ADVANCE COMPUTER NETWORK

UNIT I
INTRODUCTION
Syllabus
Requirements, Network architecture, Networking principles, Network services and Layered architecture, Future
networks (Internet , AT , !a"le T#, $ireless % &luetooth, $i'Fi, $i'a(, !ell phone)
1.1 Introducton
A network is a set o* devices (o*ten re*erred to as nodes) connected "y communication links+ A node can "e a
computer, printer, or any other device capa"le o* sending and,or receiving data generated "y other nodes on the
network+
Network can classi*ied as
&y !ommunication odes- .imple(, /al* 0uple( and Full 0uple(+
&y .cale - LAN, $AN, AN, 1AN etc
&y !onnection ethod- 1oint to 1oint or ultipoint ethod
&y Transmission edia - 2thernet, 3ptical Fi"er, $ireless
&y Network Topology - &us, star, Ring, esh Topology etc
&y anagement ethod- 1eer'to'1eer or !lient,server &ased
1.! R"#ur"$"nts
The 4rst step is to identi*y the set o* constraints and requirements that in5uence network design+ &e*ore
getting started, however, it is important to understand that the e(pectations you have o* a network depend on
your perspective-
An application programmer would list the services that his application needs, *or e(ample, a guarantee
that each message the application sends will "e delivered without error within a certain amount o* time+
A network designer would list the properties o* a cost'e**ective design, *or e(ample, that network
resources are e**iciently utili6ed and *airly allocated to di**erent users+
A network provider would list the characteristics o* a system that is easy to administer and manage, *or
e(ample, in which *aults can "e easily isolated and where it is easy to account *or usage+
R"#ur"$"nt 1% Conn"ct&ty
Network must provide connectivity among a set o* computers+ .ometimes it is enough to "uild a limited
network that connects only a *ew select machines+ In *act, *or reasons o* privacy and security, many private
(corporate) networks have the e(plicit goal o* limiting the set o* machines that are connected+ In contrast, other
networks (o* which the Internet is the prime e(ample) are designed to grow in a way that allows them the
potential to connect all the computers in the world+ A system that is designed to support growth to an ar"itrarily
large si6e is said to scale+ 7sing the Internet as a model, this "ook addresses the challenge o* scala"ility+
Network connectivity occurs at many di**erent levels+ At the lowest level, a network can consist o* two
or more computers directly connected "y some physical medium, such as a coa(ial ca"le or an optical 4"er+ $e
call such a physical medium a link, and we o*ten re*er to the computers it connects as nodes+ 1hysical links are
sometimes limited to a pair o* nodes (such a link is said to "e point'to'point), while in other cases, more than
two nodes may share a single physical link (such a link is said to "e multiple'access)+$hether a given link
supports point'to'point or multiple'access connectivity depends on how the node is attached to the link+ It is
also the case that multiple'access links are o*ten limited in si6e, in terms o* "oth the geographical distance they
can cover and the num"er o* nodes they can connect+ I* computer networks were limited to situations in which
all nodes are directly connected to each other over a common physical medium, then networks would either "e
very limited in the num"er o* computers they could connect, or the num"er o* wires coming out o* the "ack o*
each node would quickly "ecome "oth unmanagea"le and very e(pensive+ Fortunately, connectivity "etween
two nodes does not necessarily imply a direct physical connection "etween them8indirect connectivity may "e
achieved among a set o* cooperating nodes+
R"#ur"$"nt !% Cost'E(("ct&" R"sourc" S)arn*
9iven a collection o* nodes indirectly connected "y a nesting o* networks, it is possi"le *or any pair o* hosts to
send messages to each other across a sequence o* links and nodes+ 3* course, we want to do more than support
:ust one pair o* communicating hosts8we want to provide all pairs o* hosts with the a"ility to e(change
messages+ The question, then, is how do all the hosts that want to communicate share the network, especially i*
they want to use it at the same time; And, as i* that pro"lem isn<t hard enough, how do several hosts share the
same link when they all want to use it at the same time; To understand how hosts share a network, we need to
introduce a *undamental concept, multiple(ing, which means that a system resource is shared among multiple
users+ At an intuitive level, multiple(ing can "e e(plained "y analogy to a timesharing computer system, where
a single physical !17 is shared (multiple(ed) among multiple :o"s, each o* which "elieves it has its own
private processor+ .imilarly, data "eing sent "y multiple users can "e multiple(ed over the physical links that
make up a network+

Mult+l",n*% A system resource is shared among multiple users+ 0ata "eing sent "y multiple users can "e
multiple(ed over the physical links that make up a network+ 3ne common method is synchronous time'division
multiple(ing (.T0)+ Another ethod is F0+ In .0T limitations are- First, i* one o* the hosts does not
have any data to send, its share o* the physical link8that is, it<s time quantum or its *requency8remains idle,
even i* one o* the other host has data to transmit+ .econd, "oth .T0 and F0 are limited to situations in
which the ma(imum num"er o* 5ows is 4(ed and known ahead o* time+
Statstcal Mult+l",n*% First, it is like .T0 in that the physical link is shared over time+ 7nlike
.T0, however, data is transmitted *rom each 5ow on demand rather than during a predetermined time slot+
.tatistical multiple(ing de4nes an upper "ound on the si6e o* the "lock o* data that each 5ow is permitted to
transmit at a given time+ This limited'si6e "lock o* data is typically re*erred to as a packet+
R"#ur"$"nt -% Su++ort (or Co$$on S"r&c"s
The ne(t requirement o* a computer network is that the application programs running on the hosts connected to
the network must "e a"le to communicate in a meaning*ul way+ $hen two application programs need to
communicate with each other, there are a lot o* complicated things that need to happen "eyond simply sending a
message *rom one host to another+ 3ne option would "e *or application design'users to "uild all that
complicated *unctionality into each application program+ /owever, since many applications need common
services, it is much more logical to implement those common services once and then to let the application
designer "uild the application using those services+ The challenge *or a network designer is to identi*y the right
set o* common services+ The goal is to hide the comple(ity o* the network *rom the application without overly
constraining the application designer+ Intuitively, we view the network as providing logical channels over which
application'level processes can communicate with each other= each channel provides the set o* services required
"y that application+ In other words, :ust as use a cloud to a"stractly represent connectivity among a set o*
computers, think o* a channel as connecting one process to another+
The common services provided "y the network are-
>) !onversational .ervices such as #oice, #ideo telephony
?) .treaming .ervices like real time audio'video transmission and Television etc
@) Interactive .ervices like the $orld $ide $e"
A) &est 2**ort .ervices such as ail trans*er, File Trans*er etc
The common services provided "y networks are Authentication services, 0irectory services, 0ynamic /ost
con*iguration .ervices (0/!1), 0omain Name .ervices (0N.), 2'mail .ervices and Network Access services
etc+
1.- N"t.or/ Arc)t"ctur"0 N"t.or/n* Prnc+l"s0 N"t.or/ S"r&c"s and 1ay"r"d Arc)t"ctur"
A computer network must provide general, cost e**ective, *air, and ro"ust connectivity among a large num"er o*
computers+ As i* this weren<t enough, networks do not remain 4(ed at any single point in time, "ut must evolve
to accommodate changes in "oth the underlying technologies upon which they are "ased as well as changes in
the demands placed on them "y application programs+ 0esigning a network to meet these requirements is no
small task+ To help deal with this comple(ity, network designers have developed general "lueprints8usually
called network architectures8that guide the design and implementation o* networks+

1ay"rn* and Protocols% $hen a system gets comple(, the system designer introduces another level o*
a"straction+ The idea o* an a"straction is to de4nes a uni*ying model that can capture some important aspect o*
the system, encapsulate this model in an o":ect that provides an inter*ace that can "e manipulated "y other
components o* the system, and hide the details o* how the o":ect is implemented *rom the users o* the o":ect+
The challenge is to identi*y a"stractions that simultaneously provide a service that proves use*ul in a large
num"er o* situations and that can "e e**iciently implemented in the underlying system+ A"stractions naturally
lead to layering, especially in network systems+ The general idea is that you start with the services o**ered "y
the underlying hardware, and then add a sequence o* layers, each providing a higher (more a"stract) level o*
service+ The services provided at the high layers are implemented in terms o* the services provided "y the low
layers+ 0rawing on the discussion o* requirements given in the previous section, *or e(ample, we might imagine
a simple network as having two layers o* a"straction sandwiched "etween the application program and the
underlying hardware, as illustrated in Figure+ The layer immediately a"ove the hardware in this case might
provide host'to'host connectivity, a"stracting away the *act that there may "e an ar"itrarily comple( network
topology "etween any two hosts+ The ne(t layer up "uilds on the availa"le host'to'host communication service
and provides support *or process'to'process channels, a"stracting away the *act that the network occasionally
loses messages, *or e(ample+
2*ur"% 1ay"r"d N"t.or/ Syst"$
Layering provides two nice *eatures+ First, it decomposes the pro"lem o* "uilding a network into more
managea"le components+ Rather than implementing a monolithic piece o* so*tware that does everything you
will ever want, you can implement several layers, each o* which solves one part o* the pro"lem+ .econd, it
provides a more modular design+ I* you decide that you want to add some new service, you may only need to
modi*y the *unctionality at one layer, reusing the *unctions provided at all the other layers+ Thinking o* a system
as a linear sequence o* layers is an over simpli4cation, however+ any times there are multiple a"stractions
provided at any given level o* the system, each providing a di**erent service to the higher layers "ut "uilding on
the same low'level a"stractions+ To see this, consider the two types o* channels, one provides a request,reply
service and one supports a message stream service+ These two channels might "e alternative o**erings at some
level o* a multilevel networking system, as illustrated in Figure+
2*ur"% 1ay"r"d Syst"$s .t) alt"rnat&" abstractons
7sing this discussion o* layering as a *oundation, we are now ready to discuss the architecture o* a network
more precisely+ For starters, the a"stract o":ects that make up the layers o* a network system are called
protocols+ That is, a protocol provides a communication service that higher'level o":ects (such as application
processes, or perhaps higher'level protocols) use to e(change messages+ For e(ample, we could imagine a
network that supports a request,reply protocol and a message stream protocol, corresponding to the
request,reply and message stream channels discussed a"ove+ 2ach protocol de4nes two di**erent inter*aces+
First, it de4nes a service inter*ace to the other o":ects on the same computer that want to use its communication
services+ This service inter*ace de4nes the operations that local o":ects can per*orm on the protocol+ .econd, a
protocol de4nes a peer inter*ace to its counterpart (peer) on another machine+ This second inter*ace de4nes the
*orm and meaning o* messages e(changed "etween protocol peers to implement the communication service+
This would determine the way in which a request,reply protocol on one machine communicates with its peer on
another machine+
OSI R"("r"nc" Mod"l%
To ensure that the nationwide and worldwide data communication systems can "e developed and are compati"le
to each other, an international group o* standard has "een developed+ These standards will *it into a *ramework
which has "een developed "y the International 3rgani6ation o* standardi6ation+ This *ramework is called as
odel *or 3pen system Interconnection (3.I) and known as 3.I re*erence model+
2unctonalt"s us"d n "ac) OSI 1ay"r ar" as (ollo.s%
P)yscal
1ay"r
!oncerned with transmitting raw "its over a communication channel, make and "reak
connection, de*ine voltage and data rates, convert digital signal into electric signal+
Data 1n/ &reaking the data into *rames and transmit them sequentially, .ynchroni6ation, error detection
and correction etc+
N"t.or/ Internetworking, Addressing, Routing, 1acketi6ing and Fragmenting+
Trans+ort 1acketi6ing, !onnection !ontrol, Addressing, Accepts data *rom a"ove layers, split into
smaller units and passes to the network layer, and ensure that the pieces all arrive correctly at
the other end, ultiple(ing etc
A++lcaton Retrans*erring *iles o* In*ormation, Login, 1assword !hecking etc, 0ata"ase Access, 2'mail
and File trans*er+
Protocols us"d n "ac) OSI 1ay"r ar" as (ollo.s%
P)yscal 1ay"r R.?@? or R.AAB
Data 1n/ Remote !ontrol, C+?D, 3.1F
N"t.or/ I1, I!1, I91, AR1, RAR1, RI1, &91
Trans+ort RT1, T!1, 701
A++lcaton /TT1, FT1, TFT1, T2LN2T, 0/!1, 0N., .N1, NF., NT1
N"t.or/n* d"&c"s us"d n "ac) OSI 1ay"r ar" as (ollo.s%
P)yscal
1ay"r
Repeaters, 1assive and Active /u"s, terminators, Transmitters, receivers, ultiple(ers etc
Data 1n/ &ridges, Intelligent /u"s, Network Inter*aces, .witches
N"t.or/ Router and 9ateways
Trans+ort '
A++lcaton 9ateways
0i**erence "etween 3.0I and T!1,I1 odels are as *ollows-
1rotocols in the 3.I model are hidden and can "e replaced easily as the technology changes, which is one o*
the main o":ectives o* layered protocols+
3.I odel is developed "e*ore protocols, hence *unctionalities in each layer are not very optimi6ed+ In
T!1,I1, protocols are invented "e*ore odel, hence *unctionalities are per*ectly descri"ed+
In 3.I, there are E layers, while in T!1,I1 there are A layers+
In 3.I, &oth communications are supported in the network layer, "ut only connection'oriented
communication in the transport layer+ In T!1,I1 connectionless mode is supported in network and "oth
modes in transport layer are supported+
1resentation and session layers are not present in T!1,I1 model+ .ession layer characteristic are provided "y
the transport layer while 1resentation Layer services are provided "y the application layer+
0ata 2ncapsulation- ($ith e(ample)
A packet is "orn, the packet is wrapped in a header "y the *irst protocol (say, the TFT1 protocol), then the
whole thing (TFT1 header included) is encapsulated again "y the ne(t protocol (say, 701), then again "y the
ne(t (I1), then again "y the *inal protocol on the hardware (physical) layer (say, 2thernet)+ $hen another
computer receives the packet, the hardware strips the 2thernet header, the kernel strips the I1 and 701 headers,
the TFT1 program strips the TFT1 header, and it *inally has the data+
Networking 1rinciples-
>) Networks provide the in*rastructure to support agency "usiness and administrative processes+
?) Networks must "e operational, relia"le and availa"le *or essential "usiness processes and mission critical
"usiness operations+
@) Networks must "e designed *or growth, *le(i"ility and adapta"ility+
A) Networks must use industry'proven mainstream technologies "ased on industry'wide open standards
and open architecture+
D) Networks must "e designed with con*identiality and security o* data as a high priority+
F) Network access must "e a *unction o* authentication and authori6ation and not o* location+
E) Networks must "e designed to support converged services while accommodating traditional data, voice
and video services and should "e application aware in the delivery o* "usiness critical application
systems+
Network .ervices- The various services provided "y the network are - Authentication services, 0irectory, 0/!1
(0ynamic /ost !on*iguration 1rotocol), 0N. (0omain Name .erver), ail .ervices, Network *ile .ervices,
.haring and remote login etc +

1.3 2utur" n"t.or/s 4Int"rn"t 0 ATM 0 Cabl" TV0 Wr"l"ss 5 6lu"toot)0 W'20 W'Ma,0 C"ll +)on"7
$ireless Networks- $ireless technologies di**er in a variety o* dimensions, most nota"ly in &andwidth they
provide, /ow *ar apart communicating nodes can "e, $hich part o* the electromagnetic spectrum they use
(including whether it requires a license) and /ow much power they consume (important *or mo"ile nodes)+
There are "asically two types-
>) Fi(ed $ireless systems- There is no mo"ility or less mo"ility+ .imilar to conventional LAN e(cept *or the
di**erent that it does not need any ca"ling+
?) o"ile wireless systems- .upport mo"ility o* computing devices used to access resource o* wireless
network+ Thus supports high e**iciency, well utili6ation+ 2(ample includes smart phones, personal digital
assistants and pagers with Internet access+
0i**erent wireless technologies are- ?9 and @9 technologies, $ireless LAN, $i'a(, $ireless Local Loop
($LLs), Radio'Router technology, ultihop $ireless network and $ireless Application protocol
WMA8%
$iAC stands *or worldwide Interopera"ility *or icrowave Access+ It is "ased on I222 GH?+>F standard+
0ata communication over long distance in di**erent ways' including 11 link 7se*ul *or providing wireless
"road"and access to those area where we do not have a good copper network or ca"le T# network+ Advantages
are Interopera"ility and operate in *requency "and o* @+@ to @+A9/6+ $iAC provides up to EH "ps to a
single su"scri"er station+ The physical layer protocols provide two ways to divide the "andwidth "etween
upstream (i+e+, *rom su"scri"ers to "ase station) and downstream tra**ic- time division duple(ing (T00) and
*requency division duple(ing (F00)+
In order to adapt to di**erent *requency "ands and di**erent conditions, $iAC de4nes several physical layer
protocols+ The original $iAC physical layer protocol is designed to use *requencies in the >H to FF 9/6
range+ In this range waves travel in straight lines, so communication is limited to line'o*'sight (L3.)+ A
$iAC "ase station uses multiple antennas pointed in di**erent directions= the area covered "y one antenna<s
signal is a sector+ To e(tend $iAC to near'line'o*'sight and non line'o*'sight situations, several physical layer
protocols were added that use the *requencies "elow >> 9/6 (in the >H to >> 9/6 range, $iAC can use either
the original physical layer or one o* the newer ones)+ .ince this range includes "oth licensed and license'e(empt
*requencies, each o* these physical layer protocols de4nes a variant "etter adapted to the additional inter*erence
and the regulatory constraints o* the license'e(empt *requencies+ The physical layer protocols provide two ways
to divide the "andwidth "etween upstream (i+e+, *rom su"scri"ers to "ase station) and downstream tra**ic- time
division duple(ing (T00) and *requency division duple(ing (F00)+
T00 is simply .T0 o* the two streams= they take turns using the same *requency, and the proportion o*
upstream to downstream time can "e varied dynamically, adaptively, "y the "ase station+F00 is simply F0 o*
the two streams= one *requency is used *or upstream and another *or downstream+ In license'e(empt "ands, the
protocols use only T00+ &oth channels, upstream and downstream, must "e shared not :ust among the many
su"scri"er stations in a given sector, "ut also among the many $iAC connections that each su"scri"er can
have with the "ase station+ $iAC unlike GH?+>> and 2thernet is connection oriented+ 3ne reason *or this is to
"e a"le to o**er a variety o* Io. guarantees regarding properties such as latency and :itter, with the aim o*
supporting high'quality telephony and high'volume multimedia in addition to "urst data tra**ic+ This is
conceptually similar to some o* the wired last mile technologies (such as 0.L) with which $iAC is intended
to compete+
.haring o* the upstream and downstream channels is "ased on dividing them into equal'si6ed time slots+ A
$iAC *rame generally takes up multiple slots, with di**erent *rames taking di**erent num"ers o* slots+ The
downstream channel (*rom "ase to su"scri"ers) is relatively easy to su"divide into connections since only the
"ase station sends on that channel+ The "ase station simply sends addressed *rames, one a*ter the other+ 2ach
su"scri"er station in the sector receives all the *rames, "ut ignores those not addressed to one o* its connections+
In the upstream direction, how a connection gets handled depends on its Io. parameters+ .ome connections get
slots at a 4(ed rate, some get polled to determine how many slots they need currently, and some must request
slots whenever they need them+ !onnections in this last category must contend to place their requests in a
limited num"er o* upstream slots set aside *or contention+ They use an e(ponential "ack o** algorithm to
minimi6e the chance o* a collision, even on the 4rst attempt+
Wr"l"ss 1ocal 1oo+s 4W117% .upports *i(ed wireless systems+ 1rovide good "andwidth, used *or high'speed
Internet Access and data trans*er in addition to the "asic telephone service+ It "ypasses wired local loop and
thus reduces their access charges+ It is used to provide telephone and low'speed data trans*er service+
Rado Rout"r T"c)nolo*y% It is 2merging wireless technology designed to make links in an I1 network mo"ile+
It uses radio transmission *ramework *or packet "ased "road"and I1 wireless communication+ It "uilds up on the
top o* e(isting I1 in*rastructure and thus ine(pensive.
Mult)o+ Wr"l"ss N"t.or/s% I* there is no wired in*rastructure, ultihop wireless Network are used+ It is
also known as instant in*rastructure systems which provide wireless communications capa"ility in such
environments+
W'2% It is a mechanism *or wirelessly connecting electronics devices+ A device ena"led with $i'Fi, such as
personal computer, video game console, smartphones, or digital audio player can connect to the Internet via a
wireless network access point+ An access point or hotspot has a range o* a"out ?H meters indoors and a greater
range outdoors+ ultiple overlapping access points can cover large areas+ There are more than A million
hotspots and more than EHH million people using it+ $i'Fi main use is in home networking+ /otspots are also
used in various places such as co**ee shops and small alls too+ It uses spread spectrum technology called
orthogonal *requency division multiple(ing (3F0) and can achieve speeds o* up to DA mega"its per second in
the ?+A9/6 "and+

