stem moves down and conse*uentl! the plug restricts the
flow through the orifice. 2uch a valve is "nown as an "air!to!close"
valve (Figure 13.9a). f the air suppl! above the diaphragm is lost% the
valve will "ail open" since the spring would push the stem and the plug
upward. )here are pneumatic valves with opposite actions% (i.e. "air!to!
open" which "ail closed") (Figure 13.9b).)he most commercial valves
254 Analysis and Design of Feedback Control Systems
(a) (b)
Figure 13.9 Pneumatic valves: (a) fail open; (b) fail closed.
moviefrom full open to full closed as t!e air pressure at t!e top of t!e "
diap!ragm c!anges from 3 to 15psig.
#n $ppendi% ll$ &e developed t!e mat!ematical model t!at
describes t!e dnamic be!avior of a pneumatic. control valve. '!is &as
s!o&n to be of second(order e : )ut t!e response toc!anges* of most small
= : : : : >
+,uare root -inear .,ual percentage
c:
/perbolic 0uic1 opening
Figure 13.12 'pes of plugs for pneumatic valves. 3eproduced from
)uc1le P.+.* Techniques of Process Control, b permission.
Part #4 :
~
I
~i
~
..l!; ~"
I
lo5 c: 6 :1 6 :1
II (5 II B II
!"!
& ~
~
:;7
... # $
~ ot:
"a% & ".
' CI: I
C : : ( : : (
;: )
6 1" 6 1"
I*I +(
,
d
d
o
256 Analysis and Design of Feedbac .trol Systems
or medium&size valves, is so fast that the dynamics can be neglected. In
such a case only a constant gain term will remain which relates the
output from the controller (air pressure signal) to the fluid flow through
the valve.
or nonflashing li!uids the flow through the valve is given by
"#t#$
F=Kf(x) VJ;
where /);.p =pressure drop across the valve
K =constant which depends on the valve size
p =specific gravity of the flowing li!uid (relative to water)
f(x) =valve flow characteristic curve
%he valve flow characteristic curve, f(x), depends on the geometri&
cal shape of the plug's surface. igure "(.") shows the most common
types of plugs while igure "(."" shows the flow capacity characteristics
for the various valves.
*ther final control elements include relays to start or stop various
e!uipment, variable&drive motors for fans or pumps, heavy load elec&
trohydraulic actuators, and so on.
THINGS TO THINK ABOUT
". rom all that you +now so far, what are the strengths and wea+nesses ofa
feedbac+ control system, . .
2. -escribe one e.ample of (a) flow control, (b) pressure control, (c) li!uid
level control, (d) temperature control, and (e) composition control, which
are not the same as the e.amples covered in this chapter. -raw the appro&
priate diagrams.
(. -efine an open&loop and a closed&loop system. /hy do we use the terms
open&loop and closed&loop, 0lso define open&loop or closed&loop response.
1. /hat are the basic hardware components of a feedbac+ control loop,
Identify the hardware elements present in a feedbac+ loop for the tempera&
ture control of a stirred tan+ heater.
2. /rite 3ernoulli's e!uation for two points of a 4enturi tube and show how
you can compute the flow rate through the tube by measuring the pressure
difference between the two points 5i.e., prove the essence of e!. '("(.67),.
6. %he model for a variable capacitance pressure transducer was developed in
0ppendi. Iland is given by e!. ("(.8). It shows that the system is
inherently second&order and can e.hibit underdamped response. /hat does
this mean for the applicability of such device,
!art I"
#$a%. &' lntro. In to Feedbac#ontrol
( ...
9. Is it possible to have an oscillatory behavior by the indicated temperature
(Tm) ofa thermocouple if the measured temperature (T) changes by a step,
:laborate on your answer.
6. -iscuss some of the factors you should ta+e into account before deciding
whether to use an air&to&close or air&to&open pneumatic control valve.
8. ;ompute the response of a $- (proportional&derivative) controller to a
ramp change in the error I) (i.e., ) < at with a< constant). 2+etch the
con.tributio,s of the prop.ortional and derivative actions separately. *n the
ba2I2of this e.ample di2;=22the anticipatory nature of the derivative
control term.
>"). ;onsult ?efs. 6 (;hapter "5)and 9 (;hapter "))and discuss the factors that
affect the selection of the valve type (i.e., linear, s!uare root, e!ual percent&
. age, and hyperbolic).
"". @hen an e@ro@E(t) persists for a long time, the value of the integral fe(t) dt
Increases significantly and may lead the output of a $I controller to its
ma.imum allowable value. /e say that the controller has been saturated
and in physical terms it means that the valve is fully open or closed before
the control action has been completed (i.e., before the error has been driven
to zero). %his situation is also +nown as reset windup. Aow would you
handle such a situation,Bou can consult ?efs. 9 and "5.
Dynamic Behavior
of Feedback-Controlled
Processes
14
In Chapter 13 we defined the basic notion of a feedback control
system and we discussed its hardware components. In this chapter we
examine the dynamic behavior of a process that is controlled by a
feedback control system, when; (1) the value of the disturbance (load) d,
or () the desired value of the set point YsP chan!e.
14.1 Block Diagram and the Closed-Loop
Response
Consider the !enerali"ed closed2loop system shown in $i!ure 13%b. $or
each of its four components (process, measurin! device, controller
mechanism, and final control element) we can write the correspondin!
transfer function relatin! its output to its inputs. In particular, if we
ne!lect the dynamics of the transmission lines, we have&
'rocess&
Y(s) ( Gp(s)m(s) + Gd(s)d(s)
)easurin! device&
Ym(S) ( Gm(s)y(s)
Controller mechanism&
e(s) =Ysp(s) - Ym(S) comparator
(1*.1)
(1*.3a)
Chap. 14 Dynamic Behavior o !eed"ack-Controlled #rocesses
+,
'rocess d(s)
,222222&22222,
$ $
$
$
$
y(s)
$inal control
element
)easurin!
device
$i!ure 1*.1 -lock dia!ram of !enerali"ed closed2loop system.
c(s) =Gc(S)E(S)
$inal control element&
control action
(1*.3b)
(1*.*)
where G
p
, Gd, G,, Gc, and G
f
are the transfer functions between the
correspondin! inputs and outputs.
$i!ure 1*.. s.ows th. block diagram for the generalized closed-loop
system and .it I/ nothin! more than a pictorial representation of
e0s. (1*.1), (1*.), (1*.3a), (1*.3b), and (1*.*). 1otice the direct corre2
spondence between the block dia!ram of $i!ure 1*.1 and the schematic
of $i!ure 13.1b. 3. 4
y(s)
(b)
(a)
$i!ure 1*. /implified block dia!rams.
260 0 1 Systems Part IV Analysis and Design of Feedback \
The series of blocks between the comparator and the controlled
output (i.e., Gc, Gf, and Gp) constitutes the forward path, while tp.e
block Gs; is on the feedback path between the controlled output and the
comparator. If G =GcG/Gp, then Figure 1 4.2a shows a simplified but
equialent ersion of the block diagram.
!lgebraic manipulation, of the equations aboe "ields
m(s) =G/(s)c(s) == G.t(s)Gc(s)e(s) using eq. (1 4.#b$
= G/(s)Gc(s)[ysp(s) $ y m(S)]
=G/(s)Gc(s)[ysp(s) $ Gm(s)y(s)]
using eq. (1 4.#a$
using eq, (1 4.2$
%ut the last e&pression in eq. (1 4.1 $'
y(s) = Gp(s){G/(s)Gc(s)[ysp(s) $ Gm(s)Y(s)]} + Gd(s)a(s)
and after read(ustment take
$( ) . Gp(s)G/(s)Gc(s,), $ ( )
y s ) * . +s% S
1 + Gp(s)G/(s)Gc(s)Gm(s)
+, .Gd(s) , d(s)
1 + Gp(s)G/(s)Gc(s)Gm(s)
(1 4.,$
-quation (1 4.,$ gies the c!osed$!oop respo"se of the process. .e notice
that it is composed of two terms. The first term shows the effect on the
output of a change in the set point, while the second constitutes the
effect on the output of a change in the load (disturbance$. The
corresponding transfer functions are known as c!osed$!oop tra"sfer f#"c$
t%o"s. /n particular,
&& G&&'&p G....,.f';&G&c && ) ) G =G
s%
1 + GpG/GcGm 1 + GGm
is the closed2loop transfer function for a change in the set point and
G
d
Gd
== =G10ad
1 + GpG/GcGm 1 + GGm
is the closed2loop transfer function for a 1change in the load. Fig2
ure 1 4.2b shows a block diagram equialent to that of Figure 1 4.2a but
further simplified.
For eer" feedback control s"stem we can distinguish two t"pes of
control problems' the ser(o and the re)#!ator, problem.
(1 4.3$
Ser(o prob!em' The disturbance does not* change 4i.e., a(s) =0 5
while the set point undergoes a change. The feedback controller acts
in such a wa" as to keep y close to the changing +s%. /n such a case6
y(s) ) Gsp(s$"sp(s$ (1 4.7$
(1 4.8$
h(s)
Chap !" Dynarr eha#ior of Feedback$Controlled Processes
*e+!ator prob!em' The set point remains the same 4i.e., +sp(s$ =0 5
while the load changes. Then
(1 4.9$
and the feedback controller tries to eliminate the impact of the load
changes and keep y at the. desired set point.
From eqs. (1 4.3$ and (1 4.8$ it can be easil" seen that the c!osed$!oop
o(era!!.tra"sfer f#"ct%o"s Gsp a"d G
1 0 ad
depe"d "ot o"!y o" the process
dy"am%cs b#t a!so o" the dy"am%cs of the meas#r%") se"sor, co"tro!!er
a"d f%"a! co"tro! e!eme"t. .
,-amp!e 1 4.1 ' .!osed$/oop *espo"se of the /%0#%d /e(e! %" a 1a"k
:onsider the liquid2leel control s"stem for the tank of Figure 1 4.#a.
(a$
I
I I
% &'
Figure 1 4.# (a$ :losed2loop of liquid2leel control6 (b$ corresponding
block diagram.. .
262 Analysis and Design of Feedback.Controi Systems
Th(~level h is.the controlled output while F, is the load (disturbance) and
F; the manipulated variable. The transfer functions for each component
of the feedback loop are as follows:
Process. The material balance around the tank gives
dh
A dt =F, - F;
and we find easily that
Ii
" 1-. 1-
(s)=- Fi(s) - - F o(s)
As As
(14.10)
Measuring device. This can be a variable capacitance differential pressure
transducer (!ection 1".")# measuring the pressure. of a li$uid column of .
height h. The dynamic response of the sensor is gi:venby e$. (1".%). &et
'p =ah, where a is a constant. Then take
d
2
z dz
T( +( + ((T ++ + Z =Kp 'p =Kpcxh
dt dt.,
where z * * hm (i.e.# the value indicated by the measuring device). There+
fore# the transfer function for the sensor is
-'-.. Kpcx-
hm(s) = 2 2 h(s)
T S + ((n + 1
(14.11)
Cntr!!er. &et h !,- be the set point. Then
e(s) =.isp(s) -"i ~(s)
and for a /, controller 0e$. (1".1)2
c(s) =K{ 1+ # $ % e(s)
(14.1()
Cntr! va!ve. &et us assume that for the control valve of this system# the
response is that of a first+order system:
- K&
Fo(s)=--c(s)
# &S + 1
(14.1")
3igure 14."bshows the block diagram for the closed+loop system with the
transfer functions for each component of the loop. The closed+loop
response of the li$uid level will be given by e$. (14.1)# where the transfer
functions 'p, 'e, 'm, 'c, and '
f
are shown in 3igure 14."b. The servo
problem arises when the inlet flow rate F( remains constant and we
change the desired set point. ,n this case the controller acts in such a way
as to keep the li$uid level h close to the changing desired value h
Sf
'. 4n
the other hand# for the regulator problem the set point h !p remains the
art !"
1'(s)
Dynamic' #e$a%ior of Feedback-Controlled rocesses
26&
)xamp!e *+,-$ ..sed-/p # emperature 0espnse 1( a # an2
3eater ; . 4
5onsider the temperature control system. for the heater of 3ig+
ure 14.4a. The ~emperature # is. the controlled output while the inlet
te~perature # , ,! the load and the steam temperature is the manipulated
van able. The transfer functions for each component of the feedback loop
are:
5rcess. !f T, Ti,and # 6 are deviation variables# then from e$. (%.6) the
response of the process is given by
(b)
3igure~4.4 (a) 5losed+loop of temperature control7 (b) corresponding
block diagram#
264
Analysis and Design of Feedback C JI Systems
- ,lit - K -
T(s) =-' - T;(s) + -- Tst(s)
s+a s+a
(14.14)
The parameters r, a, and K have been defined in Examples 5.1 and 9,1.
Temperature sensor (thermocouple). Assume that the response of the
thermoouple is ver! fast and its d!namis an be ne"leted. Thus
(#$5)
Controller. %et T &p be the set point. Then
e(s) =Tsp(s) - T m(s)
(14.16a)
and for a proportional ontroller the atuatin" output is "iven b!
c(S) =KeE(s)
(14.16b)
Control valve. Assume first6order d!namis(
_;_ K,
Tst(s) =--c(s)
tvs + 1
(14(1))
*i"ure 14.4bsho+s the blo, dia"ram for the losed6loop s!stem +ith the
transfer funtions for eah omponent of the loop. The losed6loop
response is e6asil!found to be
T(s) =Gsp(s)Tsp(s) - .load(&) T;(s)
+here the losed6loop transfer funtions .sP and .1/ad are defined as
follo+s(
[
KJ. [K 10 1 s, J
s + a t!& + 1
.sp(&)
1 + [_!_J[KmllKel[-, s: 2
+ a ! Tv + 1
and
0 3 2
.load(&) = 2 + a [ 2
1+ 454 0 , Km"[Kel !#,
s+a tvs+$
Remark. To expedite the onstrution of the overall losed6loop trans6
fer funtions for an! feedba, ontrol loop, use the follo+in" rules(
1. The denominator of the overall transfer funtions for both the
load and the set point han"es is the same. It is "iven b!(
1 + produt of the transfer funtions in the loop
P a!t I"#
C$a%& 1'& Dynamic( J)io! of Feedback-Cont!olled P !ocesses 265
or
$+ %p%m%e%
J
2. The numerator of an overall losed6loop transfer funtion is the
produt of the transfer funtions on the for+ardpath bet+een the
set point or the load and the ontrolled output. Thus(
(a),The transfer funtions on the for+ard path bet+een the set
point 7s8 and output !are( %
c
, %
J
, and %p. Therefore, the
numerator is G, G
J
Gp&
(b) The transfer funtions on the for+ard path bet+een the load '
arid the output is onl! G. Thus the orrespondin" numerator
is %
d
9erif! these t+o rules +ith the. overall losed6loop transfer funtions
.s% and *
1/ad
0 e:s. (14.6) and (14.));. Also, these rules an be used to
formulate the losed6loop transfer funtion bet+een an input an!+here
in the loop and the output.
1'&+ ,ffect of P !o%o!tional Cont!ol on t$e
-es%onse of a Cont!olled P !ocess
%et us no+ examine ho+ the response of a normal, unontrolled pro6
ess is han"ed +hen a simple proportional, inte"ral, or derivative feed6
ba, ontroller is inorporated .<#n this setion +e onsider onl! the
proportional ontroller and its effet on the most ommonl! enoun6
tered first6 and seond6order s!stems. The effets of inte"ral and deriva6
tive ontrol ations +ill be studied in the follo+in" t+o setions.
The losed6loop response of a proess is "iven b! e:. (14,5). To
simplif! the anal!sis assume that
%m(s) = 1 and
Also, for a proportional ontroller,
%e(s) =K;
and e:. (14.5) !ields
y(s)
Gp(s)Kc - ( ) Gis) -d()
, 7&8 + s
# - %p(s)Kc 1 + %p(s)Kc
(14.1=)
Fi!st-o!de! systems
*or first6order s!stems
dy
Tp - + ( =Kp m + K''
't
+ith y(O) = m(O) = d(O) =/
266 Analysis and Design of Feedback Control. Systems
which gives
y(s) =__!5g_ m(s) +.-!5!_ d(s)
!ps + 1 !pS + 1
Thus for the uncontrolled system we have:
Time constant:
Static gains:
!p
Kp for the manipulation and K for the load
Put
and
in eq !1"1#$ and ta%e the closed,loop response:
x,, - ( ) K
d
. -d()
y(s) ==.. . ysp S +. S
!pS + 1 +KpKc . !pS + 1 +KpKc
'earrange the last equation and ta%e
- K~ - () Kd -d()
y(s)=---YsP s +--- S
!~S + 1 !~S + 1
where
and
Part I
!1"1($
!1"2)a$
!1"2)*$
!1"2)c$
The parameters K ~ and K d are %nown as closed-loop static gains.
+rom eq !1"1($we conclude that the closed,loop response of a first,
order system has the following characteristics:
1 -t remains first-order with respect to load and set point changes
2 The time constant has *een reduced !ieir. ! !p), which means
that the closed-loop response has become faster, than the open,
loop response/ to changes in set point or load
0 The static gains have *een decreased
C"a#. $% Dynamic &e"a'ior of Feedback-Controlled Processes
261
To gain a *etter insight into the effect ofthe proportional controller/
consider unit step changes in the set point !servo pro*lem$ and the load
!regulator pro*lem$ and e2amine the resulting closed,loop responses
+or the servo pro*lem/ Ysp(s) 3 ls and d(s) 3 4 Then eq !1"1($
yields
-!-() K~ 1
ys=-----
r5s + 1 s
and after inversion we find that
y(t) =K~(1 - e-
t
"
r
#)
!1"21$
+igure 1"5a shows the response of the closed,loop system to a unit step
change in the set point 6e notice that:
The ultimate response/ after t ... ))/ never reaches the desired new
set point There is always a discrepancy called offset which is equal
to
offset =!new set point$ , !ultimate value of the response$
= $ - K ~ = $ _ KpKc
$ + KpKc $ + KpKc
The offset is characteristic effect of proportional control It decreases as
K# *ecomes larger and theoretically
offset ,,,,,,7 ) when
+or the regulator pro*lem/ Ysp(s) == 4 8onsider a unit step change in
the load/ 9ie/ d(s) =lis$. Then eq !1"1($yields
:$
-() .s# 1
y s 3,,,,
r5s + $ s
y
, ,,;<5$, , , , , , = _ , , ,
>1
4ffset 3 __ 1_ _
1?KpKc
@o control
r*"
y(t)
!a$ !*$
+igure 1"5 8losed,loop responses of first,order systems with P control/
to: !a$ unit step change in set point. !*$ unit step change in load
268
, .
Analysis and Design of Feedback ( )1Systems
and after inversion
y(t) =Kd(1 - e-tIT~)
Figure 14.5b shows this response to a unit step change in the load. We
notice again that the proportional controller cannot keep the response
at thledesired set point but instead it exhibits an offset:
offset =: (set point) 3 (ultiate value of response)
=O-Kd=- Kd
1 + Kp Kc
!he benefit of the proportional control in the presence of load changes
can be seen fro Figure 14.5b. "lthough it cannot keep the process
response at the desired set point and introduces an offset# the response
is uch closer to the desired set point than would have been with no
control at all. Furtherore# as we. increase the gain K, the: offset
decreases and theoreticall$#
offset 3333%& when K; 3333% &&
Remarks
1. "lthough the offset tends to 'ero as K; *+ &&# we will never use
extreel$ large values of Kc for proportional control. !he reason
will becoe ver$ clear in the next chapter# where we will stud$ the
stabilit$ of closed3loop s$stes.
(. !f G
m
) Km and G
f
=KJ, it is eas$ to show that the offsets becoe:
. For set point unit step changes#
offset ) 1 K_ . : ,p _ K_ c _ K,,-f_
1 + Kp Kc JV Km
For load unit step changes#
offset = K_ d _ _
1+ Kp Kc JV Km
*eark (+) still holds.
,. +n subse-uent sections we will exaine onl$ the response for the
servo proble assuing that the reader has gained the facilit$ to
repeat a siilar anal$sis for the regulator proble.
4. .rocesses having the ter 1/ s in their transfer function# when
the$ are controlled with proportional controller# do not exhibit
offset for set point changes but the$ do for sustained load changes
(e.g.# step changes). 0et us deonstrate this iportant feature for
the li-uid3+evel.control s$ste shown in Figure 14.1a.!he output
"#a$. 1% Dynamic. &'a( of Feedback*"ont(olled )(ocesses 269
(a)
Ii'
(b)
Figure 14.1 (a) .ure integrator2 (b) corresponding closed3loop blockdia3
gra.
F; is constant and thelevel is controlled b$ anipulating the inlet
flow rate Fi. !he load (disturbance) is the flow rate Ed. +n ters of
deviation variables# the ass balance around the tank $ields
A
d. h ' F' F'
di= ;+ d
and in the 0aplace doain#
* 1* 1*
h'(s) ) 3. Fi(s) +*. Fd(S)
As As
!herefore#
4 1
Gp(s) =*
As
5onsider proportional control and for siplicit$# 6 G
m
) G
J
= l.
The closed.loop block diagram is shown in Figure 14.6b and gives
'1i'(s) = 1 .
A
-s+ 1
x;
hsp(s) + . 1/ Kc Fd(S)
A . .
-s+ 1
x,
For a unit step change in the set point we have. hsp(s) =l/s and
-Pd(s) = . Then
h'(s) ! 1
A s+ 1 s
s;
From the "inal.value theorem#
h'(t ... $0%&'& lim [sh'(s)] =1
()
There"ore#
o""sct h (p . h' (t - $0% ! * . 1 ! 0
For a load unit step change#
h'(s) = 1/ Kc
~s + 1 s
x,
and
.. 1
h'(t- $0% =lim [sh'(s)J =
() K;
There"ore#
o""set ! 0 . ! " ! ! 1 &&+ & 0
x, x,
For li,uid.level control s-stems such as the one o" Fig.
ure *4.6a# usuall- we are not interested in maintaining the li,uid
level e/actl- at the desired value but within a certain ra.nge. *n
such case the value o" the o""set 1/K; ma- be acceptable "or rea.
sonabl- large K; There"ore# the "oregoing two conclusions lead to
the "ollowing statement&
0i,uid level can be controlled e""ectivel- with proportional
control.
1 similar conclusion can be reached "or gas pressure s-stems
whose trans"er "unction also includes the term 1/ S
C#a$. 1% Dynamic &e#a'ior of FeedbackControlled Processes
Secondorder systems (ser'o $roblem)
271
The trans"er "unction "or a second.order process is
Gp(s) =y(s) = Kp
m(s) t
2
s
2
+ 2Cts+ 1
2ut this e/pression in e,. $14.13% and recalling that "or the servo prob.
lem d(s) =0# we take
y(s) K~ ysp(s)
(t')2S2+ 2C't's + 1
where
$14.22%
$14.24a%
$14.24b%
$14.24c%
K
' _ KpKc
p-
I + s,,
From the above we notice that the closed.loop response o" a second.
order s-stem with proportional control has the "ollowing characteris.
tics&
It remais sec!d-!rder.
"he static #ai decreases.
$!th the at%ra& peri!d ad dampi# 'act!r decrease. This implies
that an overdamped process# with proportional control and appro.
priate value o" Ki; ma- become underdamped $oscillator-%.
5onsider a unit step change in the set point 6i.e.# Ysp(s) =1/s]. Then
-( ) . K( 1
) S =
. (t')2S2 + 2C't's + 1 s
7epending on the value o"58# the inverse o" the e/pression above ma-
be given b-
9,uation $11.7% "or the overdamped case (C ' * 1%# or
9,uation $11.3% "or the criticall- damped case (C ' =1%# or
9,uation $11.:% "or the underdamped case $#8 + 1%
*ndependentl- o" the particular value o" ;# the ultimate value o" )(t) is
272 Analysis and Design of Feedback C. J Systems
given by the final&value theorem. Thus
y(t ...oo) =lim [sy(s)] =K~ = KpKc
, 5&0 1 + KpKc
Consequently, we again notice the presence of offset
offset =!new set point) & !ultimate value of response)
=1 " KpKc
1 + KpKc 1 + KpKc
#gain, offset -> 0 for K; ... 00.
Remarks
1. $epen%ing on the value of the %amping factor , for the uncon&
trolle% secon%&or%er system, eq. !1'.()b) shows that !* + 1. If
!* , 1,the over%ampe% response of the close%&loop system is very
sluggish. Therefore, we prefer to increase the value of K, an%
ma-e . &/ 0 Then the close%&loop response reacts faster but it
becomes oscillatory. #lso, by increasing 'K; the offset %ecreases.
(. The increase in the spee% of system*s response an% the %ecrease in
the offset, both very %esirable features, come at the e1pense of
higher overshoots !ma1imum errors) an% longer oscillating
responses. Thus, as K; increases, causing !* to %ecrease
!a) 2rom eq. !11.11) we see that the overshoot increases while
!b) 3quation !11.1() shows thatthe %ecay ratio also increases.
!c) 2inally, eq. !11.1)) shows that the perio% of oscillation for the,
close%&loop response %ecreases as !, %ecreases.
#l44the features above are %emonstrate% in 2igure 1'.5.
y(t)
6 &""""""" +&&&&&&&&+&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&+
t
2igure 1'.5 3ffect of gain on the close%&loop response of secon%&or%er
systems with proportional control.
Part IV
!l'.(7b)
Ca!. 1" Dynamic #1. or of Feedback-Controlled Processes 273
1".$ %ffect of Integral Control Action
4n this section we repeat an analysis similar to that of the prece%ing
section but using an integral instea% ofa proportional controller. 8ot to
overwhelm the* rea%er with the repetition of algebraic manipulations,
we will limit our attention to first&or%er systems an% for the servo
problem only.
9ecall that for the servo problem, a(s) =0, an% eq. !1'.5) yiel%s
!1'.(')
2or simplicity let
G
m
: G
f
= 1
2or a first&or%er process we have
Gp=~
tps + 1
an% for a simple integral control action,
1
Gc=Kc-
tIS
;ubstitute G
m
, Gp, G , G
f
in eq. !1'.('), by their equals, an% ta-e
(
~,) '.( K & 1' .
-'-, ( ) tps + l( . -& c tIS _ ( )
y S = . ysP S
). 1 + (.P : : *+ / ,) .
!1'.(5)
y(S)
!l'.(7a)
'-W ~ p~ K '
3quation !1'.(5) in%icates an important effect of the integral control
action,
It increases the or%er of %ynamics for the %ose%&loop response.
Thus for a first-order uncontrolled process, the response of the closed-
loop becomes second-order and consequently it may have drastically
different dynamic characteristics. Furthermore, as we have seen in
Sections 11.3and 12.1,by increasin the order of a system, its response
becomes more sluish. Thus!
"nteral control action alone is e#pected to ma$e the response of
the closed-loop system more sluish.
%et us e#amine the dynamic behavior of the closed-loop system
when the set point chanes by a unit step. From eq. &1'.2()we ta$e
- 1 1
y(s) = . -
. ! r
2
S2 2,1"s+ 1 s
The shape of the response y(t) depends on the value of, &overdamped,
critically damped, or. underdamped), but the ultimate value! of the
response can be found from the final-value theorem &Section *.()!
y([:-+oo) =lim [sY(s)] =lim + 2 2 1 .., =1
!"# S~ O 1- S 2('tS 1
Therefore,
offset =1- 1 =.
This indicates the most characteristic effect of interal action!
"nteral control action eliminates any offset.
The! reader can verify easily. that for the reulator problem the interal
control action produces a second-order closed-loop response and leads
aain to /ero offset.
Remar ks
1. 0quation &1'.21b) indicates that the form of the closed-loop
response &i.e., overdamped, critically damped, underdamped)
depends on the values of the controller ain K; and reset time 1-2.
Therefore, tunin the interal. control action for. the appropriate
values of K~ and 1-2 is an important question and will be discussed
in 3hapters 11and 14.
2. From eq. &l'.21b) we observe that as K; increases, the dampin
factor &decreases. The consequences of decreasin &are!
&a) The response moves in eneral from sluish overdamped to
faster but oscillatory underdamped behavior.
C$a%. &4 Dynamic 'e$a(ior of Feedback-Controlled Processes
27)
y(t)
Fiure 1'.4 0ffect of ain on the closed-loop response of first-order
systems with interal control only.
&b) The overshoot and the decay ratio of the closed-loop response
both increase +see eqs. &11.11)and &11.12)and Fiure 11.3,.
Ther efor e, we conclude that we can impr oe the speed of the closed!
loop r esponse at the e"pense of hi#her deiations and lon#er oscil!
lations. Fiure 1'.4 summari/es the foreoin characteristics for
set point chanes.
3. From eq. &1'.21b) we also observe that as 1-2 decreases, &decreases
too. Therefore, the consequences of decreasin 1"1 on the closed-
loop response will be as above in 5emar$ 2 &i.e., increased speed
comes at the e#pense of hiher overshoots and lon oscillations).
Fiure 1'.6demonstrates these effects very clearly.
'. The conclusions drawn by 5emar$s 1 and 2 can be restated as
follows!
"ncreasin7 the interal. control action &i.e., increasin K; and
y(t)
Fiure 1'.6 0ffect of reset time on the closed-loop response of first-order
systems with interal action only.
~76 Analysis and Design of Feedback Cor .vsterns Part IV
decreasing t'l) makes the response of the closed+loop system
more sensitive.
In Chapter 15 we will see that such trends lead to instability of the
closed+loop response.
14.4 Effect of Derivative.ontrol Action
For derivative control action alone, we have
G, !Kct'DS
Assuming again for simplicity that ! " ". G
f
" 1, the closed+loop
response of a first+order system with derivative control action I# given
by
y(s)
_K_
p
_ s; t'DS
t'ps # 1 + $ %
$$%&.$$$$$$ 'sP S
Kp K
1 #$$$ ct'DS
t'ps # 1
or
$1&.'(%
)*uation $1&.'(% leads to the following observations on the effects that
the derivative control action has on the closed+loop response of a sys+
tem,
1. -he derivative control does not change the order of the response.
In the e.ample above it has remained first order.
'. From e*. $1&.'(% it is clear that the effective time constant of t/l/
dosed+loop response is (r)# KpKct'D), i.e., larger than t'p. -hI#
means that the response of the controlled process is slower than
that of the original first-order process. Furthermore, as K,
increases, the effective time constant increases and the response
becomes progressively slower.
Remarks
1. Itis very instructive to e.amine the effect of the derivative c/n+
tro1 action on, the response of a second+order system. Assuming
C*a+. 14 Dvnarr,) .navior of Feedback$Controlled& Processes
again that " !G
f
!1, the closed+loop response for the servo
problem is
y(s)
or
-( ) . KpKct'DS _ ( )
y S ! ' ' .0 $12r K ,K ) 1 'sP S
t'S".. 2,-3 pct'DS
From the last e*uation we observe that,
$a% -he natural period of the closed+loop, response remains the
same while
$b% -he newdamping factor $,1 can be found from the e*uation
'$1- " '$- # KpKc!D
$i.e., $,1 4 $,%. -herefore, the closed+loop response is more
damped and the damping increases as K" or t#increase. -his1
characteristic produces more robust behavior by the con+
trolled process.
'. -he decrease in the speed of the response and the increase in the
damping demonstrate that
the derivative control action produces more robust behavior by
the controlled process.
14.- Effect of Co"+osite Control Actions
Although proportional control can be used alone, this is almost never
the case for integral or derivative control actions. Instead, proportional+
integral $5I% and proportional+integral+derivative $5I6% are the usual
controllers employing integral and derivative modes of control.
Effect of PI control
Combination of proportional and integral control modes leads to
the following effects on the response of a closed+loop system,
1. -he order of the response increases $effect of integral mode%.
'. -he offset is eliminated $effect of integral mode%.
3. As K; increases, the response. becomes faster [effect of propor*
tional and integral modes] and more oscillatory to set point
changes [i.e., the overshoot and decay ratio increase (effect of
integral modej], Large values of K, create a very sensitive:
response and may, lead to instability (see hapter !"#.
$. As !:[ decreases, for constant K
c
, the response becomes faster but.
more oscillatory %ith higher overshoots and decay ratios (effect of
integral mode#.
Eff,ect of PID control
Part IV
Cha! "# Dynamic $eha%ior of Feedback&Controlled Processes
27'
()I*+S (, ()I*- A$,.(
!. &evelop the bloc' diagram of a generali(ed feedbac' control system %ith
one disturbance, incorporating in each bloc' the. appropriate transfer func*
tion and on each stream the appropriate variable.
). &evelop the closed*loop responses for set point and load changes.
3. +epeat items !and ) for a process %ith t%o disturbances. an the feedbac'
controller handle simultaneous changes in both loads,
$. &efine in physical terms the servo and regulator control problems.
". -,e follo%ing bloc' diagram (.igure /!$.l# corresponds to a control system
%ith t%o loops.. +educe the bloc' diagram to a simpler one, such as that
sho%n in .igure /!$.), by identifying the appropriate transfer functions
Gv; G2, and G
3
0. 1hat are the relative advantages and disadvantages of the proportional,

