Proofs

Quantify the Question

Explain which proof (if applic.)
Make Assumption
Conclude for all Values
(1) Direct Proof (P(n) Q(n))
En is a Z, n is odd n
2
is odd (Quantifying)
Assume P(n) is true, n is an odd integer
Ek is a Z, n = 2k + 1, .
Because X is an Z, TF, n
2
is odd, TF Q(n) is true
TF for all values of x, P(n) Q(n) is true

(2) Proof By Contra-proposition
The contra-positive of P Q is !Q !P
Quantify the contra-positive statement
Assume !Q is true, n is an even integer
Ek is a Z, n = 2k, .
Because X is an Z, TF, n
2
is even, TF !P is true
TF for all values of x, P(n) Q(n) is true

Bi-conditional need to use (1) and (2)
Proof by Contradiction (P and !Q are true)
Assume statement is false,n
2
is odd & n is even
Ek is a Z, n = 2k, .
Because X is an Z, TF, n
2
is even. TF contradicts.
The Integers (d 0 , n int)
d | n , d 0 n = dk, n/d is an integer
d divides n, n is divisible by d, n is a multiple of d
d is a factor of n, d is a divisor of n
Ad is integer, d 0, d | 0
d | n d | n
d | n and n != 0, |d| =< |n|
d | n = |d| | |n|
Multiples of 3 in [1, 1000] = Floor of (1000/3)

Theorem 1
1. a|b, b|c then a|c (Transitive Property)
2. a|b. a|c then a| b+c
3. a|b, then a|bc
4. a |b , a | c, then a | mb +nc
2. Ek,l is an integer, b=ak, c = al ak+al = b+c
a(k+l) = b+c a| b+c
3. Ek is an integer, b=ak, bc = a(kc) a|bc
4. a |b a|mb , a|c a|nc TF, a | mb+ nc

Theorem 2 (Division Algorithm)
n is an integer, d is an positive integer, n= dq + r
q = n Div d, r = n Mod d
Remainder is never negative
Remainder smaller than divisor
-11 divides by 5 -11 = 5(-3) + 4

Proof : Integer is either odd or even
Let n be an integer, Eq,r is an integer and 0 r < 2
n = 2q + r. We have r = 0 or r = 1. TF n is odd/even

Modular Arithmetic (m 0, a, b integer)
a b (mod m) m| (a b)
- 5 1 (mod 2)

Theorem 3
a b (mod m) iff a Mod m = b Mod m
a-b = m(q1 -q2) because the remainder is the same

Theorem 4
a b (mod m) iff a = b + km
a - b = km a = b + km

Theorem 5 (proved using 4)
a b (mod m), c d (mod m)
a + c b + d (mod m)
a*c b*d (mod m)

Linear Congruence Method
Xn+1 = (axn + c) Mod m
X1 = (7*X0 + 4) Mod 9 , X0 = 3 then X1 = 7
- a is multiplier, c is increment, x0 is seed

Cryptology
f(p) = p + 3 Mod 26 = P
th
alphabet
C = 3 = 6
Mathematical Induction
Sequence of attacking :
Proof by Mathematical Induction
Let P(n) be the proposition that the Equation
Basis Step: P(1) is true, since .
Inductive Step (Induction Hypothesis):
Assume that P(1),,P(k) are true, where k 1,
1+2+3++ k = (k(k+1))/2
Then P(k+1) is true since,
1+2+3++ k + (k+1) = (k(k+1))/2 + (k+1)
= ((k+1)(k+1 + 1)) /2
Hence, P(n) is true for all n1 by Mathematical Ind.

Formula & of GP Normal Style
Inequality k + 1 < 2
k
+ 1 2
k
+ 2
k
= 2*2
k
= 2
k+1
Evolving the restrictions to meet the objective
Inequality & Harmonic

Divisibility expand and use normal style

Handshaking Theorem

In any graph there is an even number of vertices
with odd degrees / Sum of degrees must be even

Direct Graphs
uv u is adjacent to v and v is adjacent from u
u is initial vertex of uv
v is terminal/end vertex of uv
Indegree of a vertex u, number of edges with u
Outdegree of a vertex u, number of edges with u
indegree = outdegree = |E|