Wr"l"ss 1AN% A wireless LAN (or $LAN) is one in which a mo"ile user can connect to a local area network
through a wireless (radio) connection+ The I222 GH?+>> group o* standards speci*ies the technologies *or
wireless LANs+ 2ach device is equipped with short range transmitter and receiver to allow communication
"etween them+ The wireless LAN is standardi6ed using I222 GH?+>> standard+ Two di**erent modes- In the
presence o* &ase .tation and $ithout &ase .tation (Ad'hoc Networking)+ Architecture o* wireless LAN is as
shown in *igure+
6lu"toot)% .mall >+D inch square radio chip to "e plugged into computers, printers, mo"ile phones, etc+
&luetooth chip is designed to replace ca"les "y taking the in*ormation and transmitting it at a special *requency
to a receiver &luetooth chip, which will then give the in*ormation received to the computer, phone whatever+ It
is an open speci*ication *or short range wireless transmission o* voice and data+ It provides wireless
connectivity "etween phones, laptops and other porta"le handheld devices+ It thus provides Radio link "etween
mo"ile computers, mo"ile phones and other porta"le devices+ It creates 1AN+ (1ersonal Area Network)
Transmission o* voice and data takes place over I. *requency "and ?+A9/6+ (up to >"ps)+ It uses short
packets and *ast A!J to increase relia"ility and supports distance up to >Hm+ 0istance could "e e(tended to
>HHm "y using an ampli*ier+ It also supports encryption and authentication mechanism+
1iconet is the collection o* devices connected in an ad hoc *ashion+ 3ne unit acts as master and the others as
slaves *or the li*etime o* the piconet+ 2ach piconet has one master and up to E simultaneous slave+ aster
provides clock and device I0 to slaves+ @ "it address given to master and G "it address to slaves+ .catternet is
linking o* multiple co'located piconets through the sharing o* common master or slave devices+ 0evices can "e
slave in one piconet and master o* another+ 0evices :umps "ack and *orth "etween the piconets+
$orking- 7ses spread spectrum technology+ Frequency hopping with EB channels using each *or F?Dum at a
time+ .ynchronous Time 0ivision ultiple(ing is used+ Frame takes up >, @, or D consecutive time slots+ 3nly
the master can start to transmit in odd'num"ered slots+ A slave can start to transmit in an even'num"ered slot,
"ut only in response to a request *rom the master during the previous slot+
Advantages are low power consumption, Low cost, No license required and 7sed *or > to DHm distance+
Applications are Tra**ic control devices, "ar code scanners, edical equipment, 1!s, Laptops, o"iles and
Intelligent /ome appliances etc+ 0isadvantages are speed is limited (> "ps) while wireless networks support
DA "ps+ There are used *or short 0istance (Typically DH m) and .ecurity Limitation as it uses speci*ic
sequence o* channel hopping+
A slave device can "e parked- set to an inactive, low'power state+ A parked device cannot communicate on the
piconet= it can only "e reactivated "y the master+ A piconet can have up to ?DD parked devices in addition to its
active slave devices+ Kig&ee is a newer technology that competes with &luetooth to some e(tent+ 0evised "y the
Kig&ee alliance and standardi6ed as I222 GH?+>D+A, it is designed *or situations where the "andwidth
requirements are low and power consumption must "e very low to give very long "attery li*e+ It is also intended
to "e simpler and cheaper than &luetooth, making it *inancially *easi"le to incorporate in cheaper devices such
as a wall switch that wirelessly communicates with a ceiling'mounted *an+
Ad'9oc Wr"l"ss N"t.or/s%
An ad'hoc wireless network is a collection o* wireless mo"ile hosts *orming a temporary network without the
aid o* any esta"lished in*rastructure or centrali6ed control+ Ad'hoc wireless networks were traditionally o*
interest to the military+ Throughout the EHs and GHs 0AR1A *unded much work in the design o* ad'hoc packet
radio networks= however the per*ormance o* these networks was somewhat disappointing+ Ad'hoc wireless
networking is e(periencing a resurgence o* interest due to new applications and improved technology+ These
networks are now "eing considered *or many commercial applications including in'home networking, wireless
LANs, nomadic computing, and short'term networking *or disaster relie*, pu"lic events, and temporary o**ices+
&oth the I222 GH?+>> and wireless LAN standards support ad'hoc wireless networking within a small area, and
wider area networks are currently under development+
Ad'hoc networks require a peer'to'peer architecture, and the topology o* the network depends on the location o*
the di**erent users, which changes over time+ In addition, since the propagation range o* a given mo"ile is
limited, the mo"ile may need to enlist the aid o* other mo"iles in *orwarding a packet to its *inal destination+
Thus the end'to'end connection "etween any two mo"ile hosts may consist o* multiple wireless hops+ It is a
signi*icant technical challenge to provide relia"le high'speed end'to'end communications in ad'hoc wireless
networks given their dynamic network topology, decentrali6ed control, and multihop connections+
!urrent research in ad'hoc wireless network design is *ocused on distri"uted routing+ 2very mo"ile host in a
wireless ad'hoc network must operate as a router in order to maintain connectivity in*ormation and *orward
packets *rom other mo"iles+ Routing protocols designed *or wired networks are not appropriate *or this task,
since they either lack the a"ility to quickly re*lect the changing topology, or may require e(cessive overhead+
1roposed approaches to distri"uted routing that quickly adapt to changing network topology without e(cessive
overhead include dynamic source and associativity "ased routing+ 3ther protocols that address some o* the
di**iculties in supporting multimedia applications over ad'hoc wireless networks include rate'adaptive
compression, power control, and resource allocation through radio clustering+
C"ll P)on"s% A cell phone is a essentially a "attery powered microprocessor with one or more wireless
transmitters and receivers optimi6ed *or voice communication+ .imple cell phone model provides a key"oard,
an L!0 screen and a general purpose computing plat*orm, typically supporting Lava? o"ile 2dition (L?2) or
+N2T compact A1Is+ ore sophisticated model provides a !amera, D&'?H& o* storage space, *ull color
screen, multiple wireless inter*aces and even a I$2RTM keypad+ !ell phones must have a glo"ally unique per'
use, hard'to'*orge identi*ier called the International o"ile .u"scri"er Identi*ier (I.I>)+ I.I are allocated "y
cell phone providers and allow them to track and "ill *or usage+ A cell phone provider maintains comprehensive
data"ases, called the /ome Location Register (/LR) that keeps track o* the current location o* each I.I, its
usage and associated su"scri"er in*ormation, such as credit card num"er, or prepaid usage authori6ation+
A cell phone that wants to send or receive I1 packets starts "y requesting a packet data protocol conte(t *rom
the cell phone provider+ This conte(t assigns it a packet data protocol, a corresponding I1 address, a quality o*
services speci*ication and optionally a 0NA Name+ This protocol allows the cell phone network to associate the
cell phone<s unique I0 (I.I) with its I1 address+ Therea*ter, standard cell phone location ensures that packets
are sent to the !ell phones+
ATM
AT stands *or Asynchronous Trans*er ode+ AT "ecame an important technology in the >BGHs and early
>BBHs *or a variety o* reasons, not the least o* which is that it was em"raced "y the telephone industry, which
has historically "een less than active in data communications e(cept as a supplier o* links on top o* which other
people have "uilt networks+ AT also happened to "e in the right place at the right time, as a high'speed
switching technology that appeared on the scene :ust when shared media like 2thernet and GH?+D were starting
to look a "it too slow *or many users o* computer networks+ In some ways AT is a competing technology with
2thernet switching, "ut the areas o* application *or these two technologies only partially overlap+
AT is a connection'oriented, packet'switched technology, which is to say, it uses virtual circuits+ In AT
terminology, the connection setup phase is called signaling+ The main AT signaling protocol is known as
I+?B@>+ In addition to discovering a suita"le route across an AT network, I+?B@> is also responsi"le *or
allocating resources at the switches along the circuit+ This is done in an e**ort to ensure the circuit a particular
quality o* service+ Indeed, the Io. capa"ilities o* AT are one o* its greatest strengths+ $hen any virtual
connection is set up, it is necessary to put the address o* the destination in the signaling message+ In AT, this
address can "e in one o* several *ormats, the most common ones "eing 2+>FA and N.A1 (network service
access point)= they are di**erent *rom the A! addresses used in traditional LANs+
3ne thing that makes AT really unusual is that the packets that are switched in an AT network are o* *i(ed
length+ That length happens to "e D@ "ytes (D "ytes o* header *ollowed "y AG "ytes o* payload)+ To distinguish
these *i(ed'length packets *rom the more common varia"le'length packets normally used in computer networks,
they are given a special name- cells+ AT may "e thought o* as the canonical e(ample o* cell switching+
UNIT II
ADVANCED TEC9NO1O:IES
Syllabus
#irtual circuits, *i(ed si6e packets, small si6e packets, integrated service, /istory, !hallenges, AT Network
protocols, I1 over AT, $ireless networks- $ireless communication "asics, architecture, mo"ility
management, wireless network protocols+ Ad'hoc networks &asic concepts, routing= &luetooth (GH?+>D+>), $i'
Fi (GH?+>>), $iAC (GH?+>F), and 3ptical Network- links, $0 system, 3ptical LANs, 3ptical paths and
networks+
!.1 Vrtual Crcuts
A widely used technique *or packet switching, which di**ers signi*icantly *rom the datagram model, uses the
concept o* a virtual circuit (#!)+ This approach, which is also called a connection'oriented model, requires that
we *irst set up a virtual connection *rom the source host to the destination host "e*ore any data is sent+ To
understand how this works, consider Figure, where host A again wants to send packets to host &+ $e can think
o* this as a two'stage process+
The *irst stage is Nconnection setup+O The second is data trans*er+ $e consider each in turn+ In the connection
setup phase, it is necessary to esta"lish Nconnection stateO in each o* the switches "etween the source and
destination hosts+ The connection state *or a single connection consists o* an entry in a N#! ta"leO in each
switch through which the connection passes+ 3ne entry in the #! ta"le on a single switch contains a virtual
circuit identifier (#!I) that uniquely identi*ies the connection at this switch and that will "e carried inside the
header o* the packets that "elong to this connection, an incoming inter*ace on which packets *or this #! arrive
at the switch, an outgoing inter*ace in which packets *or this #! leave the switch and a potentially di**erent #!I
that will "e used *or outgoing packets+
The semantics o* one such entry is as *ollows- I* a packet arrives on the designated incoming inter*ace and that
packet contains the designated #!I value in its header, then that packet should "e sent out the speci*ied
outgoing inter*ace with the speci*ied outgoing #!I value *irst having "een placed in its header+ Note that the
com"ination o* the #!I o* packets as they are received at the switch and the inter*ace on which they are
received uniquely identi*ies the virtual connection+ There may o* course "e many virtual connections
esta"lished in the switch at one time+ Also, we o"serve that the incoming and outgoing #!I values are generally
not the same+ Thus, the #!I is not a glo"ally signi*icant identi*ier *or the connection= rather, it has signi*icance
only on a given link8that is, it has link local scope+ $henever a new connection is created, we need to assign a
new #!I *or that connection on each link that the connection will traverse+ $e also need to ensure that the
chosen #!I on a given link is not currently in use on that link "y some e(isting connection+
There are two "road classes o* approach to esta"lishing connection state+ 3ne is to have a network administrator
con*igure the state, in which case the virtual circuit is Npermanent+O 3* course, it can also "e deleted "y the
administrator, so a permanent virtual circuit (1#!) might "est "e thought o* as a long'lived or administratively
con*igured #!+ Alternatively, a host can send messages into the network to cause the state to "e esta"lished+
This is re*erred to as signaling, and the resulting virtual circuits are said to "e switched+ The salient
characteristic o* a switched virtual circuit (.#!) is that a host may set up and delete such a #! dynamically
without the involvement o* a network administrator+
A virtual circuit is one which appears to the user as equivalent to a dedicated point'point service "ut is
maintained "y computers+ It will usually transport data at a guaranteed rate ("it,s) and with guaranteed
relia"ility and error rate+ Internally in*ormation is carried "y many small packets, each with a short virtual
circuit num"er which identi*ies its virtual circuit over that physical link+ #! changes as the packet is switched
"y a switch or router *rom one incoming link to an outgoing link, as per the routing ta"les+ It is the com"ination
o* entries in the routing ta"les o* successive switches which de*ines the end'to'end virtual circuits+ 2nd to 2nd
Routing ta"les are used during call esta"lishment (and are identical to the routing ta"les used all the time *or
datagrams)+ #irtual !ircuit routing ta"les are set up *rom the route discovered "y call esta"lishment+ For each
packet, they map *rom PinputQport, inputQ#!R to PoutputQport, outputQ#!R+
Vrtual Crcuts S.tc)n*% In #! switching e(plicit connection setup (and tear'down) phase+ .u"sequence
packets *ollow same circuit+ This is also known as connection'oriented model+ Typically wait *ull RTT *or
connection setup "e*ore sending *irst data packet+ $hile the connection request contains the *ull address *or
destination, each data packet contains only a small identi*ier, making the per'packet header overhead small+ I* a
switch or a link in a connection *ails, the connection is "roken and a new one needs to "e esta"lished+
!onnection setup provides an opportunity to reserve resources+