integral, and derivative control actions, 1hat are their characteristic
effects on the closed*loop response of a process,
ombination of the three control modes leads to a closed*loop
response %hich has in general the same 2ualitative dynamic charac*
teristics as those resulting from 34. control alone. Let us no% describe:
the main benefit introduced by the derivative control action.
1e have seen that the presence of5integral control slo%s do%n the
closed*loop response of a process. -o increase the speed of the dosed
loop response %e can increase the value of the controller gain K; 6ut
increasing enough K; in order to have acceptable speeds, the response
becomes more oscillatory and may lead to instability. -he introduction
of the derivative mode brings a stabili(ing effect to the system. -hus %e
can achieve acceptable response speed by selecting an appropriate value
for the gain K; %hile maintaining moderate overshoots and decay
ratios.
.igure !$.!7 summari(es the effect of a 34& controller on the
response of a controlled process. 8otice that although increasing K~
leads to faster responses, the overshoot remains almost the same and
the settling time is shorter. 6oth are results of the derivative control
action.
y(/)
.igure !$.!7 9ffect of gain5 on the closed*loop response of first*order
systems %ith 34& control.
.igure /!$.!
.igure /!$.)
280
Part IV Analysis and Design of Feedback C\ , Systems
7. The proportional control leads to a lower static gain for the closed2loop
response compared to the gain of the uncontrolled process [see eqs. (14.20b
and (14.20c!. "s a lower gain more or less fa#orable for the controlled
process$ %ecall the definition of the static gain from &ection 10.4.
8. 'hat is the order of the closed2loop d(namic response for a second2order
process with )" control$ *an the )" control destabili+e such a process$
,. -iscuss the effects of K: and f. on the closed2loop response of a process
controlled with l)".
10. -iscuss the effects of K; f./ and ton the closed2loop responseofa process
controlled with )"-.
11. *onsider a first2order process. *ould (ou ha#e almost the same closed2loop
responses with )" and )"- controllers and appropriate #alues of their
ad0ustable parameters$
12. %epeat item 11 but for a second2order process.
11. 'hich one the three controllers/ )/ )"/ )"-/ would gi#e more robust closed2
loop response to an underdamped second2order s(stem$
14. "ntegral control action ma3es a process (a faster or slower4 (b more oscilla2
tpr( or less4 (c with larger de#iations from the set point or smaller$ 56plain
(our answers.
17. %epeat item 14but for deri#ati#e control action/
r
Stability Analysis
of Feedback Systems
15
"n *hapter 14 we e6amined the d(namic characteristics of the
response of closed2loop s(stems/ and de#eloped the closed2loop transfer
functions that determine the d(namics of such s(stems. "t is important
to emphasi+e again that the presence of measuring devices, controllers,
and final control elements changes the dynamic characteristics of an
uncontrolled process. Thus nonoscillator( first2order processes ma(
acquire oscillator( beha#ior with )" control. 8scillator( second2order
processes ma( become unstable9 with a )" controller and an unfortunate
selection of K~.and r t-
'hile designing a feedbac3 control s(stem (i.e./ selecting its com2
ponents and tuning its controller/ we are seriousl( concerned about its
stabilit( characteristics. Therefore/ before we proceed with the particu2
lar details of designing a feedbac3 control loop/ we will stud( the notion
of stabilit( and anal(+e the stabilit( characteristics of closed2loop s(s2
tems.
15.1 Te !otion of Stability
"n &ection 1.2 we introduced a simpleminded notion of stabilit(. :
s(stem was considered unstable if/ after it had been disturbed b( an
input change/ its output ;too3 off; and did not return to the initial state
of rest. <igure 1.= shows t(pical outputs for unstable processes. 56ample
1.2 also described the unstable operation of a *&T%.
How do we define a stable or unstable system? There are different
ways, depending on the mathematical rigorousness of the definition
and its practical utility for realistic applications. In this text we employ
the following definition, which is often known as bounded input,
bounded output stability:
A dynamic system is considered to be stable if for eery bounded
input it produces a bounded output, regardless of its initial state.
!ery system that is not stable according to the definition aboe will be
called unstable. To complete the definition, consider that"
"Bounded" is an input that always remains between an upper and a
lower limit (e.g., sinusoidal, step, but not the ramp).
Unbounded outputs exist only in theory and not in practice because
all physical quantities are limited. Therefore, the term "unbounded"
means very large. .
According to the definition aboe, a system with response like those of
#igure $%.$a is stable, while #igure $%.$b shows the responses of unstable
systems.
&et us consider a dynamic system with input m and output y. Its
dynamic behaior can be described bya transfer function !s),
y!s) =!s)m!s)
In 'ection (.) we concluded that if !s) has a pole with positie real
part, it gies rise to a term * $ e" which grows continuously with time,
thus producing an unstable system. The transfer function !s) can
correspond to an uncontrolled process or it can be the closed/loop
transfer function of a controlled system ,e.g., -sp or -
1oad
). Therefore,
y
y
,a. ,b.
#igure $%.$ ,a. 'table and ,b. unstable responses.
Stability Analysis of Feedback Systems 283
the stability analysis of a system can be treated in a unified way inde/
pendently if it is controlled or uncontrolled,
The location of the poles of a transfer function gies us the first
criterion for checking the stability of a system"
If the transfer function of a dynamic system has een one pole
with positie real part, the system is unstable.
Therefore, all poles of a transfer function must be in the left/hand part
of a complex plane, for the system to be stable.
"xample $%.$" #tabili$ation %& an Unstable 'rocess with ' (ontrol
*onsider a process with the following response"
y(s) =~ m:(s) .! " # " . a(s)
s)l: s)*
*learly, this process is unstable because its transfer function possesses a
y
#igure $%.0 *ure o, open/loop unstable response1 cure ', closed/loop
stable response with P control.
y(s)
#igure $%.2 3lock diagram for the system of !xample $%,$.
284 Analysis and Design of Feedback ( )1Systems
pole at s =1> O. Figure 15.2 (curve a) shows the response of the uncon"
trolled system to a unit step change in the load d which verifies its
unstable character. Let us introduce a feedback control system with pro"
portional control only. ssume that for the measuring sensor and the final
control element
Gm =G
r
=l
Figure 15.!shows the block diagram of the closed"loop system.
#he closed"loop response of the system is given by e$. (1%.5&' which
for the present system becomes
-( ) lOK
e
- ( ) 5 a( )
y s ( s ~ (1 ) lOK
e
) *sp + + + ) (1 ) 10K
e
) s
From the last e$uation we conclude that the closed"loop transfer func"
tions
lOK
e
, . ) 5
load " S - (1 " lOK
e
)
GsP
s ....(1 10K
e
)
have negative the common poleif K, > 1- . #herefore' the original system
can be stabili.ed with simple proportional control. Figure 15.2 (curve /&
shows the dynamic0 response of the controlled system to a unit step
change in the load for K; =1! 1ompare it to the behavior of the uncon"
trolled system and reali.e the stabili.ing effect of the controller.
Example 15.22 Destabilization of a Stable Process wit P! "ontrol
1onsider a second"order process with the following transfer function2
Gp(s)
S# + #s + 2
#he system has two comple3 poles with ne$ati%e real parts&
/4( "i56 and
#herefore' according to our criterion the system is stable. 4ndeed' if we
make a unit step change in the input' the response of the system is as
shown in Figure 15.%a. 4ntroduce a /4 controller. Let the measuring ele"
'
(a& (b&
Figure 15.% (a& Open"loop stable response7 (b& destabili.ed response
under /4 control.
P a"t #$ Stability! isis of Feedback Systems 28%
ment and the final control element have the following transfer functions2
Gni(s} ( G/(S) ( 1
#he closed"loop response to se't point changes is given by
y(s) GpG
e
. *sp(s& =,spysp(s&
1 + GpGe
#o e3amine the stability of the closed"loop response' we have to find
where the poles of ,sP are located.
1 & K, (!S + 1
S# + #s + 2 (!S
,sp
S) 5 #S# 5 (2 5 Ke*s 5 Ke
#4
Let
K, =1- - and
#hen the poles of ,sr are determined by the roots of the polynomial
8 2' 1- -
s 5 2s 5 (2 5 lOO)s 5 "
- .1
and are found to be
PI ="9.1:5 P# =2.5; +6(1l.5& P) =2.5; " 6(11.5&
<e notice that P 2 and P (have positi%e real parts. #herefore' according to
our criterion the closed"loop response is unstable. Figure 15.%b shows the
response of the system to a unit= step change of the set point. 1ompare it
to the response of the uncontrolled system and notice the destabili.ing
effect of the /4 controller. For different values of K, and #4 the response
becomes stable. 4ndeed' lowering the gain to Kc =1- and increasing
#4 =- .5' we find that all the poles of,sp have negative real parts (i.e.' the
closed"loop system is stable&.
1%!2 )*e +*a"acte"istic ,-.ation
>3amples 15.1 and 15.2 dramati.ed the effect that a feedback control
loop may have on the stability characteristics of. a process. 4n this '
section we organi.e and systemati.e our analysis' introducing and
defining some appropriate terms.
1onsider the generali.ed feedback control system shown in Figure
1%.1.#he closed"loop response for such system is given by e$. (1%.5&2
GpGfG
c
Ysp(s) + G
d
d(s) (14.5)
1 + GpGfGcG
m
. 1 + GpGfGcGm -
y(s)
or e$uivalently
The stability characteristics of the closed-loop response will be deter-
mined by the poles of the transfer functions GSp and Gload. These poles
are common for both transfer functions (because they have common
denominator) and are given by the solution of the euation
(!".!)
#uation (!".!) is called the characteristic equation for the generali$ed
feedbac% system of &igure !'.!.
(et p" P2, ... , P n be the n. roots of the characteristic euation (!".!))
, 1+ Gp GfG cGm =(s *...p ,)( S - p +), .. (s *...P n)
Then we can state the following criterion for the stability of a c)losedl-
loop system)
A feedbac% control system is stable, if all the roots of its character-
istic euation have negative real parts ((e.* are to the left of the
imaginary a-is).
If any root of the characteristic euation is on or to the right of the
imaginary a-is (i.e.* it has real part $ero or positive)* the feedbac%
system is unstable ..
Remarks
!. The stability criterion stated above secures stable response of a
feedbac% system *independently if the input changes are in the set
point or the load. The reason is that the roots of the characteristic
euation are the common poles of the two transfer functions* GsP
and G
load
* which determine the stability of the dosed loop with
respect to changes in the set point and the load* respectively.
+..The product
G.( =GpGfGcGm
will be called open-loop transfer function because it relates the
* measurement indication Y m to the set point YsP if the feedbac%
loop is bro%en /ust before the comparator)
Ym(s) =0.((s)ysp(s)
Therefore* the characteristic euation can* be written as follows)
1+ G
.(
=0
and we notice that it depends only on the transfer functions of the
elements in the loop 1i.e.* it does not depend on 0 d which is
outside the loop2.
Chap 1! Stability Analysis of Feedback "ystems
#$%
3. The roots of the characteristic euation are also the poles of the
closed-loop transfer functions* Gsp and Gload-. &or this reason they
are often called closed-loop poles.
Example !".3) tability !nalysis of T"o #eedback $oops
In #-ample IS.! we have
G
-4564
p-
s - 1
%m&l
Therefore* the corresponding characteristic euation is
10 &
1+ %p%f%c%m 7 1+'''1( 'c(l 7 0
s-)
*which has the root
p =)' IOK
c
and the system is stable if p' 8 9 (i.e.* '*+ ),)-..
&or the system of #-ample IS.+: we have
G 1,
P 2 ; 2s ; +
Gm =1
The corresponding characteristic euation is
1 + G p G .acG m 7 1 + # 1 '1' K c/ 1 +*1*,+ , 7 0
s 02s ;+ trs
&or K; =100 and < 7 01, the euation above yields
1 + 22 + )-2s + 1000 =0
with roots -=.!>"* +.S? + /(ll.S) and +."? - /(ll.S). The closed-loop sys-
tem is unstable because two roots of the characteristic euation have
positive real parts.
-o.th'/.r0it1 Criterion for Stability
The criterion of stability for closed-loop systems does not reuire calcu-
lation of the actual values of the roots of the characteristic polynomial. <
It only reuires that we %now if any root is to the right of the imaginary
a-is. The @outh-Aurwit$ procedure allows us to test if any root is to the
right of the imaginary a-is and thus reach uic%ly a conclusion as to the
stability of the closed-loop system lwithout computing the actual values
of the roots.
#-pand the characteristic euation into the following polynomial
furm: )
! + GpGfGcg
m
a ass" + lISn-1 + + an-Is + an 7 9
''''''', -----4*.< 4** 2*,,, 2,,2',
288 Analysis and Design of Feedback CL , Systems Part IV
Let ao be positive. If it is negative, multiply both sides of the equation
above by 41.
, First test. If any of the coefficients a" az, ... , an-I, an is negative, there
is at least one root of the characteristic equation which has positive real
part and the corresponding system is unstable. No further anallysis is
needed.
Second test. If all coefficients ao, a" az, ... , an-I, an are positive, then
from the first test we cannot conclude anything about the location. of
the roots. !orm the following array "#nown as the $outh array%&
Row 1
2
'
(
)
n+l
where
.. a,az - aOa3
.11, =
a,
Ala3';_ a,A
z
A,
C
I
* B,Al -- A 1+,
B,
a o az a4 a
a, a3 as a!
A, Az A3
B, Bz B3
C, C
z
C
3
WI Wz
Az =a,a4 -- aoas
al
A3 =a,a - aoa"#
a,
A
l
as-a,A
3
A,
-
.
=B,A3 /0 AlB) ...
B, -
12amine the elements of the first column of the array above&
$a% I&an' o& t(ese ele)ents is ne*ati+e, we (a+e at least one root to t(e
ri*(t ,- t(e i)a*inar' a.is and t(e s'ste) is /nsta0le.
$0% 1(e n/)0er o& si*n c(an*es in t(e ele)ents o& t(e &irst col/)n. is
e2/al to t(e n/)0er o& roots to t(e ri*(t o& t(e i)a*inar' a.is"
3herefore, a system is stable if all the elements in the first column of the
$outh array are positive.
Stability AI IS of Feedback Systems
289
3.a)4le 1).(& Sta0ilit' Anal'sis wit( t(e Ro/t(';' 5/rwitz 6riterion
-onsider the feedbac# control system of 12ample 1)...3he character4
istic equation is
S3 + 7s
z
+ ". + 8c%s + 8c =5
1&6
3he corresponding $outh array can now be formed&
Row 1
2 2
' .". + 89c% - 8c-1:;
2
o
8c
,1&,
3he elements of the first column ate
(
[
1 2 .". + 8c% - 8cl1:; 8c<
0 . . '1:1
A! are always positive e2cept the third, which can be positive or negative
depending on the values of K; and "t[
1. If 8c =155 and 1&6 =5.1, the third element becomes 4'78 #5, which
means that the system is unstable, 9e have two sign changes in the
elements of the first column .. 3herefore, we have two roots with
positive real parts "see 12ample 1)..%.
.. If K, =15 and t[ =5.), the third element is equal to :. ; 5, and the
system is stable since all the elements of the first column are
positive.
'. In general, the system is stable if 8; and 1&6 satisfy the condition
7$7:= 8c% ; 8c
1&6
3.a)4le 1).)& 6ritical Sta0ilit', 6onditions &or a Feed0ac> ?oo4
$eturn to 12ample 1,).(and let 1&6 =$1 3hen the third element of the
first column in the $outh array becomes
.". + 8c%.- tO8e
.
3he value of K, that ma#es the third element ,ero is
K, =5.)
and constitutes the critical condition for stability of the PI feedbac#
oontrolsystem, 3herefore, according to the $outh4+urwit, test, we have&
I.If K; < 0.5, all the elements of the first column in the Routh array
are positive and the system is stable (i.e., all the roots of the charac ..
teristic equation are located to the left of the imaginary axis).
2. If K; > 0.5, the third element of the first column of the Routh array
becomes negative. e have t!o sign changes in the elements of the
first column" therefore, !e have t!o roots of the characteristic#
equation located to the right of the imaginary axis.
It is clear therefore that as Kc increases, t!o roots of the characteristic
equation move to!ard the imaginary axis and !hen K; =0.5, !e have
t!o roots on the imaginary axis (pure imaginary) !hich give rise to
sustained sinusoidal term.
Remark. $he t!o purely imaginary roots can be found from the equa+
tion
that is,
2
2 0.5 0
S ++=
O J
and they are
&('.5()
$he coefficients 2 and Kelt, are the elements of the Routh array in the
ro! !hich is located &ust before the ro! !hose first column element is
)ero (i.e., the elements of the second ro!). *
1.! "oot+#oc$s Analysis
$he preceding examples have demonstrated very vividly that the stabil+
ity characteristics of a closed+loop system depend on the value of gain
Kc. $hus in ,xample '5.' !e notice that the closed+loop system
becomes stable !hen Kc - '.'0. /lso, in ,xample '5.0, the system is
stable !hen
K
2(2 +Kc) >_c
'#'
!hich for 1:1 %=0.' yields
0<Kc<0.5
$he root loci are merely the plots, in the complex plane, of the roots
of the characteristic equation as the gain Kc is varied from )ero to
infinity. /s such they are very useful in determining the stability
&art I' Stability Analysis of Feedback Systems ()1
characteristics of a closed+loop system as the gain Kc changes. 1et us
examine the construction of the root locus using a specific example.
Example '5.2# Root Locus 0/ To !apacities i" #eries it$
% !o"trol
$he t!o capacities in series may be t!o stirred tan3s, t!o heaters, and
so on, and have a transfer function
&p's). Kp
(LIS +')(124 +')
1et
Gm=Gf=1
$hen the characteristic equation is
K
' + * % , K; =0
(ti4 +')(t24 +')
and
or
(ti4 +l)(124 +') +K =0 !here K =KpKc
5onsider 6asthe changing parameter instead ofthe gain Ks, and ma3e
the follo!ing observations#
'. hen K =0 (i.e., Kc =0) the characteristic equation has as its roots
the poles of the process#
+1
&I=+
1I
and
2. /s K increases from the )ero value, the roots of the characteristic
equation are given by
+(tl 712)*8 .9(tl7 12)2+ 01I12(' +K)
% '.2=. .. 2'#'t*2
$hey are distinct real and negative as long as ,r* +t*2)2
+ 01I12(' +K) > 0, or
K < (1 I+t* 2)2 : 1
0t*'t*2
that is, as long as Kc satisfies the inequality
x, ; - *I <(1I +t*2)2 + I*.
s, 0'#'t*2
('5.2)
3 . hen
('5.=)
292 Analysis and Design of Feedback C ,I Systems
we have two equal roots,
4. For
(15.4)
we have again two distinct roots which are complex conjugates of
each other:
;(t, + t!) j ..j4t, "!(l# K) - (", + 1:!)! (15.5)
P ~ 2 . 2
$t$,"!
%otice that the real part is equal to
$t$, + t!
!",$t$!
and independent of K, while the imaginar& part;tends to infinit& as
K ....00.
'sing the information a(ove, we can construct the root locus of the
s&stem as follows:
1. "he (eginning of the root locus corresponds to K c ) and is given
(& the points A(;l*$t$+ ))$ and B(-I/'t'2, !" (see Figure 15.5).
!. ,s long as K; satisfies inequalit&(15.!), we have two distinct real
and negative roots. "herefore, the root locus is given (& two distinct
curves which emanate$ from points A and B and remain on the real
axis. Furthermore, the two curves. move toward each other and
meet at point - (Figure 15.5).,tthis point, K; has the value given
(& eq, (15..) and we have a dou(le root.
.. For larger values of K c satisf&ing inequalit& (15.4), we have again,
two distinct curves of the root locus (ecause we have distinct,
complex conjugate roots. /ince the real part of the complex roots is
constant (see eq. 15.5). the two (ranches of the root locus are
perpendicular to the real axis and extend to infinit& as K c .... )).
1m
0e
#$1,!"
r
!
c
A B
Figure 15.5 0oot locus of the s&stem in 1xample 15.2.
3art 45
Figure 15.2 0eactor s&stem of 1xample 15.6.
Stability Ar, .7 of Feedback Systems 29%
"he complete root locus is given in Figure 15/8and since all its (ranches
are located to the left of the imaginar& axis, we conclude that the closed-
loop system is stable for any value of Kc. Furthermore, we conclude that
for K, satisf&ing inequalit& (15.!) the response of the s&stem to a step
input is not oscillator& (ecause the imaginar& part of the two roots is
9ero. 4t (ecomes oscillator& for K; satisf&ing inequalit& (15.4).
1xample 15.2demonstrated that the root locus of a s&stem not onl&
provides information a(outthe sta(ilit& of a dosed;loop s&stem (ut
also informs us a(out its general d&namic response characteristics as K c
changes. "herefore, the root locus anal&sis can (e the (asis of a feed(ac:
control loop design methodolog&, where(& the movement of the closed;
loop poles <i.e., the roots of the $characteristic equation) due to the
change of the proportional controller gain can (e clearl& displa&ed.
-onstruction of the root locus ifor the s&stem of 1xample 15.2 was
rather simple. For higher;order s&stems, to find the exact location of the
root locus (ranches we need a computer program that can find the roots
of a high;order pol&nomial. /uch programs are availa(le in an& com;
puter s&stem and the interested reader can find one in 0ef. 6.
=uite often, though, we are not interested in the exactlocation of the
root;locus (ranches and simple, (ut qualitativel& correct graphs, will
suffice to draw the general conclusions a(out the d&namic (ehavior of a
closed;loop s&stem. 0eferences 1!,$ 1.and 14give a set of general rules
which can (e used to draw the approximate root locus of an& given
s&stem. . ,
>et us close this chapter with one more example of the construction
of the root locus for a reactor s&stem and its use for the anal&sis of the
s&stem$s d&namic. response. .
Example 15.6: oot !ocus for a eactor "ith P roportional #ontrol
?ouglas @0ef.;1!A has developed the model for the reactor shown in
Figure 15.2. "he control o(jective. is to :eep the concentration of the
desired product$ - as close as possi(le to a given stead&;state value despite
the upsets in the inputs of the reactor. Be attempts to achieve this control
&
Flow rate C F- m l
A+R-+B
B+R-+C
C+R-+O
O+R-+E
objective with a proportional controller which measures the concentra#
tion of C and manipulates the flow rate of the reactant A.
The transfer function for the process is
G (s) = y(s) 2.98(s + 2.25)
p m(s) (s + 1.45)(s + 2.85)2(S + 4.35)
Assuming instantaneous responses with gain unit for the measuring
device and the valve that controls the flow rate of A!
Gm =G
f
= 1
we have the following characteristic e"uation for the closed#loop sstem$
% + 2.98(s' + 2.25) . K; =&
(s + 1.45)(s + 2.85)2(S + 4.35)
'hen K; =&! it is eas to find that the roots ofe". (%5.)) are
PI =#%.45 P 2 =P 3 =#2.*5 P 4 =#4.35
As K; incr+ases! we needan iterative! trial#and#error! numerical proce..
dure to find the roots of the characteristic e"uation. ,uch a solution is
feasible through the use of a digital computer. Table %5.% shows how th-+
locations of the four roots change with the value of Ks, These results have
been transferred in .igure %5./! which displas the four branches of the
root locus for the closed#loop reactor sstem.
TA012 %5.%
344T, 4.T52 C5A3ACT236,T6C 278AT649 .43 T52 ,:,T2; 4. 2<A;=12 %5./
Kc .=l
#2.*5
#2.3&> j(4.?)
#%./%> j(%.*3)
-1.09+ j(3.12)
-0.48+ j(4.35)
>&.35> j(5.4&)
#2.*5
#2.3&# j(&.?)
-1.71- j(1.83)
-1.09- j(3.12)
-0.48- j(4.35)
>&.35# j(5.4&)
#4.35
#4./4
#5.*@/
#/.2&
#*.)%
#?./5
o
%
5
2&
5&
%&&
##%.45
@#%./%
#%.?*
#2.%5
#2.2&
#2.24
1et us eAamine the root#locus branches of .igure %5./ and draw some
conclusions on the dnamic response of the closed#loop reactor sstem as
the proportional gain Kc changes from Bero to infinit.
%. The sstem is stable for gain values up to 5& because all the roots
are located to the left of the imaginar aAis. .or a gain value
between 5& and %&& the root locus crosses the imaginar aAis and
moves to the right of the imaginar aAis. Therefore! there is a
critical value between 5& and %&& for which the closed#loop
response of the reactor becomes unstable.
2. .or an value of K; > & until the critical value there are two
compleA conjugate roots with negative real parts. The impl that
the response of the reactor to an input change will be a decaing
oscillation.
(%5.))%
Part I
C!a"# 1$
Stabilit% Analysis of Feedback Systems
29$
%m
a 6ndicates a pole
o 6ndicates a Bero
-4
6, C 1&&
\\
D
'
D
'
.igure %5./ 3oot locus of the reactor in 2Aample %5./. 3eproduced from
E$;. Fouglas! P recess Dynamics and Control: Control Systems Synthe-
SIS, Gol. 2! (c) %?/2! p. %%2. 3eprinted b permission of =rentice#5all
6nc.! 2nglewood Cliffs! 9.E. H
3. .or K; larger than the critical value (where the sstem becomes
u+stable+ +heroots that cause the instabilit are compleA conjugates
with positrve real parts. Conse"uentl! the unstable response of the
closed#loop sstem to an input change will be oscillator with grow#
ing amplitude.
()I*+S (, ()I*- A.,/(
%. Fefine what is Inown as bounded input! bounded output stabilit.
2. 0ased on the definition above!. eAamine if a sstem with a pole at s =& is
stable.
3. Fefine the following. terms$ open#loop transfer function! characteristic
e"uation! closedH ## #p poles.
2~J6 Analysis and Design of Feedback ( )1Systems Part IV
4" If a closed2loop response is stable with respect to changes in the set point, is
it stable to changes in the load? If yes, why?
5. How does the pole location deterine the stability of an !ncontrolled or
controlled process?
6. "oes the location of the #erosofa transfer f!nction affect the response of
an !ncontrolled process?
$. %hat is the a&or ad'antage of the (o!th2H!rwit# criterion for e)aining
the stability of a syste?
*. %hat concl!sions can be drawn if one eleent in the first col!n of the
(o!th array is #ero? +ons!lt (efs..,-, ,4, and .)aple ,5.5.
/. 0he root2loc!s analysis cannot handle easily systes with dead tie. %hy?
1how how systes with dead tie co!ld be handled with root2loc!s analy2
sis.
,3. .)aples ,5.6 and ,5.$ indicate thatthe root loc!s has as any branches as
the n!ber of poles of the open2loop transfer f!nction. 0h!s, in .)aple
,5.6 the open2loop transfer f!nction has two poles and the root loc!s two
branches, whereas for .)aple ,5.$ we ha'e fo!r poles and fo!r branches.
Is this tr!e for any closed2loop syste? .)plain.
Design of Feedback
Controllers
16
In this chapter we confront the following two critical 4!estions5 How
do we select the type 6of the feedbac7 controller 8i.e., p,9I, or 9I":, and
how do we ad&!st the paraeters of the selectedcontroller 8i.e., K " 'f/'
1'D) in order to achie'e an "opti!" response for the controlled
.process? 0hese two 4!estions; as well as the ethods that lead2to their
resol!tion, define the content of6the present chapter.
16.1 Outline of te Design Problems!
+onsider the bloc7 diagra2of a<general closed2loop syste shown in
=ig!re ,4.,
%hen the load or the set point change, the response of the process
de'iates and the controller tries to bring the o!tp!t again close to the
desired set point, =ig!re ,6.,>shows the response of a controlled process
to a !nit step change in the. load when different types of controllers ha'e
been !sed. %e notice that different controllers ha'e different effects on
the response of the controlled process. 0h!s the first design 4!estion
arises5
?!estion ,5 What type of feedback controller should be used to
control a given process?
@i'en that we ha'e decided soehow to !se 9I control, we still need to
2/$
y(t)
___ &&& Uncontrolled
Figure 16.. Response of a system to unit step change in load with no
control, and arious types of feed!ac" controllers.
select the alue of the gain K; and the reset time 11. Figures 1#..$ and
1#.% demonstrate ery clearly that these two parameters hae an impor&
tant effect on the response of the controlled process. 'hus the second
design (uestion)
*uestion. +) How do we select the best values for the adjustable
parameters of a feedback controller?
'his i.s "nown as the controller tuning pro!lem.
'o answer these) two design (uestions we need to hae a (uantitatie
measure in order to compare the alternaties and select the !est type of
controller and the !est alues of its parameters. 'hus the third design
(uestion arises)
*uestion ,) What performance criterion should we use for the selec'
tion and the tuning of the controller?
'here are a ariety of performance criteria we could use, such as)
Keep the maximum deviation (error) as small as possible
!chieve short settling times
"inimi#e the integral of the errors until the process has settled to its
desired set point$ and so on
-s we will see in the following sections, different performance criteria
lead to different control designs.
.et us now study the (uestions a!oe in more detail and proide the
initial guidelines for the design of a feed!ac" controller.
Chap. 1(I Design of Feedback Controllers
299
16.2 Simple Performance Criteria
/e start with the performance criteria since we need to esta!lish some
!asis for the comparison of alternatie controller designs, and !ecause
its selection constitutes the principal difficulty during the design of a
feed!ac" system.
0onsider two different feed!ac" control systems producing the two
closed&loop responses shown in Figure 16.+. Response - has reached the
desired leel of operation faster than response If our criterion for the
design of the controller had !een
Return to the desired leel of operation as soon as possi!le
then, clearly, we would select the controller which gies the closed&loop
response of type -. 1ut, if our criterion had !een
2eep the ma3imum deiation as small as possi!le
Return to the desired leel of operation and stay close to it in the
shortest time
we would hae selected the other controller, yielding the closed&loop
response of type 1. 4imilar dilemmas will !e encountered (uite often
during the design of a controller.
For eery process control application, we can distinguish
%tead&'state performance criteria
(&namic response performance criteria
y(t)
5esired leel
of operation
Figure 16.+ -lternatie closed&loop responses.
300 Analysis and Design of Feedback C~ ISystems
The principal steady*state performance criterion usually is zero
error at steady state. We have seen already that in most situations the
proportional controller cannot achieve zero steady*state error, while:a
PI controller can. Also, we now that for proportional control the
steady*state error !offset" tends to zero as K, ...00. #o further discussion
is needed on the steady*state performance criteria.
The evaluation of the dynamic performance of a closed*loop system
is$ased on two types of commonly used criteria:
%. &riteria that use only *. a few points of the response. They a.re
simpler, $ut only appro'imate.
(. &riteria that use the entire closed*loop response from time t =: 0
until t = very lar)e. These are more precise $ut also more cum$er*
some to use..
In the remainder of this section we deal with the first cate)ory of simple
performance criteria and we leave the more complicated criteria for
+ection %,.3.
The simple performance criteria are $ased. on some characteristic
features of the closed*loop response of a system. The most often -uoted
are !see.i)ure %%.(":
Overshoot
Rise time (i.e., time needed/or the response to reach the desired value
for the first time)
.Settling time (i.e., time needed/or the response to settle within 5%,
of the desired value)
Decay ratio
Freuency of oscillation !/ the transient
/veryone of the characertistics a$ove could $e used$y the desi)ner as
the $asic criterion for selectin) the controller and the values 0of its
ad1usted parameters. Thus we could desi)n the controller0, in order to
have minimum overshoot, or minimum settlin) time, and so on. It
must $e emphasized, thou)h, that one simple characteristic does not
suffice to descri$e the desired dynamic response. 2sually, we re-uire
that more o$1ectives $e satisfied !i.e., minimize overshoot, minimize
settlin) time, etc.". 2nfortunately, controller desi)ns $ased on multiple
criteria lead to conflictin) response characteristics. .or e'ample, .i)ure
%3.%0shows thatfor a PI4 controller, $y decreasin) the value of the
overshoot !throu)h a decrease in the value of )ain "c) we increase the
settlin) time. +uch conflicts will always arise while usin) simple desi)n
criteria such as those a$ove. The control desi)ner must intervene and
su$1ectively $alance the conflictin) characteristics.
.rom all the performance criteria a$ove, the decay ratio0 has $een
