PASSIVE RADON-RESISTANT CONSTRUCTION PERFORMANCE

IN VENTILATED CRAWL SPACE HOMES

FINAL REPORT
Conducted By
NAHB Research Center, Inc.
Upper Marlboro, MD
For
United States Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C.
EPA Assistance ID No. X 819586-01-5
Task 1
May 1996
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION 1
Background 1
Radon-Resistant Methods 1
Measurement Procedures 2
TEST SITES 4
Nashville, Tennessee 4
Coeur dAlene, Idaho 8
Roanoke, Virginia 10
Indianapolis, Indiana 12
Lake Ariel, Pennsylvania 14
Huntsville, Alabama 16
TESTRESULTS 18
DISCUSSION 20
Nashville, Tennessee 20
Coeur dAlene, Idaho 21
Roanoke, Virginia 22
Indianapolis, Indiana 23
Lake Ariel, Pennsylvania 24
Huntsville, Alabama 25
CONCLUSIONS 26
REFERENCES 27
APPENDIX A - Quality Control Procedures A-1
APPENDIX B - Construction Characteristics B-1
APPENDIX C - Test Data C-1
APPENDIX D - Climatic Data D-1
INTRODUCTION
Background
The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the NAHB Research Center, Inc.
(Research Center) have been involved in a cooperative program to identify and evaluate cost-
effective methods to construct radon-resistant homes. Recently, the program has been expanded
to include 15 to 25 new single-family crawl space homes. The objective was to evaluate the
effectiveness of radon mitigation methods in the EPAs Model Standards and Techniques for
Control of Radon in New Residential Buildings [l].
The Research Center recruited builders of crawl space homes from several areas of the
continental United States. Builders were targeted in counties and cities designated as Zone 1
according to the EPA Map of Radon Zones. The Research Center worked with the builders to
educate them on radon-resistant construction methods, and periodically observed their operations
to record the degree to which they complied with EPA recommendations. This report presents
and discusses test results from 17 crawl space homes constructed by seven builders in six states.
Four homes were located in Nashville, Tennessee, seven in Coeur dAlene, Idaho, two in
Roanoke, Virginia, one in Indianapolis, Indiana, two in Lake Ariel, Pennsylvania, and one in
Huntsville, Alabama. All of these locales are designated as Zone 1 on the EPA Map of Radon
Zones [2].
Soil radon levels were measured prior to construction of each home as a screening tool to assess
the potential for elevated radon levels at the sites. Indoor tests in the Tennessee, Idaho, Virginia,
and Indiana homes were conducted between January and May 1995. The Pennsylvania homes
were tested during October and November 1995, and the Alabama homes was tested during April
and May 1996.
Radon-Resistant Methods
The builders recruited for the project agreed to construct crawl space homes in accordance with
EPA recommended methods for radon-resistant construction. These methods, listed in EPAs
Model Standards and Techniques for Control of Radon in New Residential Buildings (published
in March 1994), define specific construction methods and techniques for preventing radon entry
in new residential buildings. Radon-resistant construction methods for crawl space homes
essentially consist of a vent pipe (stack) installed from the crawl space floor through the roof.
The bottom of the stack terminates in a tee fitting that rests on the crawl space floor, and the
floor is completely covered with a vapor barrier that is sealed at the foundation walls, piers, and
at seams. The sealed vapor barrier and vent stack (sealed under the vapor barrier) is designed
to vent radon to the outdoors before it can enter a house. The EPA recommended radon-resistant
construction methods are as follows:
1
The crawl space floor should be covered with 6-mil polyethylene sheeting or equivalent
membrane material. The sheeting should be sealed at joints, pipe openings, around
interior piers, and at the perimeter of foundation walls. The ground cover should be
continuous over the entire floor and lapped a minimum of 12-inches at joints.