2(ample-
Let<s assume that a network administrator wants to manually create a new virtual connection *rom host A to host
&+ First the administrator identi*ies a path through the network *rom A to &+ The administrator then picks a #!I
value that is currently unused on each link *or the connection+ For a"ove e(ample, suppose the #!I value D is
chosen *or the link *rom host A to switch >+ >> is chosen *or the link *rom switch > to switch ?+ .o the switch >
will have an entry in the #! ta"le+
Incoming Inter*ace Incoming #! 3utgoing Inter*ace 3utgoing #!
? D > >>
.imilarly, suppose #!I o* E is chosen to identi*y this connection on the link *rom switch ? to switch @+ #!I o* A
is chosen *or the link *rom switch @ to host &+ .witches ? and @ are con*igured with the *ollowing #! ta"le+
Incoming Inter*ace Incoming #! 3utgoing Inter*ace 3utgoing #!
@ >> ? E
Incoming Inter*ace Incoming #! 3utgoing Inter*ace 3utgoing #!
H E > A
For any packet that A wants to send to &, A puts the #!I value D in the header o* the packet and sends it to
switch >+ .witch > receives any such packet on inter*ace ?, and it uses the com"ination o* the inter*ace and the
#!I in the packet header to *ind the appropriate #! ta"le entry+ The ta"le entry on switch > tells the switch to
*orward the packet out o* inter*ace > and to put the #!I value >> in the header+
1acket will arrive at switch ? on inter*ace @ "earing #!I >>+ .witch ? looks up inter*ace @ and #!I >> in its #!
ta"le and sends the packet on to switch @ a*ter updating the #!I value appropriately+ This process continues
until it arrives at host & with the #!I value o* A in the packet+ To host &, this identi*ies the packet as having
come *rom host A+
Data*ra$ S.tc)n*% No connection setup phase is present+ 2ach packet *orwarded independently+ It is also
known as connectionless model+ There is no round trip delay waiting *or connection setup= a host can send data
as soon as it is ready+ .ource host has no way o* knowing i* the network is capa"le o* delivering a packet or i*
the destination host is even up+ .ince packets are treated independently, it is possi"le to route around link and
node *ailures+ .ince every packet must carry the *ull address o* the destination, the overhead per packet is
higher than *or the connection'oriented model+
.ynchronous Trans*er ode is used in telephone networks+ Time division multiple(ed synchronous trans*er
mode share a physical link+ .T has two ma:or pro"lems- 7nused time slots get wasted and "andwidth get
wasted+
AT (Asynchronous trans*er mode) is a standard *or cell (small and *i(ed si6e) relay+ AT networks are
connection'oriented+ AT is high speed trans*er technology *or voice, video and data over pu"lic networks+
AT uses asynchronous T0 *or multiple(ing cells *rom di**erent channels+ AT stands *or Asynchronous
Trans*er ode+ It com"ines the *le(i"ility o* the Internet and Iuality'o*'service issues o* the telephone
network+ AT networks are "ased on some important concepts- #irtual !ircuits, Fi(ed .i6e packets or cells,
.mall packet si6e, .tatistical multiple(ing and Integrated .ervices+ Asynchronous trans*er mode is as shown in
*igure+
!.! 2,"d S;" Pac/"ts and S$all Pac/"t s;"
Fi(ed si6e packets are used in AT- .ome advantages are simpler "u**er hardware is required+ 1acket arrival
and departure requires us to manage *i(ed "u**er si6es+ .impler line scheduling is used as each cell takes a
constant chunk o* "andwidth to transmit+ It is also easier to "uild large parallel packet switches+ &ecause o*
*i(ed si6e packets there is overhead *or sending small amounts o* data+ 1ackets must "e segmented and
reassem"led hence segmentation and reassem"ly cost involves+ Last un*illed cell a*ter segmentation wastes
"andwidth
The smaller the cell, the less an endpoint has to wait to *ill it (packeti6ation delay)+ The smaller the packet, the
larger will "e the header overhead+ .tandards "ody "alanced the two to prescri"e AG "ytes S D "yte header T D@
"ytes
!.- Int"*rat"d S"r&c"s
The term NIntegrated .ervicesO (o*ten called Int.erv *or short) re*ers to a "ody o* work that was produced "y
the I2TF around >BBD%>BBE+ The Int.erv working group developed speci4cations o* a num"er o* service
classes designed to meet the needs o* various application types+ It also de4nes how R.#1 could "e used to
make reservations using these service classes+
3ne o* the service classes is designed *or intolerant applications+ These applications require that a packet never
arrive late+ The network should guarantee that the ma(imum delay that any packet will e(perience has some
speci4ed value= the application can then set its play"ack point so that no packet will ever arrive a*ter its
play"ack time+ Assumed that early arrival o* packets can always "e handled "y "u**ering+ This service is
re*erred to as the guaranteed service+ In addition to the guaranteed service, the I2TF considered several other
services, "ut eventually settled on one to meet the needs o* tolerant, adaptive applications+ The service is known
as controlled load and was motivated "y the o"servation that e(isting applications o* this type run quite well on
networks that are not heavily loaded+ The audio application vat, *or e(ample, ad:usts its play"ack point as
network delay varies, and produces reasona"le audio quality as long as loss rates remain on the order o* >HU or
less+ The aim o* the controlled load service is to emulate a lightly loaded network *or those applications that
request the service, even though the network as a whole may in *act "e heavily loaded+ The trick to this is to use
a queuing mechanism such as $FI to isolate the controlled load tra**ic *rom the other tra**ic, and some *orm
o* admission control to limit the total amount o* controlled load tra**ic on a link such that the load is kept
reasona"ly low+
The current *ive classes o* service are-
>+ &est 2**ort ' this is the traditional service model o* the Internet, as descri"ed a"ove, typically
implemented through FIF3 queuing in routers+
?+ Fair ' this is an enhancement o* the traditional model, where there are no e(tra requests *rom the users,
"ut the routers attempt to partition up network resources in some *air share sense+ This is typically
implemented using a random drop approach to overload, possi"ly com"ined with some simple round
ro"in serving o* di**erent sources+
@+ !ontrolled load ' this is an attempt to provide a guarantee that a network appears to the user as i* there is
little other tra**ic ' it makes no other guarantees ' it is really a way o* limiting the tra**ic admitted to the
network so that the per*ormance perceived is as i* the network were over'engineered *or those that are
admitted+
A+ 1redictive or controlled delay ' this is where the delay distri"ution that a particular *low perceives is
controlled ' this requires the source (or a group where it is applied collectively to all sources sending to a
group) to make some pre'statement to the routers that a particular throughput is required+ This may "e
re:ected+
D+ 9uaranteed ' this is where the delay perceived "y a particular source or to a group is "ounded within
some a"solute limit+ This may entail "oth an admission test as with @, and a more e(pensive *orwarding
queuing system+
!.3 ATM0 ATM 1ay"rs0 IP O&"r ATM
AT network is made up o* an AT switch and AT endpoints+ AT switch is responsi"le *or cell transit
through an AT network+ AT endpoint contains an AT network inter*ace adapter+ 2(amples are
workstations, routers, LAN switches etc+
AT switches support two primary types o* inter*aces- 7NI (7nser'Network Inter*ace) and NNI (Network'
Network Inter*ace)+ The 7NI connects AT end systems to an AT switch+ The NNI connects two AT
switches+ It could also "e *urther divided into private and pu"lic 7NI or NNI+
AT cell is D@ "ytes long+ AG "ytes data and D "ytes are allocated *or header+ AT cell header can "e one o*
two *ormats- 7NI or NNI+ 7NI header is used *or communication "etween AT end points and AT switches+
NNI header is used *or communication "etween AT switches+
2*ur"% ATM C"ll 43< byt"s data and = byt"s )"ad"r7
AT networks are *undamentally connection'oriented+ /ence #! must "e set up across AT network "e*ore
data trans*er+ Two types o* AT connections e(ist- #irtual 1ath identi*ied "y #1I and #irtual channel identi*ied
"y the com"ination o* a #1I and #!I+ #1 is a "undle o* #!, all o* which are switched transparently across the
AT network "ased on the common #1I+
2*ur"% Vrtual Pat) and Vrtual Crcuts
2*ur"% ATM N"t.or/s
ATM 1ay"rs
2*ur"% ATM 1ay"rs
AAL protocols accept transmission *rom upper'layer services (e+g+, packet data) and map them into *i(ed'si6ed
AT cells+ 0ata types supported are !onstant'"it'rate (!&R) data, #aria"le'"it'rate (#&R) data, !onnection'
oriented packet data and !onnectionless packet data+
AAL> % !&R data- video, voice etc, Application require guaranteed "it rate
AAL? % #&R data
AAL@ % !onnection'oriented data
AALA % !onnectionless data
AALD % 1oint'to'point transmission without processing+
ATM 1ay"r%
AT Layer contains various *ields such as #1I (#irtual 1ath Identi*ier), #!I (#irtual !ircuit Identi*ier)
9F!- 9eneric Flow !ontrol means to ar"itrate access to a link on a shared medium+
!L1- !ell Loss 1riority which indicates that packet may "e dropped+ A cell dropped may not cause signi*icant
change in video data+
/2!- /eader 2rror !ontrol which indicates header checksum+
The AAL layer used "y the I1 protocol is AALD+ 3nly the last cell carries the G'"yte trailer added to the I1
datagram+ 1adding can "e added only to the last cell or the last two cells+ The value o* the 1T *ield is HHH in all
cells carrying an I1 datagram *ragment e(cept *or the last cell= the value is HH> in the last cell+
2*ur"% IP O&"r ATM 42ra*$"ntaton7
IP O&"r ATM
I1 over AT is a group o* components that do not necessarily reside in one place and in this case, the services
are not usually on an AT switch+ In some cases, switch vendors provide some I1 over AT support, "ut not
always+ I1 over AT approach provides several attractive advantages over 2LAN solutions+ The most o"vious
advantage are its a"ility to support Io. inter*aces, its lower overhead (as it don<t need A! header) and its
lack o* a *rame si6e limit+
ATMARP% ATAR1 *inds (maps) the physical address o* the e(iting'point router given the I1 address o* the
e(iting'point router+ No "roadcasting is involved+ ATAR1 *ormat is shown "elow-
2*ur"% ATMARP 9"ad"r 2or$at
The operation *ield can take the values > *or request, ? *or reply, G *or inverse request, B *or inverse reply and >H
*or NA!J+ The inverse request and inverse reply messages can "ind the physical address to an I1 address in a
1#! situation+ The request and reply message can "e used to "ind a physical address to an I1 address in an .#!
situation+ The inverse request and inverse reply can also "e used to "uild the server<s
mapping ta"le+
2*ur"% 6ndn* .t) PVC
2*ur"% 6ndn* .t) ATMARP
1o*cal IP Subn"t 41IS7% An AT network can "e divided into logical (not physical) su"'networks+ This
*acilitates the operation o* ATAR1 and other protocols (such as I91) that need to simulate "roadcasting on
an AT network+ LI. allows an AT network to "e divided into several logical su"nets+ To use ATAR1, we
need a separate server *or each su"net+
2*ur"% 1IS
!.= Wr"l"ss N"t.or/s% Wr"l"ss Co$$uncaton 6ascs0 Arc)t"ctur"0 $oblty Mana*"$"nt0 Wr"l"ss
N"t.or/ Protocols
$ireless is a term used to descri"e telecommunications in which electromagnetic waves carry the signal+ A
wireless network is de*ined as technology that allows two or more computers, to communicate, using standard
protocol "ut without the use o* network ca"ling+ A wireless LAN (or $LAN) is one in which a mo"ile user can
connect to a local area network through a wireless (radio) connection+ The I222 GH?+>> group o* standards
speci*ies the technologies *or wireless LANs+
Advantages o* wireless networks are-
>+ o"ility improves productivity and service+
?+ 1orta"le and *le(i"le+
@+ 2asy to install+
A+ .cala"ility ' 2asy to recon*igure+
D+ /igh speed and simplicity+
F+ Reduced overall cost
E+ akes availa"le real'time data in "roader range o* coverage areas
$orking- 2ach device is equipped with short range transmitter and receiver to allow communication "etween
them+ Two di**erent modes are used in the presence o* &ase .tation and without &ase .tation (Ad'hoc
Networking)
$LAN consist o* two main components- an Access 1oint and wireless adapters+ A "ridge and an antenna can
also "e used+ An access point looks like an e(ternal modem with two small antennae+ Radio cards are also
called $LAN cards+ The range o* an GH?+>>" $LAN is typically >HH *eet and can "e e(tended to several
hundred *eet "y using an antenna+ $ireless "ridges are similar to the wired "ridges and are used to connect two
$LANs+
2*ur"% Arc)t"ctur" o( .r"l"ss N"t.or/s
A1 (Access 1oint)
&.. (&asic .ervice .et)
2.. (2(tended .ervice .et)
Three transitions take place "etween mo"ile hosts in wireless networks+ No transition which indicates stationary
or mo"ile hosts moves only within &..+ In &.. transition, .tations moves *rom one &.. to another &.. in
same 2.. while in 2.. transition, .tation moving *rom &.. in one 2.. to &.. within another 2..
The various kinds o* services provided are as *ollows-
Dstrbuton syst"$s S"r&c"s 4DSS7
Association- oving station associates with access point+
Re'association- oving station when enters in range o* another A1, he associates with new access point+
0is'association- $hen moving *rom one &.. to another &.., old association "etween mo"ile host and old
A1 get lost+
0istri"ution- 0ata trans*er *rom one mo"ile host to another within single 2..+
Integration- Integration o* wireless technology with wired network+
Staton S"r&c"s 4SS7. The various services provided are Authentication (3pen system or .hared Jey)+ 0e'
authentication, 1rivacy and 0ata delivery
The various managements *rames used are-
Authentication Frame
0e'authentication Frame
Association request and response *rame
Re'association request and response *rame
0is'association *rame
&eacon *rame
1ro"e request *rame+
&eacon management *rame- A1 periodically sends it to announce its presence and relay in*ormation+ .tations
can select A1 as per their choice+
1ro"e request management *rame- .tation will respond with a pro"e request *rame a*ter receiving "eacon *rame+
9dd"n Nod" Probl"$%
A is sending a message to &, "ut ! is out o* its range and hence while VlisteningV on the network ! will *ind the
network to "e *ree and might try to send packets to & at the same time as A+ There will "e a collision at &+ The
pro"lem can "e looked upon as i* A and ! are hidden *rom each other+ /ence it is called the Vhidden node
pro"lemV+
E,+os"d Nod" Probl"$%
I* ! is transmitting a message to 0 and & wants to transmit a message to A, & will *ind the network to "e "usy
as & hears ! transmitting+ 2ven i* & would have transmitted to A, it would not have "een a pro"lem at A or 0+
!.A,!0 would not allow it to transmit message to A, while the two transmissions could have gone in
parallel+
!.A,!A 1rotocol- $ireless LAN adaptors cannot detect collisions+ !arrier .ensing % Listen to the media to
see i* it is *ree+ !ollision Avoidance % inimi6e chances o* collision "y starting a random "ack o** timer, when
medium is *ree and prior to transmission
0i**erence "etween wireless and wired LAN are
Wr"d 1AN Wr"l"ss 1AN
>+ 2thernet No $ire is used+
?+ I222 GH?+@ I222 GH?+>>
@+ !.A,!0 !.A,!A
A+ 7T1,!oa(ial !a"le Radio *requency
D+ 2lectrical .ignal Radio ways
F+ /igh 2**iciency Low
E+ Large range .hort
G+ Addressing is simple !omplicated
IEEE <>!.11 Arc)t"ctur"%
2*ur"% IEEE <>!.11 Arc)t"ctur"
2unctons o( +)yscal lay"r% Functions includes encoding,decoding o* signals, 1ream"le generation,removal
(*or synchroni6ation), &it transmission,reception and also includes speci*ication o* the transmission medium+ It
also provides speci*ication *or converting "its to a RF signal- F/.. (Frequency /opping .pread .pectrum),
0... (0irect .equence .pread .pectrum), 3F0 (3rthogonal Frequency 0ivision), /R'0..(/igh Rate'
0...) and 3F0 (GH?+>> g)
>+ F/..- Frequency "and is ?+A 9/6 I. &and (?+AH? % ?+AGH 9/6)+ The "and divided into EB equal su"
"ands o* > /6 each+ .ender sends one *requency *or a short period o* time, then hope to another carrier
*requency+ Thus there are N such hopping in one cycle+ The cycle repeats itsel* a*ter N hopping+ ain
advantage is that unauthori6ed person cannot understand transmitted data+
?+ 0...- Frequency "and is ?+A 9/6 I. &and+ 2ach "it is *irst converted into a group o* "its called as chip
code+ For e(ample *or H, chip code is >HHH>>, *or > chip code is >>>H>H etc+
@+ /R 0...- Frequency "and is ?+A 9/6 I. &and+ 2ncoding is also used+ A or G "its o* original data
converted into one sym"ol+
A+ 3F0- Frequency "and is D 9/6 I. &and+ &and is su" divided into D? su" "ands+ AG are used *or
sending AG groups o* "its and A are used *or sending control in*ormation+ These su" "ands are used
randomly in order to increase the security o* transmitted data+
2unctons o( $"du$ acc"ss control 4MAC7 lay"r includes- 3n transmission, assem"le data into a *rame with
address and error detection *ields, on reception, disassem"le *rame and per*orm address
recognition and error detection+ Logical link control (LL!) Layer provides an inter*ace to higher layers and
per*orm *low and error control+
Wr"l"ss N"t.or/ Protocol
The $A1 architecture provides a scala"le and e(tensi"le environment *or application development *or mo"ile
communication devices+ This is achieved through a layered design o* the entire protocol stack as shown in the
diagram+ 2ach o* the layers o* the architecture is accessi"le "y the layers a"ove as well as "y other services and
applications+ The $A1 layered architecture ena"les other services and applications to utili6e the *eatures o* the
$A1 stack through a set o* well de*ined inter*aces+ 2(ternal applications may access the session, transaction,
security and transport layers directly+
Layer F $ireless Application 2nvironment ($A2)
Layer D $ireless .ession 1rotocol ($.1)
Layer A $ireless Transaction 1rotocol ($T1)
Layer @ $ireless Transport Layer .ecurity ($TL.)
Layer ? $ireless 0atagram 1rotocol ($01)
Layer > &earer Layer (9., !0A, 91R. etc+)
1. Wr"l"ss A++lcaton En&ron$"nt 4WAE7
The $A2 provides a general purpose application environment "ased on a com"ination o* $$$ and o"ile
Telephony technologies+ The primary o":ectives is to esta"lish an interopera"le environment that will allow
operators and service providers to "uild applications and services that can reach a wide variety o* di**erent
wireless plat*orms containing the various *unctionalities such as $ireless arkup language($L), $L
.cript, $ireless Telephony Application etc+

!. Wr"l"ss S"sson Protocol 4WSP7
The $.1 provides the application layer o* $A1 with a consistent inter*ace *or two session services+ The *irst is
a connection oriented service that operates a"ove the transaction layer protocol $T1+ The second is a
connectionless service that operates a"ove a secure or non secure datagram service ($01)+

-. Wr"l"ss Transacton Protocol 4WTP7
The $T1 runs on a top o* a datagram service and provides as a light weight transaction oriented protocol that is
suita"le *or implementation in thin clients (mo"ile stations)+ $T1 operates e**iciently over secure or non secure
wireless datagram networks and provides various services such as relia"le one way request, relia"le two way
request'reply transactions etc+
3. Wr"l"ss Trans+ort 1ay"r S"curty 4WT1S7
$TL. is a security protocol "ased on the industry standard Transport Layer .ecurity (TL.) protocol *ormerly
known as .ecure .ockets Layer (..L)+ $TL. is intended *or use with the $A1 transport protocols and has
"een optimi6ed *or use over narrow'"and communication channels+ It also provides various *eatures such as
0ata integrity, privacy, Authentication and 0enial o* service 1rotection+

=. Wr"l"ss Data*ra$ Protocol 4WDP7
The transport layer protocol in the $A1 architecture is re*erred to as 201+ The 201 layer operates a"ove the
data capa"le "earer services supported "y the various network types+ As a general transport service, $01 o**ers
a consistent service to the upper layer protocols o* $A1 and communicates transparently over one o* the other
availa"le "earer services+
Internet can "e accessed on mo"ile phones+ A mo"ile phone will have a "uilt in screen *or wireless access to e'
mail and the+ .uch as system is called N$A1O A $A1 device can "e a mo"ile phone or Note"ook computer+ The
users can call a $A1 gateway over the wireless link and send we" pages requests to it+ The gateway then checks
its cache *or the requested page+ I* present, it sends it else it *etches it over the wired internet+ $A1 has two
versions- $A1>+H and $A1?+H+ The $A1>+H is a circuit switched system "ut it has a very high per minute
connect charge+ &ut $A1?+H and I'mode "ecomes success*ul+ $A1?+H uses packet switching in place o* circuit
switching+ It is designed to support a large num"er o* devices+ It has pull (data comes a*ter requesting it) and
push model (data comes without requesting it) and supports multimedia messaging+
!.? Ad')oc n"t.or/s 6asc conc"+ts0 routn*
(Re*er 7NIT F *or detail)
!.@ 6lu"toot) 4<>!.1=.170 W'2 4<>!.1170 WMA8 4<>!.1?7
(Re*er 7NIT > *or detail)
?+G O+tcal N"t.or/% ln/s0 WDM syst"$0 O+tcal 1ANs0 O+tcal +at)s and n"t.or/s.
3ur current Nage o* technologyO is the result o* many "rilliant inventions and discoveries, "ut it is our a"ility to
transmit in*ormation, and the media we use to do it, that is perhaps most responsi"le *or its evolution+
1rogressing *rom the copper wire o* a century ago to today<s *i"er optic ca"le, our increasing a"ility to transmit
more in*ormation, more quickly and over longer distances has e(panded the "oundaries o* our technological
development in all areas+ Today<s low'loss glass *i"er optic ca"le o**ers almost unlimited "andwidth and unique
advantages over all previously developed transmission media+ The "asic point'to'point *i"er optic transmission
system consists o* three "asic elements- the optical transmitter, the *i"er optic ca"le and the optical receiver+
T)" O+tcal Trans$tt"r% The transmitter converts an electrical analog or digital signal into a corresponding
optical signal+ The source o* the optical signal can "e either a light emitting diode or a solid state laser diode+
The most popular wave'lengths o* operation *or optical transmitters are GDH, >@>H or >DDH nanometers+
T)" 2b"r O+tc Cabl"% The ca"le consists o* one or more glass *i"ers, which act as waveguides *or the optical
signal (light)+ Fi"er optic ca"le is similar to electrical ca"le in its construction, "ut provides special protection
*or the optical *i"er within+ For systems requiring transmission over distances o* many kilometers, or where two
or more *i"er optic ca"les must "e :oined together, an optical splice is commonly used+
T)" O+tcal R"c"&"r% The receiver converts the optical signal "ack into a replica o* the original electrical
signal+ The detector o* the optical signal is either a 1IN'type photodiode or avalanche'type photodiode+
3ptical *i"er uses carrier *requency o* the order o* >H>D /6+ &andwidth generally a smaller *raction o* carrier
*requency+ Large &$ is availa"le (o* the order o* AH T/6)+ 3ptical *i"er has low loss in >+@ mm and >+DD mm
"ands+
Ad&anta*"s o( (b"r% Fi"er optic transmission systems % a *i"er optic transmitter and receiver, connected "y
*i"er optic ca"le % o**er a wide range o* "ene*its not o**ered "y traditional copper wire or coa(ial ca"le+ These
include-
' The a"ility to carry much more in*ormation and deliver it with greater *idelity than either twisted pair wire
or coa(ial ca"le+
' Fi"er optic ca"le can support much higher data rates, and at greater distances, than coa(ial ca"le, making it
ideal *or transmission o* serial digital data+
' The *i"er is totally immune to virtually all kinds o* inter*erence, including lightning, and will not conduct
electricity+ It can there*ore come in direct contact with high voltage electrical equipment and power lines+ It
will also not create ground loops o* any kind+
' As the "asic *i"er is made o* glass, it will not corrode and is una**ected "y most chemicals+ It can "e "uried
directly in most kinds o* soil or e(posed to most corrosive atmospheres in chemical plants without
signi*icant concern+
' .ince the only signal in the *i"er is light, there is no possi"ility o* a spark *rom a "roken *i"er+ 2ven in the
most e(plosive o* atmospheres, there is no *ire ha6ard, and no danger o* electrical shock to personnel
repairing "roken *i"ers+
' A *i"er optic ca"le, even one that contains many *i"ers, is usually much smaller and lighter in weight than a
wire or coa(ial ca"le with similar in*ormation carrying capacity+ It is easier to handle and install, and uses
less duct space+ (It can *requently "e installed without ducts+)
' Fi"er optic ca"le is ideal *or secure communications systems "ecause it is very di**icult to tap "ut very easy
to monitor+ In addition, there is a"solutely no electrical radiation *rom a *i"er+
0ue to all these advantages- 3ptical *i"er Networks have high capacity+ They can "e used *or providing the
high "andwidth services+ 2ven in wireless, in*rared means high "andwidth connectivity+ All the networks using
optical *i"er as transmission medium are called as optical networks+ $hen transmitted signal remains in optical
*orm till its arrival at destination are all optical network+ 0egradation o* signal in optical *i"er called as
0ispersion and Attenuation+ All'optical networks are "roadcast networks ' transmitted optical signal ' received
"y everyone+ They are also .witched ' transmitted optical signal ' switched through a speci*ic path and received
"y the designated receiver+
O+tc Trans$tt"rs% The "asic optical transmitter converts electrical input signals into modulated light *or
transmission over an optical *i"er+ 0epending on the nature o* this signal, the resulting modulated light may "e
turned on and o** or may "e linearly varied in intensity "etween two predetermined levels+ The most common
devices used as the light source in optical transmitters are the light emitting diode (L20), the vertical cavity
side emitting laser (#!.2L) and the laser diode (L0)+ In a *i"er optic system, these devices are mounted in a
package that ena"les an optical *i"er to "e placed in very close pro(imity to the light emitting region in order to
couple as much light as possi"le into the *i"er+
O+tcal R"c"&"rs% The "asic optical receiver converts the modulated light coming *rom the optical *i"er "ack
into a replica o* the original signal applied to the transmitter+ The detector o* this modulated light is usually a
photodiode o* either the 1IN or the Avalanche type+ This detector is mounted in a connector similar to the one
used *or the L20, #!.2L or L0+ 1hotodiodes usually have a large sensitive detecting area that can "e several
hundred microns in diameter+ This rela(es the need *or special precautions in centering the *i"er in the receiving
connector and makes the NalignmentO concern much less critical than it is in optical transmitters+
WDM% $0 is a F0 (Frequency 0ivision ultiple(ing) technique *or *i"er optic ca"le in which multiple
optical signal channels are carried across a single strand o* *i"er at di**erent wavelengths o* light+ These
channels are also called lam"da circuits+ 2ach wavelength is o* di**erent color o* light in the in*rared range that
can carry data+ $ith the e(ponential growth in communication, caused mainly "y the wide acceptance o* the
Internet, many carriers are *inding that their estimates o* *i"er needs have "een highly underestimated+ &ecause
$0 allows the large "andwidth o* the optical *i"er to "e more *ully utili6ed, optical *i"er "ecomes more than
a simple >-> replacement *or copper wires (one channel per *i"er)+ 3ptical multiple(ing ena"les an N->
capa"ility (N channels per *i"er, where each channel may operate at the *ull electronics limit, allowing multi'
giga"it per second aggregate data rates)+
SONET 4Sync)ronous O+tcal n"t.or/7- .3N2T is "asically a $AN which is used as a transport network to
carry voice,video,data tra**ic *rom one $AN to other $AN+ 3ptical network supports high data rate
technologies as well as low data rate technologies+ AN.I developed .3N2T which is a synchronous network
using synchronous T0 technique+ In this all clocks applied in the system are locked to a master clock+
0i**erent "asic .3N2T devices used are .T. ultiple(er,0e'multiple(er, regenerator, Add,0rop multiple(er
and terminals+ .tart and 2nd points o* a .3N2T link are marked "y this unit+ It is inter*ace "etween electrical
network and optical network+ .T. 7C has electrical input and optical output, whereas .T. 0emu( has
optical input and electrical output+ Regenerator is "asically a repeater which per*orms the various *unctions
such as regenerating signals and replacing some o* the e(isting overhead (!ontrol in*ormation) with new
in*ormation+ Insertion, Identi*ication , Reorgani6ation and 2(traction o* incoming optical data stream are
per*ormed "y A00,0R31 multiple(er+
UNIT III
PER2ORMANCE O2 NETWORKS
Syllabus
!ontrol o* networks- 3":ectives and methods o* control, !ircuit .witched networks, 0atagram and AT
networks, athematical "ackground *or control o* networks like !ircuits .witched networks, 0atagram and
AT networks+
-.1 Control o( N"t.or/s% ObA"ct&"s and $"t)ods o( Control
!all Admission !ontrol is a key element in the provision o* guaranteed quality o* service in circuit switched
network+ !all Admission !ontrol is a technique to provide Io. in a network "y restricting the access to
network resources+ .imply rated, an admission control mechanism accepts a new call request provided there are
adequate *ree resources to meet the Io. requirement o* the new call request without violating the committed
Io. o* already accepted calls+ $ith the constant increase in the num"er o* voice over packet network users,
Iuality o* service "ecomes crucial *or the success o* this type o* real time applications+ 3ne o* the Iuality o*
service techniques plays an important role- a decision process that takes place in voice gateways and is
responsi"le *or allowing calls only when the e(pected level o* per*ormance in the network can "e assured+
Admission control determines which circuits switched connections are accepted or not in the network+
A call that requires a guaranteed service is su":ect to call admission control to determine i* the network has
su**icient resources to *ul*ill its contractual o"ligations+ 3nce admitted, policing control ensures that the call
does not violate its part o* the contract+ 1olicing controls are applied on the timescale o* call inter'arrival times+
!A! is applied on the timescale o* call inter'arrival times+ .ince call inter'arrival times can "e relatively short,
admission decisions must usually "e "ased upon in*ormation that is availa"le at the entry node+ Thus
in*ormation must control the admission policy and re*lect the a"ility o* the network to carry calls o* given types
to particular destinations+ It is not realistic to have complete in*ormation a"out the state o* the network at the
time o* each admission decision+ This would require e(cessive communication within the network and would "e
impossi"le *or networks whose geographic span means there are large propagation delays+ A common approach
is *or the network management to keep this in*ormation as accurate as possi"le and update it at time intervals o*
appropriate length+ !learly, more accurate !A! allows *or "etter loading o* the links= less "locking o* calls, and
ultimately more pro*it *or the network operator+ To assess the capacity o* the network as a transport service
production *acility, we need to know its topology, link capacities and call admission control policy+ Together,
these constraint the set o* possi"le services that the network can support simultaneously+
ObA"ct&"s% $hile the data transmission over the network the o":ective o* protocols to per*orm the *ollowing
*unctions *or the error *ree and relia"le transmission o* data+
>+ Data S"#u"ncn*% A long message to "e transmitted is "roken into smaller packets o* *i(ed si6e *or
error *ree data transmission+
?+ Data Routn*% It is the process o* *inding the most e**icient route "etween source and destination "e*ore
sending the data+
@+ 2lo. Control% All machines are not equally e**icient in terms o* speed+ /ence the *low control regulates
the process o* sending data "etween *ast sender and slow receiver+
A+ Error Control% 2rror 0etecting and recovering is the one o* the main *unctions o* communication
so*tware+ It ensures that data are transmitted without any error+