Chap !" Design of # .oac Cont$olle$s
30%
the most popular $y. the practicin) en)ineers. +pecifically, e'perience
has shown that a decay ratio !see:.i)ure %%.(",
&
# $
is a reasona$le trade*off $etween a fast rise time 0and a reasona$le
set5llin).ti5e. This criterion is usually nown as the one%uarter decay
ratio cnterion.
&'ample ().(*.+ontroller ,uning with the One%-uarter Decay
Ratio +riterion .
&onsider the servo control pro$lem of a first*order process with PI
controller. It can $e easily shown that the closed*loop response is )iven $y
the followin) e-uation, when 6
m
7 G
f
= %:
%( .) ,/S % ! &
Y s ( ( 2
0
0sp(S)
t S % ts % !
where
and
!7 89 .l12 !% % "p"c)
( s,s,s,
We notice that the closed*loop response is second*order.
.or the selection of the :$est: values for ", and r, we will use simple
criteria stemmin) from the underdamped response of a .second*order
system. +elect the one*-uarter decay ratio criterion, .rom e-. !%%.%("we
now that :
decay ratio 7 . e'p ! *('0 "
'()*
Therefore, for our pro$lem we have
e'p ;0 + n~V ; : : < I + K' K' ) ] .= ~
!*****,! % "3"c)4
$ .l1p"p"c
After al)e$raic simplifications we tae
*('V ' . . T; <. 0 !%"
. ' 4< .K,K, - =,!I > K,K,) , !I > K,K,) *In -
!%,.%"
Equation (16.1) has two unknowns: K, and 'I. Therefore, we willl have
several controller settings which satisf the one"quarter deca ratio crite"
rion. #et Kp =0.1 and, p =10.Then, we find the following solutions:
K; $ 10
'I $ 0.%6%
K; $ 30
'I =0.3%&
K, ='0
'I =0.2'&
K, =1
'I =0.1'3
K; =: 100
'I =: 0.1'3
and so on. The question is which one to select. (suall, we select firstthe
)ro)ortional gain K, so that the controller has the necessar *strength* to
)ush the res)onse +ack to the desired set )oint and then we choose the
corres)onding t, value so that the one"quarter deca ratio is satisfied.
16.:3 TimeIntegral !erformance Criteria
The sha)e of the co,)lete closed"loo) res)onse, fro, ti,e t =-until
stead state has +een reached, could +e used for the for,ulation of a
dna,ic )erfor,ance criterion. (nlike the si,)le criteria that use onl
isolated characteristics ofthe dna,ic res)onse (e.g., deca ratio, set"
tling ti,e), the criteria of this categor are +ased on the entire res)onse
of the )rocess. The ,ost often used are:
1. Integral of the square error (./E), where
./E =1" # $ E2( t) dt (16.2a)
2. Integral of the absolute value of the error (.0E), where
.0E =1" # $ I%&t' I dt
3. Integral of the time-weighted absolute error (.T0E), where
.T0E =l< Y J t le&t' I dt (l6.2c)
1ote that e&t' = yspt! - yt! is the deviation (error) of the
res)onse fro, the desired set )oint.
The )ro+le, of designing the *+est* controller can now +e for,u"
lated as follows:
/elect ihe t)e of the controller and the values of its ad2usted
)ara,eters in such a wa.as to ,ini,i3e the ./E, .0E, or .T0E of
the sste,4s res)onse. 4
5hich one of the three criteria a+ove we will use de)ends on the
(16.2+)
!art I( C)a*. 16 Design of Feedback Controllers
303
characteristics of the sste, we want to control and so,e additional
require,ents wei,)ose on the controlled res)onse of the )rocess. The
following are so,e general guidelines:
If we want to strongly suppress large errors, I"# is better than$ I%#
be&ause the errors are squared and thus &ontribute more to the value
of the integral.
'or the suppression of small errors, I%# is better than I"# be&ause
when we square small numbers smaller than (me) they be&ome even
smaller.
(o suppress errors that persist for long times, the I(%# &riterion will
tune the &ontrollers better be&ause the presen&e of large tamplifies the
effe&t of even small errors in the value of the integral.
6igure 16.3 de,onstrates, in a qualitative ,anner, the sha)e of the7
e8)ected closed"loo) res)onses. 5hen we tune the controller )ara,e"
ters using ./E, .0E, or .T0E )erfor,ance criteria, we should re,e,+er
the following two )oints:
1. 9ifferent criteria lead to different controller designs.
2. 6or the sa,e ti,e integral criterion, different in)ut changes lead
to different designs.
#et us anal3e these t+o state,ents on the +asis of the following
e8a,)le,
-ut)ut
Ti,e
6igure 16.3 :losed"loo) res)onses using various ti,e integral criteria.
304 Analysis and Design of Feedback Co Systems
Example 16.,1: Controller Tuning Using Time-Integral Criteria
Consider the feedback system shown in Figure 16.4. The closed-loo!
res!onse is
-[ ) 1'ls+l " - ( ) + (TI/20Kc)s ' d(S)
y l S ( ) "s# S ( I ) "
_!!_S 2TI 1+_1_!s" _! rl s2rl 1+-- HI
20Kc 20Kc 20K
c
20K
c
or
- TIS + I - ( ) $r%l&0 Kc) s J( )
yl(s) '------ys! S + a S
!
s! + 2(TS + 1 T
2
S 2 + 2(rs + 1
$16.3(
l r r ; -
"# # $
$16.4a(
and
$16.4b(
To select the best )alues for K% and r I,we can use one of the three criteria
%*+, %,+, or %T,+. Furthermore, we can consider changes either in the
load or the set !oint. Finally, e)en if we select set !oint changes, we still
need to decide what kind of changes we will consider $i.e., ste!, sinusoi-
dal. im!ulse, etc.(. .et us say that we, select %*+ as the criterion and unit
ste! changes in the set !oint. From e/.$l6.3(we ha)e
-( ) &rlS li 1
y S & ' -
0 r& S 2 + 2(rs + I s
Figure 16.4 Closed-loo! system of +1am!le 16.&.
#art %2
$16.6(
Design of
$back Contolles
303
, %n)ert the last e/uation and find $if $ % 1(
y(t) #1 +& e-
Ct
/
t
45sin (J l: : r ~ )
6l::r '
! ( $ ! r t -I J l: : r )]
- *%n " 1 - c" ( 7 tan -, -,-
8Then sol)e the following o!timi9ation !roblem:
$16.3(
:inimi9e %*+8;0 fI ) * [Ysp ~ y(t)Ydt by selecting the )alues oft and
J( _
$, where y(t) is gi)en by e/. $16.3(. .
The o!timal )alues of rand $are8gi)en by the solution of the following
e/uations $conditions for o!timality(:
a$%*+( #a(ISE) .: 0
ar a(
.et r< and t;t- be the o!timal )alues. Then, from e/s. $16.4a( and $l6.4b(,
we can find the corres!onding o!timal )alues for the controller !arame-
ters rl and Kc(
I f the criterion was the %T,+, we would ha)e to sol)e the following
!roblem:
:inimi9e %T,+' L IX > t %ys!- y(t}ldt by selecting the )alues oft8
and $where y(t) is gi)en by e/, $16.3(.
The 8solution r< and t;t- is gi)en by the e/uations
8:, a$%T,+( #+ a$%T,+( #0
ar a( !!
and in turn, from e/s. $16.4a( and $,16.4b( we can find the o!timal K,and.
I t is clear8 that the solutions of the foregoing two !roblems with
different criteria will be, in general, different.
.et us consider now unit ste! changes in the load. +/uation $16.3(
yields 8
and after in)ersion,
y(t) $r%l&0 Kc) e-
1
!
t
sin $ 55(
r5. , r
=e can find the o!timal )alues of s' and r/' following a similar !roce-
dure as !re)iously. *ince the res!onse y(t) is now differentthan it.was for
306
Analysis and Design of FeedbackControl Systems
Part IV
I
a unit step change ,in the set, P,oint [co.m.pare ,~qs. (16:6) a,nd (16.5)~, we
epect that the optima! settings o" K; and #! wi!! $e di""erent e%en &" we
use the same criterion (i.e., &'( or &#)(). ,
Remairk" ) proportiona! contro!!er !eads to a non,+ero o""~e~. #~e.re:,
"ore the %a!ue o" the time,integra! criteria, &'(, &)(, or &#)( is in"inite,
, andthe use o" such criteria "or tuning proportiona! contro!!ers is 3!~a!-t,
ica!!- .di""icu!t.. &n such cases, it is equi%a!ent to tune iheproporuona!
contro!!er "or minimum o""set, within the range o" a!!owa$!e %a!ues "or
the proportiona! gain.
16.4 Select the Tye of Feedback Controller
/hich one o" the three popu!ar "eed$ac0 contro!!ers shou!d $e used to
contro! a gi%en process1 #he question can $e answered in a %er- s-stem,
atic manner as "o!!ows: 2
1. 3e"ine an appropriate per"ormance criterion (e.g., &'(, &)(, or
&#)(). 2 . 2 p. Fir
4, 5ompute the %a!ue o" the per"ormance criterion u,smg a ,or , 2
or P&3 contro!!er with the $est settings "or the ad6usted parame,
ters Kc, !r"# and rD$
3. 'e!ect that contro!!er which2 gi%es the .$est. %a!ue "or2 the per,
"ormance criterion.
#his procedure, a!though mathematica!!- rigorous, has se%era! seri,
ous practica! draw$ac0s:
It is very tedious.
It relies on models (transfer!unctions) for the process, sensor, and
final control element which may not be known exactly. ,
It incorporates certain ambiguities as to whi~h is the most appropri)
ate criterion and what input changes to conider.
&.ortunate!-, we can se!ect the most appropriate t-pe o" ~~ed$ac0
contro!!er using on!- genera! qua!itati%e considerations stemmmg "rom
the ana!-sis in 5hapter 17. #here we had eamined the, e""ect o" the
proportiona!, integra!, and deri%ati%e contro! modes on the response o"
a s-stem. &n summar-, the conc!usions were as "o!!ows:
1l. Proportiona! contro!
(a) )cce!erates the response o" a contro!!ed process.
($) Produces an o""set (i.e., non+ero stead-,state error), "or a~!
processes ecept those with terms 1% s (integrators) m their
Cha. 16 Design of Feedback Controllers 308
trans"er "unction, such as the !iquid !e%e! in a tan0 or the gas
pressure in a %esse! (see 9emar0 7 in 'ection 17.4).
4. &ntegra! contro!
(a) (!iminates an- o""set.
($) #he e!imination o" the o""set usua!!- comes at the epense o"
higher maimum de%iations.
(c) Produces s!uggish, !ong osci!!ating responses.
(d) &" we increase the gain K! to produce "aster response, the
s-stem $ecomes more osci!!ator- and ma- $e !ed to insta$i!it-.
3. 3eri%ati%e contro!
(a) )nticipates "uture errors and introduces appropriate action
($) &ntroduces a sta$i!i+ing e""ect on the c!osed,!oop response o" a
process
:igure 16.1 re"!ects in a %er- simp!e wa- a!! the characteristics noted
a$o%e.
&t is c!ear "rom the a$o%e that a three,mode P&3 contro!!er shou!d $e
the $est. #his is true in the sense that it o""ers the highest "!ei$i!it- to
achie%e the desired contro!!ed .response $- ha%ing three ad6usta$!e
parameters. )t the same time, it introduces a more comp!e tuning
pro$!em $ecause, we ha%e to ad6ust three parameters. #o $a!ance the
qua!it- o" the desired response against the tuning di""icu!t- we can
adopt the "o!!owing ru!es in se!ecting the most appropriate contro!!er.
". If possible, use simple proportional controller. 'imp!e propor,
tiona! contro!!er can $e used i" (a) we can achie%e accepta$!e
o""set with moderate %a!ues o" K; or ($) the process has an
integrating action (i.e., a term l% s in its trans"er "unction) "or
which the P contro!. does 2.not ehi$it o""set. #here"ore, "or gas
pressure or !iquid,!e%e! contro! we can use on!- P contro!!er.
#. $f a simple % controller is unacceptable, use a %$. ) P& contro!!er
shou!d $e used when proportiona! contro! a!one cannot pro%ide
su""icient!- sma!! stead-,state errors (o""sets). #here"ore, P& wi!!
se!dom $e used in !iquid,!e%e! or gas presure contro! s-stems $ut
%er- o"ten (a!most a!wa-s) "or "!ow contro!.#he response o"a "!ow
s-stem is rather "ast. 5onsequent!-, the speed o" the c!osed,!oop
s-stem remains satis"actor- despite the s!owdown caused $- the
integra! contro! mode.
&. 'se a %$( controller to increase the speed of the closed)loop
response and retain robustness. #he P& e!iminates the o""set $ut
reduces the speed o"the c!osed,!oop response. :or a mu!ticapacit-
process whose response is2 %er- s!uggish, the addition o" a P&
contro!!er ma0es it e%en more s!uggish. &n such cases the addition
o" the deri%ati%e contro! action with its sta$i!i+ing e""ect a!!ows
308
Analysis and Design of Feedback COl
Part IV 3ystems
the use of higher gains which produc~ fa~ter res~ons~s without
excessive oscillations. Therefore, derivative action IS recom*
mended for temperature and composition control where we have
sluggish, multicapacit! processes.
Example "#.3. Selecting the Type 0/ Controller for Various Processes
$et us discuss various processes that are to %e con~rolled %! fe~d%ac&
control s!stems. 'e will address primaril! the (uestion of selecting the
appropriate t!pe of feed%ac& controller.
1. Liquidle!el control" )onsider the two li(u~d*Ievel contr+~ s!stems
for the %ottom ofa distillation column and ItS con+en~er ~accumu*
lation drum ,-igure l3..d and e/. 0ur control o%1ective IS.to &eep
each li(uid level within a certain range arou~d th~ desired set
point. )onse(uentl!, proportional control alone ISsatisfactor!, .
#. $as pressure control" 0ur o%1ective is to regulate the pressure p m
the tan& of -igure PIII..c, when the inlet pressure PI or the ~res~ure
% P& in a downstream process change. 2suall!3 we want to ~amtam p
within a certain range around a desired value, thus ma&ing a pro*
portional controller satisfactor! for our purpose. .
& . Vapor pressure control" 4ere we can have loops that react (2"t~~. fast
or are relativel! slow. )onsider, for example, the two configurations
shown in -igure "#.5. The loop in -igure "#.5a measures the pres*
sure and manipulates the flow of vapor, thus affecting directl! and
T
p. -~
Vapor
,%/
,a/
-igure "#.5 Pressure control loops6 ,a/ direct effect, fast response7
,%/ indirect effect, slowresponse.
Design r, Jdt>ack Controllers
308
(uic&l! the vapor pressure in the process. -or such s!stems with
fast response, a PI controller is satisfactor!. It eliminates an!
undesira%le offset while maintaining accepta%le 9speed of response
,despite some slowdown caused %! the integral mode of control/7
-or the s!stem in -igure "#.5% the situation is different. 4ere, the
vapor pressure is controlled indirectl! %! the flow of cooling water
which affects the amount of vapor condensed. Such s!stems ma! %e 9,9
used for controlling the pressure in a distillation column. The slow
d!namics of the heat transfer process are introduced in the control
loop. 'e expect that the response of this s!tem will %e rather slow. :
PI controller will ma&e it even slower and if we attempted to use
high gains to speed up the response, we ma! get a s!stem with
undesira%le, highl! oscillator! response. Therefore, a PI; control*
ler should %e selected %ecause it will provide enough speed and
ro%ustness.
'. (lo) control" )onsider the, two flow control s!stems shown in
-igure "3..a and %. <oth respond (uite fast. Therefore, a PI control*
ler is satisfactor! %ecause it eliminates offsets and retains accepta*
%le speed of response.
*. Temperature control" )onsider the temperature control s!stem
shown in -igure "#.#. 0ur o%1ective is to &eep the temperature of
the reacting mixture at a desired value. Since the*reaction is endo*
thermic, this is accomplished %! manipulating the flow of steam in
the 1ac&et around the reactor. <etween. the manipulated varia%le
and the measured temperature we have two rather slow processes6
,a/ heat transfer %etween the reacting mixture and the temperature
sensor ,see Section "3.3/, and ,%/ heat transfer from steam to the
reacting mixture. 'e expect, therefore, that the overall 9response
will %e rather sluggish and a: PI controller will ma&e it even more so.
)onse(uentl!, for such s!stems a PI; controller would %e the most
appropriate, %ecause it can allow high gains for faster response
without undermining the sta%ilit! of the s!stem.
+. Composition control" 4ere we have a similar situation, to that of9.
temperature control ,i.e., ver! slow response caused %! slow com*
r- - - - - - - - , )ontroller ~ * * * * * * * * ~
I
I
I
I
I
~-- - -!!!t: : !t!O
=eactants
-igure "#.# Temperature,control in a1ac&eted )ST=.
310 Analysis and Design of Feedback Control .Svsterns Part IV
position sensors); Therefore, a PID controller should be the most
appropriate.
16.5 Controller Tuning
After the type of feedback controller has been selected, we still have the
probllemof decidin what values to use for its ad!usted parameters. This
is kn own as the controller tuning problem. There are three eneral
approaches we can use for tunin a controller"
1. #se simple criteria such as the one)%uarter decay ratio &see '(am)
ple *+.*),minimum settlin time, minimum larest error, and so
on. ,uch an approach is simple and easily implementable on an
actual process. #sually, it provides multiple solutions &see '(am)
ple *+.*).Additional specifications on the closed)loop perform)
ance will then be needed to break the multiplicity and select a
sinle set of values for the ad!usted parameters.
-..#se time interal performance criteria such as I,',IA', or ITA'
&see '(ample *+.-). This approach is rather cumbersome and
relies heavily on the mathematical model &transfer function) of
the process. Applied e(perimentally on an actual process, it is
time consumin.
3., #se semiempirical rules which have been proven in practice.
In this section we discuss the most popular of the empirical tunin
methods, known as the process reaction curve method, developed lby
.ohen and .oon.
.onsider the/ control system of 0iure *+.1, which has been
2opened2 by disconnectin the controller from the final control elle)
ment, Introduce a step chane ofmanitude A in the variable c which
d(s)
0iure *+.1 23pened2 control loop, 44
Ca!. 16 Design of Feedback Controllers
311
actuates the final control element. In the case of a valve, c is the stem
position. 5ecord the value of the output with respect to time; The curve
Ym(t) is called the process reaction curve. 6etween Ymand c we have the
followin transfer function &see 0iure *+.1)"
7P5c&s) 8 9 *";)8 G/(s)Gp(s)Gm(s) (16.7).
The last e%uation shows that the process reaction curve is affected not
only by the dynamics of the main process but also by the dynamics of
the measurin sensor and final control element.
..ohen 9 nd .oon observed that the response of most processin
umts to an mput chane, suchas the above, had a simoidal shape &see
0iure *+.:a), which can be ade%uately appro(imated by the response of
a/ first)order system with dead time &see the dashed curve in 0iure
*+.:b)" , , /
7P5.&s)/8 Ym(S) ~ Ke-
tds
c(s) ts " * &*+.:)
which/ has three parameters" static ain K, dead time td, and time
constant T; 0rom the appro(imate response of 0iure *+.:b, it is easy to
estimate the values of the three. parameters. Thus
K #output (at stead state) /8; ; ..
input (at stead state) , !
r #B/S, "here ,is the slope o# the sigmoidal response at the point
o# in#lection
td #time elapsed until the sstem responded
.ohen and .oon/ used the" appro(imate model of e%. &*+.:) and
estimated the values ofthe parameters K, ts, and r as indicated above.
Ym
Actual
response
$
- - - - - - - T- - - - - ,- -"
1
1
,$
. 1
%.
$
------1..--
I
I ."
$,,%...c.& Appro(imate
9 response
, t
&a)
&b)
0iure *+.: &a) Process reaction curve; &b) its appro(imation with a first)
order plus dead)time system.
312
Analysis and Design of Feedback Cc
Systems
Part IV
Then they derived expressions for the "best" controller settings using
load changes and various performance criteria, such as: .
One-quarter decay ratio
Minimum offset
Minimum integral square error (ISE)
The results of their analysis are summarized below.
1. For proportional controllers, use
~ = ~ H l ~ ! "
2. For proportional1integral controllers, use
s,! " # " $:$%&.' ~ # "
K td 12r
(& 3td/
r
rI = td--__;_:._
' 20td/r
(. For proportional1i)tegral1derivative controllers, use
K,= ~ H ~ ~ ! "
(2 6td/
r
rI = td-'-----'--
1( +*td+
r
,
rD=td----
11 2td/
r
%1-..'.
%1-.1&a.
%l-.1&b.
%1-.11a.
%1-./b.
%1-.11c.
Remarks
1. The controller settings givenby e0s. %1-.'., %1-.1&., and %1-.11. are
based on the assumption that the first1order plus dead1time sys1
tem is a good approximation for, the sigmoidal response o) the
open1loop real process. It is possible, though, thatthe )pproxlma1
tion may be poor. 2n such a case the 3ohen13oon settmgs sh)uld
be viewed only as first guesses needing certain on1line correction.
2. 4hy do most of the "opened" loops have a sigmoidal response
li5e that of Figure 1-.*a6 The answer is rather clear using the
analysis. of 3hapters 1& through 12. There we noticed that almost
all physical processes encountered in a chemical plant are simple
first1order or multicapacity processes whose response has the gen1
eral overdamped shape of Figures l1.1a and 11.-. The oscillatory
underdamped behavior is produced mainly by the presence of
C$a%& 1' Design &iedback Controllers 31&&&
feedbac5 controllers. Therefore, when we "open" the loop %Figure
1-.7. and thus disconnect the controller, the response ta5es t$e
sigmoidal shape of an overdamped system.
(. From e0s. %1-.'., %1-.1&a., and %1-.11a., which give the value of
the proportional gain K; for the three controllers, we notice the
following:
%a. The gain of the 82 controller is lower than that of the 8 con1
troller. This is due to: the fact that the integral control mode
ma5es the system mote sensitive %may even lead to instability. ."
and thus the gain value needs to be more conservative.
(b" The stabilizing effect of the derivative control mode allows the
use of higher. gains in $the 829 controller %higher than the gain
for 8 or 82 controllers..
Examle 1-.,: !uliing"#eed$tick%controllers t&roug& 'rocess
Reaction (ur)es
2n this example we$ examine how the dynamics of various typical
processes influence the tuning results recommended by 3ohen and 3oon.
1. 'rocesses *it& )ery s&ort time delay (dead time)+ 4hen td is very
small %almost zero. the process reaction curve %Figure 1-.:a. rem1
inds us of the response ofla simple first1order system. The 3ohen1
3oon settings dictate an extremely large value for the proportional
gain K, ;see e0s, %1-.'., %1-.l&a., and %1-.l1a.<)2n real practice we
will use the largest possible gain to reduce the offset if a propor1
tional controller is employed. 2f a 82 controller is used= the value of
gain will be determined by the desired response characteristics. $
2, Multicaacityrocesses+ These constitute the large ma>ority of real
processes.$ 3onsider two first1order systems in series with
-
p
. .
p
,
(T,S 1)(T2s/0)
?et the measuring device and the control valve %final control ele1
ment. have first1order dynamics:
-
m
= .m i and -f12
TmS 1 TfS 1
Then the transfer function between the control actuating variable c
and the recorded measurement of the output 3m is given by ;see e0.
%1-.7.<
)
p@3
! GfGpG
m
! A KfKpKm (16.12)
(TfS 1)(T,s 1)(T2s+1)(Tms 1.
B0uation %1-.12. indicates that the process reaction curve has the
same dynamic characteristics as the response of a system composed
of four first1order systems in series %i.e., it is a sigmoidal curve..
Figure 16.9 shows the process reaction curve for the following
values:
K; =l.0
1"2= 2
K
f
= 1.0
1" f =0.00
K, =1.0
1"1 =5 1" m =10.0
Draw the tangent at the inflection point and find
S = slope at the inflection point =0.05
B = ultiate response =1.0
! = effective tie constant =BIS =1.010.05 = 20
td = dead tie =2.5
K = gain =BIA =1.0"1.0 =1.0
#herefore! the process reaction curve can $e appro%iated $&
the response of the following first1order s&ste with dead tie:
1.0e-
2
.
Ss
G
PRC
=!"#
20s $ 1
#he appro%iate response is also shown in Figure( 16.9. )e
notice that the appro%iation is satisfactor& until the response
has reached *0+ of its final value.
,sing the -ohen1-oon suggested settings! we find:
For the proportional controller:
K, =../
For the proportional1integral controller:
K, =0./ and (1=6.6
For the proportional1integral1derivative controller:
K, = 10.9 (1=5..5 (D =0..9
y
Figure 16.9 #rue and appro%iate process reaction curves for the ulti1
capacit& process of 2%aple 16.*.
3art 45 Design of Feedback Controllers 31%
y(t) y(t)
Deca& ratio ss l
11.0 6...1 l&& &&'&&&&&
o 25 50
7a8 ! 7$8
Figure 16.10 -losed1loop responses of ulticapacit& process! in 2%a1
ple 16.* for: 7a8 set1point and 7$8 load unit step changes.
Figure 16.10 shows the closed1loop responses with the foregoing settings
for set point 7Figure 16.10a8 and load changes 7Figure 16.10$8. )e notice
that the Cohen-Coon settings produce underdam ped eha!ior "ith rather
#good decay ratio. $
%&am p'e 16.5: Contro''er# (uning f or )oor'y Kno"n )rocesses
#he ethodolog& of controller tuning using process reaction curves is
particularl& appealing if the d&naics of the ain process! or easuring
sensor or final control eleent are poorl& 9nown 7i.e.! we do not 9now
e%actl& the order of d&naics or the values of the paraeters8. 444 such
case the process reaction curve reveals the effects of all the d&naic
coponents 7i.e.! process! sensor! and final control eleent8 and provides
an e%periental! appro%iate odel for the overall process.
#a9e as e%aple the teperature control s&ste for the reactor of
Figure 16.6. (t is :uite a cople% s&ste and we a& not 9now with
satisfactor& precision all or a few of the following:
(he reaction *inetics
(he heat of reaction
(he m i&ing characteristics in the tan*
(he heat capacity of the reacting m i&ture
(he o!era'' heat transf er coef f icient et"een steam and reacting
m i&ture
(he ef f ecti!e order 0+ the therm ocoup'e#s dynam ics
(he gain and tim e constant of the therm ocoup'e
(he characteristics of the steam !a'!e
#he process reaction curve for this s&ste provides us with an e%peri1
ental odel of the overall process which we can use to tune the control1
ler without re:uiring detailed 9nowledge of the d&naics for the reactor!
heating ;ac9et! t$"(1(1locouple! and control valve.
316 Analysis and Design of Feedback Cc Systems Part IV
THINGS TO THINK AO!T
1. What are the principal questions that arise during the design of a feedback
controller? Discuss them on the basis of a physical example.
2. What is meant by controller tuning?
. Discuss the t!o classes of dynamic performance criteria. "i#e physical
examples and demonstrate ho! different criteria lead to different control1
ler designs.
%. &an you design a controller that minimi'es the rise and settling( times
simultaneously? )xplain.
*. &an you design a controller that minimi'es the o#ershoot and settling time
. simultaneously? )xplain.
+. What are the relati#e ad#antages and disad#antages of the three time1
integral criteria( I,)( I-)( and I.-)? /o! !ould you select the most
appropriate for a particular application?
0. Why do simple criteria such as minimum o#ershoot( minimum settling
time( and one1quarter decay ratio lead to multiple solutions? /o! do you
break the multiplicity and come up !ith a single solution? .
2. Why do the time1integral criteria lead to unique solutions?
3. Diiscuss a set of simple heuristic rules you. could use to select the most
appropriate type of feedback controller for a particular system.
14. Discuss the philosophy of the methodology that leads to the &ohen1&oon
settings for feedback controllers.
11. /o! do you understand the 5opening5 of the control loop sho!n in 6igure
1+.0? )xplain in practical terms ho! one tunes a feedback controller for an
existing process in a chemical plant.
12. Why do most of the process reaction cur#es ha#e an o#erdamped( sig1
moidal shape? &an you de#elop a physically meaningful system !hich has a
reaction cur#e !ith an underdamped( oscillatory shape?
1. -re the &ohen1&oon settings reliable for all processes? )xplain.
1%. What is the #alue of the proportional gain K, for a pure dead1time system
according to the &ohen1&oon settings? Is it reasonable? )xplain.
1*. If the dynamics of the process or measuring sensor are not !ell kno!n(
!hat tuning techniques !ould you use? Discuss your ans!er.
Frequency Response
Analysis of Linear
Processes
17
In &hapters 10and 12!e !ill study a ne! technique !hich is often
used to design feedback controllers. 7uite different from e#erything !e
ha#e seen so far( it is called frequency response analysis.
When a linear system is sub8ected to a sinusoidal input( its ultimate
response 9after a long time: is also a sustained sinusoidal !a#e. .his
characteristic( !hich !ill be pro#ed in ,ection 10.2( constitutes the
basis of frequency response analysis.
With frequency response analysis !e are interested primarily in
determining ho! the features of the output sinusoidal !a#e 9amplitude(;
phase shift: change !ith the frequency of the input sinusoid. In this
chapter !e deal only !ith the basic premises of frequency response
analysis( lea#ing its use in controller design for &hapter <12.
1"#1$ %es&onse of a Fi'st(O'de' System to a
Sin)soidal In&)t
&onsider a simple first1order system !ith the transfer function
G(s) = JI(s) = >?,g> 910.1:
!(s) TpS * I
Letf(t) be a sinusoidal input !ith amplitude A and frequency w:
f(t) + + A sin on
.;5 1 $,"
318
Analysis and Design of Feedback Control Systems
Part IV
Then
- Aw
f(s)=-z--z
s +w
(17.2)
Substitute J(s) from eq. (17.2) into eq, (17.1) and take
, Aw
y(s)=--.----
r s + 1 SZ +W
Z
p
Expand into partial fractions and find
C
1
C2 C3
y(S) +--+---
s!l"rp s+i s9$%
Compute the constants C& C2, and C' and find the in(erse )aplace
transform
y(t) !_~Awrp e-I/fp _ KpAzwr
p
cos tat + 2K~A sin on
,t*+2 + 1 1!w + 1 l"pW + 1
,s t ... --, e-
I
/
fp
...- and the first term disappears. .hus/ after, a lon0
time, the response of a first9order s1stem to a sinusoidal input 2S 0r(en
b1
K Aw1 KpA,
" (t) !- p . p cos tot + 2 sm mt
S5 r*%2 + 1 r*% + 1
3se the follo%in0 tri0onometric identit1/
a 2 cos b + a 2 sin b a ' sin (b + c p)
(17.')
%here4
aj:::: .Jai + a~
and
Then, eq. (17.') 1ields
yss(t) ! KpA sin (wt + c p)
.J1';ai + 1
%here
5rom eqs. (17.6) and (17.7), %e obser(e that/
)4The ultimate response (also referred to as stead1 s8ate) of a fi8st9
order s1stem to a sinusoidal input is also a sinusoidal %a(e +2th
the same frequenc1 t.
(17.6)
(17.7)
C#a$ 1% Fre&'ency (es$onse Analysis of )inear Processes 31*
2. The ratio of the output amplitude to the input amplitude is called
the amplitude ratio and i8 a function of the frequenc1/
,: !amplitude ratio ! Kp
.J1:;!+ 1
'. The output %a(e la0s behind (p"ase la#) the input %a(e b1 an
an0le Ic p I %hich is also a function of the frequenc1 #o ;see
eq. (17.7)<. 5i0ure 17.1 sho%s the ultimate response of the s1stem
and its relationship to the input %a(e.
The three obser(ations abo(e hold not onl1 for first9order s1stems but
are true for an1 order linear s1stem. =efore %e proceed %ith the 0eneral9
i>ation of the results abo(e, let us make the follo%in0 remarks related to
the al0ebra of complex numbers.
(17.?)
$emar%s
1. Consider a complex number defined b1
W=$%&'
%here $ :e (W) real part of W, and ' 1m (W) ima0inar1
part of . @efine the follo%in0 terms/
The modulus or absolute &alue or ma#'itude of is repre9
sented b1 I I and defined b1
I +I !.$;:e (W)(2 + ;1m (W)(2 (17.7)
The p"ase a'#le or ar#ume't of is represented b1 8 or
ar#( W) and defined b1
1, , W tan92 ;1m (W)( A (17.A)
:e(+)
o
5i0ure 17.1 3ltimate response of first9order s1stem to sinusoidal input.
320
Analysis and Design of Feedback trol Systems
Imaginary axis
Figure 17.2 Complex plane and complex numbers.
From Figure 17.2it is clear that
a = I Wlcos 8 and b = IWlsiIi 8
and
W= I WIcos 8+I WI sin 8
!ecall also that
e
j8
+ e-
j8
"#os8=:::
2
e" _ e-j6
sin 8=:::
2j
and
%hen
2. &et' ( = a --jb, %hen it is easily sho)n that
I WI = I( I and arg ( =:arg W (17.10)
3. *ut s =ro in e+. "17.1,.and ta-e
."ro, =.. Kp
/ro0rp + 1
Kp :rotp 1.1
jort; + 1 =jorc, + 1
or
G(
.) s, ... Kpro'rp
/ro = . :J
r
2
ro
2
+ 1 r
2
ro
2
+ 1
p p
."ro, is a complex number' %here2ore' according to e+s. "17..7,
and "17.8,'
Part IV Ca!" 1# Fre$%" &es!onse Analysis of 'inear Processes 3~
modulus o2 ."ro,= Kp = amplitude ratio 3see e+. "17.4,/
. 5t5"6,2 + 1
and
argument o2 ."ro,= tan0#0 :rot* = phase lag 3see e+. "17.7,/
%he last t)o relationships indicate that the amplitude ratio and
phase la !or the ultimate response o! a !irst-order s"stem are e#ual
to the modulus and arument, respecti$el", o! its trans!er !unction
%hen s = (ro. .
%his is an important result )hich )e )ill generali8e in .9ec:
tion 17;22or any linear system.
1#"2 Fre$%ency &es!onse Caracteristics
of a )eneral 'inear System
Consider a general linear system )ith the trans2er 2unction
G(s) =&(s) = '(s)
!(s) ((s)
"17.11,
)here '(s) and ((s) are polynomials o2 orders m and n, respecti<ely'
)ith m * n. We )ill pro<e that#
1. %he ultimate response o2 a system to a sinusoidal input is also a
sinusoidal )a<e. .
2. %he ratio o2 the output amplitude to the input amplitude is a
2unction o2 the 2re+uency ro and is gi<en by the modulus o2 G(s)
i2 )e !%t s =(or:
=! == modulus o2 ."ro,
3. %he output )a<e is shi2ted )ith respect to the input )a<e by an
angle c p )hich is a 2unction o2 the 2re+uency c o gi<en by
cp = argument o2 G(jw)
(roo!. For a sinusoidal input2W =) sin cor )e ha<e 0"s, = )oitts* + +
+
)
and e+. "17.11,yields
"(s)=G(s) +
)%
2
s + W
32.2 Analysis and Design of Feedback Control Systems Part IV
Expand the last equation into partial fractions:
Aw Aw
yl(s) = = G(s) 2-.2=G(s) ( .... )( .. )
s +w . S+]W S-]W
[
CI C2 c, ] a b
= ---- ...-- ----
S-PI S-P2 S-Pn s ejca s..,..jw
(17.12)
Terms arising from expansion
of G(s) into partial fractions
~here PI! P"! ..#. ! Pn are the poles of G(s). The terms
!