Complete Graphs
Every two distinct vertices are adjacent

Kn has n-1 degrees each vertex and n vertices

Cycle

Cn has 2 degrees each vertex and n vertices

Wheel

Wn has 3 degrees each vertex except middle vertex
with n degrees and n+1 vertices

n-Dimensional Hypercube/n-cube

Qn has n degrees each vertex and 2
n
vertices

A graph H = (W, F) is sub-graph of graph G = (V,E)
If W is a subset of V and F s a subset of E

Adjacency List


Adjacency Matrix, # of Edges (Directed)

Adjacency Matrix (Non-directed / Symmetrical)

Incidence Matrix (the columns are the edges)


Connectedness in Graphs
Path is a path that dont go back to starting Vertex
Simple path Is a path that dont have repeated E
Circuit Is a path that go back to starting Vertex
Simple circuitIs a circuit that dont have repeated E

ae1ce6de4ae1ce3b a path
ae1ce2ae4d a simple path
be8ge11fe11ge9de7b a circuit
ge10g a simple circuit
Proof : a|b, b|a then a = +-b
b = ka, a = lb then a = a(kl) since a != 0, kl = 1
If kl = 1, k = l = 1 or k = l = -1. TF a = +-b

Prime Numbers (1 is neither P or C)
Z
+
, has 2 positive divisors, 1 and itself
Composite Numbers has >2, Z
+
divisors

Prime Factorization Theorem
If n is composite, it has a prime divisor sqrt(n)

Relatively Prime if gcd(a,b) = 1
Pairwise Relatively Prime 10, 17, 21
All combinations gcd(x,y) = 1; (10,17), (10,21) etc

GCD Via Prime Factorization
120 = 2
3
x 3
1
x5
1
x7
0

700 = 2
2
x 3
0
x5
2
x7
1
TF, GCD
(min)
= 2
2
x 3
0
x5
1
x7
0
= 20
TF, LCM
(max)
= 2
3
x 3
1
x5
2
x7
1
= 4200
ab = GCD * LCM

Modular Exponentiation
3
101
Mod 100
101 = (1100101)2 = 2
6
+2
5
+2
2
+2
0
= 64+32+4+1
TF, 3
101
= 3
64
3
32
3
4
3
1
3
2
mod 100 = 9
3
4
mod 100 = 9
2
= 81
3
8
mod 100 = 81
2
= 61
3
16
mod 100 = 61
2
= 21
3
32
mod 100 = 21
2
= 41
3
64
mod 100 = 41
2
= 81
TF, 3
101
Mod 100 = 81 * 41 * 81* 3 Mod 100 = 3
Trees (degree 1)
A connected(undirected) graph with no cycle
Cannot contain loop or multiple edges
A forest if its connected components are trees

Theorem 1
A graph is a tree iff there is a unique simple path
between any two of its vertices

A rooted tree, one vertex is a
root and all edges directed
away from the root

a is a parent of b,c,d (children); b,c,d are siblings;
c,d,f,g are leaves and the rest are internal vertex;
a and b are ancestors of f; b,f,g,c,e,d are
descendents of a

A vertex that is not a leaf is called an internal
vertex. If there is only a vertex in a tree, it is a leaf
m-ary tree if each internal vertices has at most m
children and it is FULL if all have exactly m childr.

Theorem 2
A tree with n vertices has n-1 edges

Theorem 3
Full m-ary tree with i internal vertices contains
n vertices = mi + 1
Graph Theory
A Graph G = (V, E) consists of:
V, a nonempty finite set of Vertices
E, a set of Edges
Edge is either e or ab or ba
Loop is e or aa or loop at a
Multiple Edges are e,f or edge ab with multiplicity m
where m is the number of edges

Simple Graph contains no loop and multiple edges
Multi-graph contains no loops but multiple edges
Pseudo-graph contains everything

A Digraph G = (V, E) consists of:
V, a nonempty finite set of Vertices
E, a set of Directed Edges
Each directed edge is associated with an ordered
pairs of vertices.

Undirected Graphs
a, b are adjacent or neighbours if ab is an edge
edge e and vertex a, are incident if e = ax
The degree of vertex u, deg(u), is the number of
edges incident with u, with each loop counted as 2

A vertex is isolated if its degree is 0.
A vertex is a pendant if its degree is 1.

Trees (cont)
Theorem 4 with 3
n = i + L (leaves), n = mi + 1 (Theorem 3)


Level, Height and Balanced
A tree is rooted at a (level 0). Level of v is the length
of simple path from root to v.
Height of T is the maximum levels vertices, the
longest path from the root to its vertices.
A rooted m-ary tree of height h is balanced if all
leaves are at level h or h-1.

a,e is at level 1, b,d is level 2
Height of T2 is 3. If e is
removed then T2 is balanced

Theorem 5
m-ary tree, there are at most m
k
vertices at level k. if
height is h, there are at most m
h
leaves.