-.! Control o( N"t.or/s% Crcuts S.tc)"d N"t.or/s
!ircuits switching is a methodology o* implementing a telecommunication network in which two network
nodes esta"lish a dedicated communication channel (circuit) through the network "e*ore the nodes may
communicate+ The circuit guarantees the *ull "andwidth o* the channel and remains connected *or the duration
o* the telecommunication session+ The circuits *unctions as i* the nodes were physically connected as in an
electrical circuit+ !ircuit switching contrasts with packet switching which divides the data to "e transmitted into
packets transmitted through the network independently+ 1acket switching shares the availa"le network
"andwidth "etween multiple communication sessions+
In !ircuits switching, the "it delay is constant during a connection, as opposed to packet switching, where
packet queues may cause varying packet trans*er delay+ 2ach circuit cannot "e used "y other callers until the
circuit is related and a new connection is set up+ 2ven i* no actual communication is taking place, the channel
remains unavaila"le to other users+ !hannels that are availa"le *or new calls are said to "e idle+ #irtual circuits
switching is a packet switching technology that emulates circuits switching, in the sense that the connection is
esta"lished "e*ore any packets are trans*erred and packets are delivered in order+ $hile circuits switching is
commonly used *or connecting voice circuits, the concept o* a dedicated path persisting "etween two
communicating parties or nodes can "e e(tended to signal content other than voice+ Its advantage s that it
provides continuous trans*er without the overhead associated with packets making ma(imal use o* availa"le
"andwidth *or that communication+ The disadvantage is in*le(i"ility= the connection and the "andwidth
associated with it are reserved and unavaila"le *or other use+
For call setup and control, it is possi"le to use a separate dedicated signaling channel *orm the end node to the
network+ I.0N is one such service that uses a separate signaling channel while plain old telephone (13T.) does
not+ The method o* esta"lishing the connection and monitoring its progress and termination through the network
may also utili6e a separate control channel as in the case o* links "etween telephone e(changes which use !!.E
packet switched signaling protocol to communicate the calls setup and control in*ormation and use T0 to
transport the actual circuit<s data+ 2arly telephone e(changes are a suita"le e(ample o* circuits switching+ The
su"scri"er would ask the operator to connect to another su"scri"er, whether on the same e(change or via an
inter'e(change link and another operator+ In any case, the end result was a physical electrical connection
"etween the two su"scri"er<s telephones *or the duration o* the call+ The copper wire is used *or the connection
could not "e used to carry other calls at the same time, even i* the su"scri"ers were in *act not talking and line
was salient+

-.- Control o( N"t.or/s% Data*ra$ N"t.or/s
In datagram networks, also called !onnectionless Networks, the communication "etween the two sites are on a
one'o** "asis= the packet contains the *ull addressing in*ormation needed to transmit it+ 0atagram packet
switching is a packet switching technology "y which each packet, now called a datagram, is treated as a
separate entity+ 2ach packet is routed independently through the network+ There*ore packets contain a header
with the *ull in*ormation a"out the destination+ The intermediate nodes e(amine the header and select an
appropriate link to another node which is nearer to the destination+ In this system, the packets do not *ollow a
pre'determined or called pre'esta"lishing route, and the intermediate nodes do not require prior knowledge o*
the routes that will "e used+ The individual packets which *or a data stream may *ollow di**erent pWpaths
"etween the source and the destination+ As a result, the packets may arrive at the destination out o* order, when
this occurs, the packets will have to "e reassem"led to *orm original message+
&ecause each packet is switched independently, there is no need *or connection setup and no need to dedicate
"andwidth in the *orm o* a circuit+ 0atagram packet switches use a variety o* techniques to *orward tra**ic they
are di**erentiated "y how long it takes *or the packet to pass through the switch and their a"ility to *ilter out
corrupted packets+ There are three primary types o* datagram packet switches+
>) .tore and *orward- &u**ers data until the entire packet is received and checked *or errors+ This prevents
corrupted packets *rom propagating throughout the network "ut increases switching delay+
?) Fragment Free- Filters out most error packets "ut doesn<t necessarily prevent the propagation o* error
throughout the network+ It o**ers *aster switching speeds and lower delay then store and *orward mode+
@) !ut through- does not *ilter error= it switches packets at the highest throughput o**ering the least
*orwarding mode+
A datagram network is a "est e**ort network+ 0elivery is not guaranteed+ Relia"le delivery must "e provided "y
the end systems using additional protocols+ The most common datagram network is the Internet, which uses the
I1 network protocol+ Applications which do not require more than a "est e**ort service can "e supported "y
direct use o* packets in a datagram network, using 701 transport layer protocol+ Application like voice and
video communications and noti*ying messages to alert a use that she,he has received new email are using 701+
Applications like e'mail, $e" "rowsing and *ile upload and download need relia"le communications, such as
guaranteed delivery, error control and sequence control+ This relia"ility ensures that all data received is in
correct order and without errors+ It is provided "y a protocol such as T!1 Transport Layer 1rotocol+
Control o( N"t.or/% Data*ra$ N"t.or/s
$hen two or more nodes would simultaneously try to transmit packets to one node, there is a high pro"a"ility
that the num"er o* packets would e(ceed the packet handling !apacity o* the network and lead to congestion+
!ongestion control is a process o* maintaining the num"er o* packets in a network "elow a certain level at
which per*ormance *alls o**
Caus"s o( Con*"ston
Finite queue Length+
.low processor speed+
Limited "andwidth+
Limitation o* Link capa"ility+
Non'uni*ormity o* arrival o* packets+
M"t)ods o( Con*"ston control and 2lo. Control
O+"n 1oo+% Attempt to solve the pro"lem "y good design "ut does not works at run time+ The open loop
*low control mechanism is characteri6ed "y having no *eed"ack "etween the receiver and the sender+ The
allocation o* resources must "e a prior reservation or hop "y hop type+ The open loop *low control has
inherent pro"lems with ma(imi6ing the utili6ation o* network resources+ Resource allocation is made at
connection setup using a !A! and this allocation is made using in*ormation that is already old news during
the li*etime o* the connection+ 3*ten there is an over allocation o* resources and reserved "ut unused
capacities are wasted+ 3pen loop *low control is used "y AT+
Clos"d 1oo+% &ased on the principle o* *eed"ack loop+ onitor the system to detect when and where the
congestion occurs= ad:ust the system operation to correct the pro"lem+ The closed loop *low control
mechanism is characteri6ed "y the a"ility o* the network to report pending network congestion "ack to the
transmitter+ This in*ormation is then used "y the transmitted in various ways to adapt its activity to e(isting
network conditions+
Con*"ston control $"t)ods
$arning &it- A special "it in the packet header is set "y the router to warn the source when the congestion is
detected+ This "it is send to the sender in the A!J+ The sender monitors the num"er o* A!J packets it
receives with the warning "it set and ad:ust its transmission rate accordingly+
!hoke packets- $hen congestion occurs, line enters in an alarming situation+ 2ach newly packet is checked
to see i* its output line is in alarming state+ I* so, the router sends the choke packet "ack to the source which
contains destination address, so the source will not generate any more packets along the path+
Con*"ston Control% T!1 sender maintains two windows- the receiver window and the congestion window+
Amount o* data, sender may transmit T IN (congestion window, receiver window)+ T!1 sender detects
congestion "y monitoring timeouts and increase congestion window until timeout+ 3n timeout, decrease
congestion window+ It includes two phases- slow start and congestion avoidance+
Initially congestion window is o* one ma(imum segment si6e, increase "y one segment *or each A!J received+
!ongestion window grows e(ponentially until the threshold is reached+ !ongestion window increased linearly
when a"ove the threshold+ $hen timeout occurs ' Threshold set to hal* o* the current congestion window+
!ongestion window reset to one segment and then run slow start until the threshold is hit+
2lo. control and bu(("rn*
There must "e "alance "etween production and consumption rates+ I* the production is *aster than consumption,
then packets get discarded+ I* the consumption is *aster than production, then system "ecomes in'e**icient+
For *low control, a sldn* .ndo. is needed on each connection to keep a *ast transmitter *rom overrunning a
slow receiver+ .ince a host may have numerous (FA) connections, it is impractical to implement the same data
link "u**ering technique (using dedicated "u**ers *or each line)+ The sender should always "u**er outgoing
T107<s until they are acknowledged+ The receiver may not dedicate speci*ic "u**ers to speci*ic connections+
Instead a single "u**er pool may "e maintained *or all connections+ $hen a T107 comes in, i* there is a *ree
"u**er availa"le, T107 is accepted else it is discarded+ For high "andwidth tra**ic, receiver dedicates a *ull
window o* "u**ers to allow the data to *low at ma(imum speed+ As the tra**ic pattern changes, the transport
protocol should allow a sending host to request "u**er space at the other end+ Alternatively, the receiver should
tell the sender NI have received "u**ers *or youO+ A general way to manage dynamic "u**er allocation is to
decouple the "u**ering *rom the acknowledgement+
In 0ynamic "u**er management, initially, the sender requests a certain num"er o* "u**ers+ The receiver then
grants as many "u**ers as it can a**ord+ 2very time, the sender transmits T107, it must decrement its allocation,
stopping altogether when the allocation reaches 6ero+ The receiver then separately piggy"acks "oth
acknowledgements and "u**er allocations onto reverse tra**ic+ To prevent deadlock caused "y the loss o* control
T107<s, each host should periodically send control T107<s giving acknowledgement and "u**er status on each
connection+ The sender<s window si6e could "e dynamically ad:usted not only "y the availa"ility o* the "u**ers
at the receiver side, "ut also "y the capacity and the tra**ic on the su"net+ The "igger the su"net<s carrying
capacity and lighter the tra**ic, larger is the sender<s window si6e+
Slly Wndo. Syndro$"% .ender transmits data in large "locks, "ut receiver reads > "yte at a time+ .ending
small amounts o* data are e(changed across the network is very ine**icient use o* the network resources+ The
sender can transmit small amounts o* data+ The receiver can advertise small windows+ .ome algorithms are used
to solve the pro"lem- NagleXs algorithm (*or the sender) and !larkXs algorithm (*or the receiver)

Na*l"Bs and Clar/Bs Al*ort)$% $hen data come into the sender one "yte at a time, :ust send the *irst "yte and
"u**er all the rest until the outstanding "yte is A!Jed+ Then send all the "u**ered characters in one T!1
segment and start "u**ering again until the segment is A!Jed+ .ender can also send a segment i* "u**ered data
have *illed hal* o* the window or a ma(imum segment+ In !lark<s Algorithm= Receiver should not send a
window update until it can handle the ma(imum segment si6e or until its "u**er is hal* empty+
-.3 Control o( N"t.or/s% ATM N"t.or/s
AT is a standard switching technique designed to uni*y telecommunications and computer networks+ It uses
Asynchronous T0, and it encodes data into small, *i(ed si6ed cells+ This di**ers *rom approaches such as he
Internet protocol or 2thernet that use varia"le si6ed packets or *rames+ AT provides data link layer services
that run over a wide range o* 3.I physical layer links+ AT has *unctional similarity with "oth circuits and
packet switching technology+ It was designed *or a network that must handle "oth traditional high throughput
data tra**ic and real time low latency content such as voice and video+ AT uses a connection oriented model
in which virtual circuits must "e esta"lished "etween two endpoints "e*ore the actual data e(change "egins+
Ad$sson Control n ATM% AT is a promising technology to provide integrated services *or high speed
digital communication networks+ Its a"ility to support high "andwidth, high relia"ility and guaranteed Io.
communication makes it an ideal network *or supporting many distri"uted real time application+ /owever, to
make AT capa"le o* supporting hard real time communications such as that required "y plant control systems,
more sophisticated connection Admission !ontrol (!A!) schemes than conventional ones are needed+ For
e(ample, one way to support real time communication in AT networks is to use the constant "it Rate (!&R)
service+ The !&R service is provided via rate control at sources which limits the ma(imum rate that cells o* a
connection can "e in:ected into a network, and !onnection Admission !ontrol (!A!) which limits the num"er
o* real time connections over each transmission link+ 3ne straight*orward !A! scheme *or !&R connections is
the 1eak "andwidth allocation which limits the aggregated "andwidth o* all !&R connections over a
transmission link not to e(ceed the link "andwidth+ /owever, due to the tra**ic distortion within a network, peak
"andwidth allocation cannot guarantee hard cell transmission delay "ounds *or !&R connections+ .peci*ically
due to cell :itters introduced at upstream nodes, cells o* a !&R connection may arrive at a switching node at a
higher rate than they are controlled at their source+ This situation may cause the aggregated cell arrival rate at a
switch to e(ceed the outgoing link "andwidth, resulting in unpredicta"le queuing delays *or !&R cells+ Thus, to
provide hard real time guarantees *or !&R connections, more sophisticated !A! schemes than the peak
"andwidth allocation are needed to ensure that the worst'cast delays do not e(ceed the delay "ounds requested
"y the connections+
In addition, !&R is not always the most suita"le service *or real time communications+ Real time tra**ic can
also "e "ursty+ It causes over reservation o* network resources i* one assigns a !&R connection with a
"andwidth equal to the peak rate that tra**ic may "e generated+
The varia"le &it Rate (#&R) service as de*ined "y the AT *orum is more suita"le *or "ursty real time tra**ic+
The tra**ic model *or a #&R connection is descri"ed "y a peak cell rate (1!R), a sustaina"le cell rate (.!R),
and a ma(imum "ursty si6e (&.)+ A #&R connection is allowed to in:ect up to &. cells into a network at a
rate o* 1!R under a constraint that the average cell rate does not e(ceed .!R+ In other words, a connection is
allowed to generate tra**ic at a higher rate *or a certain period o* time i* it did not use up the average "andwidth
allocated to it+ The #&R service can support "ursty real time communication "etter than the !&R service, "ut it
is also more di**icult to per*orm connection admission control *or real time #&R connections+
Con*"ston Control% The .tatistical multiple(ing is used in AT to improve link 7tili6ation, "ut the tra**ic is
unpredicta"le+ Thus congestion can occur+ $henever the total input rate is greater than the output link capacity,
congestion happens+ 7nder a congestion situation, the queue length "ecome very large in a short time, resulting
in "u**er over*low and cell loss+ .o congestion control is necessary to ensure that users get the negotiated Io.+
They are classi*ied into two categories- Internal congestion control that controls short time congestion in an
AT switch and glo"al congestion control that regulates cell *low *rom source end systems (terminals) into the
network+
Int"rnal Con*"ston control o( t)" S.tc)% It resolves congestion that occurs at a switch in a short time
interval+ For e(ample, i* multiple cells destined *or the same output link arrive at a switch simultaneously, the
output link is temporally congested+ In this case, cells should "e queued at the switch "u**er to avoid cell loss+
/owever, the "u**er capacity is actually limited so that some mechanism is needed to reduce the opportunity o*
"u**er over*low+
As an internal congestion control scheme, several types o* AT switch architectures have "een proposed
including output "u**er switch, input "u**er switch, shared "u**er switch, "atcher "anyan switch+ These switches
have tradeo**s "etween per*ormance and implementation comple(ity+ For e(ample, output "u**er switch shows
"etter per*ormance than other switches (high throughput and low cell loss pro"a"ility) i* all switches have a
*i(ed amount o* "u**er memory, it cannot "e provided with a large amount o* memory due to cost or technology
limitation+ As a cost e**ective AT switch, another switch architecture that possesses "u**ers on "oth sides o*
input and output ports with a "ack pressure *unction+ The key idea o* this switch architecture is to provide a
large amount o* slow speed memory at input ports and a small amount o* *ast speed memory at output ports, and
to increase its per*ormance "y controlling "oth input and output "u**ers with the "ack pressure mechanism+
The "ack pressure *unction is provided to avoid a temporary congestion in the switch "y prohi"iting cell
transmission *rom an input "u**er to the congested output "u**er when the num"er o* cells in the output "u**er
e(ceeds some threshold value+ The num"er o* input ports and output ports is represented "y N+ This switch is
equipped with "u**ers at "oth sides o* the input and output ports+ The switching speed o* a cell *rom input "u**er
to output "u**er is N times *aster than the link speed= that is, in a time slot, at most one cell at the input "u**er is
trans*erred to the output "u**er while the output "u**er can simultaneously receive N cells *rom di**erent input
"u**ers+ The "ack pressure *unction prohi"its transmission o* cells *rom input "u**er to output "u**er "y
signaling "ack *rom output "u**er to input "u**er when the num"er o* cells in output "u**er e(ceeds a threshold
value+ &y this control, a cell over*low at the output "u**er can "e avoided+ /owever, it introduces /ead o* Line
(/3L) "locking o* cells at the input "u**er, which results in limitation o* the switch per*ormance+