A length of 3- or 4-inch diameter perforated pipe or strip of manufactured drainage
matting should be inserted horizontally below the sheeting. The perforated pipe or
matting should extend for the width of the crawl space and be connected to a 3- or 4-inch
diameter tee fitting with a vertical PVC pipe installed through the sheeting in a central
location. The pipe should extend vertically through the building floors and terminate
through the roof.
Crawl spaces should have non-closeable foundation vents.
The top course of concrete masonry walls should be constructed of solid or filled concrete
Ductwork passing through the crawl space should be seamless or sealed.
Penetrations through floors above the crawl space should be caulked or sealed.
Access doors and other openings or penetrations between basements and adjoining crawl
The attic should contain wiring for possible installation of a duct fan for active sub-
masonry units.
spaces should be closed, gasketed, or otherwise sealed.
membrane depressurization.
Measurement Procedures
The Research Center worked with EPA to develop a standard procedure for conducting indoor
radon tests in each home. It was agreed that up to five phases of indoor tests would be
conducted in each home during the colder months of the year. Each test phase was scheduled
to last approximately two weeks, and would permit the evaluation of a different aspect of the
radon-resistant construction. Each test phase was conducted according to the following
procedures:
Phase 1 Tests - Radon vent stack and foundation vents were closed.
Phase 2 Tests - Radon vent stack closed and foundation vents were open.
Phase 3 Tests - Radon vent stack and foundation vents were open.
Phase 4 Tests - Radon vent stack open and extra foundation vents were open.
Phase 5 Tests - Fan installed and operating in vent stack with foundation vents open.
2
Phase 1 tests were designed to indicate the radon levels that would be experienced if the home
did not have a radon vent pipe and foundation vents. This test phase was designed to reveal a
baseline for which to compare radon levels. Phase 2 tests were designed to measure the
effectiveness of foundation vents in reducing radon levels, while Phase 3 tests were designed to
measure radon vent stack performance.
Phase 4 and Phase 5 were designed as optional test phases. One of the builders installed extra
foundation vents in one of the homes, and Phase 4 tests were intended to measure the effect of
these extra vents on indoor radon levels. Phase 5 tests called for installation of a duct fan (active
radon-resistant construction) in the vent stack of homes with Phase 3 levels exceeding 2.0 pCi/1.
Indoor radon levels were measured in each home with Electret Ion Chambers (EICs). Two EICs
were placed side-by-side (duplicates) in each house for each phase of testing. The EICs were
placed in a central location on the lowest lived-in floor of the home in accordance with EPAs
Indoor Radon and Radon Decay Product Measurement Device Protocols. Measurements were
determined by averaging the measurement obtained from each duplicate EIC. In accordance with
EPA protocols, a retest was conducted if duplicate measurements differed more than 10 percent.
The calibration of the EIC measurement equipment was verified on a regular basis by comparison
against reference EICs and the reference EICs were measured and certified by the manufacturer
on January 24, 1995. Specific quality control procedures are listed in Appendix A.
3
TEST SITES
Seven builders in six states constructed 17 crawl space homes with radon-resistant features
recommended in the EPA's Model Standards and Techniques for Radon Resistant Construction
in New Residential Buildings. This section provides a description of each home, including radon-
resistant construction features. Construction characteristics for each location is listed in Appendix
B.
Nashville, Tennessee
Four homes were constructed in a southern suburb of Nashville, Tennessee. All of the homes
were constructed by the same builder and are located in two developments located approximately
five miles apart.
The Nashville homes presented a unique opportunity for indoor tests. Due to the large demand
for new homes in the area, the builder constructed these homes as "spec" homes (construction
was initiated prior to sale). This allowed indoor tests to be conducted under highly controlled
conditions. Since the homes were unoccupied during testing, closed house conditions could be
maintained at all times, and the possibility of interference with the radon measurement equipment
was minimized.
Homes TNl and TN2
The two homes located in the first development, TN1 and TN2, are both two-story contemporary
homes with similar floor plans. TN1 is located approximately 100 yards from TN2. Figures 1
and 2 are photographs of these homes.