2
c,
--!--! .. $--
S-PI S-P2
gi"e rise to exponential terms
e"It, e"", ... , e t
s -Pn
If the poles p" P 2# $$$ # Pn ha"e negati"e relil parts# all the terms a%o"e
deca& to 'ero as t ... (( (see )ection *.+). Therefore# in"erting eq# (17.12)#
,e find that the ultimate response is gi"en %&
Yss(t)= aev'" be
jwt
-rom eq. (17.12) compute constants a and b (as discussed in )ec-
tion ..2) and find .
AG(-jw)
a =/--.-.00///0..
-2j
and
b =AG(jw)
2j
Therefore#
(
t) = /AG(-jw) e-j(J)l AG(jw) ej(J)t (17.13)
Yss 2# 2#
.% . ]
1se eqs. (17.*) and (17.1() to express the complex num%ers G(-jw) and
GUw) in polar form:
G(-jw) = I G(-jw)' e-jq, = ,G(jw), e-jq,
and
G(jw) = I G(jw)1 ejq,
,here cp =argument of G(jw). )u%stitute the "alues of G(-jw) and
GUw) in eq. (17.12):
(
t) =&A ,'(j w) , e-j(J)I+q,) A ,'(j w) , ej(J)I+q,)
Yss 2j 2j;
C(a). *+ Fre,-ency .es)onse Analysis of /inear Processes
323
: ej(J)t+q,) e-!(J)I+q,)
"A ,G(jw), ---2j---'-
or
Yss(t)=A ,G#w), sin (wt cp)
The last equation pro"es ,hat ,e set out to pro"e:
1.The ultimate response as t ... (( is sinusoidal ,ith frequenc& co .
2.The amplitude ratio is . .
A. =A IG(jw) I =IG(jw) ,
A .
(l7.l+a)
2.The output sinusoidal ,a"e has %een shifted %& the angle
cp = 3argument of G(jw) (l7.1+%)
!a"p#e 17.1: $%e&'enc( )espo nse o * a P'%e +apac,t,ve P%o cess
The transfer function is
$
G(s) "2
s
4ut s =j 56and ta7e
8(9m) = I*p = I*p :56= (/j - p
j./ ] 56; 56 56
onsequentl&# for theultimate response:
!.The amplitude ratio is
<~ =I 8(956) I =- p
56
(17.1=)
2.The phase shift is
(17.1>)
that is# the ultimate sinusoidal response of the s&stem #a0s be1,n2
the input ,a"e %& *(?.
!a"p#e 17.2: $%e&'enc( )espo nse o * 3 3o n,nte%act,n0 +apac,t,es
,n Se%,es
The transfer function is 3see eq.(11.21);
G(s) =GI(%)G
2
(s) ... G&(s) "'%'% ... ///@/
/IS A 1 42S A 1 43S A 1
324 Analysis and Design of Feedback Cc Systems'
Put s =jwand take
G(jw) =G .(jw)Gz(jw) ... GN(jw)
But, according to eq. (17.9),
G.(jw) =I GI(jw) IeN.., Gz(jw) = I Gz(jw) Ieil/>z,
GN(jw) =IGN(jw) IeN'N
where l/ J " l/J2, ... , f/JNare the arguments of G I(jW), Gz(jw), ... , GN(jw).
hen eq. (17.17) !ecomes
G(jw) =I GI(jW) II G
2
(jw) I !!! I GN(jw) I"e
#I
"#/ I2"' !! +!/IN)
. $onsequent%&, the res'onse has the fo%%owing characteristics(
1. )m'%itude ..ratio(
)* =$ I G(jw) I =I GI(fW) II%G2(jw) I I!GA'(jw) 1(17.1+)
(17.17)
or
,. Phase shift(
c P =$ f- . I / < P 2 / ... / l/JN (17.19)
or
c P =$ tan0 1W2I /tarr0 -W'2 " !!! " tan0 -W'N (17..19a)
3ince c P & 4, the res'onse lags !ehind the in'ut.
Example 17.5( Frequenc y Resfonse of a Sec ond-Order System
6or a second1order s&stem the transfer function is
G(s !p
"#s# " 2$s " '
Put s 7 %c o and take
( ' ! !p !p (&"2W2 " ') * %2("'
'(Jw) =(_"z(I)z" 1) " %2("' (&")'
2
" 1) " %2("' (&")W
)
" 1) 1 %2("'
or
" ** !p(+ - "2a, $ !p -2("'
G(.' =+' !,")(22 " (2("W2 - / +' , "2(22 " (2(0W2
herefore, the u%timate res'onse has the fo%%owing characteristics(
I!)m'%itude ratio(
K
A-= IG(jw) I 7 . p (17.20)
*.(+ - "2(
2
2 " (2(0W2
.a/t II
F/e01enc
2onse Analysis of 3inea/ ./ocesses
324
(17.,1)
(17.,,)
(17.,5)
Example 17.8( Frequenc y Response of Feed1ac 2 (ontrollers
9et us now shift our attention to the :arious t&'es of feed!ack
contro%%ers.
3* P roport,onal c ontroller4 he transfer function is
Ge(s =!c
,. Phase shift(
'l/ J =argument of G(jw) =tan1I. (1 ,2; ,)
, 11, '
which is a p5ase lag since c P &$ < .
Example 17.=( Frequenc y Response of a P ure 6ead- 0,me P roc ess
he transfer function is
Put s =%,o and take
$%ear%&(
am'%itude ratio = I G(jw) I 7 1
7 p ='hase shift =argument of G(jw) 7 -0d
W
that is, a 'hase %ag, since 7 p *c < .
herefore,
A- =K! and l/ J =5
2* P roport,onal-,ntegral c ontroller4 2he transfer function is
Ge(S,*8"!e(+ ",' )
. 'IS
herefore,
(17.,=)
'l/ J =arg Ge(%' 7 tan1I (;> .& 4 (17.,8)
9* P roport,onal-der,:at,:ec ontr;"ller4 he transfer function is
Ge(s*8 !e(l " '6S
herefore,
326
The positive phase shift is called phase lead and implies that !be
controller's output leads the input(!). This is another manifestation
of the derivative control anticipating future developments (see also
Section 13.2). . r."
4. Proportional-integral-derivative controller: The transfer function IS
Ge(s) =Ke(l + _ 1 _ . + TDS)
TIS
and it is easy to sho that
AR = I Gc(jro) I =s,V ( T! ro @ t# ro$ + 1
c p =tan% (T! ro & & 1& ) (1'.2()
Tiro
)otice that c p can ta*e positive(phase lead) or negative (phase lag)
values+ depending on the values of r,+ Tr+ and roo
(1'.2-)
1 7'. 3 ode Diagrams
The .ode diagrams (in honour of /. 0. .ode) co1st1tute.a convenient
ay to represent the fre2uency response charactens1lcs of a 1ystem. 3s
e can see from 42s. (1'.15a)and (l'.15b)+ the amphtude ra1l6and the
phase shift of the ultimate response 1f a syste1 are functl6n1 o1 the
tre2uencv ca. The .ode diagrams consist of a pair of plots shoing7
How the logarith o! the aplit"de ratio varies with!re#"enc$
How the phase shi!t varies with!re#"enc$
In order to cover a large range of fre2uencies+ e use a logarithmic scale
for the fre2uencies. '. . .
8et us no e9amine' the .ode diagrams of some simple dynamic
systems that e have encountered in previous chapters.
First!order system
:or a first@ order system e have seen that
K
amplitude ratio ; 3< ; J p 2 2
1 + rp w
phase lag =cP =tan% -rp w
"art #$
(1'.=)
(1'.>)
C%a&. 1 7 Fre'(ency Res&onse Ana. lysisof )inear "rocesses 327
:or simplification+ let %& =1. Then+ from e2. (1'.=) e find that
log 3< i= @ pog(l + r7(2) (1'.3?)
:or convenience+ since rp is constant+ regard rp w as the independent
variable instead of c a. The plot of log 3< versus log rp w is shon in
:igure l'.3a (solid line) and can be constructed from e2. (1'.3?) for
various values of the fre2uency co. Instead of the very elaborate numeri@
cal or* needed to plot this graph+ e can give an appro9imate s*etch
by considering its asymptotic behavior as o s ....? and as to ....??. Thus e
have#
'#. 3s to ....?+ then rp w ....? and from e2. (1'.3?) 1?g3< @ A ? or 3< ....1.
This is the low-!re#"enc$ as$ptote shon by a dashed line in
:igure 1'.3a. It is a horiBontal line passing through the point
AR =1.
2. 3s w ....??+ then Tp W ... ?? and from e2. (1'.3?) log 3< 1 @ log rp w.
This is the high-!re#"enc$ as$ptote shon also by a dashed line
in :igure 1'.3a. #t is a line ith a slope of @ 1 passing through the
point 3< =1 for rp w ; 1. iThefre2uency to ; lCrp is *non as the
corner !re#"enc$. 3t the 'corner' fre2uency+ as can be seen from
:igure 1'.3a+ the deviation of the true value of 3< from the
asymptotes is ma9imum. #
The plot of phase shift versus rp W is shon in :igure 1'.3b. #t can be
Dorner fre2uency
(a)
?.1
?.?1
*b+
:igure 1'.3 .ode diagrams for first@ order system.
328 Analysis and Design of Feedback .rol Systems
constructed from eq, (17.5) and we can easily verify the following
characteristics of the plot:
As.w -+ 0, then c p -+ O .
As W -+ 00, then q , -+ tan:' (-:-00) _90..
At W =l!rp (c orner freq uenc y), q , =tan:' (-1 =-"5#.
<Note. !f K, " # 1, then as can $e seen from eq. (17.%), the low-frequency
asymptote shifts vertically $y the value log J(p . &quation (17.5) shows
that K, has no effect on the phase shift.
$%re ca&aciti'e &rocess
'or such processes we (now that (see &)ample 17.1)
AR=K
p
W
*he +ode plots are easily constructed and shown in 'igure 17.".
and
second-order system
,n &)ample 17.- we found that
./ =( :==;::::;;K=. ;p==:;:;:==;;
!T
"
W
"
)2 + (2CTW)2
and
. 0, ( .... "(t'w )
q , =tan. ..-. -12-3
. I-T"W
0.01 w= ! 100
'igure 17." +ode plots for pure capacitive process.
$art !) *+a&. 1, Fre-%e.
es&onse Analysis of .inear $rocesses
32/
AR 1.0
Kp
45,
0.01
0.001
0
'igure 17.5 +ode plots for second-order system.
*he two plots are shown in 'igure 17.5 for various values of, when
Kp =1. *he two asymptotes for the plot ./ versus *6 are determined as
follows: . ..
1. .s W -+ 0, then log ./ -+ 0 or ./ -+ 1 (low-frequency asymptote).
3. .s W -+ 00, then log ./ 1-3log TW. *his is the h#$h!freq uenc y
'igure 17.% +ode plots for pure dead-time system.
330
asymptote. It is a straight line with a slope of 82passing through
the point
AR =1, rw =1
From Figure 17.5 we notice that for underdamped systems i.!., , " 1#
the amplitude ratio can e$ceed significantly the %alue of!. &articularly,
for ' =WI' the AR ta(es its largest %alue (resonance). 'r )* the resonant
fre+uency and is gi%en ,y t, = V1-ffi/r(Note: 'hen K; - . - 1, the
low8fre+uency asymptote shifts %ertically ,y the %alue log K
p
.)
Pure dead-time system
From /$ample 17.. we ha%e that
AR =1
and
Part IV
0he 1ode plots for this system are easily constructed and shown in
Figure 17.2.
Systems in series
3onsider N systems in series with indi%idual transfer functions
G,(s), G
2
(s), ... , GN(s)
0he o%erall transfer function is
G(s)= G,(s)G
2
(s) ... GN(s)
&ut s =jw and ta(e
G(jw) =GI(jW)G
2
(jw) ... GN(jW)
or
G(jw) =IGI(jW) Iej<P11G
2
(jw) IeN>2 ... IGN(jw) Iej<PN
and finally
, .. 4 5 # I }(<P,+<P2+'"+<PN)
IG(jw)lej<p= IG,(!"IIG2(!"I# $$% .N JW e
0he last e+uation yields
IG(jw) I =IG,,(jw) II G2(jw) I && , IGN(jw) %
and
From 17.31# we ha%e
AR =AR#tARh 5 .. AR#6
or
log AR# - log AR#) ' log AR#2 ' && ( .og AR#6 17.33#
C)a*& %+ Fre,uency -es*onse Ana,lysisof .inear Processes 331
where AR#7 AR, ... , (A)N are the amplitude ratios for the indi%id8
ual systems in series. /+uations 917.31# and 17.32# are %ery important
and indicate certain rules for the construction of the 1ode diagrams. If
the transfer function of a system: can ,e factoredinto the product of6
transfer functions of simpler systems, use the following rules;
1. 0he logarithm of the o%erall amplitude ratio is e+ual to the sum
of the logarithms of the amplitude ratios of the indi%idual sys8
tems.
2. 0he o%erall phase shift is e+ual to the sum of the phase shifts of
the indi%idual systems.
3. 0he presence of a constant in the o%erall transfer function will
mo%e the entire AR cur%e %ertically ,y a constant amount. It has
no effect on the phase shift.
Example 17.2; Bode ia!rams "for #$o %&stems in %eries
3onsider the following two systems in series;
I
G.(s)=!. !
2s ' I
0he o%erall transfer function is
2
G2(")=#$#$
's ' 1
and
1 2
G(s)=!' !!!
2s ' 1 's ' 1
0hen
2 r
AR- ,
/l ()*$
2
+l ' 2'$
2
or
log AR =log 2 ' log AR#. ' log AR#2 17.3. #
where AR#. and AR#2 are the amplitude ratios of the indi%idual systems,
when their gains are %& Figure 17.7! shows the amplitude ratios of the two
systems as functions of co. 0he addition of these two cur%es plus the factor
log 2 .will yield the amplitude .ratio of the o%erall system %ersus the
fre+uencyw. 0he o%erall cur%e is also shown in Figure l7.7a without the term
log 2. From this cur%e we notice three distinct fre+uency regions. #,e slope of
",e as&mptote in eac, re!ion is t-e al!e.raic s/m of t,e. slopes of t,e
as&mptotes for t,e t$o s&stems in" t,e correspondin! re!ion. 0hus we ha%e; ..
1. 0e!ion %01 From $ == 0 to $:1 2& *lope of the o%erall asymptote -
o ' 0 i.e., hori<ontal#, going through the point AR =2.
2. 0e!ion 2; From co =2 to (+) = (& *lope of the o%erall asymptote
=0 ' 81# - 8), going through 5the point AR =2, (+) - :.
2. 0e!ion 3; For (+) 3 (&&*lope of the o%erall asymptote
=(-%" ' (-%"4- -1(0
332
Analysis and Design of Feedback Co . Systems Part IV
(a)
(b)
The Bode diagrams for various types of feedback controllers can be
constructed easily using the results of Example 17!
1. Proportional controller: The Bode plots are trivial The AR and c p
stay constant atthe values K; and "#$ respectively$ for all fre%uen/
cies
AR
W
'igure 177 Bode plots for t(o capacities in series (Example 17))
'igure 177b sho(s the phase shift for the overall system as the algebraic*
sum of the phase shifts of the t(o individual systems+
=I + 2=tan,- -2w + tan- -Sw
It is clear that+
When (J)'" 0, then I "'0, 2! 0, and .... o .
When (J)'" co$ then I ...-90, 2.... -90, and .... -180.
Feedback controllers
C"a#. $%
Fre&'el.() rles#onse Analysis of *inear Processes
1"
AR $.+
c
(a)
"1
, =- .. /////l0 f*1 2 ////3(b)
. +.+$ / $.+ $++
WT/
'igure 174 Bode plots for 56 controller
$+
AR
$.+
c (a)
+.$
+.+$
7 ++. /////i8 9 /////8 (b)
+.+$ $.+ $++
WT
D
'igure 17: Bodeiplots for 5; controller
333
334
Part IV
2. Proportional-integral controller: From eqs. (17.24) and (17.25) we
take
log ( AR ) =! log [ 1 + _1_
! "
Kc 2 (Wff)
~nd
Therefore
!ow"freq#en$% as%m&tote
1 ('()
's W ... )* #$%1+ then log " ... "log Wff
(
Wf
f)2 K,
,onseq#entl%* the low"freq#en$% as%m&tote -s a stra-ght l-ne w-th
slo&e "1.
.-gh"freq#en$% as%m&tote
1 ('()
's W ... ))* ""2 "/ ) and log _0 _ ...)
(Wff) t;
The h-gh"freq#en$% as%m&tote -s a hor-1ontal l-ne at0 the 2al#e
AR/Kc &1.
The AR/Kc 2ers#s WfJ &lot -s shown -n F-g#re 17.3a. For the
&hase sh-ft we ha2e the follow-ng
as W'" )*
as W'" 00,
The cp 2ers#s on: &lot -s shown -n F-g#re 17.34.
3. Proportional-derivative controller: The '( and cp are g-2en 4%
eqs. (17.25) and (17.27). The 6ode &lots $an 4e eas-l% $onstr#$ted
and are shown -n F-g#re 17.7a and 4.
4. Proportional-integral-derivative, controller: The '( and cP ' are
g-2en 4% eqs* (17.23) and (17.27)* res&e$t-2el%. The 6ode &lots are
eas-l% $onstr#$ted and are shown -nF-g#re 17.l)a and 4.
Exaple 17.7 !ode Plot"/or an #pen-$oop %&"te
,ons-der the feed4a$k $ontrol s%stem shown -n F-g#re 17.11. The
o&en"loo& transfer f#n$t-on -s (see (emark 2 -n 8e$t-on 15.2)
9
:!
&GcGfGp Gm
or
9:!= '00Kc(' + #1 #" ) ## 1 #" # " 1 " I e-
O
.
2s
)*% ).1% / 1 (2" / ;)(s / 1)0.+" + 1
w-th !; &' ).25 and K; &4. <e not-$e that 9:! $an 4e fa$tored -nto a
&rod#$t of s-= transfer f#n$t-ons
""*
S + 1
$" $$(
0.+" + 1
(
1 + " #1 ) " #(1 #"
$*% . -,"-'
F-g#re 17.1) 6ode &lots for >;? $ontroller.
. = +e-
O
2s
p (2s+ I)(s+ I)
F-g#re 17.11 6lo$k d-fgram of s%stem -n @=am&le 17.7.
w-th the follow-ng $orner freq#en$-es (-n the same order)
<; &1A2 &).5* W2 &1A1 && 1* #/ &1A).5 &2*
(.04 == 1A).25 &4* Ws &1A).1 &1)
The 6ode &lots ~f the -nd-2-d#al transfer f#n$t-ons are eas-l% $onstr#$ted
and are shown ;n F-g#re 17.l2( and 4. The 6ode &lots for the o2erall
s%stem $an 4e $onstr#$ted follow-ng the r#les d-s$#ssed earl-er.
I)<e -dent-f% the follow-ng s-= reg-ons on the freq#en$% s$ale
o )s* * W + <;*. W' ; -e-: (.0 + ' W' (.0 ..- (.0
" $& 2 * 2 & + W3 ,
(.03 :S (.0 + W4 , W4 :S W + (.Os , Ws :S W + )).
2. For the '( 2ers#s W d-agram* the slo&e of the o2erall as%m&tote -s
~q#.al. to the alge4ra-$ sB;C.of the slo&es of the as%m&totes of the
;ndl2ld~al ~ransfer f#n$t-ons (Ta4le 17.1). The o2erall as%m&tote -s
shown m F-g#re 17.12a.
3. T~e o2erall &h~se ~h~ft -s eq#aD to the alge4ra-$ s#m of the &hase
sh-fts for ea$h -nd-2-d#al transfer f#n$t-on and -s shown -n F-g"
#re 17.124.""" . *
(a)
336
Analysis and Design of Feedbac.
rtrol Systems
AR
0
0
-45
0
-90
0
q ,
-180
0
-270
0
-3600~----~~------~~~~~~~~--~~
0.01
0.1
0.5 I 2 45 10
50
. Figure 17.12 Bode plots for system in. Exmple 17.7.
!"#
000000
~
_ I ~ 0 0 0 0 0 i
$-.%..&
~
- , ~
'($())00
~
_ I : 0-
1 1 " 1 I
d
<c:>
~
.... 1 ' : ; : . - - - - ,
..., ' !
<c:>
~ I ' : ; :- _ ..... - -
..., ! ' ! "
<c::>
!
17.4 Nyquist lots
A Nyquist plot is an alter5native way to represent the frequency response
characteristics ofa dynamic system. !t uses the 1m [G(jw)] as ordinate
and Re [G (jw)] as abscissa. i!ure 1".1# shows the form of a Nyquist
plot.
A specific value of the frequency w defines a point on this plot. $hus
at point 1 (i!ure 1"%1#&the frequency has avalue o'( and we observe
the followin!)
1. $he distance of the point 1 from the ori!in (%( %& is the amplitude
ratio at the frequency *+) ,
distance - .[Re [G/w(&0y1[lm [G(jw(&0f - !G/wl&1 - AR
2. $he an!le c p with the real a3is is the phase shift at the frequency
WI:
. - tan4 1m [GU *+&0 "ar! GUWI) - phase shift
Re [G(jWI)]
$hus as the frequency varies from % to %%( we trace the whole len!th of
the Nyquistplot and we find the correspondin! values for the ampli5
tude ratio and phase shift. $he shape and location of a Nyquist plot are
characteristic for a particular system.
$he Nyquist p lot c ontains the same information as the p air of Bode
p lots for the same system. $herefore( its construction is rather easy
!iven the correspondin! 6ode plots. 7et us now construct the Nyquist
plots of some typical systems usin! their 6ode plots developed in the
precedin! section.
+ma!inary a3is
1m IG(jw)J
i!ure 1".1# orm of a Nyquist plot.
art !#
C$a%. 17 Frequency &es%onse Analysis of 'inear rocesses
33(
First)order system
. $he correspondin! 6ode plots are !iven in i!ure 1".#.
1. *hen W * + " %( the. AR ))8 1 and c p "9. $herefore( the be!innin! of
the Nyq/+st. .lot +: on the real a3is where f, - - % and at a distance
from the on!m (%( %& equal to 1 (see point A in i!ure 1".l;a&.
2. *hen. (J) ... %%( .then AR ... . .nd f, - ... 5<%=. $herefore( the end of the
N>./1:t5?llot.+: at the on!in where the distance from it is 'ero
(.omt C in i!ure 1".1;a&.
#. :ince for every intermediate frequency
o . AR .+ 1 and 5<%= . @. %
the r5)ryquist plot will be inside a unit circle and will never leave
t.e first quadrant. +ts complete shape and location are shown in
+!ure 1".l;a. . (
Second)order system
$he correspondin! 6ode plots are shown in i!ure 1".A.
l. *hen (J) - %( thenAR "1 and f, - - 9. $hus the be!innin! of the
(a&
(b&
(c&
)!
w"'oo
(d&
i!ure 1".1; N.quist plots for various systems) (a& first5orderB (b& sec5
ond5order (c& th+rd5orderB (d& pure dead5timeB (e& pure capacitive. .
340 Analysis and Design of Feedbacl trol Systems Part IV
Nyquist plot is on the real axis at a distance equal to 1 from the
origin.
2. When W ... 00, then A ... 0 and fj J . . . &1"0#$ that is, the Nyquist plot
%ill end at the origin and %ill approach it from the second quad&
rant.
3. When ,'' 1, then A ' 1 and the Nyquist plot stays %ithin a unit
circle. When , < 1, then A (ecomes larger than 1 for a range of
frequencies. )hus the Nyquist plot goes outside the unlit circle for
a certain range of frequencies. *igure 1+.l4( sho%s the Nyquist
plot for a second&order system.
Third-order system
)he transfer function is
Gs!" # $%-&-- %%
,t-. ' 1/,t2s ' 1/,t3s ' 1/
It is easy to sho% that0
%ith tt, t2, t3 real and positi1e
When eo"0, then AR "$and c f > "0, while
When W'" 00, then AR " and fj J . . . -270.
)herefore, the Nyquist plot starts from the real axis at a distance 1 from
the origin and ends at the origin, going through the third quadrant
,*igure 1+..l4c/.
P(re dead time
*rom the corresponding 2ode plots ,*igure 1+.3/ %e notice that
A4 1 for e1ery frequency
and
fj J "-tdW
)herefore, the Nyquist plot for this system is acircle of radius 1 and
encircles the origin an infinite num(er of times ,*igure 1+.l4d/.
P(re ca)aciti*e )rocess
*rom t.he corresponding 2ode plots ,*igure 1+.4/ %e notice that
When W'" 0, AR'" 00, while
When W -t& 00, AR ...O.
+ha). 1+ Fr, c -. . A I&
I / es)onse na ysis of 0inear Processes
# . I
A
1# . . . . . . . -- <#
1 2 &
I \
-II \+1
w.... oo
#
#
-#
,5
,a/
,(/
I
#
#
&,
<#
6 71
6
.6
w= o
71
,c/
,d/
*igure 1+.18 Nyquist plots for 1arious feed(ac9 controllers: ,a/ ;0 ,(/ ;-:
,c/ '<$ ,d/ ;-<. . . , ,
)he phase lag rema.ins. const'nt at &=0# for e1ery frequency. )herefore,
th' Nyquist plot >?-n>-des W-th the negati1e part of the imaginary axis
,*-gure 1+.14e/. &0.
Feedbac3 controllers
-n a similar manner as a(o1e %e can construct the Nyquist plots for
;, ;-, ;<, an' ;-< controll'rs. )hey are sho%n in *igure 1+.l8a, (, c,
and d, respecti1ely, *or details, consult *igures 1+.", 1+.= and 1+.10.
T4I5GS T6 T4I57 A869T
1. What are the ch.aracteristics of the ultimate response of a linear system %ith
a transfer function G(s) to a sustained sinusoidal input@
2. <efine the frequency response analysis.
3. What means c'Auldyou use to represent the results of the frequency
response analysis for a dynamic system@
4. Define the Bode diagrams and Nyquist plots. Do you have any personal
preference 011 one of them over the other? If yes, hy?
!. "he system ith a transfer function
G(s) =ts + 1
is usually #non as first-order lead element. $onstruct its Bode diagram
and try to rationali%e the ord lead in its name. (Hint: $ontrast it to the
familiar first8order lag element.'
(. $onstruct the Bode diagram and Nyquist plot of a first8order system ith
dead time, having a transfer function
G(s) =Kpe-
fdS
fpS + 1
). Does the Nyquist plot have a meaning for the frequencies 800 .s (J) .*s+ ,?
-ho that the Nyquist plot for this range of frequencies is the mirror image
of the familiar Nyquist plot for the frequencies ,.*s+oi s: + 00.
.. $onstruct qualitatively the. Nyquist plot of a si/th8order system ith a
transfer function
G(S) =: .. Kp
0fl- + 1'0r2s + 1'0113s + 1)(1'4s + l)(1'ss + 1)(1'6s + 1)
here 112 112, f3, 114, Ts, and 11( are all real and positive, and in order of
increasing values.