:lobal Con*"ston Control% 3n the other hand, 9lo"al congestion control tries to resolve network wide
congestion+ !losed loop rate control is a promising glo"al= congestion control mechanism *or data
communication and is "eing applied to the A&R (Availa"le &it Rate) service class in the AT *orum+ !losed
loop control is also called as reactive congestion control, and it dynamically regulates cell emission process o*
each source end system "y using *eed"ack in*ormation *rom the network+ It is there*ore, especially suita"le *or
"est e**ort tra**ic+ For implementation o* closed loop control, two kinds o* schemes were proposed in the AT
*orum- rate "ased and credit "ased+ The credit "ased scheme is "ased on a link "y link window *low control
mechanism+ Independent *low controls are per*ormed on each link *or di**erent connections, and each
connection must o"tain "u**er reservations *or its cell transmission on each link+ This reservation is given in the
*orm o* a credit "alance+ A connection is allowed to continue cell transmission as long as it gains credit *rom the
ne(t node+ $hen the connection is starved o* credit, it should wait *or credit+ 3wing to this link "y link *ast
*eed"ack mechanism, transient congestion can "e relieved e**ectively+
In addition, no cell loss occurs "ecause no connection can send cells unless it has credit+ The rate "ased scheme,
on the other hand, controls the cell emission rate o* each connection "etween end systems+ It is simpler than
credit "ased *low control schemes in which each switch requires complicated queue management *or every
connection+ Typical e(amples o* rate "ased approach are *orward e(plicit congestion noti*ication (F2!N) and
"ackward e(plicit congestion noti*ication (&2!N), which are well known congestion control strategies in
conventional packet switching networks+ Rate "ased congestion control algorithms have "een adopted as the
standard mechanism *or A&R service class+
-.= Mat)"$atcal bac/*round (or control o( n"t.or/s
S"r&c" 4TS7 and Watn* T$" 4TW7% .ervice Time is the time required *or transmission o* message,
processing "y the computer, printing and all activities "y the user+ $aiting Time (Iueuing delays) is the Time
spends waiting *or the transmission lines and the computer+
Tw T Y Ts
T T Ts S Tw
!onsider a simple e(ample- one message service time *or a server (or channel) is >Hms+ It means ne(t message
has to wait *or >Hms+ A*ter then that message get serviced *or >Hms+ Ne(t message in a queue has to wait *or
?Hms and so on+ I* there are only two messages in a queue, then average waiting time is >Dms+ I* the service
time is more, waiting time is more+ It means i* the num"er o* messages in *ront o* a given message is held
constant, then the waiting time grows proportionally with the service time+ Thus TwTI Ts where I is the
num"er o* messages in the queue+ &ut also the service time is not *i(ed= it depends upon the length o* the
message+
Analyss o( D"lay n n"t.or/s% $hen the message arrives, it goes into the "u**er o* the server (or channel)+ I*
the server is *ree, then the message is processed "y the server+ Thus the delay *or the current message is H+ I* the
server is "usy in processing previous message, the current messages and ne(t messages stored in the "u**er will
get delayed+ $e need to calculate % Average delay and $orst case delay etc+ 0elay occurs "ecause- essages
are more and resources are less+ .erver or channel capacity is limited and inadequate o* service *acilities+
I$+ortant T"r$s us"d ar"%
>+ Arrival rate (A or Z)- rate at which messages arrive at input side+
?+ Iueue .i6e - .i6e o* the queue where the messages reside *or some time (until the channel "ecomes *ree)
@+ Iueuing discipline (.ervice discipline)- way how the messages get process "y the channel+
A+ $aiting Time (Tw)- Time spends waiting *or the transmission lines and the computer+
D+ .ervice Time (Ts)- time required *or transmission o* message, processing "y the computer, printing and all
activities "y the user+
F+ !hannel &andwidth (&)- &andwidth o* the channel+
MCMC1 Du"u"% In ,,>, *irst indicates that arrivals are independent o* one another that is inter'arrival
times are distri"uted e(ponentially+ The second indicates that the service times are also e(ponentially
distri"uted+ The > indicates that > server is present+ ( stands *or arkovian a*ter the arkov)+
>) Arrival rate is the reciprocal o* the average inter'arrival time+ For e(ample- essage inter'arrival time is F
seconds then arrival rate is- >H messages,min or (>,F) msg,sec+
?) .ervice time (Ts) is the ratio o* message length to the channel speed+ !onsider messages are o* having @FHH
characters and transmitted on BFHH "ps line+ Then the service time is- (Total no o* "its), (!hannel .peed in "ps)
or L,&+ Thus the T. "ecomes (@FHH [ G), BFHH T @ sec+
@) The service rate is the reciprocal o* the service time+ (0T>,Ts)+ !onsider messages are o* having @FHH
characters and transmitted on BFHH "ps line+ Then the service time is- L,&+ (@FHH [ G), BFHH T @ sec+ The service
rate is the reciprocal o* the service time+ (0T>,@ msg,sec)+
A) The utili6ation o* the server is de*ined as the *raction o* time that it is "usy+ (7TA,0)+ I* the arrival rate is
>,F msg,sec and service rate is >,@ msg,sec then the utili6ation o* the server is- H+D+ 7 is a dimensionless
quantity+ I* 7T> then, Arrival rate and departure rates are same "ut in practice, 7 is never >+
2(ample>- essages arrives at a rate o* DHH "its per second and transmitted on a channel o* >HHH "ps+ !alculate
Arrival rate, .ervice Time, 0eparture rate, utili6ation o* the .erver, $aiting time etc+
Answer- A E =>> btsCs"c0 Ts E >.= s"c0 D E ! $s*Cs"c .". 1>>> btsCs"c0 U E >.= and T. E >.= s"c
2(ample?- The average inter'arrival time "etween messages is >H seconds and service time is D seconds+
!alculate Arrival rate, departure Rate and utili6ation o* the server+
Answer- A E >.1 $s*Cs"c0 D E >.! $s*Cs"c and U E >.=
MCMC! Du"u"- In this there are two servers are availa"le+ $hen there are two or more messages in the system,
"oth servers are "usy and the departure rate is twice as high+ 7tili6ation o* ,,> queue is 7 while the
utili6ation o* ,,? queue is 7,?+ 7 and A get dou"le *or ,,? queue with respect to their relative values in
the ,,> queue+
MCMC$ Du"u"% .uppose now there are m servers+ 0eparture rates increases as the num"er o* messages in the
system increases+ .ince the num"er o* "usy servers increases too, until the num"er o* messages is m+ Then all
servers are "usy and the departure rate remains constant at m0+
Ty+"s o( Du"u"%
>+ ,,n- Arrival and service times are e(ponentially distri"uted+ ost widely used+
?+ ,0,n- Arrival is e(ponentially distri"uted and service time is deterministic+
@+ ,9,n- Arrival is e(ponentially distri"uted and service time is constant+
A+ 9,9,n- Arrival and service time processes are ar"itrary+ No mathematical solution and thus less used+
D(("r"nc" b"t.""n Crcuts and Pac/"t S.tc)n*%
Crcut S.tc)n* Pac/"t S.tc)n*
Conn"cton There is a physical connection "etween
transmitter and receiver
No physical path is esta"lished "etween
transmitter and receiver+ Logical connection
is esta"lished in #! packet switching+
Pat) All packets uses the same path 1ackets travel on di**erent path+
1ay"r Takes place at the physical layer+ 0atagram packet switching is done at
network layer while #irtual !ircuit packet
switching takes place at data link layer
A++lcaton Telephone Networks, odem !omputer, Internet
Ad&anta*"s 9uaranteed data rate and no delay in data *low+ Less "andwidth is used as message is
divided into small packets+ 2**iciency is
higher+
Dsad&anta*"s !annot "e used to transmit any other data even
i* the channel is *ree+ 2**iciency is lower as it
reserves entire "andwidth in advance+
ore delay+

UNIT IV F V
ADVANCED ROUTIN: I F II
Syllabus
Advanced Routing % I- Routing architecture, Routing "etween peers (&91), I1 switching and ulti' 1rotocol
La"el .witching (1L.), 1L. Architecture and related protocols, Tra**ic 2ngineering (T2) and T2 with
1L., NAT and #1N (L?, L@, and /y"rid), !I0R %Introduction, !I0R addressing, !I0R address "locks and
&it masks (G /rs+)
Advanced Routing % II- o"ile I1' characteristics, o"ile I1 operation, .ecurity related issues+ o"ility in
networks+ #oice and #ideo over I1 (RT1, R.#1, Io.) I1vF- $hy I1vF, "asic protocol, e(tensions and options,
support *or Io., security, etc+, neigh"or discovery, auto'con*iguration, routing+ !hanges to other protocols+
Application 1rogramming Inter*ace *or I1vF+ (G /rs+)
3.1 Routn* Arc)t"ctur"
A network router is a network device with inter*aces multiple networks whose task is to copy packets *rom one
network to another "ased on the routing ta"les stored in the memory+ Router will typically utili6e one or more
routing protocols, such as RI1, 3.1F, or &91+ Routers also accept routes which are con*igured manually "y a
network administrator+ Those routes are called static routes+ The router will use this in*ormation to create a
routing ta"le+ The network router will then use its routing ta"le to make intelligent decisions a"out which
packets to copy to which o* its inter*aces+ This process is known as routing+
Router has *our components- input ports, output ports, the routing processor and the switching *a"ric+
a) Input port per*orms the physical and data link layer *unctions o* the router+ The "its are constructed *rom the
received signal, packet is de'capsulated *rom the *rame, errors are detected and corrected+ The packet is
ready to "e *orwarded "y the network layer+ Input ports has "u**ers (queues) to hold the packets "e*ore they
are directed to the switching *a"ric+
") An output port per*orms the same *unction as the input port, "ut in the reverse order+
c) Routing 1rocessor- The destination address is used to *ind the address o* the ne(t hop+ Routing processor
searches routing ta"les+
d) .witching Fa"rics- It moves the packet *rom the input queue to the output queue+ In the past, memory o* the
computer or a "us was used as the switching *a"ric+ The simplest type o* switching *a"ric is the cross"ar
switch which connects n inputs to n outputs in a grid, using electronics micro'switches at each cross point+
The *unctionality o* the router is as *ollows-
17 Rout" Proc"ssn*% This includes routing ta"le construction and maintenance using routing protocols such as
RI1 or 3.1F etc+ The routing ta"les could "e created statically or updated dynamically+
!7 Pac/"t (or.ardn*% The router checks the received packet (checking header *ield, version num"er etc) and
calculates the header checksum+ The router also per*orms a ta"le lookup to determine the output port to
direct the received packet and the ne(t hop to which to send the packet along the route+ This is "ased on
destination I1 address and the su"net mask(s) o* the associated ta"le entries+ It could "e local delivery,
unicast delivery or could also "e multicast delivery+
-7 Pac/"t l("t$" control% The router ad:usts the TTL *ield in the packet header which is used to prevent
packets *rom circulating endlessly throughout the internetwork+ TTL value is decremented and packet will
"e delivered to the associated output port+
37 C)"c/su$ calculaton% I1 header checksum must "e recalculated due to the change in the TTL *ield+
.ometimes I1 packets must also "e *ragmented "ased on the T7 (a(imum Transmission 7nit) *ield+
=7 S+"cal s"r&c"s% 1acket translation, encapsulation, tra**ic prioriti6ation, authentication and access services
such as packet *iltering *or security,*irewall purposes are also includes under this category+
3.! Routn* b"t.""n P""rs
Intra and Int"rdo$an Routn*% An internet is divided into autonomous systems+ An autonomous system is a
group o* networks and routers under the authority o* a single administration+ Routing inside an autonomous
system is called intradomain routing+ Routing "etween autonomous is called as interdomain routing+
Routn* Al*ort)$s% Routing algorithms used in designing routing ta"les .tatic (Non'adaptive) or dynamic
(Adaptive)+ .tatic routing algorithms includes shortest path, Flooding and Flow "ased Routing+ 0ynamic
routing algorithms includes distance vector Routing and Link state Routing+ 0i:kstraXs Algorithm *inds the
shortest path *rom a starting verte( to all other vertices in a graph+ $e start with node A, as the source and we
mark each node with an estimated distance *rom A to the node+ The initial estimates are in*inite, e(cept that o*
node A which is H+ 2very incoming packet is sent out on every outgoing line e(cept the line on which it is
arrived+ 0isadvantage is that it generates a large num"er o* duplicate packets+ Tra**ic grows very quickly+ &y
using various damping techniques such as using a hop counter, to keep track o* the packets and selective
*looding could "e used+ Flow "ased algorithms uses topology and load condition *or deciding a route+ It is
possi"le to optimi6e the routing "y analy6ing using the data *low mathematically+ To use this technique, su"net
topology and tra**ic must "e known+
In distance vector routing, Router maintains a ta"le which gives the "est known distance to each destination and
the in*ormation a"out which line to "e used to reach there+ At each step- it receives in*o *rom neigh"or,
computes the "est path and possi"ly send new in*o to ad:acent neigh"ors+ 0istance vector tells their neigh"ors
what he knows a"out everyone while Link state tells everyone what he knows a"out his neigh"ors+ In L., 2ach
router should discover its neigh"ors, measure cost, construct a packet (L.1) and sends this to all routers and
compute the shortest path+
RI1 is Routing In*ormation protocol+ In this, routing updates are e(changed "etween neigh"ors appro(+ every
@H seconds using RI1 response message+ This message contains a list o* ?D destination network within an A.+ A
router can also request in*ormation a"out its neigh"ors cost to a given destination using RI1 request message+
3.1F stands *or 3pen .hortest 1ath First 1rotocol+ It is called as Internal 9ateway 1rotocol, "ecause it supports
routing within one A.+ 3.1F is Link state routing protocol where Link state advertisements are sent to all other
router within the same area+
1ath #ector Routing- 1ath vector routing is similar to distance vector routing+ There is at least one node, called
the speaker node, in each A. that creates a routing ta"le and advertises it to speaker nodes in the neigh"oring
A.s+ &91 is "ased on 1ath #ector Routing+ &order 9ateway 1rotocol (&91) is an interdomain routing protocol
using path vector routing+ It *irst appeared in >BGB and has gone through *our versions+ The current version used
version A+ &91 supports !lassless addressing and !I0R+ &91 uses T!1 1rotocol with port >EB+
6:P S+"a/"r and 6ord"r :at".ays% Administrator o* each A. picks at least one node to "e &91 speaker
which is spokesperson *or the entire A.+ The &91 speaker esta"lishes &91 sessions to other &91 speakers in
other A.+ They are used to *ind out "order gateways (Routers)+ In addition, A. has one or more "order
gateways through which packets enter and leave the A.+ In a"ove e(ample, RouterA> and Router &> are
&order gateways+ &order gateway is simply an I1 router that is charged with the task o* *orwarding packets
"etween A.+ &91 advertises complete paths as an enumerated list o* A.s to reach a particular network+
Figure- 2(ample o* &91
A.? advertises reacha"ility in*ormation to 1 and I+ A.> thus receiving this message, advertises that it can reach
1 and I thro A.>+ A.@ advertises reacha"ility in*ormation to R and .+ A.> thus receiving this message,
advertises that it can reach R and . thro A.@+ A. num"er must also "e unique+ A. num"ers are >F "it num"ers
assigned "y the central authority to assure uniqueness+ A. will only advertise routes that it considers a good
enough *or itsel*+
2*ur"% 6:P M"ssa*"s
Two systems running &91 esta"lish a T!1 connection and then e(change the entire &91 routing ta"les+ From
that point on, incremental updates are sent as the routing ta"le changes+ &91 detects the *ailure o* any link or
the host "y sending a keepalive message to its neigh"or on a regular "asis+ (@Hseconds)+ &91 allows *or policy
"ased routing+ 1olicies are determined "y the A. administrator and speci*ied to &91 in con*iguration *iles+
1olicy speci*ications allow a &91 implementation to choose "etween paths when multiple alternatives e(ists
and to control the redistri"ution o* in*ormation+
2*ur"% 6:P OPEN M"ssa*"
2*ur"% 6:P UPDATE M"ssa*"
2*ur"% 6:P KEEPA1IVE M"ssa*"
2*ur"% 6:P Not(caton M"ssa*"
Class(caton o( AS%
.tu" A.- .ingle connection to another A.+ It carries only local tra**ic+
ultihome A.- any connections to more than one A. "ut re*uges to carry transit tra**ic+
Transit A.- any connections to more than one A. and carries "oth local and transit tra**ic+
3.- IP s.tc)n* and Mult+rotocol 1ab"l S.tc)n*
In conventional network *orwarding, each router analy6es the incoming packet<s header and independently
chooses Ne(t /op+ Routing algorithms and adequate speed are prerequisite+ In 1L. *orwarding, all
*orwarding is done "y the la"els, no header analysis needed+ 3nce a packet enters a network, it<s assigned a
la"el+ 2ach router *orwards packets according their la"els+
I1 versus 1L. Routing-
o I1 routing- 2ach I1 datagram is routed independently, Routing and *orwarding is destination'"ased+
Routers look at the destination addresses and may lead to congestion in parts o* the network+ IN I1
routing, each router makes the *orwarding and routing decisions+
o 1L. routing- A path is computed Nin advanceO and a Nvirtual circuitO is esta"lished *rom ingress to
egress+ An 1L. path *rom ingress to egress node is called a la"el switched path (L.1)+ IN 1L.
routing, only one router (source) makes the routing decision while Intermediate routers makes the
*orwarding decisions+
1ro"lems with I1 Routing-
o Too slow- I1 lookup (longest pre*i( matching) G.asH a ma:or "ottleneck in high per*ormance routers+
This was made worse "y the *act that I1 *orwarding requires comple( lookup operation at every hop
along the path+
o Too rigid % no *le(i"ility- Routing decisions are destination'"ased
o Not scala"le in some desira"le applications - $hen mapping I1 tra**ic onto AT
Ad&anta*"s%
Router can use any in*ormation in determining la"el assignment, not limited to packet header+ /ow to distri"ute
la"els may "ecome more and more complicated, without any impact on the routers that merely *orward la"eled
packets+ A la"el can "e used to represent a pre'chosen route so that the identity o* e(plicit route need not "e
carried with the packet+
1L. is Framework that provides *or the e**icient designation, routing, *orwarding, and switching o* tra**ic
*lows through the network+ It remains independent o* the Layer'? and Layer'@ protocols+ It provides a means to
map I1 addresses to simple, *i(ed length la"els used "y di**erent packet'*orwarding and packet'switching
technologies+ ultiprotocol- Its techniques are applica"le to ANM network layer protocol+
MP1S El"$"nts%
o 2EC 4(or.ardn* "#u&al"nc" class7 5 a group o* I1 packets which are *orwarded in the same manner
(over the same path, with the same *orwarding treatment)
o 1SR 41ab"l S.tc)n* rout"r7 5 an 1L. node which is capa"le o* *orwarding Layer @ packets+
o 1I6 41ab"l In(or$aton 6as"7 5 2ach L.R "uilds a ta"le to speci*y how a packet must "e *orwarded+
1ab"l and 1ab"l 6ndn*s% To avoid I1 lookup 1L. packets carry e(tra in*ormation called NLa"elO+ 1acket
*orwarding decision is made using la"el'"ased lookups+ A la"el identi*ies the path a packet should traverse+ A
la"el is carried or encapsulated in a Layer'? header along with the packet+ The receiving router e(amines the
packet *or its la"el content to determine the ne(t hop+ 3nce a packet has "een la"eled, the rest o* the :ourney o*
the packet is "ased on la"el switching+
Figure- 1L. &lock 0iagram
1DP% A la"el distri"ution protocol is a set o* procedures "y which one L.R in*orms another o* the la"el,F2!
"inding it has made+ 01 also encompasses any negotiations in which two la"el distri"ution peers need to
engage in order to learn each other<s 1L. capa"ilities+ Neigh"or discovery- /ello are periodically sent via
701, /ello are sent on all la"el'ena"led inter*aces, .ource address is the outgoing inter*ace, /ellos packets
contain L01 Identi*ier and La"el space+ 3nce discovery is done the L01 session is esta"lished over T!1, L.Rs
send periodically keepalive L01 packets to monitor the session
Figure- 1L. 1acket Forward
o I1M 4Inco$n* 1ab"l $a+7 aps each incoming la"el to a set o* N/LF2s+
o N912E 4N",t 9o+ 1ab"l (or.ardn* Entry7 contains the packet<s ne(t /op and the operation to per*orm
on the packets la"el stack+ (replace the la"el at the top o* the la"el stack with a speci*ied new la"el or pop
the la"el stack etc)
o 2TN 42EC'to'N912E7 aps each F2! to a set o* N/LF2s+ It is used when *orwarding packets that arrive
unla"eled, "ut which are to "e la"eled "eing *orwarded+ 0etermine unla"eled packet<s F2!- L.R analy6es
the layer network header to make decision+ /ow to analy6e is "eyond the scope o* architecture+
MP1S 9"ad"r%
o The la"el *ield (?H'"its) carries the actual value o* the 1L. la"el+
o The !lass o* .ervice (!o.) *ield (@'"its) can a**ect the queuing and discard algorithms applied to the packet
as it is transmitted through the network+ .ince the !o. *ield has @ "its, there*ore G distinct service classes
can "e maintained+
o The .tack (.) *ield (>'"it) supports a hierarchical la"el stack+ Although 1L. supports a stack, the
processing o* a la"eled packet is always "ased on the top la"el, without regard *or the possi"ility that some
o* other la"els may have "een a"ove it in the past, or that some num"er o* other la"els may "e "elow it at
present+ The la"el stack is used *or routing packets through L.1 Tunnels+
o The TTL (time'to'live) *ield (G'"its) provides conventional I1 TTL *unctionality+
MP1S 6"n"(ts%
The initial goal o* la"el "ased switching was to "ring the speed o* Layer ? switching to Layer @+ La"el "ased
switching methods allow routers to make *orwarding decisions "ased on the contents o* a simple la"el, rather
than "y per*orming a comple( route lookup "ased on destination I1 address+ This initial :usti*ication *or
technologies such as 1L. is no longer perceived as the main "ene*it, since Layer @ switches (A.I!'"ased
routers) are a"le to per*orm route lookups at su**icient speeds to support most inter*ace types+ /owever, 1L.
"rings many other "ene*its to I1'"ased networks+ Forwarding packets "ased on la"els rather than routing them
"ased on headers results in several important advantages-
>+ .ince a packet is assigned to a F2! when it enters the network, in*ormation that cannot "e gleaned *rom the
network layer header, can "e used *or F2! assignment+ For e(ample, classi*ication o* packets "ased on the
source o* the packets+
?+ 1ackets can "e assigned a priority la"el, making Frame Relay and AT'like quality'o*'service guarantees
possi"le+ This *unction relates to the !o. *ield+
@+ The considerations that determine how a packet is assigned to a F2! can "ecome ever more and more
complicated, without any impact at all on the routers that merely *orward la"eled packets+
A+ 1acket payloads are not e(amined "y the *orwarding routers, allowing *or di**erent levels o* tra**ic
encryption and the transport o* multiple protocols+
D+ In 1L., a packet can "e *orced to *ollow an e(plicit route rather than the route chosen "y normal dynamic
algorithm as the packet travels through the network+ This may "e done to support tra**ic engineering, as a
matter o* policy or to support a given Io.+
In addition to all the a"ove advantages, one o* the most important advantages o* 1L. is that it is independent
o* the layer ? and layer @ technologies and hence allows integration o* networks with di**erent layer ? and layer
@ protocols
3.3 Tra((c En*n""rn*
Tra**ic 2ngineering is a process that enhances overall network utili6ation "y attempting to create a uni*orm o*
di**erentiated distri"ution o* tra**ic throughout the network+ An important result o* this process is the avoidance
o* congestion on any one path+ Tra**ic 2ngineering does not necessarily select the shortest path "etween two
devices+ It is possi"le that, *or two packet data *lows, the packets may traverse completely di**erent paths even
though their originating node and the *inal destination node are the same+ This way, the less e(posed or less
used network segments can "e used and di**erentiated services can "e provided+ In 1L., tra**ic engineering is
inherently provided using e(plicitly routed paths+ The L.1s are created independently, speci*ying di**erent
paths that are "ased on user de*ined policies+ /owever this may require e(tensive operator intervention+ R.#1
and !R'L01 are two approaches to supply dynamic tra**ic engineering and Io. in 1L.+