Figure 1
Home TN1
4
Figure 2
Home TN2
Except for the garages, both homes are built over ventilated crawl spaces. Crawl space floors
in both homes are covered with 6-mil polyethylene vapor barrier. Foundation walls and piers are
CMU block. Although solid top courses were not used, the top edge of all walls and piers are
sealed with a layer of polyethylene covered with 2" x 8" sill plates. A 3-inch diameter PVC vent
stack is located in the central area of each crawl space. Each vent stack terminates in a tee
fitting on the crawl space floor and extends up through the roof.
The HVAC units of both homes are located outdoors. Both homes are equipped with gas-fired
forced-air furnaces with central air conditioning. Flexible ducts are routed through the crawl
space of both homes, and all ductwork is taped and sealed. Figure 3 is a photograph of the
HVAC unit installed in TN2. This figure also shows the crawl space access door in the
foundation wall next to the HVAC unit. Crawl space access doors in the other Tennessee homes
are installed in similar locations.
Foundation vents are evenly interspersed along the perimeters of the foundation walls. The
screened area of each vent measured approximately 8" x 16", but the actual free area is reduced
by the presence of three metal louvers that permit the vents to be closed during the winter
months. Both homes are equipped with the same type of vents; TN1 had 9 vents and TN2 had
10 vents. Figure 4 is a photograph of a foundation vent typical of all the Tennessee homes.
5
Figure 3
HVAC Unit and Crawl Space Access Door in TN2
Figure 4
Typical Foundation Vent for all Tennessee Homes
6
Homes TN3 and TN4
Homes TN3 and TN4 are located in a subdivision approximately five miles west of TN1 and
TN2. Both homes are one-story wood-framed contemporary homes with similar floor plans.
Similar to TN1 and TN2, these homes are located relatively close together on the same street.
Figures 5 and 6 are photographs of these homes.
Figure 5
Home TN3
Figure 6
Home TN4
7
Except for the garages, both homes are built over ventilated crawl spaces. Post-construction
inspections revealed that radon-resistant features in these homes were similar to TN1 and TN2,
with the exception of the radon vent stacks. Instead of terminating in a tee fitting on the crawl
space floor, the pipes in both homes terminated approximately two-feet above the floor. The vent
pipes in both homes were extended below the polyethylene vapor barrier prior to initiating the
indoor radon tests.
Coeur d'Alene, Idaho
Seven homes were constructed by a builder in Coeur d'Alene, Idaho. Five of the homes are
located on the same street, essentially adjacent to each other. Another home is located in the
same development approximately a 1/4-mile to the south of these homes. The final home is
located in a subdivision approximately four miles to the west.
One of the homes is a "tri-level" (split level), with approximately two-thirds of the house
constructed over a ventilated crawl space. The lowest portion of this house is built on a concrete
slab, the next level is over the crawl space, and the highest level is over the lowest level. The
other homes are wood-framed ranchers built entirely over ventilated crawl spaces. All of the
homes are similar in size and have cast concrete foundation walls. Home ID1, shown in Figure
7, is similar in appearance to the other Idaho homes.
Figure 7
Home ID1
8
The Idaho homes have unique crawl space layouts. While the other homes in the study have
individual piers interspersed throughout the crawl spaces to support floor joists, the joists in the
Idaho homes are supported on continuous 2" x 4" wall sections that are supported by concrete
footings on the floors of the crawl spaces. Since these footings run the length of the crawl space
at two or three locations perpendicular to the floor joists, they essentially divide the crawl space
floor. into several ''bays''. Each bay is covered by 6-mil polyethylene vapor barrier. Figure 8 is
a photograph of a bay in the crawl space of home ID1. The concrete footing and 2" x 4" wall
supporting the floor joists is visible on the right, and the cast concrete foundation walls are
visible on the left.
Figure 8
Typical Cast Concrete Footing Supporting Floor Joists in Idaho Homes
Each home, with one exception, was constructed with a 3-inch diameter PVC radon vent stack.