3. 4or a system li#e the one in item ., e claim that the slope ofthe overall
asymptotes, in the log 56 versus log (J) plot of its Bode diagram, can 7e
given from the alge7raic sum of the slopes of the asymptotes for the indi8
vidual su7systems,
---, -.---,
IS + 1 T2S + 9
:/plain hy. 5lso, construct qualitatively the Bode diagram, indicating the
slopes of the asymptotes for the overall system.
10. "he Bode plots for a ;9 controller sho that as (J) .... 0, the 56 ....00. "his is
not physically reali%a7le. "herefore, the transfer function
G(s) =K c ( 1 + "< =
represents the 7ehavior of an ideal ;9 controller. >o should e modify
the transfer function a7ove so that it represents the 7ehavior of an actual ;9
controller? "he transfer function of the actual ;9 controller must 7e such
that as (J) .... 0, then 56 ....finite value. (Note: $onsult 6ef. 13, $hapter 22.'
11. "he Bode plots for a ;D controller sho that as co....00, the56 ....co. "his is,
again, physically unreali%a7le. >o should e m?@.?i< fy the transfer function
!art I"
C#a$. 1%
Fre&'ency (es$onse Analysis of )inear !rocesses
343
of a ;D controller so that as (J).... . h . . 1.
6ef. 13 0$hapter22' to develop < het t
e
5< ....f< mte < alue? [Note: $onsult
controller.A B , rans er unction of an actual ;D
12. Based on the responses in items 10and 1
an actual ;9D controller, hich has th fCilde,*elo
p
the tran< f< r function of
. 1 e 0 omg charactensttcs*
as (J) 0, 56 a =finite
as (J) 00, 56 P =finite
Design of Feedback
Control Systems Using
Frequency Response
Techniques
18
In Chapter 17 we studied frequency responseanalysis and i~s appli-
cation to various dynamic systems. The question that ~ay. have.been
raised in the mind of the reader-What do we do with It--wtll be
. answered in this chapter. . . . . .
!requency response analysis is a useful tool for desi"nin" feedbac#
controllers. Ithelps the desi"ner$
1.. T~ study the stability characteristics of a closed-loop %system%
usin" &ode or 'yquist dia"rams of the open-loop transfer func-
tion . .
(. To select the most appropriate values for the ad)ustable parame-
ters of a controller
18,'1 Bode Stability Criterion
Consider the closed-loop system shown in !i"ure 1*%+ The open-loop
transfer function is "iven by
G
,+
=Ym(S) =Kce-Ol
S
(18.1)
Ysp(s) 0.5s +1
The &ode dia"ram for !ods" can be constructed eas~ly -see I~.ample
17 7/ and is shown. in !i"ure 1*.(. We nonce that whe.n
#$"%& 17.0 rad1min% then cp =-1*02. The frequency where the phase la" I3
Chap, 18 Des.,,- Jf Feedba! Control Syste"s #sin$ Fre%&eny 'esponse ( ....45
!i"ure 1*.1 Closed-loop system%
AR
1.0
I
I
) (* (t(--l
' 6 17 rad1min
!i"ure 1*.( &ode plots of 7
,+
for the system of !i"ure 1*.1.
equal to 1*02 is called the crosso(er frequency and is denoted by #$"co 8t
this frequency the amplitude ratio is found from the &ode dia"ram to be
89 1 6 0.1( -1*.(/
. x, ~-0.: ;17/( +1
Consequently% if K; =110.1( 6 *.:<% then the amplitude ratio becomes
equal to 1.
'ow4 let us consider the =opened= loop shown in !i"ure 1*.>a with
K) =*.:<. ?ere the measurement si"nal has been disconnected from
the comparator of the feedbac# controller. If the set point chan"es in a
sinusoidal manner with frequency #$" =17.0 rad1min and an amplitude
equal to 1%
*sp#t" =1 sin #+,-."
then the ultimate open-loop response Y m#t" is "iven by
Ym(t) 6 sin (17.01 - 1*02/ 6 -sin (17.01)
346
lart lV
(a)
Y
m
- -sIn (I?t)
(b)
FIgure 18.3 (a) Open-Ioop system vIth sInusoIdaI Input (set poInt);
(b) correspondIng cIosed-Ioop system vIth sustaIned oscIIIatIon (zero
Input).
At some Instant oI tIme the set poInt YsP Is set to zero, vhIIe at the
same tIme ve "cIose" theIoop (FIgure 18.3b). Under these condItIons
the comparator Inverts the sIgn oI the y m, vhIch nov pIays the same
roIe as that pIayed by the set poInt In the "open" Ioop. NotIce that the
error E remaIns the same. TheoretIcaIIy, the response of the system. will
continue to oscillate with..constant amplitude, since AR =1, despite the
fact that both the load and the set point do not-change.
Let us examIne the IoIIovIng cases:
1. If K; ~ 8.56, thenAR~ 1vhen I ~ =-180. ThereIore, the sustaIned
oscIIIatIon oI the "cIosed" Ioop oI FIgure 18.3bvIII start exhIbIt-
Ing an ever-increasing amplitude IeadIng to an unstable system.
2. On the contrary, II K; < 8.56, thenAR 1 vhen I ~ - -180". Conse-
quentIy, the oscIIIatIng response oI the. "cIosed" Ioop oI ~Ig,ure
18.3bvIII exhIbIt a continuously decreasing amplitude .JeadIng to
an eventuaI dyIng out oI the oscIIIatIon.
Th4~concIusIon dravn Irom the observatIons above Is the IoIIovIng:
A Ieedback controI system Is unstabIe II the AR oI the correspond-
Ing open-Ioop transIer IunctIon Is Iarger than 1 at the crossover
Irequency.
ThIs Is knovn as the Bode stability criterion.
Design of Feedback Control Systems Using Freqency !es"onse
34T
Example 18.1: tability !haracteristics of ome "ypical #ynamic$
ystems %sing the Bode !riterion
1. &irst-order open-loop response' ConsIder a controI system vIth the
IoIIovIng dynamIc components:
K
(rocess' Gp=-_p_.
"p # 1
)easuring sensor' *
m
= Km
!ontroller' Gc - K; +i.e., proportional,
-alve +final control element,' *f. K,
The open-Ioop transIer IunctIon Is
"p # 1 "p # 1
We knov (see SectIon 1T.3)that the phase Iag Ior a IIrst-order system Is
betveen 0 and 90. ThereIore, accordIng to the Bode stabIIIty crIterIon,
the system above Is aIvays stabIe sInce there Is no crossover Irequency.
/. &irst-order with dead time open-loop response' ConsIder agaIn the
dynamIc components oI the Ioop In case 1vIth the IoIIovIng change:
G
m
=K me-
o
.
ss
Then the open-Ioop transIer IunctIon becomes
Ke-
o
.
ss
G
$%
='''
"p # 1
The phase Iag Ior thIs system Is.
0 p - tan' --rpw # (-0.5w)
The Iast equatIon shovs that phase Iag Is betveen 0 and -00. Conse-
quentIy, there exIsts' a crossover Irequency (eI) vhere c f > =-180, and
accordIng to the Bode crIterIon the system may become unstabIe Ior a
Iarge Kc vhIch Ieads to AR * 1at thIs Irequency. ThIs exampIe demon-
strates a very Important characterIstIc Ior the stabIIIty oI chemIcaI
processes: .
Dead tIme Is a prIncIpaI source oI destabIIIzIng eIIects In chemIcaI
process controI systems.
SInce most oI the chemIcaI processes exhIbIt an open-Ioop response
vhIch can be approxImated bya IIrst-order system vIth dead tIme, It Is
cIear that the possIbIIIty Ior cIosed-Ioop InstabIIIty vIII, aImost aIvays, be
present. ThereIore, the tunIng oI the Ieedback controIIer becomes a cru-
cIaI task. '
1. 2igher-order open-loop responses' ConsIder agaIn the controI sys-
tem Ior case 1vIth the IoIIovIng change:
Gm=~
"m # 1
3148 Analysis and Design of Feedbad .rol Systems
The open(loop transfer function becomes
K
GOL=--~---------
('l'pS + l)('l'm S + 1)
and the phase lag becomes (IS0 when c o =co.Therefore according to the
!ode criterion such a s"stem is alwa"s stable since there is no finite
crosso#er fre$uenc". If we consider
and
then the open(loop transfer function becomes
K
GOL=----------~--~---
('l'pS + l)('l'm S + l)('l'fS + 1)
and the phase lag is between 0 and (%&0. Therefore there e'ists a finite
crosso#er fre$uenc" (t)co where 4 > =(IS0 and the s"stem ma" become
unstable for large enough K c . This Ieads to the second important obser#a(
tion about the stabilit" of chemical process control s"stems)
In the absence of. dead time a dosed(loop s"stem ma" become
unstable if its open(loop transfer function is of third order or higher.
Rem arks
1. *ll s"stems in +'ample 18.1 ha#e an important common feature)
The *, and 4 > of the corresponding open(loop transfer functions
decrease continuousl" as c o increases. This is also true for the large
ma-orit" of chemical processing s"stems. .or such s"stems the
!ode stabilit" criterion leads to rigorous conclusions. Thus it con(
stitutes a #er" useful toolfor the stabilit" anal"sis of most control
s"stems of interest to a chemical engineer.
%. It is possible though that the *, or 4 > of an open(loop transfer
function ma" not be decreasing continuousl" with ta. In .igure IS.4
we see the !ode plots of an open(loop transfer function where *,
and c p increase in a certain range of fre$uencies. .or such s"stems
the !ode criterion ma" lead to erroneous conclusions and we need
the more general /"$uist criterion which will be discussed in Sec(
tion 18.4. .ortunatel" s"stems with *, or 4 > li0e those of .igure
18.4 are #er" few and conse$uentl" the !ode criterion will be
applicable in most cases.
3. To use the !ode criterion we need the !ode plots for the open(loop
transfer function of the controlled s"stem. These can be constructed
in two wa"s) 1a) numericall" if the transfer functions of the process
measuring de#ice controller and final control element are 0nown.2
and 1b) e'perimentall" if all of some of the transfer functions are
un0nown. In the second case the s"stem is disturbed with a sinusoi(
dal input at #arious fre$uencies and the amplitude and phase) lag of
the open(loop response are recorded. .rom these data we can con(
struct the !ode plots.
3art I4 Cha. 1! Design
edbac" Control Systems #sing Fre$%ency &esonse
345
AR
1.0
w
w
1a)
1b)
.igure 18.4 !ode plots for comple' s"stem where !ode stabilit" crite(
rion is not applicable.
1!.' (ain and )hase *argins
The !ode stabilit" criterion indicates how we can establish a rational
method for tuning the feedbac0 controllers in order to a#oid unstable
beha#ior b" the closed(loop response of a process.
6onsider the !ode plots for the open(loop transfer function of a
feedbac0 s"stem 1.igure 18.7). The two important features of these plots
are)
The crosso#er fre$uenc" Weo , where c f > =(180
0
The point where *, =1
1.0
AR
M
w
.igure 18.7 8efinition of gain and phase margins.
350
Analysis and Design of Feedback Control Systems Part IV
Let M be the amplitude ratio at the crossover frequency (see Figure
1!5"! #ccording to the $ode criterion%
lIM < 1, the closed)loop system is stable.
If M & 1, it is unstable.
'efine
! ! 1
gam margm( M
)hien* for a stable system M < 1 and
gain margin > 1
+e can ma,e the follo-ing observations on the practical significance of
the gain margin%
1! It constitutes a measure of ho- far the system is from the brin, of
instability! . .
/! )he higher the gain margin is above the value of 1* the Illore
robust the% closed4loop behavior -ill he and thus the safer the
operation of the controlled process! In other -ords* the higher the
gain margin* the higher the* safety factor -e use for controller
~ ~ , ,
3! )ypically* a control designer synthesi1es a feedbac, system -ith
gain margin larger than 1!2! )his means that the #3 can Increase
1!2 times above the design value before the system becomes unsta4
ble!
(1!3"
Let us no- e5amine the foregoing observations using an e5ample!
Example 1!6*% Gain Margin and the Tuning 0/ a Controller
7onsider the closed4loop system of Figure 1!1! )he crossover fre4
quency is Weo (( 12rad8min* and the amplitude ratio at this frequency is
9see eq! (1!/"6 *
x, 0!"
AR (( ((! c
#$0.% !12"/ + 1
)herefore* the gain margin is equal to
. . I
gam margm ! " ! !
0!1/:*
If -e require a gain margin of1!2*-e find
#, #1#,# 1!2
0.!"c
or K; (( ;!<
C$a%. 1& Design of Feedback Control Systems 'sing Fre()ency Res%onse 351
Let us assume no- that the dead time for the process has not been
estimated accurately and that Its =true> value is.?!l5 instead of 0!1! )hen
the open4loop transfer function is given by
",e)o.I&s
@?L ! ! ! ! !
* 0!5s + 1
(1!;"
and not by the assumed eq! (1!1"! For the open4loop transfer function of
eq! (1!;" -e find that the crossover frequency is Wco 11!A rad8min! #t
this frequency the amplitude ratio is
;!<
0!3
#$0.%. * .W + 1
and the system is still stable despite the error by %0' (e made in estimat)
ing the dead time of the process. Botice* though* that the amplitude ratio
has moved closer to the value 1 (i!e!* the system has moved closer to
instabili ty"!
)he last e5ample demonstrates the practical !significance of the gain
margin in tuning feedbac, controllers! )-o points are -orth emphasi14
ing%
1% Cince process parameters such as dead times* static gains* and
time constants are almost never ,no-n e5actly* a gain margin
larger than 1 (e!g!* 1!2" is a safety factor for stable operation!
/! If the various* parameters are ,no-n very -ell* only smallsafety
factors are needed (i!e!* gain margins in the range 1!; to 1!2"! For
systems -ith parameters poorly ,no-n* the safety factor must
increase and the recommended values for gain margins are in the
range 1!2 to 3!0!
$esides the gain margin there is another safety factor -hich is used
for the design of a feedbac, control system% the phase margin. 7onsider
again Figure 1!5! Let CP(I) be the phase lag atthe frequency for -hich
#3 ( 1! )he phase margin is defined as follo-s%
phase margin 10
+
! CP(I)
that is* it is the additional phase lag needed to destabili*e the system. It
is clear* therefore* that the higher the phase margin* the larger the safety
factor used for designing a controller! )ypical phase margins used by
designers are larger than 30D!
Example 1!3% +hase Margin and the Tuning 0/ a Controller
7onsider again the closed4loop system of Figure 1!1! +e ,no- that
AR -:::==K:::
c
::::==
#$0.%,-! + 1
and 1, tan4I -0.5w + (-O.1w)
3Ei2
Analysis and Design of Feedback rrol Systems
'Let us tune the controller using a phase margin equal to 30. Then we
have
K, =J(Q.5W)2 +1 and 30 = = 1804 Itan" -0.500 +40.1 (0) I
!rom the second equation we "ind that 00=1#.$rad%min. Then the "irst
equation gives K; =&.33.
1. 'ssume now that the dead time has (een estimated incorrectl) and
that its "true" value is 0.1$. Then the phase lag at the "requenc)
00 = = 1#.$* where '+ =1* is given ()
,= tan" -0.500 +(-0.1500) =tan-' 40.$ .1#.$/ +40.1$.1#.$/
=4188
0e notice that the s)stem has (ecome unsta(le1 that is* a phase
margin of 30 is not enough to provide a safety factor for a 50
error in dead time.
#. The reader can easil) show that a phase margin o"2$ is enough to
tune the controller in case 1 and providethe necessar) sa"et) "actor
"or a(sor(ing a $03error in the dead time. The value' o" the propor4
tional gain K; "or a 2$ phase margin is "ound to (e K! =$.0.$.
'ssume that there is an error in the time constant which has a
"true" value o" 0.#$ instead o" the assumed 0.$. Then the 5"l67768ler
"requenc) is "ound "rom the equation
180
0
=tan" 40.#$00 +(-0.100)
and it is equal to 0eo ='19.:.'t this "requenc)
'+ =41--= = $= .0= $----= --= =
;0.#$ .19.:/#+ 1
1.1
and we notice again that the s)stem is unsta(le. There"ore* although
a phase margin o" 2< was satis"actor) "or tuning the controller in
the presence o" a $03 error4 in dead time* it is not enough "or
a(sor(ing an error o" up to $03in the time constant. ' larger phase
margin is needed.
18.3 Ziegler!ic"ols #$ning #ec"ni%$e
=n 7ection 1&.$ we discussed a tuning method (ased on the process
reaction curve. The method is primaril) e>perimental and uses real
process data "rom the s)stem's response. =n this section we discuss an.
alternative method developed () ?iegler and @ichols* which is (ased
on "requenc) response anal)sis. .
"n#i$e the process reaction curve method %hich uses data from the
open-#oop response of a system! the &ieg#er-'icho#s tuning techni(ue is
a c#osed-#oop procedure. =tgoes through the "ollowing steps-
&art I'
("a)* 18 Desigr sedback (ontrol Systems +sing Fre%$ency ,es)onse
1. Aring the s)stem to the -desired operational level design condi4
tion/.
#.)sing proportion;l control onl) and with the "eed(acB loop closed*
mtroduce a set pomt change and var) the proportional gain until the
s)stem oscillates continuousl). The "requenc) o" continuous oscilla4
tion is the crossover "requenc)* Weo' Let M (e the amplitude ratio o"
the s)stem'8 response at the crossover "requenc).
3. 5ompute the "ollowing two quantities-
I
. ~ - K 1
u timate gam = u =
M
I
. . d f -. d =' #91-
u timate perto 0 sustame c)c mg =P II =
Wco
min%c)cle
2. Csing the values o" K; and ); ?iegler and @ichols recom4
mended the "ollowing settings "or "eed(acB controllers-
#. min/ TD min/
Eroportional
Eroportional4integral
Eroportional4integral4den vati ve
Kri*2
Ku*2.2
Ku# I./
The settings a(ove reveal the rationale o" the ?iegler4@ichols method4
olog)
1. !or proportional control alone* lise a gain margin equal to 2.*
#. !or E= control use a lower proportional gain (ecause the presence
o" the integral control mode introduces additional phase lag in all
"requencies see !igure 19.8(/ with desta(iliFing e""ects on the
s)stem. There"ore* .lower GK r maintains appro>imatel) the same
gain margin. 7imilar arguments were used in the process reaction
curve tuning technique see 7ection 1&.$/.
3. The presence o" the derivative control mode introduces phase
lead* with. strong sta(iliFing e""ects in the closed4loop response.
5onsequentl)* the proportional gain K, "or a E=6 controller can
(e increased without threatening the sta(ilit) o" the s)stem.
+,amp#e 18.2- -ontro##er .uning /y the &ieg#er-'icho#s and
-ohen--oon 0ethods
5onsider the multicapacit) process o"case # in H>ample 1&.2.'0ehave
1
1
p
=-----
(5s + 1)(2s + 1/
1
1
m
=---
=6sI1
J*.= 1.0
The controller settings according to the process reaction curve. method
were found to be:
For proportional controller: K; =8.3
For PI controller: K; =7.3and TI.= 6.6
For PID controller: K; =: 10.9, TJ = 5.85! and TD = 0.89
"et us now find the #iegler?%ichols settings and compare them to
those above.
&sing proportional control onl'! the crossover fre(uenc' can be found
from the e(uation
??)8*+= tan, )5weo + tan, )2weo + tan, ?l-weo
which 'ields Weo =*.4)5rad.min. The amplitude ratio at the crossover
fre(uenc' is found from the e(uation
1 1
log AR =log + log . + log -;===;;
.J(5weo)2 + ) .J(2Weo)2 + ) ./0)*weof ?I? )
and it is e(ual to *.*8. Therefore! the ultimate gain is
K =!1!= 1"#$
%% *.*8
1lso! the ultimate period is found to be
P %% =.2 3 4 4 =)5.)4min.c'cle
Weo
Then! the #iegler?%ichols recommended settings are:
For a proportional controller: Kc )5.6.5 =6.3
For a PI controller: K; =)5.6.5.5 =5.7 and T6 == )5.)4.).5 =)5.65
For a PID controller: K!" )5.6.).7= 7.4! TJ= )5.)4.5= 7.57! and
t" = )5.)4.8 = ).87
8omparing the #iegler?%ichols 0#?%9 to the 8ohen?8oon 08?89 settings!
we:observe that
I. The proportional gains are a little larger for the 8?8 settings.
5. The reset and rate time constants are higher for the #?%.
:igure )8.6aand b indicate the responses of the closed?loop s'stem to step
changes in the set point and load! respectivel'! using a ;I< controlller with
#?% and 8?8 settings. =e notice that the responses with #?% tuning are
slightl' better than those with the 8?8 settings. %t must be emphasi>ed!
though! that no #eneral concl$%ion% can &e drawn a% to t'e relati(e %$peri)
orit* o+ one ,et'od o(er t'e ot'er. The onl' conclusion we draw is that
both methods provide ver' good first guesses for the values of the con?
trollers@ adAustable parameters.
&art %' Cha(# 1)
Design of Feedback Control Systems *sing Fre+,ency Res(onse
355
*
0a9
*
:igure )8.6 8losed?loop responses with #?% and 8?8 controller settings:
0a9 set?point step change 0b9 load step change.
1)#- .y+,ist Stability Criterion
1swe pointed out in Bection )8.)!the Code stabilit'criterion is valid for
s'stems with 1D and c p monotonicall' decreasing with (J). :or feedbacE
s'stems with open?loop Code plots liEe those of :igure )8.4the more
general %'(uist criterion is emplo'ed. In this section we present a
simple outline of this criterion and its usage. :or more details on the
theoretical bacEground of the methodolog'! the reader can consult Defs.
)3and )4! @
The %'(uist stabilit' criterion states that:
%f the open?loop %'(uist plot of a feedbacE s'stem encircles the
point /-10 *9 as the fre(uenc' (J) taEes an' value from ?** to F**!
the closed?loop response is unstable.
To understand the concept of encirclement and therefore correct use of
the %'(uist criterion! let us stud' the following eGamples.
356
Analysis and Design of Feedbac. .ntrol Systems'
1m
& ~ & & & . . . . .
<, B
"'& '
-,
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
, 50
_ -
//
Increasing '! ."
from & 00 to # /
I'
/
I
I
,
,
$
,
,%#
Figure IS:7 Nyquist plts !r t"e pen& lp trans!er !unctin ! #$a%&
ple '(. 5.
Example '(. 5: Stability Characteristics of a Third-Order System
Using the Nyquist Stability Criterion
)nsi*er t"e pen& lp trans!er !unctin
+
Kc
,-
(s & 1)(2s & 1)(4s & '.
Figure '(. 7s"/s t"e Nyquist plts !r +,
'
/"en K; %' 0cur1e 2. an*
K; %50 0cur1e 3.. Fr eac" Nyquist plt t"e sli* line c1ers t"e !re&
quency range 0 ~ !" ( 400, an* t"e *as"e* part c1ers t"e !requencies
!r% & 00 t ,.5"e *as"e* seg%ent ! t"e Nyquist plt is t"e %irrr i%age
! t"e sli*& line seg%ent /it" respect t t"e real a$is.