Thus tra**ic 2ngineering concentrates on making decisions, *or a given network topology and tra**ic load, where
should tra**ic go and taking care that link not availa"le and also *ailure scenarios+ Thus important *eatures
include-
o !ongestion in the network due to changing tra**ic 1atterns+
o &etter utili6ation o* availa"le "andwidth+
o Route around *ailed links,nodes+
o &uild new services8virtual leased line services+
o !apacity planning+
The constraint "ased routing (!R) takes into account parameters such as link characteristics ("andwidth, delay
etc), hop count and Io.+ The L.1s that are esta"lished could "e !R'L.1s, where the constraints could "e
e(plicit hops or Io. requirements+ 2(plicit hops dictate which path to "e taken while Io. requirements dictate
which links and queuing or scheduling mechanisms are to "e employed *or the *low+
3.= NAT and VPN
#irtual private network is a private network designed to "e used only inside an organi6ation+ It allows access to
shared resources and, at the same time, provides privacy+ $hatever connects directly into Internet must have
pu"lic (glo"ally unique) I1 address+ There is a shortage o* pu"lic I1vA address+ .o 1rivate I1 addresses can "e
used within a private network+ A private I1 is mapped to a 1u"lic I1, when the machine has to access the
Internet+ #irtual private network (#1N) is a technology *or large organi6ations that use the glo"al Internet *or
"oth intra' and interorgani6ation communication, "ut require privacy in their intraorgani6ation communication+
2*ur"% Pr&at" Addr"ss"s
Network address translation (NAT) allows a site to use a set o* private addresses *or internal communication
and a set o* glo"al Internet addresses *or communication with another site+ The site must have only one single
connection to the glo"al Internet through a router that runs NAT so*tware+ Types o* NAT are .tatic NAT which
maps unique 1rivate I1 to unique 1u"lic I1+ And 0ynamic NAT which maps ultiple 1rivate I1 to a 1ool o*
1u"lic I1s (1ort Address Translation- aps a 1u"lic I1 and 1ort Num"er to a service in 1rivate I1)
The "asic idea "ehind NAT is to assign each company a single I1 address (or at most, a small num"er o* them)
*or Internet tra**ic+ $ithin the company, every computer gets a unique I1 address, which is used *or routing
intramural tra**ic+ /owever, when a packet e(its the company and goes to the I.1, an address translation takes
place+ To make this scheme possi"le, three ranges o* I1 addresses have "een declared as private+ !ompanies
may use them internally as they wish+ The only rule is that no packets containing these addresses may appear on
the Internet itsel*+
2*ur"% NAT
$ithin the company premises, every machine has a unique address o* the *orm >H+(+y+6+ /owever, when a
packet leaves the company premises, it passes through a NAT "o( that converts the internal I1 source address,
>H+H+H+> in the *igure, to the companyXs true I1 address, >BG+FH+A?+>? in this e(ample+ The NAT "o( is o*ten
com"ined in a single device with a *irewall, which provides security "y care*ully controlling what goes into the
company and what comes out+
$hen the reply comes "ack (e+g+, *rom a $e" server), it is naturally addressed to >BG+FH+A?+>?, so how does the
NAT "o( know which address to replace it with; /erein lies the pro"lem with NAT+ ost I1 packets carry
either T!1 or 701 payloads+ &oth o* these have headers containing a source port and a destination port+ $hen
a process wants to esta"lish a T!1 connection with a remote process, it attaches itsel* to an unused T!1 port on
its own machine+ This is called the source port and tells the T!1 code where to send incoming packets
"elonging to this connection+ The process also supplies a destination port to tell who to give the packets to on
the remote side+
7sing the .ource port *ield, we can solve our mapping pro"lem+ $henever an outgoing packet enters the NAT
"o(, the >H+(+y+6 source address is replaced "y the companyXs true I1 address+ In addition, the T!1 .ource port
*ield is replaced "y an inde( into the NAT "o(Xs FD,D@F'entry translation ta"le+ This ta"le entry contains the
original I1 address and the original source port+ Finally, "oth the I1 and T!1 header checksums are recomputed
and inserted into the packet+ It is necessary to replace the .ource port "ecause connections *rom machines
>H+H+H+> and >H+H+H+? may "oth happen to use port DHHH, *or e(ample, so the .ource port alone is not enough to
identi*y the sending process+
$hen a packet arrives at the NAT "o( *rom the I.1, the .ource port in the T!1 header is e(tracted and used as
an inde( into the NAT "o(Xs mapping ta"le+ From the entry located, the internal I1 address and original T!1
.ource port are e(tracted and inserted into the packet+ Then "oth the I1 and T!1 checksums are recomputed and
inserted into the packet+ The packet is then passed to the company router *or normal delivery using the >H+ (+y+6
address+
#1N is de*ined as customer connectivity deployed on a shares in*rastructure with the same policies as a private
network+ The shares in*rastructure can leverage a service provider I1, Frame relay, or AT "ack"one, or the
Internet+ There are three types o* #1Ns, which align with how "usinesses and organi6ations use #1Ns as listed
"elow-
>) Access #1N- 1rovides remote access to a corporate intranet or e(tranet over a shared in*rastructure with
the same policies as a private network+ Access #1Ns ena"le users to access corporate resources
whenever and however they require+ Access #1Ns encompass analog, dial I.0N, 0igital .u"scri"er
Line (0.L), mo"ile I1, and ca"le technologies to securely connect mo"ile users, telecommuters, or
"ranch o**ices+
?) Intranet #1N- Links corporate headquarters, remote o**ices, and "ranch o**ices over a shares
in*rastructure using dedicated connections+ &usinesses en:oy the same policies as a private network,
including security, Iuality o* services (Io.), managea"ility, and relia"ility+
@) 2(tranet #1N- Links customers, suppliers, partners or communities o* Interest to a corporate intranet
over a shared in*rastructure using dedicated connections+ &usinesses en:oy the same policies as a private
network, including security, Io., managea"ility and relia"ility+
1n/ 1ay"r VPN 41!7% 3ne o* the most straight*orward methods o* constructing #1Ns is to use the
transmission systems and networking plat*orms *or the physical and link layer connectivity, yet still "e a"le to
"uild discrete networks at the network layer+ A link layer #1N is intended to "e a close *unctional analogy to a
conventional private data network+
Advantages o* layer ? 2thernet #1N .ervices-
>) Fle(i"le, granular and scala"le "andwidth, with the a"ility to easily change "andwidth levels up to the port
capacity+
?) .impli*ied maintenance, with every IT organi6ation understanding the 2thernet protocol, any IT employee
can trou"leshoot 2thernet demarcation points+
@) Networking and routing control is maintained "y the enterprise, which is typically pre*erred "y enterprises
that want to ensure the security o* their underlying packets+
A) 7niversal availa"ility o* 2thernet ports on routers with every router shipped having 2thernet ports+ There is
no need *or the 2nterprise to purchase e(pensive high speed serial inter*ace to support T0 "ased local
loop, or an additional !.7,0.7 *or a *rame relay service+

N"t.or/ 1ay"r VPN 41-7% The network layer in the T!1,I1 protocol suite consists o* the I1 routing system %
how reacha"ility in*ormation is conveyed *rom one point in the network to another+ The peer #1N model is one
in which the network layer *orwarding path computation is done on a hop "y hop "asis, where each node in the
intermediate data transit path is a peer with a ne(t hop node+ Traditional routed networks are e(amples o* peer
models, where each router in the network path is a peer with their ne(t hop ad:acencies+ The overlay #1N
model is one in which the network layer *orwarding path is not done on a hop "y hop "asis, "ut rather, the
intermediate link layer network is used as a cut through to another edge node on the other side o* a large cloud+
2(amples o* overlay #1N models are AT, Frame Relay etc
Advantages o* Layer @ #1N-
>) Network and routing control is maintained "y the service provider+ In this scenario, the enterprise has to
simply list its routing and networking requirements and the service provider will implement those decisions
across the #1N+ 2nterprises who do not want to spend time and resources maintaining networking and
routing decisions can shi*t that responsi"ility to the service provider "y using an I1 #1N+
?) any equipments vendors ship equipments that allow enterprises to "uild Layer @ #1Ns themselves+
icroso*t $indows even supports simple #1N connections, which is very use*ul *or remote and mo"ile
workers+
3.? CIDR
2*ur"% 2or.ardn* Tabl" n Class(ul addr"ssn*
In !lass*ul addressing scheme, *orwarding ta"les contains columns such as Network Address, Ne(t'/op
Address and Inter*ace num"er through which packets are routed+ For every class o* I1 Addresses (!lass A,
& and !lass !), separate *orwarding ta"les are present+
2*ur"% 2or.ardn* Tabl" n Subn"ttn*
In !lass*ul addressing su"netting scheme, *orwarding ta"les contains columns such as .u"net Address,
Ne(t'/op Address and Inter*ace num"er through which packets are routed+
2*ur"% 2or.ardn* Tabl" n CIDR
!lassless interdomain routing is a technique that addresses two scaling concerns in the Internet- 9rowth o*
"ack"one routing ta"les and address assignment In'e**iciency, @? "it address space to "e e(hausted+ The
ine**iciency arises "ecause the I1 address structure, with class A, &, and ! addresses, *orces us to hand out
network address space in *i(ed'si6ed chunks o* three very di**erent si6es+ A network with two hosts needs a
class ! address, giving an address assignment e**iciency o* ?,?DD T H+EGU= a network with ?DF hosts needs a
class & address, *or an e**iciency o* only ?DF,FD,D@D T H+@BU+ 2ven though su"netting can help us to assign
addresses care*ully, it does not get around the *act that any autonomous system with more than ?DD hosts, or an
e(pectation o* eventually having that many, wants a class & address+
As it turns out, e(haustion o* the I1 address space centers on e(haustion o* the class & network num"ers+ 3ne
way to deal with that would seem to "e saying no to any A. that requests a class & address unless they can
show a need *or something close to FAJ addresses, and instead giving them an appropriate num"er o* class !
addresses to cover the e(pected num"er o* hosts+ .ince we would now "e handing out address space in chunks
o* ?DF addresses at a time, we could more accurately match the amount o* address space consumed to the si6e
o* the A.+ For any A. with at least ?DF hosts (which means the ma:ority o* A.s), we can guarantee an address
utili6ation o* at least DHU, and typically much more+ This solution, however, raises a pro"lem that is at least as
serious- e(cessive storage requirements at the routers+ I* a single A. has, say, >F class ! network num"ers
assigned to it, that means every Internet "ack"one router needs >F entries in its routing ta"les *or that A.+ This
is true even i* the path to every one o* those networks is the same+ I* we had assigned a class & address to the
A., the same routing in*ormation could "e stored in one ta"le entry+ /owever, our address assignment
e**iciency would then "e only >F [ ?DD,FD,D@F T F+?U+
!I0R tries to "alance the desire to minimi6e the num"er o* routes that a router needs to know against the need
to hand out addresses e**iciently+ To do this, !I0R helps us to aggregate routes+ It means a single entry in a
*orwarding ta"le to tell us how to reach a lot o* di**erent networks+
The routing ta"le aggregation is "ased on classless addresses+ It means that a "lock o* continuous network
num"ers have "een assigned to a service provider+ An organi6ation gets a continuous sequence o* network
num"ers *rom a service provider+ A "lock o* network num"ers is represented as a single network num"ers and a
mask pair (I1 pre*i(), "itwise logical AN0 operations on the I1 address and I1 mask components o* a tuple
yields the sequence o* the le*tmost contiguous signi*icant "its that *orm the I1 address pre*i(+ For e(ample- a
tuple with the value W>B>+>+H+H ?DD+?DD+H+H\ denotes an I1 address pre*i( with >F le*tmost contiguous signi*icant
"its+ In aggregation a service provider advertises all the availa"le addresses connected to it hierarchically at a
lower level+ The most straight*orward case o* this occurs when there is a set o* routing domains that are all
attached to a single service provider domain (regional network) and which use that provider *or all intra'domain
tra**ic+ 2ach routing domain owns a pre*i( covering all connected su"'networks to them+ The service provider
advertises, "ased on the routing domain<s pre*i(es, one or several continuous pre*i(es to the upper hierarchical
level to which it has connected+ This allows a hierarchical and recursive a""reviation o* routing in*ormation and
data reduction while advertising routing in*ormation+
!onsider A. with >F class ! network num"ers, instead o* randomly allocating "lock, "locks are given
contiguously (>B?+A+>F to >F?+A+@>)+ Top ?H "its are same, thus we have e**ectively created ?H "it network
num"er (&etween !lass & and !lass ! network)+ The network num"ers carried in such routing protocol (&91A)
are represented simply "y Plength, valueR pair+ Length gives the num"er o* "its in the network pre*i( (?H), thus
length also speci*ied the mask "it+
2*ur"% Rout" a**r"*aton .t) CIDR
Two corporations served "y the provider network have "een assigned ad:acent'?H "it network pre*i(es+ .ince
"oth the corporations are reacha"le through the same provider network, it can advertise a single route to "oth o*
them :ust "e advertising the common >B "it pre*i( they share+ 1re*i(es may "e o* any length ? to @? "it+ It is
also possi"le to have pre*i(es in the *orwarding ta"les that overlap+ In such a situation Nlongest matchO is
selected+ !onsider two records in a ta"le >E>+FB (>F "it pre*i() and >E>+FB+>H (?A "it pre*i(), router *or the
packet having I1 address >E>+FB+>H+D will select >E>+FB+>H (?A "it pre*i()+
2*ur"% CIDR E,a$+l"
2*ur"% CIDR E,a$+l" Routn* Tabl"s
6t Mas/% A su"net mask is a "it mask that encodes the pre*i( length in dotted notation- @? "its starting with a
num"er o* > "its equals to the pre*i( length, ending with H "its, and encoded in *our part dotted decimal *ormat+
A su"net mask encodes the same in*ormation as a pre*i( length, "ut predates the advent o* !I0R+ /owever, in
!I0R notation, the pre*i( "its are always contiguous, whereas su"net masks may speci*y non contiguous "its+
An I1 address has two components, the network address and host address+ A su"net mask separates the I1
address into the network address and host address+ .u"netting *urther divides the host part into a su"net and a
host address+ It is called a su"net mask "ecause it is used to identi*y network address o* an I1 address "y
per*orming "itwise AN0 operation on the net mask+
3.@ Mobl" IP
o"ile communication solves the mo"ility pro"lem that overcomes some o* the limitations o* the original I1
addressing scheme+ Thus I1 mo"ility support is known as mo"ile I1+ The characteristic are-
Transparency- o"ility is transparent to applications and transport layer protocols as well as to the
routers not involved in the change+
Interopera"ility with I1vA- /ost using o"ile I1 can interoperate with stationary hosts that run
conventional IpvA so*tware as well as with other mo"ile hosts+
.cala"ility- It permits mo"ility across the glo"al Internet+
acro mo"ility- Rather than attempting to handle rapid network transitions such as one encounters in a
wireless cellular system, mo"ile I1 *ocuses on the pro"lem o* long duration moves+ For e(ample, mo"ile
I1 works well *or a user who takes a porta"le computer on a "usiness trip and leaves it attached to the
new location *or a week+
I1 Address is the logical address and used to assign any networking device+ The I1 addresses are designed to
work with stationary hosts "ecause part o* the address de*ines the network to which the host is attached
2*ur"% 9o$" and 2or"*n A*"nt
A host or router that changes its point o* attachment *rom one network to another, without changing its I1
addresses+ A mo"ile node can continue to communicate with other Internet nodes at any location using its
constant I1 address+ /ome agent is a router on a mo"ile hosts home network delivers datagrams to departed
mo"ile nodes and maintain current location in*ormation *or each+ Foreign agent is a router on a mo"ile node<s
visited network which co'operates with the home agent to complete the delivery o* datagrams to the mo"ile
node while it is away *rom home+ o"ile node has two addresses *or a mo"ile host- one home address and one
care'o* address+ The home address is permanent= the care'o* addresses changes as the mo"ile host moves *rom
one network to another+
Three phases in o"ile /osts communication are-
Agent 0iscovery
Registration
0ata Trans*er
2*ur"% Tunn"ln* Proc"ss
A*"nt dsco&"ry% $hen mo"ile host goes *rom one place to another, it needs to discover its new agent, hence
agent discovery *rame is used to discover new agent+ o"ile I1 does not use a new packet type *or agent
solicitation= it uses the router solicitation packet o* I!1 Foreign agents advertises their presence "y using a
special message which is constructed "y attaching a special e(tension to a router advertisement+
R"*straton% Foreign agent "roadcasts a packet+ A mo"ile host waits *or the messages and registers with the
*oreign agent+ Foreign agent contacts the home agent and receives the acknowledgement *rom it+ Foreign agent
makes an entry in its ta"les and in*orms the mo"ile hosts that it is not registered+
Data Trans("r% In order *or datagrams to "e delivered to the mo"ile node when it is away *rom home, the home
agent has to tunnel the datagrams to the care'o*'address+ A tunnel is a logical path "etween the source and the
destination endpoints "etween two networks+ 2very packet is encapsulated at the source will "e de'capsulated at
the destination+ $hen the packet is transmitted *rom A to &, it reaches router R> which inserts payload *ield
and send it router R?+ $hen Router R? gets the packet, it removes I1 packet and sends it to &+
3.< S"curty r"lat"d ssu"s n Mobl" IP
1. D"nal o( S"r&c" Attac/s
The denial o* .ervice attacks can "e caused when an attacker sends a tremendous num"er o* packets to a host
that "rings the host !17 to its knees+ In the meantime, no use*ul in*ormation can "e e(changed with the host
while it is processing all the nuisance packets+ All packets sent "y the sender would "e tunneled "y the nodes
home agents to the malicious host+ The possi"le prevention method *or this is to require cryptographically
strong authentication in all registration messages e(changed "y a mo"ile node and its home agent+
!. T)"(t o( In(or$aton Pass&" Ea&"sdro++n*
An unauthori6ed person gains wired or wireless access to the network in*rastructure+ The solution is either "y
the use o* Link layer encryption where it is assumed that key management *or the encryption is per*ormed
without closing the keys to any unauthori6ed parties or the use o* 2nd'to'2nd encryption+
-. Insd"r attac/s%
This usually involves a disgruntled employee gaining access to sensitive data and *orwarding it to a competitor+
The solution is to en*orce strict control *or those who can access what data, to use a strong authentication o*
users and computers and to encrypt all data trans*er on an end'to'end "asis "etween the ultimate source and
ultimate destination machines to prevent eavesdropping+
3. R"+lay attac/s%
A malicious host could o"tain a copy o* a valid registration request, store it and then replay it at a later time,
there"y registering a "ogus care'o*'address *or the mo"ile node+ In order to prevent this, the Identi*ication *ield
is generated in such a way that it allows the home agents to determine what the ne(t value should "e+
3.I Voc" and &d"o O&"r IP 5 RTP0 RSVP "tc
Real Time Applications- In real'time interactive audio,video, people communicate visually and orally with one
another in real time+ 2(amples include video con*erencing and the Internet phone or voice over I1+ Litter is
introduced in real'time data "y the delay "etween packets+ To prevent :itter, we can timestamp the packets and
separate the arrival time *rom the play"ack time+ A play"ack "u**er is required *or real'time tra**ic+ A sequence
num"er on each packet is required *or real'time tra**ic+ Translation means changing the encoding o* a payload
to a lower quality to match the "andwidth o* the receiving network+ i(ing means com"ining several streams o*
tra**ic into one stream+
T!1, with all its sophistication, is not suita"le *or interactive multimedia tra**ic "ecause we cannot allow
retransmission o* packets+ 701 is more suita"le than T!1 *or interactive tra**ic+ /owever, we need the services
o* RT1, another transport layer protocol, to make up *or the de*iciencies o* 701+
RT1 stands *or Real Time Transport 1rotocol and used in (real time) multimedia applications+ RT1 de*ines
standard packet *ormat *or delivering audio and video over the Internet+ RT1 is "ased on 701 hence no *low
control, error control and no acknowledgement and no mechanism *or retransmission+
2*ur"% RTP 9"ad"r (or$at
RTP )"ad"r ("lds ar" as (ollo.s%
#ersion- Indicates #ersion num"er+ The value is ?+
1 "it- Indicates that the packet has "een padded to a multiple o* A "ytes+
C "it- Indicates that the e(tension header is present+
!! *ield- indicates the num"er o* sources present+
"it- Indicates start o* the *rame (#ideo *rame o* start o* word in an audio channel)+
1ayload type- Indicates encoding algorithm used+
.equence num"er- 7sed "y the receiver to detect packet loss+
Time stamp- indicates sampling instant o* the *irst "yte in RT1 packet, used to reduce :itter at the receiver+
RT!1 is the control protocol *or RT1 and provides *eed"ack on the quality o* the data transmitted (e(- delay,
:itter, "andwidth and receiver report etc)+ The *eed"ack in*ormation is used "y the encoding process to increase
the data rate+ RT!1 packets are- sender report (.R), receiver report (RR), source description (.02.), &M2 and
A11+ An RT!1 .R will "e sent "y the source o* RT1 data stream to in*orm the receivers what they should have
received+ It is multicast packet that reaches all receivers+ The RT!1 RR packet is similar to .R packet+ .02. is
used *rom the RT1 packet sources to provide more in*ormation a"out them like NA2, 2AIL, 1/3N2,
L3!, T33L, N3T2 and 1RI#+ The RT!1 "ye message is used "y a source i* it leaves a con*erence+ RT!1 A11
message are reserved *or application speci*ic *eatures+ A11 packets are *or e(perimental use to develop new
*eatures and applications+
2*ur"% RTCP M"ssa*"s Ty+"s
R.#1 (Resource Reservation 1rotocol) is a network control protocol that allows a data receiver to request a
special end'to'end quality o* service *or its data *lows+ Real time applications use R.#1 to reserve necessary
resource at routers along the transmission paths so that the requested "andwidth can "e availa"le when the
transmission actually takes place+ R.#1 is a main component o* the *uture Integrated .ervices Internet which
can provide "oth "est'e**ort and real'time service+ 2ach node capa"le o* resource reservation has two local
procedures *or reservation setup and en*orcement-
o 1olicy !ontrol- !hecking user has admin permission, authentication, access control and accounting etc
o Admission control- keeps track o* system resources and determines whether node has su**icient resources to
supply the requested Io.+