The vent stacks terminate in tee fittings on or near the crawl space floors and extend up through
the roofs. One of the homes was inadvertently constructed without a vent stack. However, a
stack was improvised after construction was complete. This improvised vent stack is discussed
in detail in a following section of this report.
All of the homes have gas-fired forced-air furnaces with central air conditioning. The furnaces
in six of the seven homes are located in utility rooms adjacent to the garage. The furnace of the
remaining home (the tri-level) is installed on a concrete slab on the floor of the crawl space. All
ductwork is sealed and routed through the crawl space of each home. Access is provided through
a door installed in the floor above the crawl space in each home.
9
During post construction inspections, it was discovered that six of the homes have a non-
closeable combustion air vent connecting the utility room with the crawl space. An additional
vent near the ceiling of each utility room connects the utility room with the rest of the house.
It should be noted that the CABO One and Two Family Dwelling Code [ 3] recognizes this vent
configuration as an acceptable means of providing combustion air to fuel-burning appliances.
However, this vent configuration creates a direct path for air in the crawl space to enter the
habitable area of a home. Since attempts to block or reroute the vents could have created
misfiring or backdrafting of the furnace and water heater, indoor radon tests were conducted with
the combustion air vents open.
Foundation vents are evenly interspersed along the perimeters of the foundation walls. The
screened area of each vent is approximately 8" x 16", with a free area of 100-in2. Each home
has seven to ten vents. Two plastic covers permit each vent to be closed during the winter
months. Although the floors in each home are insulated with fiberglass batts between the floor
joists in the crawl spaces, the builder insisted that the closeable foundation vents reduced
homeowner complaints of cold floors during the winter months.
Roanoke, Virginia
Two homes, with similar designs, were constructed by a builder in Roanoke, Virginia. Both of
these homes are two-story wood-framed modular houses built on ventilated crawl spaces. The
foundation walls and piers are CMU block without a solid top course. Figure 9 is a photograph
of home VA1.
Figure 9
Home VA1
10
Both homes have a 3-inch diameter PVC vent stack extending from the crawl space through the
roof. The post-construction inspection in VA1 revealed that the vent pipe terminated
approximately 2-feet above the floor of the crawl space. The pipe was extended to the floor prior
to initiating tests. The post-construction inspection in VA2 revealed that the vent pipe terminated
in a tee fitting installed below a 6-mil polyethylene vapor barrier on the floor of the crawl space
per EPA recommendations.
Both homes have electric forced-air furnaces with central air conditioning. The furnaces in both
homes are suspended from the floor joists in the crawl spaces. All ductwork is sealed and routed
through the crawl space of each home. Crawl space access to both homes is provided by doors
in the foundation walls.
Different types of foundation vents are installed in the two homes. Home VA1 has six closeable
foundation vents distributed between two of the four foundation walls. Each vent measures 8"
x 16" and has a free area of 40-in2. One of these vents is shown in Figure 10.
Figure 10
Foundation Vent in Home VA1
The foundation vents in home VA2 are non-closeable. The front of each vent is covered with
a plastic grille and a wire mesh screen. Ten of these vents are distributed between all four
foundation walls. The vents have the same external dimensions as the vents installed in home
VA1, however, the free area is not indicated. One of these vents is shown in Figure 11.
11
Figure 11
Foundation Vent in Home VA2
Indianapolis, Indiana
One home was constructed by a builder in Indianapolis, Indiana. This home is a wood-framed
rancher built over a ventilated crawl space. The crawl space has seven closeable foundation
vents that are identical to those installed in the Tennessee homes. The foundation walls and piers
are constructed of CMU block. Figure 12 is a photograph of this home.
Figure 12
Home IN1
12
The crawl space floor of this home is covered by approximately 4-inches of pea gravel. The
post-construction inspection revealed that 4-mil polyethylene vapor barrier was installed over the
pea gravel throughout the crawl space. Furthermore, the interior of the foundation walls is
covered with spray polyurethane foam insulation. According to the builder, this technique is less
labor intensive than installing insulation between the floor joists. The builder typically uses a
solid top course, although it was not visible sine the insulation extends from the pea gravel on
the floor up to the sill plates.