Figure lS. 7 s"/s t"at cur1e 2 does not encircle t"e pint 0& Ii 0.,
/"ereas cur1e 3 *es. 5"us, accr*ing t t"e Nyquist criterin, t"e
!ee*6ac7 syste% /it" pen& lp Nyquist plt t"e cur1e 2 is sta6le,/"ile
cur1e 3 in*icates an . unsta6le clse*& lp syste%. 5"is in turn i%plies
t"at !r K; " % ' t"e syste% is sta6le, /"ereas !r K; %50 itis unsta6le.
Example '(. 8: Conditional Stability and the Nyquist Criterion
)nsi*er t"e Nyquist plts s"/n in FigurelS. (a t"rug" c. 2ll crre&
spn* t t"e sa%e pen& lp trans!er !unctin /it" *i!!erent 1alues !r
t"e prprtinal gain Ki# 5"e plts in Figure IS. Sa an* c * nt encircle
t"e pint )-i, 0.,/"ereas t"e Nyquist plt ! Figure IS. S6*es. 5"ere!re,
9e
Design #, .edbac* +ontrol Systems ,sing Fre-.ency /es0onse
I
I
I
1
,
/
& /
I
I
,
352
,
I
1
/
/
1
,/
,
-$#%" &
0a.
,
I
I
I
I
1
/
I
I
AI
06.
Figure '(. ( Nyquist plts !r #$a%ple '(. 8: 0a., 0c. sta6le: 06. unsta6le.
0c.
t"e !ee*6ac7 syste%s crrespn*ing t t"e !irst an* t"ir* Nyquist plts
"a1e sta6le clse*& lp respnses, /"ereas t"at ! t"e secn* i' unsta6le.
Fr% t"e plts a61e it is clear t"at t"e clse*& lp respnse 6ec%es
unsta6le !r a range !1alues Kc(such t"at t"e pint 0& ',0. is 6et/een A
an* 3 ! t"e resulting Nyquistplt, ;"en pint 0& ',0. is t t"e le!t ! 2
0Figure IS. Sc. r t t"e rig"t ! 3 0Figure IS. Sa.,it is nt encircle* 6y t"e
Nyquist plt an* t"e crrespn*ing clse*& lp respnse is sta6le.
)*emar+) Fr !ast cnclusins n t"e encircle%ent r nt ! t"e pint
(-ll, 0) by-the open-loop Nyquist plot, the reader can use the following
practical ethod!
Place a pencil at point "-#, 0)$ %ttach one end of a thread at the
pencil and with the other end trace the whole length of the Nyquist
plot$ If the thread has wrapped around the pencil, we can say that
point "-#, 0) is encircled by the Nyquist plot$
&igure #8$' (oputing gain and phase argins fro Nyquist plots$
)he gain argin and phase argin of an open-loop response can
also be coputed fro a Nyquist plot$ )his should be e*pected since
+ode, and Nyquist plots of a syste contain e*actly the sae infora-
tion$
(onsider the Nyquist plot of &igure #8$'$ %t the frequency of point %
the Nyquist plot intersects the unit circle-around theorigin, )herefore,
since the distance of point % fro -the origin is the .aplitude /ratio at
this frequency, we- conclude that the angle (PP0 represents the phase
argin$
&urtherore, at the frequency of point +, the phase lag is equal to
#801$)he aplitude ratio at this point$is the distance between + and the
origin, "i$e$, AR =: M). (onsequently, the gain$ argin is easily found
as liM.
THI!S T" THI# A$"%T
#$ 2*plain in your own words that by 3opening3 a feedbac4 loop we place the
controller lina 3anual3 operation, whereas by 3closing3 it we place the
controller in the 3autoatic3 ode$
5$ 6hat is the basis of the +ode criterion7 6hy is it not generally rigorous7
C&a'( )* Design of Feedback Control Systems %sing Fre+,ency Res'onse 359
3$ 8o you thin4 that the followingodified stateent of the +ode criterion is
generally rigorous7 2*plain$
% feedbac4 control syste is unstable, if the %9 of the correspond-
ing open-loop transfer function is larger than # at any crosso:er
frequency$
;$ (onstruct an open-loop transfer function whose %9 or c f J , or both, are not
continuously decreasing functions of the frequency "#)$ 8raw its +ode and
Nyquist plots$
5$ Identify the two a<or sources of instability in closed-loop responses$
2laborate on these two factors$
=$ >sing the Nyquist stability criterion, show that feedbac4 systes with first-
and second-order open-loop responses are always stable$
?$ 8efine the phase and gain argins and show how you can copute the
fro +ode or Nyquist$ plots$
8$ 2*plain in your own words what we ean when we say that phase and gain
argins constitute safety argins "safety factors) in tuning a feedbac4
controller$ 6hy do weneed a safety argin in tuning a feedbac4 controller7
'$ 8escribe the @iegler-Nichols tuning ethodology$ )his procedure is often
called the 3continuous cycling3 tuning ethod$ 6hy7
#0$ )he @iegler-Nichols settings result fro closed-loop considerations,
whereas the (ohen-(oon settings are deterined fro the open-loop
response of the control syste$ 6ould you choose one o:er the other
because it uses open- or closed-loop data7 2*plain$
##$ )he e*periental deterination of the @iegler-Nichols settings brings the
cheical process at the threshold between stable and unstable operation$ -
(an you tolerate this in an industrial en:ironent7
#5$ Atate the Nyquist stability criterion and gi:e soe e*aples of stable and
unstable feedbac4 control systes different fro those presented in this
chapter$ 2*plain the concept of encircleent of the point "-#,0) by the
Nyquist plot, which is so central for the Nyquist criterion$
#3$ 9espond to the following questions and <ustify your answers$
"a) % larger gain argin iplies a saller or a larger allowableBcontroller
gain7
"b) % larger gain argin a4es dosed-loop response of a process faster or
slower7
"c) % larger phase argin iplies faster or$ slower dosed-loop response7
"d) % larger phase argin iplies saller or larger allowable controller
gain7
#;$ )he discussion in Aection #8$5 and 2*aples #8$5 and #8$3has indicated
that we could use :ery large phase and gain argins to guarantee closed-
360 Analysis and Design of Feedbac. rtrol Systems
loop stability in the presence of model inaccuracies. Why would you try not
to use larger margins than those needed?
I!;. Larger uncertainty in the parameters of a model (static gain, time constant,
dead time) requires larger or smaller gain and phase margins for tuning the
controllers parameters?
REFERENCES FOR PART IV
!hapter "#. $here are a %ariety of references that the reader can consult for
more information on the constructional and operational details of measuring
de%ices, feedbac& controllers, transmission lines, transducers, and final control
elements. $he following are some typical sources'
1. Process Instruments and Controls Handbook, by (. M. !onsidine,
)c*raw8,ill -oo& !ompany, .ew /or& ("012).
2. Handbook of Applied Instrumentation, by (. ). !onsidine and 3. (. 4oss,
)c*raw8,ill -oo& !ompany, .ew /or& ("056).
3. Instrument Engineers Handbook, 7ol. "' Process Measurement, by B. Lip8
ta&, !hilton -oo& !ompany, 4adnor, 9a. ("02:).
;or measuring de%ices !hapter 2 of the following boo& is %ery useful'
4. Measurements and Control Applications for Practicing Engineers , by <. =.
,ougen, !ahners -oo&s, -oston ("02>).
;or the dynamics of some typical sensors, the reader can consult the article'
1. ?9rocess (ynamics' 9art >. 9rocess !ontrol Loops,? by <. L. *uy, Chem
Eng., p. III (@ug. >6, "0A").
;or the dynamics of thermocouples, %al%es, pumps, piping, and so on, the
following boo& contains useful information'
!" #echni$ues of Process Control, by 9. 3. -uc&ley, <ohn Wiley B 3ons, Inc.,
.ew /or& ("056).
$he selection of the appropriate control %al%e is discussed in 4ef. 5 and in the
boo&'
%. Process Modeling, &imulation, and Control for Chemical Engineers, by
W. L. Luyben, )c*raw8,ill -oo& !ompany, .ew /or& ("02#).
$he distributed character of the pneumatic transmission lines dynamics is
discussed in 4ef. 5 andin'
Part IV
Analysis, Jesign of Feedbac !ontrol Systems 36"
'. An Introduction to Process ()namics and Control, by $. W. Weber, <ohn
Wiley # 3ons, Inc., .ew /or& ("02#).
!hapter "1. $he mathematical proof of the 4outh8,urwitC tests can be found
in the classic boo&'
*. ()namics of a &)stem of +igid ,odies, #rd ed., by D. <. 4outh, )acmillan,
London ("A22).
;or an eEtensi%e discussion the reader can consult'
-.. &tabilit) #heor) ./ ()namical&)stems, by <. L. Willelms, $homas .elson
# 3ons Ltd., London ("02:).
"". Mathematical Methods in Chemical Engineering, by V. *. <enson, and
*. V. <effreys, @cademic 9ress Ltd., London ("05#).
$he boo&s by Willelms F4ef. ":G and (ouglas F4ef. ">G can also be used for
studying alternati%e definitions of stability and more ad%anced treatment Ion
the subHect.
-2. Process ()namics and Control, 7ol. >, by <. ). (ouglas, 9rentice8,all,
Inc., Dnglewood !liffs, ..<. ("02>).
$he construction rules for the root locus of a closed8loop system can be found
in the boo&s by (ouglas F4ef. ">G,. Luyben F4ef. 2", and in the following two
classic teEts'
-3. Process &)stems Anal)sis and Control, by (. $. !oughanowr and L. B.
Ioppel, )c*raw8,ill -oo& !ompany, .ew/or&("051).
-4. Modern Control Engineering, by I. =gata, 9rentice8,all, Inc., Dnglewood
!liffs, ..<. ("02:).
$here are a %ariety of references on the use of root locus for the design of
closed8loop systems. $he teEts by Luyben F4ef. 2G, (ouglas F4ef. ">G,
!oughanowr and Ioppel F4ef. "#), and =gata F4ef. "6G offer an eEcellent treat8
ment of the subHect with a large number of eEamples.
!hapter "5. $wo eEcellent references on the practical problems of controller
design are the boo&s by -uc&ley F4ef. 5G and 3hins&ey' i
-0. Process Control &)stems, >nd ed., by D *. 3hins&ey, )c*raw8,ill -oo&
!ompany, .ew /or& ("020).J .
In these two teEts the reader will find useful practical guidelines in selecting the
most appropriate type of feedbac& controller for a particular application. In
addition, one can .find alternati%e tuning techniques employed by the industrial
practice.
36i2 Analysis and Design of Feedback Control Systems
For an extensive discussion on the various types of performance criteria,
and their advantages and shortcomings in designing feedback controllers, the
reader can consult the following reference:
16" "Optimization of losed0"oop #esponses," by $% &tephanopoulos, in Proc-
ess Control, 'olume (, )% * *dgar +ed%,, -.h* /odular .nstruction, -mer0
ican .nstitute: of hemical *ngineers, 1ew2ork +134(,%
.n #ef% 16,the reader will also find various techni5ues for solving the controller
design problems, which use time0integral performance criteria% For additional
reading on this sub6ect, the following sources are also recommended:
17. Linear Control System Analysis and Design, by 7% 7% 89-zzo and % :%
:oupis, /c$raw0:ill ;ook ompany, 1ew 2ork +13<=,%
18. Digital Computer Process Control" by .C, L. &mith, .ntext *ducational
>ublishers, &cranton, >a% +13<(,%
19. Analytical Design 0 Linear !eed"ac# Controls, by $% % 1ewton, 7r%, L. -%
$ould, and 7% * ?aiser, 7ohn @iley A &ons, .nc%, 1ew2ork +13=<,%
For additional reading on the process reaction9 curve method and the ohen0
oon settings, the reader can consult#efs, 94, 1(, 1B, and 1=%)he details on the
development of the ohen0oon settings can be found in their original work:
(C% ")heoretical onsiderations of #etarded ontrol," by $% :% ohen and
$% -% oon, $rans. AS%&, <=, 4(< +13=B,%
hapters 1< and 14% )he books by ;uckley D#ef% 6E and aldwell et al%
D#ef% (1Eare two very good sources for in0depth study ofthe fre5uency response
analysis and its ramifications in controller design%
'1. !re(uency )esponseor Process Control, by@%1% aldwell, $% -% oon, and
L. /% Foss, /c$raw0:ill ;ook ompany, 1ew2ork +13=3,%
For systems with transfer functions that are very difficult to factor and conse0
5uently very hard to complete the fre5uency response analysis, "uybenD#ef% <E
discusses various numerical solution techni5ues% :e has0also included a com0
puter program in FO#)#-1 which uses the "stepping" techni5ue to develop
the ;ode and 1y5uist plots for a distillation column% /ore details .Onthe
philosophy of the Fiegler01ichols tuning method can be found in the original
work:
((% "Optimum &ettings for -utomatic ontrollers," by 7% $% Fiegler and 1% B.
1ichols, $rans. AS%&, 6G, <=3 +13G(,%
.n #efs% 6, <, 1B, and 1= the reader can find a large number of examples
demonstrating the application offre5uency response arguments in the design of
>art .'
>art .'
B6B
feedback controllers% .n particular, #efs% ,6 and 1=, analyze the fre5uency
response Hharacteristics of control systems for flow, pressure, temperature,
concentrat.on, and so on, and draw some useful general inferences according to
the control system used%
PROBLEMS FOR PART IV
Chapter 3
.'%l
Honsider% thH flow conHrol ,oop shown% in Figure 1B%(a% )he following
information .&also available: +., -n onfice plate is used to measure the
flowI +(, a variable, capacitance differential pressure transducer is
employed +see -ppendix ..-, to sense and transmit the pressure differ0
, ence developed aHound the orifice plateI +H, the controller is >. and +G,
tHe controH valve .& of e5ual percentage, @.ththe valve flow characteris0
t.curve given by
.'%(
/(x) !ax-I
where a J 1C and * J valve stem position +see -ppendix ll- for the
relationship between * and control signal p). -ssume that the pressure
drop acHoss the valve remains constant for the range of desired flows%
+a, Henve tHe transfer function for each element +i%e%, orifice plate,
d.ffHrentlal pressure cell, >. controller, and control valve,%
+b, 8enve the transfer function between the controlled flow ! and the
set point value !sp%
+c, 8erive an expression for the static gain between F and F
sp
,
onsider the li5uid level control loop of Figure 1B%(d% )he differential
K9ressure transducer cellexhibits second0order dynamics, the controller
.&proportional, and the control valve is linear with flow characteristic
curve given by
/(x) !x
+a, 8erive the transfer functions for the differential pressure cell, con0
troller, and control valve%
+b, 8erive tHe ,transfer function between the measured li5uid level and
the manipulated streamflow and a general expression for the static
gain between these two variables% l
onsult -ppendix ..- foHdetails on modeling the differential pressure
cell and the control valve%
.'%B LMonsider the flash drum unit shown in Figure G%6% 8evelop two alterna0
trve feedback loops for %
+a, )he control of the li5uid level in the flash drum, or
+b, )he control of the pressure in the drum%
+c, 8raw the corresponding: block diagrams for the loops%
364
Analysis and Design of Feedback Cc
Systems
Cold
Cold
~ m ~ . _ * , _ _ " , . ' ,
~ -'--------
__ Hot
stream
(a)
(b)
Cold
Hot
stream
(c)
Figure PIY. t
IV. ~ I
Consider the m iing !rocess o" #am !le $. %% (see Figure $. &). 'e(elo!
t)o alternati(e "eedbac* loo!s "or each o" the "ollo)ing cases+
(a) Control the li,uid le(el in the tan*.
(b) Control the concentration o" - in the tan*.
(c) Control the li,uid tem !erature in the tan*.
Consider the heat echanger sho)n in Figure PIV. la )ith the !oss~ ble
!i!ing m odi"ications sho)n in Figure PIV. lband c. .he contro~ obiec5
ti(e is to *ee! the eit tem !erature o" the cold stream at the de, 0nred set
!oint (alue. 'esign seven di""erent "eedbac* control loo!s that can
achie(e this control ob1ecti(e.
IV. ~ i
Chapte !4
"at #$
Hot
stream
2e li*e to control the li,uid le(el, h 3, in tan* 3 o" s4stem !described in
Problem %%. % (see Figure PII. t). .here eist three alternati(e m ani!u5
lated (ariables, F" F2, and F3;
(a) 'ra) the bloc* diagram o" the closed5loo! s4stem using a Pl con5
troller and F" F36 or F7 as m ani!ulated (ariable. , .
(b) 'eri(e the corres!onding closed5loo! res!onses to load or set !oint
changes. , . .
(c) 'eri(e a general e!ression "or the closed5loo! static gam s "or each
o" the corres!onding three cases.
IV. 8
Analysis a 36% ssi&n of Feedback Contol Systems
(d) Identi"4 the corres!onding closed5loo! trans"er "unctions "or
changes in the load (9. dad) or set !oint (9sp'(
-ssum e that the trans"er "urictions o" the m easuring de(ices and control
(al(es are e,ual to unit4. -lso, assum e that the "lo) rates o" the "ree
stream s are linear "unctions' o" the li,uid le(el.
IV. : ;e!eat Problem IV. 8 assum ing that (%) a !ro!ortional controller is used
instead o" PI, and (3) the trans"er "unctions o" the m easuring de(ice and
"inal control elem ent are gi(en, res!ecti(el4, b4
Consider s4stem 3 o" Problem II. I (Figure PII. %). 2e can control the
li,uid le(el h2 o" tan* 3 b4 m ani!ulating "lo) rate F# or F
3
For each o"
these t)o cases, do the "ollo)ing+
(a) 'ra) the corres!onding' bloc* diagram .
(b) ' 'eri(e the corres!onding closed5loo! res!onses and identi"4, the
closed5loo! trans"er "unctions to load or set !oint changes.
(c) 'eri(e general e!ressions "or the corres!onding closed5loo! static
gains.
-ssum e that a !ro!ortional controller is used and that the trans"er
"unctions o" the m easuring sensor and control (al(e are e,ual to unit4.
;e!eat Problem IV. < assum ing a PI controller and the "ollo)ing trans5
"er "unctions "or the m easuring sensor and control (al(e+
G "_, 'Km
m _ 't'!as2 ) 2(m 't'm
s
) #
IV. l= Consider the t)o stirred tan* heaters o" Problem II. 7 (see Figure PII. 7).
2e )ould li*e to control tem !erature T3 b4 m ani!ulating the steam
"lo) rate in either the "irst or the second heater (i. e. , Q. or Q2). .he
inlet "lo) rate F# rem ains constant, )hile the inlet tem !erature T#
changes, thus causing the control !roblem . For each o" the t)o m ani!u5
lated (ariables abo(e, do the "ollo)ing+
(a) 'ra) the corres!onding closed5loo! bloc* diagram .
(b) 'eri(e the closed5loo! res!onse and identi"4 the closed5loo! trans5
"er "unctions to load or set !oint changes.
(c) 'eri(e general e!ressions "or the corres!onding closed5loo! static
gains. , >
-ssum e that )e use a PI controller and that the trans"er "unctions "or
the m easuring sensor (therm ocou!le) and control (al(e are e,ual to
unit4. .
IV. l% Consider the closed5loo! bloc* diagram o" the "eedbac* s4stem sho)n
in Figure PIV. 3a. For a set !oint ste! change o" m agnitude 3, do the
"ollo)ing+
(a) 'eri(e au e!ression "or5the closed5loo! res!onse in the ?a!lace
dom ain . .
366
Analysis and Design of Feedback Control Systems P a r t I V
+
___,..
YSP(.t)
G =' 2
p '(s+I)(3s+1)
(b)
Figure PIV,2
(b) Find how the closed&loop output responds with time to the set point
step change above.
(c) Compute the maximum value o y(t) and state when it occurs.
(d) Compute the oset o the inal stead! state.
(e) Compute the period o oscillation o the closed&loop response.
() "ive a #ualitative s$etch o the closed&loop response.
Iv.n %epeat Problem IV.ll but now consider a load step change o magni&
tude '.(.
Iv.n Consider the bloc$ diagram o the closed&loop s!stem shown in Figure
PIV.2b. For a unit step change in the set point, do the ollowing)
(a) Compute the overshoot* deca! ratio, and period o oscillation when
(1) K, + + ', ,I + -.(*&(2) K, + 2-, ,. + -.(* and (/) K; + ', ,I + -.'.
(b) Compare the responses ound in part (a) and discuss the eect ofKc
and T1 on the closed&loop response o a s!stem.
(c) 0$etch #ualitativel! the responses or the three cases o Kc and '['I
values given in part (a).
P a r t I V Analysis and Design of Feedback Control Systems 367
IV.'1 %epeat Problem IV.ll but assume a irst&order process with a transer
unction .
, 10
Gp(s)=-.-.
5s+ 1
IV.ll0 Consider the eedbac$ control o a irst&order process with a transer
unction
G
p
(S)=_5_
2s + '
2et the controller be proportional with gain K,= ', while the transer
unction o the measuring device is given b!
Gm(S)=~
; 'l'mS 3 '
4ssuming that the transer unction o the inal control element is e#ual
to unit!* do the ollowing)
(a) 5xamine the eect o K; on the #ualit! o the closed&loop response
(i.e., or 'l'm = ' compute rand, o the closed&loop response or
various values o Km).
(b) 5xamine the eect o ,m on the #ualit! o the closed&loop response
(i.e. or K; = ' compute r and , o the closed&loop response or
various values Of'l'm). ,
(c) 0$etch #ualitativel! the closed&loop response or various values o
K; and ,m. 6ased, on the characteristics o these plots, discuss the
eect that a measuring device ma! have on the closed&loop
response o a s!stem (i.e. discuss the eect that K; and 'l'm have on
the overshoot, deca! ratio, and period o oscillation).
IV.'7 5xamine the eect thatvarious values o the gain K; o a measuring
device will have on the closed&loop response o a process with the .
ollowing transer unction) .
1
Gp(s),=-----
(s + 1)(2s +1
4ssume that, Gm = K
m
, G
f
= ' and the controller is proportional with
K,= '.
IV.'8 Consider the two noninteracting tan$s o s!stem 9in Figure PII.2 :e
want to control the li#uid level h2 o tan$ 2 b! manipulating low rate
F!through a proportional controller. 4ssume that the cross&sectional
areas o the two tan$s are e#ual to ( t2. Initiall!, the s!stem is at stead!
state with F I = ' tl;min and hi + h 2 = /t. Find the values o the
controller gain which
(a) Produce a criticall! damped response, or
(b) Produce an underdamped response with deca! ratio ';1, or h-:
36B Analysis and Design of Feedback Cc Systems
(c) For each ofthe two cases above, describe the dynamic response of
liquid level h Iin tank 1, for a unit step change in the set point ofh
2
Sketch qualitatively these two responses.