R.#1 is used to set up reservations *or network resources+ $hen an application in a host requests a speci*ic
quality o* service (Io.) *or its data stream, it uses R.#1 to deliver its request to routers along the data stream
paths+ R.#1 is responsi"le *or the negotiation o* connection parameters with these routers+ I* the reservation is
setup, R.#1 is also responsi"le *or maintaining router and host states to provide the requested service+ The
*eatures are-
o R.#1 *lows are simple(
o R.#1 supports "oth multicast and unicast and adapts to changing mem"erships and routes+
o R.#1 is receiver oriented and handles heterogeneous receivers+
o R.#1 has good compati"ility+
3verview o* echanism
>+ Flow .peci*ication- $ith a "est'e**ort service we can :ust tell the network where we want our packets to go
and leave it at that, a real'time service involves telling the network something more a"out the type o* service we
require the set o* in*ormation that we provide to the network is re*erred to as a flowspec.
?+ Admission !ontrol- $hen we ask the network to provide us with a particular service, the network needs to
decide i* it can in *act provide that service+ The process o* deciding when to say no is called admission control+
@+ Resource Reservation- $e need a mechanism "y which the users o* the network and the components o* the
network itsel* e(change in*ormation such as requests *or service, *lowspecs, and admission control decisions+
$e re*er to this process as resource reservation.
$hile connection'oriented networks have always needed some sort o* setup protocol to esta"lish the necessary
virtual circuit state in the switches, connectionless networks like the Internet have had no such protocols;
/owever we need to provide a lot more in*ormation to our network when we want a real'time service *rom it+
$hile there have "een a num"er o* setup protocols proposed *or the Internet, the one on which most current
attention is *ocused is called Resource Reservation 1rotocol (R.#1)+
#oice over I1- #oice over I1 or Internet telephony is an application that allows communication "etween two
parties over the packet'switched Internet+ Two protocols have "een designed to handle this type o*
communication- .I1 and /+@?@+
SIP 4S"sson Intaton Protocol7 % .I1 descri"es esta"lishment, management and termination o* multimedia
sessions+ It is a te(t "ased protocol similar to /TT1+ The .I1 is an application'layer control protocol *or
creating, modi*ying, and terminating sessions with one or more participants+ .I1 is designed to "e independent
o* the underlying transport layer= it can run on T!1 or 701+ It is developed on >BBF+ .I1 can esta"lish three
types o* sessions - Two party session, ultiparty sessions and ulticast sessions+ .I1 addresses are o* three
types - 2'mail address, Telephone num"er and I1#A address+
.I1 de*ines nine di**erent types o* messages-
IN#IT2 (request to start o* a session)
A!J (Acknowledgement)
&M2 (Termination o* a session)
31TI3N. (query a host a"out its capa"ility)
!AN!2L (!ancel initiali6ation process)
R29I.T2R (in*orm a server a"out user<s current location)
.7&.!RI&2 (.u"scri"es *or an event o* Noti*ication *rom the Noti*ier)
INF3 (.ends mid'session in*ormation that does not modi*y the session state+)
2..A92 (transport instant messages using .I1)
2*ur"% SIP M"ssa*" Ty+"s
9.-!-% /+@?@ is a standard *or audio and video con*erencing over the Internet+ It includes
Audio,video encoding techniques
Audio,video packet encapsulation technique
.tandard *or end point communication and communication "etween circuits switched network and gateway+
It is developed on >BBF+ !urrent version is /+@?@vF pu"lished in ?HHF+ /+@?@ can "e used *or video
con*erencing applications on LAN or $AN+
3.1> IP&?
I1vF is the ne(t generation internet protocol designed to ena"le high per*ormance scala"le network+ The
important *eatures are listed "elow+
>+ 1ar*" Addr"ss s+ac"% I1vF has >?G "it (>F "ytes) address space and hence huge increase in addressing
capacity+ I1vF uses he(adecimal colon notation+ Thus A he(adecimal digits are required+ Total @? /2C
digits are present+ 3nly a"out >DU o* the address space is now allocated+
?+ 6"tt"r )"ad"r (or$at% The options are separated *rom the "ase header+ The options are inserted when
needed, "etween the "ase header and upper layer data+ This helps in speeding up the routing process+
@+ N". o+tons% New options are added to increase the *unctionality+
A+ Possblty o( ",t"nsons% This protocol is designed in such a way that there is a possi"ility o* e(tension o*
protocol i* required+
D+ Mor" s"curty % ore security *eatures are added which includes encryption o* packets (2.1 %2ncapsulated
.ecurity 1ayload) and authentication o* the sender o* packets (A/ % Authentication /eader)
F+ Su++ort to r"sourc" allocaton% To implement "etter support *or real time tra**ic (such as video
con*erence), I1vF includes *low la"el in the speci*ication+ $ith this mechanism, routers can recogni6e to
which end'to'end *low the packets "elongs+
E+ Plu* and Play% It is easier *or users to connect their machines to the network+
2(ample- A!G>-BGAH-GFHH-AD?H-A!DF-A&0!-HHHH-FFFF
I1#F de*ines three di**erent types o* addresses+
>+ Uncast- This de*ines a single computer+ A packet sent to a unicast address is delivered to that speci*ic
computer+
?+ Anycast- This is a type o* address de*ines a group o* computers with addresses which have same pre*i(+ A
packet sent to an anycast address must "e delivered to e(actly one o* the mem"ers o* the group which is the
closest or the most easily accessi"le+
@+ Multcast- A multicast address de*ines a group o* computers which may or may not share the same pre*i(
and may or may not "e connected to the same physical network+ A packet sent to the multicast address must
"e delivered to each mem"er o* the set+ There are no "roadcast addresses in I1#F, "ecause multicast
addresses can per*orm the same *unction+ ulticast addresses all start with FF+
2*ur"% IPV? )"ad"r (or$at
The I1vF packet is composed o* two main parts- the header and the payload+ 1ayload is made up o* two parts-
3ptional e(tension headers and data *rom the upper layer+ The header is in the *irst AH octets (@?H "its) o* the
packet and contains-
#ersion ' version F (A'"it I1 version)+
Tra**ic class ' packet priority (G'"its)+ 1riority values are divided into ranges- tra**ic where the source
provides congestion control and non'congestion control tra**ic+
Flow la"el % Io. management (?H "its)+ 3riginally created *or giving real time applications special service,
"ut currently unused+
1ayload length ' payload length in "ytes (>F "its)+ This *ield is used to de*ine the total length o* the I1
datagram e(cluding the "ase header+ $hen cleared to 6ero, the option is a VLum"o payloadV (hop'"y'hop)+
Ne(t header ' .peci*ies the ne(t encapsulated protocol+ The values are compati"le with those speci*ied *or
the I1vA protocol *ield (G "its)+
/op limit ' replaces the TTL *ield o* I1vA (G "its)+
.ource and destination addresses ' >?G "its each+
The payload can "e up to FAJ& in si6e in standard mode, or larger with a V:um"o payloadV option+ The protocol
*ield o* I1vA is replaced with a Ne(t /eader *ield+ This *ield usually speci*ies the transport layer protocol used
"y a packetXs payload+
2(tension headers are-
>) 9o+'by'9o+ O+tons% This header is used to speci*y delivery parameters at each hop on the path to the
destination+ It is identi*ied "y the value o* H in IpvF header<s Ne(t header *ield+ This header consists o* a
Ne(t header *ield, a header 2(tension Length *ield and an options *ield that contains one or more options+
?) Sourc" Routn*- IpvF source nodes can use the Routing e(tension header to speci*y a loose source route, a
list o* intermediate destinations *or the packet to travel to on its path to the *inal destination+ The routing
header is identi*ied "y the value o* A@ in the previous header<s Ne(t header *ield+
@) 2ra*$"ntaton% The *ragmentation header is used *or I1vF *ragmentation and reassem"ly services+ This
header is identi*ied "y the value o* AA in the previous header<s ne(t header *ield+ The *ragment header
includes a Ne(t /eader *ield, >@ "it Fragment 3**set *ield, ore Fragment *ield and @? "it identi*ication
*ield+
A) Aut)"ntcaton 4A97- The authentication header provides data authentication, data integrity and anti8relay
protection *or the I1vF packet+ The authentication header is identi*ied "y the value o* D> in the previous
header<s Ne(t /eader *ield+ The authentication header contains a Ne(t header *ield, a 1ayload Length *ield,
a .ecurity 1arameters Inde( (.1I) *ield that identi*ied a speci*ic I1 .ecurity (I1.ec) security association
(.A), a sequence num"er *ield that provides anti'replay protection and an authentication 0ata *ield that
contains an Integrity check value (I!#)+
D) Encry+ton S"curty Payload 4ESP7% this provides data con*identiality, data authentication and data
integrity services to the encapsulated payload+ In contrast, A/ provides data authentication and integrity
services *or the entire I1vF packet+
F) D"stnaton o+tons% This header is used to speci*y delivery parameters *or either intermediate destinations
or the *inal destination+ This header is identi*ied "y the value o* FH in the previous header<s Ne(t /eader
*ield+ I* routing header is present, it speci*ies delivery or processing options at each intermediate destination+
0i**erence "etween I1vA and I1vF are as *ollows-
No IP&3 IP&?
> There are total ?
@?
addresses+ There are total ?
>?G
addresses+
? Address is written "y dotted notation+ Address is written in he(adecimal and consists o* G
groups o* A /2C digits+
@ The "asic length o* header is ?H "ytes and
ma(imum is FH "ytes (including options) and
contains various >@ *ields+
.tatic header o* AH "ytes+ 2(tension headers might "e
present+ It contains various G *ields+
A /eader has a checksum which is computed "y
each router+
No header checksum+
D !ontains G "it *ield called .ervice Type which
composed "y T3. and 1rocedure *iled+
!ontains G "it *ield called the Tra**ic !lass Field which
allows the tra**ic source to identi*y the desired delivery
priority o* its packets+
F !ontains only .tate*ul auto'con*iguration+ !ontains .tate*ul and stateless auto'con*iguration+
E .ecurity in I1#A networks is limited to
tunneling "etween two networks+
I1vF has "een designed to satis*y the growing and
e(panded need *or network security+
G Addresses are @? "its in length+ Addresses are >?G "its in length+
B I1.ec support is option+ I1.ec option is required+
>H No identi*ication o* packet *low *or Io.
handling "y routers is present within I1vA
header+
1acket *low identi*ication *or Io. handling "y routers
is included in I1vF header using Flow La"el Field+
>> AR1 uses "roadcast AR1 request *rames to
resolve an address to A! address+
AR1 request *rames are replaced with multicast
Neigh"or .olicitation messages+
>? ust "e con*igured either manually or through
0/!1+
0oes not require manual con*iguration or 0/!1+
>@ I!1 router discovery is used to determine
address o* the "est de*ault gateway and is
optional+
I!1 router 0iscovery is replaced with I!1vF
Router .olicitation and Router Advertisement messages
and is required+
>A /eaders include options+ All optional data is moved to I1#F e(tension headers+
3.11 IP&? S"curty
.ecurity *eatures in I1vF have "een introduced "y way o* two dedicated e(tensions headers the Authentication
/eader (A/) and the 2ncrypted .ecurity payload (2.1)+ The A/ header was designed to ensure authenticity
and integrity o* the I1 packet+ Its presence guards against two threats- illegal modi*ication o* the *i(ed *ields and
packet spoo*ing+ 3n the other hand 2.1 header provides data encapsulation with encryption to ensure that only
the destination node can read the payload conveyed "y the I1 packets+ The two headers can "e used together to
provide all the security *eatures simultaneously+ &oth the AL and 2.1 headers e(ploit the concept o* security
association (.A) to agree on the security algorithms and parameters "etween the sender and the receiver+ In
general, each I1vF node manages a set o* .As, one *or each secure communication currently active+ The
.ecurity 1arameters Inde( (.1I) is a parameter contained in "oth the A/ and 2.1 headers to speci*y which .A
is to "e used in decrypting and,or authenticating the packet+
In unicast transmission, the .1I is normally chosen "y the destination node and sent "ack to the sender when the
communication is set up+ In multicast transmission, the .1I must "e common to all the mem"ers o* the multicast
group+ 2ach node must "e a"le to identi*y the right .A correctly "y com"ining the .1I with the multicast
address+ The negotiation o* an .A is an integral part o* the protocol *or the e(change o* security keys+
Aut)"ntcaton )"ad"r 4A97
The A/ is one o* the general headers de*ined *or I1vF= it is identi*ied "y the value D> in the Ne(t header *ield o*
the previous header+ It is inserted "etween the I1vF header and the upper level payload+ The *ormat o* A/
header is simple= it is composed o* a FA "it *i(ed part *ollowed "y a varia"le num"er o* @? "it "locks+ The *i(ed
part contains- The value o* the ne(t type o* payload, the payload length, reserved *ield and .1I used "y this
header etc+
A/ is used to authenticate only (not encrypt I1 tra**ic)+ Authentication is per*ormed "y computing a
cryptographic hash'"ased message authentication code over nearly all the *ields o* the I1 packet (e(cluding
those which might "e modi*ied in transit, such as TTL or the header checksum), and stores this in a newly'
added A/ header and sent to the other end+
2*ur"% A9 9"ad"r 2or$at
A/ header contains :ust *ive interesting *ields, and itXs in:ected "etween the original I1 header and the payload+
N",t )dr identi*ies the protocol type o* the *ollowing payload, and itXs the original packet type "eing
encapsulated- this is how the I1.ec header(s) are linked together+ A9 l"n de*ines the length, in @?'"it words, o*
the whole A/ header, minus two words+ R"s"r&"d ("ld is reserved *or *uture use and must "e 6ero+ S"curty
Para$"t"rs Ind", is an opaque @?'"it identi*ier that helps the recipient select which o* possi"ly many ongoing
conversations this packet applies+ 2ach A/'protected connection implies a hash algorithm (0D, ./A'>, etc+),
some kind o* secret data, and a host o* other parameters+ The .1I can "e thought o* as an inde( into a ta"le o*
these settings, allowing *or easy association o* packet with parameter+ S"#u"nc" Nu$b"r is a monotonically
increasing identi*ier thatXs used to assist in anti'replay protection+ This value is included in the authentication
data, so modi*ications (intentional or otherwise) are detected+ Authentication 0ata is the Integrity !heck #alue
calculated over the entire packet+ The recipient re'computes the same hash= ismatched values mark the packet
as either damaged in transit, or not having the proper secret key+ These are discarded+
Encry+t"d S"curty Payload 4ESP7%
The 2.1 is one o* the general e(tension headers de*ined in I1vF, is identi*ied "y the value o* D? in the Ne(t
header *ield o* the preceding header+ $hen used, this "lock must always "e the last one in the header chain
"ecause it completely hides "oth the upper level payload and all the ne(t headers+ 2.1 header consist o* an
integer num"er o* @? "it "locks, with the *irst one containing the .1I to select the .A to "e used in decrypting
all other "locks in the packet+ The e(act *ormat o* the encrypted part depends on the encryption algorithm used+
The de*ault encryption technique in I1vF is 02.'!&!B, which is the 02. algorithm applied in !ipher &lock
!haining mode+ 02. is a private key encryption algorithm that is normally applied to FA "it data "locks with a
DF "it key (e(tended to FA "its "y adding one parity "it *or each E "its o* the key)+
3.1! IP&? ' N"*)bor dsco&"ry0 auto'con(*uraton0 routn*
N"*)bor Dsco&"ry%
I1vF Neigh"or 0iscovery (N0) is a set o* messages and processes that determine relationships "etween
neigh"oring nodes+ N0 replaces AR1, I!1 Router 0iscovery and I!1 redirect used in I1vA and provides
additional *unctionalities+
N0 is used "y hosts to discover neigh"oring routers and to discover addresses, address pre*i(es and other
con*iguration parameters+ N0 is used "y routers to advertise their presence, host con*iguration parameters and
on link pre*i(es+ It is also used to in*orm hosts o* a "etter ne(t'hop address to *orward packets *or a speci*ic
destination+ N0 is used "y nodes to resolve the link address o* a neigh"ouring node to which an I1vF packet is
"eing *orwarded and determine when the link layer address o* a neigh"ouring node has changed+ There are *ive
di**erent N0 messages-
Router .olicitation
Router Advertisements
Neigh"or .olicitation
Neigh"or Advertisement
Redirect
17 Rout"r Solctaton% The Router .olicitation message is sent "y I1vF hosts to discover I1vF routes present
on the link+ A host sends a multicast Router .olicitation to prompt I1vF routers to respond immediately,
rather than waiting *or a periodic Router Advertisement message+

!7 Rout"r Ad&"rts"$"nt% I1vF routers send the Router Advertisement message either periodically or in
response to the receipt o* a Router .olicitation message+ it contains the in*ormation required "y hosts to
determine the link pre*i(es, the link T7, whether or not to use address auto'con*iguration, and the
duration *or which addresses created through address auto'con*iguration are "oth valid and pre*erred+

-7 N"*)bor Solctaton% This message is sent "y I1vF hosts to discover the link layer address o* an on'link
I1vF node+ It includes the link layer address o* the sender+ Typical neigh"or solicitations are multicast *or
address resolution and unicast when the reacha"ility o* a neigh"ouring node is "eing veri*ied+

37 N"*)bor Ad&"rts"$"nt% This message is sent "y an I1vF node in response to the receipt o* a Neigh"or
.olicitation message+ An I1#F node also sends unsolicited Neigh"or Advertisements to in*orm
neigh"ouring nodes o* changes in link'layer addresses+ This message contains in*ormation required "y
nodes to determine the type o* Neigh"or Advertisements message, the link layer address o* the sender and
the sender<s role o* the network+
=7 R"dr"ct% This message is sent "y an I1vF router to in*orm an originating hosts o* a "etter *irst hop
addresses *or a speci*ic destination+ Redirect messages are only sent "y routers *or unicast tra**ic, are only
unicast to originating hosts, and are only processed "y hosts+
N"*)bor Dsco&"ry Proc"ss%
The N0 protocol provides message e(changes *or the *ollowing processes-
>) Address Resolution
?) Router 0iscovery
@) Neigh"or un'reacha"ility detection
A) Redirect *unction
17 Addr"ss R"soluton% The Address resolution process *or I1vF nodes consist o* an e(change o* Neigh"or
.olicitation and neigh"or Advertisements messages to resolve the link layer address o* the on'link ne(t'hop
address *or a given destination+ The sending host sends a multicast Neigh"or .olicitation message on the
appropriate inter*ace+ The multicast address o* the Neigh"or .olicitation message is the solicited node
multicasts address derived *rom the target I1 address+ The Neigh"or .olicitation includes the link layer
address o* the sending hosts in the .ource Link Layer Address 3ption+
$hen the target hosts receives the Neigh"or .olicitation message, it updates its own neigh"or cache "ased
on the source address o* the Neigh"or .olicitation message and the link layer address in the .ource Link
layer Address 3ption+ Ne(t, the target node sends a unicast neigh"or Advertisement to the Neigh"or
.olicitation .ender+ /e Neigh"or Advertisements includes the target Link Layer Address 3ption+ A*ter
receiving, the neigh"or Advertisement *orm the target, the sending host updates its neigh"or cache with an
entry *or the target "ased upon the in*ormation in the Target Link Layer Address option+ At this point,
unicast IpvF tra**ic "etween the sending hosts and the target o* the Neigh"or .olicitation can "e sent+

!7 Rout"r Dsco&"ry% Router 0iscovery is the process through which nodes attempt to discover the set o*
routers on the local link+ Router discovery in I1vF is similar to I!1 Router 0iscovery *or I1vA+ An
important di**erence is the mechanism through which a new de*ault router is selected when the current one
"ecomes unavaila"le+ IN I!1vA Router 0iscovery, the router advertisement message includes an
Advertisement Li*etime Field+ Advertisement Li*etime is the time a*ter which the router, upon receiving its
last router advertisement message, can "e considered unavaila"le+ In the worst case, a router can "ecome
unavaila"le and hosts will not attempt to discover a new de*ault router until the router Advertisement time
has elapsed+
I1vF has a router Li*etime *ield in the Router Advertisement essage+ This *ield indicates the length o* time
that the router can "e considered a de*ault router+ /owever, i* the current de*ault router "ecomes
unavaila"le, the condition is detected through neigh"or un'reacha"ility detection instead o* the Router
Li*etime *ield in the Router Advertisement message+ &ecause neigh"or un'reacha"ility detection determines
that the router is no longer reacha"le, a new router is chosen immediately *rom the de*ault router list+