Theorem 6
If m-ary tree of height h has L leaves,
then h ceiling of(logm L)
if the tree is balanced, h = ceiling of(logm L)

Spanning Tree (ST)
A spanning tree of graph G is a subgraph of G that is
a tree containing every vertex of G.
A simple graph is connected iff it contains a ST.

Depth First Search

1. Choose any vertex and label 1
2. Label one unlabelled adjacent vertex
3. Keep labelling an adjacent until dead-end
4. Then back track (j-1) to cover the rest

Breath First Search

1. Choose any vertex as a root and label 1
2. Label all unlabelled adjacent vertex
3. Visit the labelled vertex in ascending order
4. Label all unlabelled adjacent vertex

Make sure ST has n vertices has n-1 edges
Minimum Spanning Tree (MST)
Total Weight : w(G) is the sum of weights of all E
Minimal ST has the lease weight among other ST

Prims Algorithm
1. Choose any edge with minimum weight
2. Among edges that join a vertex of T to a vertex
not in T, choose one with minimum weight and
add it to T
3. Stop with T has n-1 edges

Kruskals Algorithm (faster)
1. Sort edges in order of increasing weight
2. Examine the edges in order. Add it to T if it joins
two distinct connected components of T
3. Stop with T has n-1 edges
How many strings of eight English letters are there
a) contain no vowels, if letters can be repeated? 21
8

b) contain no vowels, if letters cannot be repeated?
21
P8
c) start with a vowel, if letters can be repeated? 5 X 26
7

d) start with a vowel, if letters cannot be repeated? 5 X
25
P7
e) contain at least one vowel, if letters can be repeated?
26
8
21
8

f) contain exactly one vowel, if letters can be repeated?
(Slotting Variant) 5 X 8 X 21
7

g) start with X and contain at least one vowel, if letters
can be repeated? 26
7
21
7

h) start and end with X and contain at least one vowel, if
letters can be repeated? 26
6
21
6


A committee of 3 people is to be selected from a group of 8
people, which includes 4 married couples. If the committee
cannot contain more than one member of any married
couple, how many 3-person committees are possible?
(8)(6)(4) / 6 = 32

Consider the numbers 1 through 99999. How many contain
exactly one of each of the digits 2, 3, 4 and 5? Fix 2,3,4,5
position and x is the last digit
There are 6 ways to choose x and 5! ways to arrange
the digits. Thus ans= 6X5! = 720

Permutations
Repetition allowed
N
r
, n is the choices r is the boxes
No repetition
Reduce number of available choices each time
nPr

Combinations
No repetition
nCr or nPr / r!
Repetition allowed

N choose R where N < R

Binomial Co-Efficient (Reverse Order)
( )

What is the coefficient of x
12
y
13
in expansion of
(2x -3y)
25
?

(a+b+c)
15
, a
5
b
2
c
8


Theorem 3


Theorem 4

Sum of coefficient = 2
n

i.e. n =4 x
4
+ 4x
3
y
1
+ 6x
2
y
2
+ 4x
1
y
3
+ y
4

Theorem 5


Theorem 6
= (2+1)
n
= (2
k
)(1
n-k
)

(n,k) = (2+1)
n


Question on Theorem 6


Theorem 6 to convert



Pascals Identity

Counting

The Pigeonhole Principle
If there are more pigeons that there are pigeon-holes, then
there exists a pigeonhole with more than one pigeon

The generalized Pigeonhole Principle
If there are N pigeons and k pigeonholes, then there is a
pigeonhole with ceiling of (N/k) pigeons. And there is a
pigeonhole with floor of (N/k) pigeons.

Theorem 1(Permutation)
An arrangement where order is important


Theorem 2 (Combination)
An arrangement where order is not important


Tackling P&C

Slotting Technique
o o o o o o o
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ 8 slots
8
Pnumber of ppl to slot in

Different from Internal arrangement = Factorial (!)
Where by every box has a decreasing # of choices

Permutation: the number of ways a teacher can arrange 3
children from a class of 8 in the front row.
Combination: How many distinct groups of 3 children can
a teacher select from a pool of 8 children?