!.S Consider the two interacting tanks of system " in Figure #.l. $e want
to control the liquid level h " of tank " by manipulating flow rate F
through, a proportional controller. %ssume that tank 1 has a cross(
sectional area of ' fe, while for tank " the cross(sectional area is " fe.
nitially, the system is at steady state with F = 1 ft
)
lmin, hi =* ft, and
h2 =) ft. Find the values of thecontroller gain that produce
(a) % critically damped response, or
(b) %n underdamped response with decay ratio equal to 1+* for h
(c) For each of the two cases above, describe the dynamic response of
liquid level h Iin tank 1 for a unit step change in the set point of h 2.
. Sketch qualitatively these two responses.
!.ll, Consider the block diagram of Figure -*.1, which includes two control
loops.%ssume that .ml = Gm2 = and
. / 0,0, to
p - (s + 1)(2s + 1)
(a) 1erive an e2pression for the closed(loop response to a unit step
change in the set point, assuming that both controllers are propor(
tional with gains K; I'and Ke2
(b) 32amine if the closed(loop response e2hibits an offset to a unit step
change in the set point. f it does, compute the value of the offset. f
it does not, e2plain why.
(c) Suppose that Ke2 =1. Find the value of 4c which produces (1) a
critically damped response, and (") an underdamped response with
a decay ratio 1+*.
(d) Sketch the closed(loop response for each of the two cases in part tc),
(e) Compute the closed(loop poles for the two cases in part (c). $hat do
you observe5 .
!."6 7epeat #roblem !.1, assuming that the process is first order with
transfer function
'
Gp(s)=--
S + 1
8he controller of the inner loop is # with Kc 2 and it =6.', while the
controller of the outer loop is proportional with gain Kcl
!.ll Consider the liquid(level control in a simple storage tank. %s the
manipulated variable we can use either the effiuent flow rate, Fo, or the
inlet flow rate, F;. nitially, the system is at steady state with F; =Fo =
16 ft
)
+min and liquid level at " ft. 8he cross(sectional area of the tank is
9fe.
(a) Compute the closed(loop response to a unit step increase in. the
desired set point when P; is used as the manipulated variable.
P a r t I V P a r t I V
Analysis, Jesign of Feedback ont!ol Systems
)9,
(b) 1o the same as in part (a), but consider F; as the manipulated
variable.
(c) Sketch the two responses above and qualitatively e2plain whether
you would use F; or Fo, as the manipulated variable, or it makes no
difference which one you use.
%ssume a proportional controller with K,= 16 and that the transfer
functions for the measuring device and control valve are equal to unity.
(:ote that F; is incoming whereas F; is outflowing), .
!."" 7epeat #roblem !."1 with the following modifications;
(1) 8he control valve for streamF, has the transferfunction
Gf,;(S) = 1
while the transfer function of the control valve for Fo is given by
G/,o(s) =""#$"
3s < 1
(") 8he proportional gain is K; =1.6.
%a&te! 1'
!.") 3ach of the following systems is feedback controlled with a proportional
controller. Find the range of values of the proportional gain K; that
produce stable (ifit is possible) closed(loop responses. %lso, identify the
characteristic equations. %ssume that G
m
=G
f
= 1.
16 (
(a) Gp(s) =(,(
2s - 1
)b) G
p
(s)=_2_-,.
O.ls + I
)c) Gp(S) " 16
2s + 3s - *
1
!."* 7epeat #roblem !."), but assume that a # controller is used with gain
. Kc and t 1 = 1* * *
!."S % first(order system with a transfer function +
Gp(s)=_5_
: O.1s + 1
is controlled with a feedback # controller
Ge(s) =Kc ( I+ t= S)
Assuming that the final control element has a transfer function Gf =1
and that the transfer function of the measuring device is
do the following:
(a) Set Km = 1, 'm;'" 1, and using the Routh.Hurwitz criterion, find a.
pair of values K, and 1which !ield sta"le dosed.loop response#
(") $sing the values K; and 1found in part (a), e%amine the effect of
changing K; on the sta"ilit! of the dosed.loop response#
(c) &o the same with 'm. '
(d) 'ased on the results a"ove, discuss the effect that measurement
d!namics have on the sta"ilit! of the closed.loop response#
()#*+ ,-amine the effect that a measuring device has on the closed.loop
sta"ilit! of a second.order process,
1
Gp(s)=--.-
S2 4s 1
Assume that the controller is proportional with gain K, =*, the final
control element has G
f
= 1,and that the transfer function of the measur ##
ing device is
G-~
m - 'mS 1
(Note: ,%amine the effect# of K; and 'm on the sta"ilit! of the closed.
loop response#)
()#*/ 0rove the first test of the Routh.Hurwitz criterion, that is, ifan! of the
coefficients a I! a2, . . . , an-I, an is negative, there is at least one root of
the characteristic e1uation which has a positive real part and the s!stem
is unsta"le# [Note: It will help !ou in the proof to show first that a . tao is
e1ual to minus the sum of all roots of the pol!nomial2 a 21 ao is plus the
sum of a$ possi"le products of two roots, ### , akl ao is e1ual to (3() c
times the sum of all possi"le products of k roots, and finall! that: ani ao
is e1ual to "#ll$ times the product of all n roots#4
()#*5 6onsider a first.order s!stem with dead time having the following trans.
fer function:
17 e-
ldS
Gp(s)=--
s I
8he s!stem is controlled with a proportional controller of gain K;
(a) Appro%imate e-
ldS
"! a first.order 0ade appro%imation (see Section
1*-*)and find the relationship "etween K, and td that leads to a
sta"le closed.loop response#
(") Appro%imate e-
tds
"! a second.order 0ade appro%imation (see Sec.
tion 1*#*)and find the relationship "etween K; and td which leads to
a sta"le closed.loop response# Assume that G =G, =1#
371
()#*9 Repeat 0ro"lem ()#*5 "ut for the following second.order process:
e-
ldS
:p(s) .;, --,------'--
(s 1)(2s 1%
()#;7 An unsta"le first.order process with transfer function
G
p
(s)=_2_
s-4
is controlled "! a proportional: controller with gain K; Assuming that
:m =Gf =1, do the following: 2 ,
(a) S<etch the location of the closed.loop pole as K, goes from 7 to 17#
8his is the root locus of the closed.loop s!stem#
(") &etermine the range of K; values which !ield sta"le closed.loop
responses#
(c) =ind the value of K, for which the closed.loop pole is zero# $sing
this value of Kc, compute the closed.loop response to a unit step
change in the set point# (s the response sta"le or unsta"le>
()#;1 &raw the root locus of a closed.loop s!stem with the following charac.
teristics:
0rocess2 Gp(s)
(s 1)(2s 1)
6ontroller: #:c( s) =K,
?easuring device: Gm(s) =1
=inal control element: Gf(s) =(2
(ndicate what segments of the root locus (i#e#, values of Kc !ield (a)
overdamped, (") criticall! damped, and (c) underdamped closed.loop
responses#
()#;* &raw the root locus of a closed.loop s!stem with
G~(s) =s : @ Gc(s) =K{ 1 D Gm(s) =G/(s) =1
()#;; &raw the root locus of the s!stems in 0ro"lem ()#*; using a propor.
tional controller, 8he transfer functions of the measuring device and
final control element are Gm(s) =Gf(S) = 1#
()#;@ &raw an appro%imate s<etch of the root locus for the closed.loop s!s.
tem with the following characteristics:
Gp(s) = 2(s 1% !Gc(s) =K,
s(s 2(S2 1)
Gm(s) =Gf(s) =1
$sing the information from the root locus, s<etch 1ualitativel! the
closed.loop response of the process to a unit step in the set point when
K, =7, K; =1, Kf_=:"lO, and .K; =!177#
37:2 Analysis and Design of Feedback ( ) 1 Systems Part IV
Chater !"
IY.35 A first>order process is controlled with a PI controller. Find the values
of the controller gain K; and reset time #$ so that (a) the closed>loop gain
to load changes is 1 and (!) thedeca" ratio of the closed>loop response
is 1 #$. %he following information is given&
I'.. 3( Find the gain of a proportional. controller that produces a closed>loop
response for a second>order s"stem with deca" ratio e)ual to 1 #$* %he
process its descri!ed !"
!
Gp(s)+ >>>, >>>>
S2 % 3s % !
and
Gm(S)&Gr(s) + 1
I'.3- .elect the gain and reset time settings of a PI controller/ emplo"ing the
minimum I.0 criterion for a unit step change in the set point. %he
process is first>order with K, &1 / and %p & 1 .. Assume that Gm(s)=
Gr(s) &1 . %he selected settings must satisf" the restrictions
1 * s, ~1 and
I'.31 2ep*at Pr*!lem I'.3- !ut consider a step change in the set point of
magnitude 5. Are the new controller settings different from those found
in Pro!lem I'.3-304plain wh" the" are the same ornot the same5
I'.36 .elect the gain of a proportional controller using the minimum I.0
criterion. 7onsider a unit stepchange in the set point. %he process is
second>order with K, &5/ % &8/ and, + + 3. Assume that Gm(s) && G,.(s) =
1 . %he selected setting must satisf" the restriction
1 * K; ~ I
9You should reali:e that I.0 is a ver" ;difficult; criterion to use for
tuning proportional controllers and that another criterion/ far simpler
than I.0/ could !e used instead/ with e)uivalent results.<
I'A= 2epeat Pro!lem I'.36 !ut consider a step change in the set point of
magnitude 5. Is the new gain setting different from that found in Pro!>
lem I'.363 04plain wh" it is the same or not the same.
I'AI .elect the gain of a proportional controller using the one>)uarter deca"
ratio criterion. %he process is descri!ed !"
1
Gp(s) + >../..>>>>
(s % 2)(2s % 1 )
Assume that Gm(s)&Gr(s) &1 . Also/ select the gain using the minimum
Part IV
Anal'sr( )d Design of Feedback Control Systems
37'
(a)
Figure PI'/3
I.0 criterion and a unit step change in the set point. %he condition
1 * K, ~ .1 must !e satisfied !" the gain values selected. 7ompare
the settings computed !" the two methods and e4plain the difference
!etween them. 9%he reader should ma?e a note of the remar? made at
the end of, Pro!lem 1 1 .36<.&
I'.$8 2epeat Pro!lem I'.$I !ut, consider the process
/ 1
Gp(s)=----
S2 % 0.5s +1
I'.$3 %he process reaction curve of a temperature control s"stem gave the
values
K &1 % &2 min t &.1 min
7ompute the settings of a PI@ controller using the 7ohen>7oon tuning
methodolog".
I'.$$ 7onsider the feed!ac? loop shown in Figure PI'.3a. .elect the settings
of the PI controller using the 7ohen>7oon>tuning techni)ue. In a graph
paper displa" the actual process reaction curve and its first>order plus
dead time appro4imation. ,
r'.$5 .elect the controller settings for the PI@ controller of the feed!ac? loop
shown in Figure PI'.3!. Ase the 7ohen>7oon tuning techni)ue. In a
graph paper displa" the actual process reaction curve and its first>order
plus dead time appro4imation.
IV.46 Table' PIV.l shows the experimental process reaction curve of an open$
loop system with a PI controller. Using these values
!a" #pproximate the open$loop response with that of a first$or%er sys$
tem plus %ea% time !i.e.& fin% the values of K, T& an% td).
!b" 'elect the controller settings using the (ohen$(oon techni)ue.
IV#* +epeat Problem IV.46 using (1) a PI, controller instea% of the PI& an%
!-" the process reaction curve %ata of Table PIV.-.
IV.4I'In this problem we see how to select the better manipulate% variable
among two alternatives. (onsi%er the two noninteracting li)ui% storage
tan.s of system I shown in /igure PII. 0e can control li)ui% level h2
by manipulating F Ior /l. #ssume that the cross$sectional areas of the
two tan.s are A 1! - ft" an% A2 ! 1ftl. Initially& the system is at stea%y
state with F I ! 3ftl2min an% li)ui% levels h , ! 3 ft an% h "! 6 ft.
!a" Using the minimum I'3 tuning criterion& fin% the gain Keof a
proportional controller when the manipulate% variable is either F,
or /l. #ssume a -45step increase in the set point of li)ui% level h
6ote that gain K, shoul% not excee% the value 744.
!b" /or each of the two cases above8 compute the value of I'3 an%
select that manipulate% variable that yiel%s the smaller I'3.
In the analysis above& assume linear flow resistance an% G !# G
f
= : 7.
9The rea%er shoul% ma.e a note of the remar. ma%e at the en% of
T#:;3PIV.t T#:;3PIV.-
Time <anipulate% <easurement Time <anipulate% <easurement
!min" input of output !min" input of output
$- noo -44 $74 74 4.614
$7 744 -44 $1 74 4.614
4 I'= -44.7 4 71 4.614
4.- Il14 -47.7 1 71 4.617
4.4 714 -44.4 74 71 4.61-
4..6 714 --*.4 71 71 4.66>
4..> 714 -1;= -4 71 4.*?1
;= 714 ->4.4 -1 71 4.>7*
7..- 714 ?4-.1 ?4 71 4.>>7
7.4 714 ?7>.4 ?1 71 4.@*@
7.6 714 ?-@.1 44 71 7.4*1
7..> 714 ??6.4 41 71 7.717
-..4 714 ??@.4 14 71 7.-7?
-..- 714 ?44.1 11 71 7.-?@
-.4 714 ?47.4 64 71 7.-6-
61 71 7.?77
*4 71 7.?-@
*1 71 7.??>
>4 71 7.?14
>1 71 7.?17
.@4 71 7.?14
Part I$
Part I$
375
Problem IV.?@. It simplifies the solution of the present problem signifi$
cantly.A
%&
IV.4@ In this problem we try to select the better manipulate% variable among
two alternatives& F I =f F l& in or%er to control the li)ui% level h - of two
interacting tan.s !see system - of /igure PII.I". The following informa$
tion is given (ross$sectional areas of the two tan.s are A I B - fe an% A,
B ' ft-8 initial stea%y state& (i#### 6 ft& h - !#! 4 ft& .and P, ! ? ft
3
/min. -
!a" Using the minimum offset as tuning criterion& fin% the gain K(. of a
proportional controller when the manipulate% variable is either FI
or F ?C #ssume a -45stepincrease in the set point ofli)ui% level h 2.
Thegains selecte% for each case shoul% not be larger than 744.
!b" /or.each of the two cases above& compute the value of the offset an%
select that manipulation which yiel%s the smaller one. In the. analy$
sis above& assume linear' flow resistance an% G
m
B G
r
B I.
IV.'= (onsi%er the system of thD two stirre% tan. heaters shown in /igure
PIt?. 0e want to maintain temperature T3 at the %esire% set point
value using one of the steam flow rates )I or Q2 as the manipulate%
variable. <a.e the necessary computations an% %eci%e which manipu$
late% variable is better using the minimum offset as selection criterion.
The following information I' given
!a" /low rates FI, Fl, an% F3 remain constant at .their stea%y state
values.
!b" Temperature *I is the main %isturbance.
!c" The %ynamics of the two heaters are given by the following e)ua$
tions ..
T
2
(s) !&1& T1(s) + EF-E Qi(S)
:4s + I 4s + I
, . I ,- .1,
TJ(s) !/&.& T
2
(s) G E.$. &.E Q2(S)
-#. l0s + I l0s + 1
!%" (onsi%er a 745step increase in the value of the %isturbance T, in
or%er to compute the offset of the close%$loop responses.
!e" The controller is proportional& while the thermocouples an% control
valves have transfer functions e)ual to unity.
(f) The following restrictions must be satisfie% by the Hcontroller gain
744 H K,. ~ 4.7
IV.'l +epeat Problem IV.'= but use the following %ynamics for the two
heaters
1-
, 1 , ..12&
T2(s) !,3&.& T1(s) +&. ,. QI(S)
5s + 7 5s + 7
$ 7$$& 4-$$
TJ(s) !++& T
2
(s) + &. -'Q2(S)
s+l s+!
Part IV
376
Analysis and Design of Feedback
'01 Systems
Chapter 17
IV.52 Prove analytically the expressions for the .amplitude ~atio and phase
shift of the ultimate response for the following systems. .
a! "wo firstCorder systems in series $
%! &econdCorder system
c! Pl' controller
d! Pure capacitive process
IV.53 &(etch the )ode plots and *y+uist diagrams for the systems with the
following transfer functions,
-.
a! G(s) s(s ! 5!
5.
c! G(s) (s ! 2!2
s+l
%! G(s) s(s ! 5!
s-2
"d# (;(s) (s / 2!2
lOe-s 1$ e% $ & ' I s
e! G(s) (s ! 1)(s ! 3! "0 G(s) (s ! l)(s ! 3!
1 1
( ) G(
s) '. .. h! G(s) 2 01 6
g S2 ! 3s ! 1 s ! s +
IV.50 &(etch the )ode plots and *y+ui~t diagrams o~ openCloop transfer
functions with the following dynarnic components.
a! 2s! 3-3 Gm(s) .~45't& ' Gc(s) -.5 Gf(s) -