-7 N"*)bor Un'r"ac)ablty D"t"cton% A neigh"oring node is reacha"le i* there has "een a recent
con*irmation that I1vF packets sent to the neigh"oring node were received and processed "y the neigh"oring
node+ It does not necessarily veri*y the end to end reacha"ility o* the destination+ &ecause a neigh"ouring
node can "e a host or a router, the neigh"ouring node might not "e the *inal destination o* the packet+ It
veri*ies only the reacha"ility o* the *irst hop o* the destination+ 3ne o* the ways that reacha"ility is
con*irmed is through the sending o* a unicast Neigh"or .olicitation message and the receipt o* a solicited
neigh"or Advertisement message+ A solicited Neigh"or Advertisement message, which has its solicited *lag
set to >, is sent only in response to a Neigh"or .olicitation message+ 7nsolicited neigh"or Advertisement or
Router advertisement messages are not considered proo* o* reacha"ility+ The e(change o* Neigh"or
.olicitation and Neigh"or Advertisement messages con*irm only the reacha"ility o* the node that sent the
neigh"or Advertisement *rom the node that sent the Neigh"or .olicitation+ It does not con*irm the
reacha"ility o* the nodes that sent the Neigh"or .olicitation *rom the node that send the Neigh"or
advertisement+

37 R"dr"ct 2uncton% Routers use the redirect *unction to in*orm originating hosts o* a "etter *irst'hop
neigh"or to which tra**ic should "e *orwarded *or a speci*ic destination+ There are two instances where
redirect *unctions are used+ A router in*orms originating hosts o* the I1 address o* a router availa"le on the
local link that is closer to the destination+ A router in*orms originating hosts that the destination is a
neigh"or (it is on the same link as the originating hosts)+
Auto'con(*uraton%
$hile the Internet<s growth has "een impressive, one *actor that has inhi"ited *aster acceptance o* the
technology is the *act that getting connected to the Internet has typically required a *air amount o* system
administration e(pertise+ In particular, every host that is connected to the Internet needs to "e con*igured with a
certain minimum amount o* in*ormation, such as a valid I1 address, a su"net mask *or the link to which it
attaches, and the address o* a name server+
Thus, it has not "een possi"le to unpack a new computer and connect it to the Internet without some pre'
con*iguration+ 3ne goal o* I1vF, there*ore, is to provide support *or auto con*iguration, sometimes re*erred to as
Nplug'and'playO operation+ Auto con*iguration is possi"le *or I1vA, "ut it depends on the e(istence o* a server
that is con*igured to hand out addresses and other con*iguration in*ormation to 0/!1 clients+ The longer
address *ormat in I1vF helps provide a use*ul, new *orm o* auto con*iguration called stateless auto
con*iguration, which does not require a server+
Thus one o* the most use*ul aspects o* I1vF is its a"ility to automatically con*igure itsel*, even without the use
o* a .tate*ul con*iguration protocol such as 0/!1 protocol *or I1vF+ &y de*ault, an I1vF hosts can con*igure a
link'local address *or each inter*ace+ &y using router discovery, hosts can also determine the addresses o*
routers, other con*iguration parameters, additional addresses and on link pre*i(es+ Included in the Router
Advertisement message, is an indication o* whether a .tate*ul address con*iguration protocol should "e used+
Address auto'con*iguration can only "e per*ormed on multicast capa"le inter*aces+ The address auto'
con*iguration process *or the physical inter*ace o* an I1vF node is as per *ollowing-
>) A tentative link'local address is derived "ased on the link local pre*i( o* F2GH--,FA and the FA "it
inter*ace num"er+
?) 7sing duplicate address detection to veri*y the uniqueness o* the tentative link'local address, a Neigh"or
.olicitation message is sent with the Target Address *ield that is set to the tentative link'local address+
@) I* a neigh"or Advertisement message sent in response o* the Neigh"or .olicitation message is received,
this indicates that another node on the local link is using the tentative link'local address and address
con*iguration stops+ At this point, manual con*iguration must "e per*ormed on the node+
A) I* no Neigh"our Advertisement message is received, the tentative link local address is assumed to "e
unique and valid+ The link local address is initiali6ed *or the inter*ace+ The corresponding solicited node
multicast link layer address is registered with the network adapter+
UNIT VI
AD 9OC NETWORKIN:
Syllabus
An Introduction, A 0o0 1erspective on o"ile Ad /oc Networks, 0.0#- Routing over a ultihop $ireless
Network o* o"ile !omputers, !luster'&ased Networks, 0.R- The 0ynamic .ource Routing 1rotocol *or
ultihop $ireless Ad /oc Networks (G/rs+)
?.1 Ad 9oc N"t.or/ Introducton
An ad /oc network is a collection o* wireless mo"ile nodes dynamically *orming a temporary network without
the use o* e(isting network in*rastructure or centrali6ed administration+ 0ue to the limited transmission range o*
wireless network inter*aces, multiple network hops may "e needed *or one node to e(change data with another
across the network+ In such a network, each mo"ile node operates not only as a host nut also as a router,
*orwarding packets *or other mo"ile nodes in the network that may not "e within the direct reach+ 2ach node
participates in an Ad /oc routing protocol that allows it to discover multi hop paths through the network to any
other node+ The idea o* an Ad /oc network is sometimes also called as an In*rastructure less network, since the
mo"ile hosts in the network dynamically esta"lish routing among themselves to *orm their own network on the
*ly+

Ad 9oc N"t.or/ C)aract"rstc% 1eer'to'peer, 6ero administration, low power, ultihop, dynamic and auto
con*igured+
17 Moblty% This is one o* the most important characteristic, speci*ies the mo"ile users to communicate
with each other+
!7 Mult)o++n*% A multihop network is a network where the path *rom source to destination traverses
several other nodes+ Ad /oc networks o*ten e(hi"it multiple hops *or o"stacle negotiation, spectrum
reuse and energy conversation+
-7 S"l('or*an;aton% The Ad hoc network must autonomously determine its own con*iguration parameters
including- addressing, routing, clustering, position identi*ication, power control etc+
37 En"r*y Cons"r&aton% ost ad /oc nodes have limited power supply and no capa"ility to generate
their own power+ 2nergy e**icient protocol design (A!, routing, resource discovery etc) is critical *or
longevity o* the mission+
=7 Scalablty% In same application the ad hoc network can grow to several thousand nodes+ For wireless
in*rastructure networks scala"ility is simply handled "y a hierarchical construction+ The limited mo"ility
o* in*rastructure networks can also "e easily handled using o"ile I1 or local hando** techniques+

A++lcaton%
o !on*erencing
o /ome networking
o Range e(tension *or cellular "ase stations
o 2mergency services - Am"ulance or 1olice
o /ospitals
o 2m"edded computing applications
o 2na"le computing where su"nets do not e(ist
Ad&anta*"s o( Ad 9oc N"t.or/s%
o Independence *rom central network administration
o .el*'con*iguring, nodes are also routers+
o .el*'healing through continuous re'con*iguration
o .cala"le % accommodates the addition o* more nodes+
o Fle(i"le % .imilar to "eing a"le to access the Internet *rom many di**erent locations+
Ds'ad&anta*"s o( Ad 9oc N"t.or/s%
o 2ach node must have *ull per*ormance+
o Throughput is a**ected "y system loading+
o Relia"ility requires a su**icient num"er o* availa"le nodes+ .parse networks can have pro"lems+
o Large networks can have e(cessive latency (time delays), which a**ects some applications+
S"l( Con(*urn* and S"l( 9"aln* +roc"ss% 2ach node identi*ies the nodes that are availa"le *or
communication, "ased on signal strength, which is mainly related to distance, "ut is also a**ected "y
o"structions or inter*erence+ .ome nodes may "e "eyond rage= others may "e detecta"le "ut have insu**icient
signal strength *or relia"le communication+ 3nce the availa"le nodes are identi*ied, this in*ormation is
communicated to other nodes, along with in*ormation a"out the desired destination+ 7sing the list o* availa"le
connections, the network con*iguration algorithm selects a particular routing *or each user to its destination+
This process requires system operating so*tware to give good decision making algorithms, "ased on practical
criteria *or signal strength, path relia"ility over time, and network con*iguration patterns+ 3ver time, or even
near'continuously, the network will change+ 7sers may come and go, nodes may "e in motion, or changes in the
electromagnetic environment may alter the propagation "etween nodes+ As these changes take place, the
network will update its con*iguration and identi*y new paths *rom users to destinations+ This type o*
recon*iguration will "e repeated over and over as the network changes+
?.! Mobl" Ad 9oc N"t.or/s
A Vmo"ile ad hoc networkV (AN2T) is an autonomous system o* mo"ile routers (and associated hosts)
connected "y wireless links ''the union o* which *orm an ar"itrary graph+ The routers are *ree to move
randomly and organi6e themselves ar"itrarily= thus, the networkXs wireless topology may change rapidly and
unpredicta"ly+ .uch a network may operate in a standalone *ashion, or may "e connected to the larger Internet+
.ensor nodes consist o* sensing, data processing, and communication components and typically *orm ad hoc
networks+ 0ue to a lack o* in*rastructure support, each node acts as a router, *orwarding data packets *or other
nodes+
Ad /oc Networks are thus sel*'con*iguring network o* mo"ile routers (and associated hosts) connected "y
wireless links+ This union *orms a random topology+ Routers move randomly *ree+ Topology changes rapidly
and unpredicta"ly+ .tandalone *ashion or connected to the larger Internet+ These are suita"le *or emergency
situations like natural or human'induced disasters, military con*licts, emergency medical situations, etc+
Ad'hoc network versus o"ile Ad'hoc network- Increase o* mo"ile applications, !hanges to the network
topology, Need o* e(treme network *le(i"ility+ The Answer is o"ile Ad'hoc Network+ $hile AN2Ts are sel*
contained, they can also "e tied to an I1'"ased glo"al or local network % /y"rid AN2Ts
?.- Routn*
Routing is the mechanism used in communications to *ind a path "etween two entities+ As an 3.I layer, this
mechanism receives data ready to send *rom the upper layer, then calculates the "est path *or the destination and
*orwards it to layer ?+ An Ad /oc routing protocol is a convention or standard, which controls how nodes
decided which way to route packets "etween computing decides in a mo"ile Ad /oc network+ In ad hoc
networks, nodes are not *amiliar with the topology o* their networks= instead, they have to discover it+ The "asic
idea is that a new node may announce its presence and should listen *or announcements "roadcast "y its
neigh"ors+ 2ach node leans a"out nodes near"y and how to reach them, and may announce that it, too, can reach
them+
Ad 9oc Protocol Routn* R"#ur"$"nts%
o .imple, relia"le and e**icient
o 0istri"uted "ut lightweight in nature
o Iuickly adapts to changes in topology
o 1rotocol reaction to topology changes should result in minimal control overhead
o &andwidth e**icient
o o"ility management involving user location and hand'o** management
Ty+"s o( Routn*%
Flat 1roactive Routing (Ta"le 0riven Routing)
Link state Fish'2ye Routing, 9.R, 3L.R+
Ta"le driven- 0estination'.equenced 0istance #ector (0.0#), $R1)
3n'0emand or Reactive Routing
Ad hoc 3n'demand 0istant #ector (A30#)
0ynamic .ource Routing (0.R)
Flow 3riented Routing
/y"rid (!om"ination o* 1ro active and reactive routing)
Proact&" Routn*% Ta"le driven routing protocols attempt to maintain consistent, up to date routing
in*ormation *rom each node to every other node in the network+ These protocols require each node to maintain
one or more ta"les to store routing in*ormation and they respond to changes in network topology "y propagating
updates throughout the network in order to maintain a consistent network view+ In this, router maintains routing
in*ormation independently o* need *or communication+ 7pdate messages send throughout the network
periodically or when network topology changes+ Important *eatures are low latency, suita"le *or real'time
tra**ic+ &andwidth might get wasted due to periodic updates+
1roactive routing maintains unicast routes "etween all pairs o* nodes regardless o* whether all routes are
actually used+ There*ore, when the need arises (when a tra**ic source "egins a session with a remote
destination), the tra**ic source has a route readily availa"le and does not have to incur any delay *or route
discovery+ These protocols also can *ind optimal routes (shortest path)+ Routing protocols (distance vector "ased
RI1 and link state "ased 3.1F *all under this category+ /owever, these protocols are not directly suita"le *or
resource'poor and mo"ile ad hoc networks, "ecause o* their high overheads and,or somewhat poor convergence
"ehavior+ There*ore, several optimi6ed variations o* these protocols have "een proposed *or use in ad hoc
networks+ These protocols are "roadly classi*ied into the two traditional categories- distance vector and link
state+ In distance vector protocols, a node e(changes with its neigh"ors a vector containing the current distance
in*ormation to all known destinations= the distance in*ormation propagates across the network transitively and
routes are computed in a distri"uted manner at each node+ 3n the other hand, in link state protocols, each node
disseminates the status o* each o* its outgoing links throughout the network in the *orm o* link state updates+
2ach node locally computes routes in a decentrali6ed manner using the complete topology in*ormation+
On D"$and or R"act&" Routn*% A di**erent approach *rom ta"le driven routing is source initiated on
demand routing+ This type o* routing creates routes when desired "y the source node+ $hen a node requires a
route to a destination, it initiates a route discovery process within the network+ This process is completed once a
route is *ound or all possi"le route permutations have "een e(amined+ 3nce a route has "een esta"lished, it is
maintained "y a route maintenance procedure until either the destination "ecomes inaccessi"le along every path
*rom the source or until the route is no longer designed+
Reactive means discover route only when you need it+ This saves energy and "andwidth during inactivity
!ongestion during high activity+ .igni*icant delay might occur as a result o* route discovery+ 9ood *or light
loads, collapse in large loads+
9ybrd% 1roactive *or neigh"orhood, Reactive *or *ar away (Kone Routing 1rotocol, /aas group) 1roactive *or
long distance, Reactive *or neigh"orhood (.a*ari)+ It attempts to strike "alance "etween the two+
?.3 DSDV% Routn* o&"r a Mult)o+ Wr"l"ss N"t.or/ o( Mobl" Co$+ut"rs
!onsider a collection o* mo"ile computers, which may "e *ar *rom any "ase station (Access 1oint) that can
e(change data along changing and ar"itrary paths o* interconnection+ The computers must e(change control
messages so that all computers in the collection have a path along which data can "e e(changed+ The solution
must remain compati"le with operation in cases where a "ase is station is availa"le+

1ackets are transmitted "etween the nodes o* the network using routing ta"les stored at ach node+ 2ach routing
ta"le, at each o* the nodes, lists all availa"le destinations and the num"er o* hops to reach+ 2ach routing ta"le
entry is tagged with a sequence num"er that is originated "y the destination node+ To maintain the consistency
o* routing ta"les, in a dynamically changing topology, each node periodically transmits updates, doing so
immediately when signi*icant or new in*ormation is availa"le+ Thus 0.0# protocol is "ased on &ellman Ford
algorithm+ They e(change o* routing ta"les, the way to reach destination and the cost+ 2ach node advertises its
position- .equence num"er to avoid loops and maintain *resh routes+ Routes are "roadcasted *rom the
NreceiverO+ Nodes announce their presence- advertisements+ 2ach "roadcast has 0estination address- originator,
No o* hops and .equence num"er o* "roadcast+ Routing is achieved "y using routing ta"les maintained "y each
node+ The main comple(ity in 0.0# is in generating and maintaining these routing ta"les+
The 0.0# was one o* the earliest protocols developed *or ad hoc networks+ 1rimarily design goal o* 0.0#
was to develop protocols that preserve the simplicity o* RI1+ 0istri"uted "ellman Ford, the "asic distance vector
protocol, su**ers *rom "oth short term and long term routing loops (the count'to'in*inity pro"lem) and thus
e(hi"its poor convergence in the presence o* link *ailures+ The 0.0# protocol requires each mo"ile node to
advertise, to each o* its current neigh"ors, its won route ta"le+ The entries in the list may change *airly
dynamically over time, so the advertisement must "e made o*ten enough to ensure that every mo"ile computer
can almost always locate every other mo"ile computer in the collection+ In addition, each mo"ile node agrees to
relay data packets to other computers upon request+ This agreement places a premium on the a"ility to
determine the shortest num"er o* hops *or a route to a destination= we want to avoid distur"ing mo"ile hosts
unnecessarily i* they are in sleep mode+ In this way, a mo"ile computer may e(change data with any other
mo"ile computer in the group even i* the target o* the data is not within range *or direct communication+
Rout" U+dat"s Pac/"ts%
Two types o* packets de*ined *or route updates
o Full dump packets ' !arry all availa"le routing in*ormation+ .i6e o* multiple network protocol data units
(N107s) is large+ Transmitted in*requently during period o* occasional movement
o Incremental packets ' !arry only in*ormation changed since last *ull dump+ .i6e o* a N107 is less+ They are
transmitted more *requently+ Additional ta"le maintained to store the data *rom the incremental packets
Rout" S"l"cton Crt"ra% Routes are pre*erred i* the sequence num"ers are newer+ I* the sequence num"ers
are the same, the one with "etter metric is pre*erred+ Jeep track o* the settling time o* routes'the weighted
average time that routes to a destination will *luctuate "e*ore the route with "est metric is received+
2"atur"s o( DSDV Routn*%
o 2ssentially a modi*ication to &ellman'Ford routing algorithm
o 7sing sequence num"er to guarantee loop'*ree paths
o Relies on periodic e(change o* routing in*ormation+
o Ine**icient due to periodic update transmissions even no changes in topology+
o 3verhead grows as 3(n
?
) , limiting scala"ility
?.= Ad 9oc on D"$and Dstanc" V"ctor Routn* 4AODV7
&uild on 0.0# algorithm and the improvement is on minimising the num"er o* required "roadcasts "y creating
routes on an on'demand "asis (not maintaining a complete list o* routes)+ &roadcast is used *or route request+
.ender tries to *ind destination+ .ender "roadcasts a Route Request 1acket (RR2I)+ Nodes maintain route cache
and use destination sequence num"er *or each route entry+ It also displays path taken "y Route Reply (RR21)
packet+ Route 0iscovery process is shown in *igure+
Node monitors the link status o* ne(t hop in active routes+ Route 2rror packets (R2RR) is used to noti*y other
nodes i* link is "roken+ Nodes remove corresponding route entry a*ter hearing R2RR
Ad&anta*"s% uses "andwidth e**iciently, is responsive to changes in topology, is scala"le and ensures loop *ree
routing+
Dra.bac/s% nodes use the routing caches to reply to route queries+ Result- NuncontrolledO replies and repetitive
updates in hosts< caches yet early queries cannot stop the propagation o* all query messages which are *looded
all over the network
?.? DSR% T)" Dyna$c Sourc" Routn* Protocol (or Mult)o+ Wr"l"ss Ad 9oc N"t.or/s
0.R is characteri6ed "y the use o* source routing+ That is, the sender knows the complete hop'"y'hop route to
the destination+ These routes are stored in a route cache+ The data packets carry the source route in the packet
header+ $hen a node in the ad hoc network attempts to send a data packet to a destination *or which it does not
already know the route, it uses route discovery process to dynamically determine such a route+

Thus 0.R is "ased on the concept o* source routing+ o"ile nodes are required to maintain route caches that
contain the source routes o* which the mo"ile is aware+ Two mechanisms are used- Route aintenance and
Route 0iscovery+ Route 0iscovery mechanism is similar to the one in A30# "ut with source routing instead
nodes maintain route caches+ 2ntries in route caches updated as nodes learn new routes+ 1acket carries complete
ordered list o* nodes through which packet will pass+ .ender checks its route cache, i* route e(ists= sender
constructs a source route in the packet<s header+ I* route e(pires or does not e(ist, sender initiates the Route
0iscovery echanism+
Rout" Dsco&"ry n DSR% A route "etween two nodes is *ound "y sending a Route Request+ Route Request
"uilds a source route on every path through the network+ First Route Request to arrive is accepted= target
responds on that path and tells initiator what the source route is+ .ource route is used on su"sequent data tra**ic+
.ender *loods RR2I through the network+ Nodes *orward RR2Is a*ter appending their names+ 0estination
node receives RR2I and unicast a RR21 "ack to sender node+
Rout" Mant"nanc"% $hen routing node,routing node link changes, e(isting source routes no longer work+
Routing nodes respond to source routes with a Route 2rror, triggering a new route discovery+ Routing nodes
may attempt to change source route and re'*orward on a cached route+ For route aintenance, Two types o*
packets used- Route 2rror 1acket and Acknowledgement+ I* transmission error is detected at data link layer,
Route 2rror 1acket is generated and sends to the original sender o* the packet+ The node removes the hop is
error *rom its route cache when a Route 2rror packet is received+ A!Js are used to veri*y the correction o* the
route links+
Ad&anta*"s% No periodic hello message and *ast recovery ' cache can store multiple paths to a destination+

Dra.bac/s% The packets may "e *orwarded along stale cached routes+ It has a ma:or scala"ility pro"lem due to
the nature o* source routing+ .ame as A30#, nodes use the routing caches to reply to route queries+
2"atur"s%
o 1otentially larger overhead
o Intended *or moderate speed mo"ile nodes, source routing, not scala"le to large networks
o No network topology changes, no overhead
o .upport asymmetric link
o Allow nodes keep multiple routes to one destination in their cache, *aster route recovery
0i**erence "etween 0.0#, A30# and 0.R are as *ollows-
0.0# A30# 0.R
.ource Routing No No Mes
1eriodic message Mes No No
Functioning 1roactively Mes No No
Functioning Reactively No Mes Mes