p . s ! l$ . O.Ols ! -
%! G,(s) - .'~ 2$ Gm(s) - ..455 G,(s) - -6 - ! ..
-
-.!. G/(s) - -
!
5 Gm(s) (& & 3-35 Gc(s) -5 G/(s) -.
c! Gp(s (s ! l)(s ! 2!$ .7Is ! -
) * Gm(s) 8 -5 G,(s)= -.-! +, #* Gf(s) 8 ,
d! Gp(s) S2 ! 4s ! - 6 . s
- (s) - Gm(s) . 3-35 Gc(s) -.- ! .~ !.
(e),p SS2 ! 2s ! 6$ s ! - .$ s
-.
Gf(s) s ! -.
IV.55 "a%le PlV.3 shows the amplitude ratio and phase lag values o,~
. un(nown system at various fre+uencies. a! 'etermme the order . t e
. un(nown system. %! 9xamine it for dead time. c! :ompute the values
of the system parameters e.g.5 static gain5 time constant7 or. K
p
, -$5 1
. etc.! and the value of dead time if the system possesses dead time.
IV.56 ;epeat Pro%lem IV.55 using the amplitude ratio and phase lag values
given in "a%le PIV<.
Part IV Ani and Design of Feedback Control Systems /
"<)=9PIV.3 "<)=9PIV.0 "<)=9PIV.5
>re+uency
c P
>re+uency
c P
>re+uency
c P
cycles?min! AR deg! cycles?min! AR deg! cycles?min! AR deg!
...- -. C..63 ...- 5... C..23 ...- -- C-.04
...5 4.44 C@.-5 ...5 5..5 C-.-3 ...2$ -6.44 C2.4A
..-. 4.44 C6.3. ..-. 5.2. C2.34 ..-. -6.6- C-0.-5
-.. 4.45 C63..- ..2. 5.43 C5.00 ..3. -0.02 C0-.2-
3.. 4.5A C-AA.6. ..3. 7.6A C--.62 ..5. --.66 C6-.4.
5.. A.40 C3-3..0 ..0. -2.64 .... 23.46 ..7. 4.33 C--.-6
7.. A.-4 C036..6 ..5. 25... C4.... -... 6.A. C45.73
4.. 7.03 C557.65 ..6. 4.4A C-5-.34 -.5. 0.3. C--7..3
-... 7..0 C6-7.46 ..7. 5... C-63.70 2... 2.42 C-32.02
-2.. 6.0. CC737.70 ..A. 3.25 C-6A.-. 2.5. 2..7 C-00.53
-5.. 5.55 C4-5.75 ..4. 2.2. C-7..A7 3... . -.55 C-50..0
2... 0.07 C-2.4.35 -.-. -.24 C--3.06 0... ..40 C-64.23
3... 3.-6 etc. -.5. ..62 C-75.7- A... ..26 C2.A.22
0... 2.03 2... ..33 C-76.45 -.... ..-7 C223.-2
5... -.46 5... ...5 C-7A.A0 2.... ...0 C2A7.05
IV.57 ;epeat Pro%lem IV.55 using the amplitude ratio and phase$ lag values
given in "a%le PIV.&.
Chapter 10
IV.5A Bsing the )ode $sta%ility $criterion5 find which of the control systems with
the following openCloop transfer functions are sta%le and which are unstaC
%le,
-
a! 2
6 l
% 11%
S - 1
%! 2al l6 eC
3
t3
4s / -
c! -
6 l
(2s ! 1)(s ! -!
-
"d# -6 l
0.2S2 ! 0.8s -1
IV.54 :onsider the processes with the transfer functions given in Pro%lem
lV.23. 9ach of these processes is feed%ac( controlled with a proporC
tional controller. <ssume that Gm Gr 1& Bsing the )ode sta%ility
criterion5 find the range of values ofCthe proportional gain K, which
produce sta%le if it is possi%le! closedCloop responses.
IV.6. A firstCorder process with dead time has the transfer function
lOe-
1d
'
Gp(s)=--
)s ! 1
"his process is to %e controlled with a PI controller. Bse the )ode
378 Analysis and Design 6f Feedback Control Systems Part IV
stability criterion to find the range of values for the. gain K; as a
function of td so that the closed;loop response is stable. Assume that G
m
=Gj =1 and that the reset time for the PI controller is 1:/ =0.5 min.
I.!1 "epeat Problem I.#5 using the $ode stability criterion%
I.!# "epeat Problem I.#! using the $ode stability criterion.
I.!& 'sing the $ode stability criterion% find the range of Xc values that
stabili(e the unstable process
I
Gp(s)=--
s-5
)he controller is proportional and G =Gj =1 .
I.!* +ompute the phase and gain margins for the feedbac, systems -it. the
open;loop transfer functions given in Problem I:5/. 0n the ba1I1of
these values% find -hich systems are stable and -hich are not.
I.!5 1uppose that the gain% time constant% and dead time of a process -ith
10e;02
ls
Gp(s)=0.5s+ 1
are ,no-n -ith a possible error of 3#04 of their values. +ompute the
largest permissible gain K; of a proportional controller so that the
dosed;loop response is al-ays stable. Assume that Gm =Gj =1 .
I.!! "epeat Problem I.&5 but use the 6iegler;7i.hols tu.ing techni8ue
instead of the I19 criterion. +ompare the 6iegler;7ichols settings
found here -ith those found in Problem I.&5.
I.!: 'sing the 6iegler;7ichols settings% compute the gain of the propor;
tional controller of Problem I%*I.
I.!/ +ompute the 6iegler;7ichols settings for the PII< controller.ofPl=oblem
I%*&. +ompare them to the +ohen;+oon settings found 1 1 1 Problem
I%*&. Assume that the appro>imate values of K, )% and td found from
the process reaction curve are not very reliable. +ompute the I.ercent
error in the values of K, )% and td -hich can be tolerated by the .6iegler;
7ichols settings before the closed;loop response becomes unstable.
I.!5 ?a@ +ompute the 6iegler;7ichols settings for the controller of the feed;
bac, loop sho-n in Aigure PI.&a.
?b@ +ompare them to the +ohen;+oon sett.ngsfou.ndin Problem I%**
(e) .Bhich settings are better< )o ans-er this 8uestIo.% comp.tethe:I119
of the closed;loop response to a unit step change 1 1 1 set pomt for the
t-o different sets of controller settings.
?d@ +ompute the tolerance of the 6iegler;7ichols settings to an error in
the process static gain. ..C.. = . .
DEuestion ?c@ involves lengthy analytic computations and can be omit;
ted.F
379
I.:0 "epeat Problem I.!5 but for the controller of the feedbac, loop sho-n
in Aigure PI.&b. +ompute the tolerance of the 6iegler;7ichols settings
to errors in the process or measurement dead times.
I.:1 )able PI.I sho-s the e>perimental process reaction curve of an open;
loop system -ith a PI controller.
?a@ Appro>imate the process by a first;order system -ith dead time
?i.e.% find the values of the static gain K, time constant )% and dead
time td).
?b@ 0n the basis of the appro>imation above% compute the 6iegler;
7ichols settings of the PI controller.
?c@ +ompare them to the +ohen;+oon settings -hich can be computed
from the process reaction curve and find -hich settings yield the
smaller I19 of the closed;loop response to a unit step change in set
point.
?d@ +ompute the tolerance of the 6iegler;7ichols and +ohen;+oon
settings to errors in static gain K, time constant )% or =dead time td.
Bhich settings possess larger tolerance<
I.:# "epeat Problem I.:1 but use the process reaction curve data given in
)able PI.#. .
I.. :& 'sing the 7y8uist stability. criterion% find -hich of the closed;loop
systems of Problem I.5* are stable and -hich are not.
I%%:* 9>amine the stability of the closed;loop systems -hose open;loop trans;
fer functions are given in Problem I.5/. 9mploy the 7y8uist criterion
for your analysis. .
I.:5 'se the 7y8uist criterion and find the range of K; values that yield
stable closed;loop response for
?a@ )he feedbac, loop described in Problem I.!0.
?b@ )he proportion..lly controlled unstable process of Problem I.!&.
I.:! +onsider the open;loop $ode plots described by the data of )ables
PI.& through PI.5.
?a@ Gra- the corresponding 7y8uist plots.
?b@ 'sing the 7y8uist criterion% e>amine the stability of the
corresponding closed;loop systems.
?c@ +ompute the corresponding gain and phase margins.
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Chemical Process Control: An Introduction to Theory and Practice

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Chemical Process Control: An Introduction to Theory and Practice

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P T R PRENTICE HALL INTERNATIONAL SERIES

IN THE PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL ENGINEERING SCIENCES

T2 "!1 """ """ ~ """"""""

!everal features of the plot of Figure 10.4 arecharacteristic of the

=L/2g, %(1 =4I1L/pgR2, and p =gc/2pg and take

+ *( = $ + sm t with y"(#) A y'(#) A y(#) =)

0. 1hat are the relative advantages and disadvantages of the proportional,

Sketch qualitatively these two responses.

a! 2s! 3-3 Gm(s) .~45't& ' Gc(s) -.5 Gf(s) -

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