A 3-inch diameter PVC radon vent stack extends from a tee fitting, buried in the layer of pea
gravel, up through the roof. The house has a gas-fired furnace located in a utility room above
the crawl space with central air conditioning. Uninsulated sheet metal ductwork is routed through
the crawl space. Figure 13 is a photograph of the crawl space.
Figure 13
Crawl Space of Home IN1
13
Lake Ariel, Pennsylvania
Two homes were constructed on the same street by two different builders in Lake Ariel,
Pennsylvania. PA1 is a log home built on CMU block foundation walls with 10 closeable
foundation vents. PA2 is a contemporary wood-framed home built on CMU block foundation
walls with four temperature controlled foundation vents. Figure 14 is a photograph of home
PA1, and Figure 15 is a photograph of home PA2.
Figure 14
Home PA1
Figure 15
Home PA2
14
Unlike the other homes in the study, the Pennsylvania builders decided to cover the crawl space
floor in both homes with a skim coat of concrete. This feature was requested by both of the
homeowners, who wished to use their crawl spaces as storage areas. Prior to pouring the
concrete, the floors were covered with 6-mil polyethylene vapor barrier and a 3-inch diameter
PVC radon vent stack was stubbed up from a tee fitting buried below the floor of each crawl
space. Vent stacks were eventually routed through the roof of each home. The builders did not
seal or caulk pipe penetrations through the slabs or at joints between slabs and foundation walls.
Both homes are heated by hot-water baseboard radiators supplied by gas-fired boilers located in
the crawl spaces. Since the homes do not have forced-air ductwork, neither home has central air
conditioning. Crawl space access is provided by a door through the floor of each home.
Different types of foundation vents are installed in the two homes. Home PA1 has 10 closeable
foundation vents that are identical to the vents installed in home VA1. Each vent measured 8"
x 16" and has a free area of 40-in2. Home PA2 has four closeable foundation vents that are
automatically controlled by temperature. Although these vents appear similar to those installed
in the Tennessee and Indiana homes, they are designed to close when the outdoor temperature
falls below freezing. One of these vents is shown in Figure 16.
Figure 16
Foundation Vent in Home PA2
15
Huntsville, Alabama
One home was constructed by a builder in Huntsville, Alabama. This home is a wood-framed
rancher built over a ventilated crawl space. The crawl space has eight closeable foundation vents
that are identical to those installed in the Tennessee and Indiana homes. The foundation walls
and piers are constructed of CMU block. Figure 17 is a photograph of this home.
Figure 17
Home AL1
The crawl space floor was thoroughly covered with 6-mil polyethylene vapor barrier that was
tightly sealed at seams and foundation walls by contact cement. A 3-inch diameter PVC radon
vent stack was routed from a tee fitting resting on the soil below the vapor barrier up through
the roof. The crawl space was accessible through a door in the foundation wall. Figure 18
shows the vapor barrier sealed to the foundation wall, with the radon vent stack in the
foreground.
16
Figure 18
Sealed Vapor Barrier and Radon Vent Stack in Home AL1
Although the builder constructed the foundation and framed this home, the owners were finishing
construction by themselves. Although construction of the home was essentially complete at the
time indoor tests were conducted, the owners still had not installed a heating system.
Consequently, the crawl space did not have ductwork.
17
TEST RESULTS
Indoor radon tests in all of the homes were conducted during 1995 and 1996. Tests in the
Tennessee, Idaho, Virginia, and Indiana homes were conducted between January and May 1995.
The Pennsylvania homes were tested during October and November 1995, and the Alabama home
was tested during April and May 1996. HVAC systems in all homes, except for the Alabama
home, were operated under normal living conditions during the tests. Closed-house conditions
were maintained as much as possible during the tests.
Three sets of tests, or "phases", were conducted in most of the homes. Home VA1 was subjected
to a fourth phase of tests conducted with extra foundation vents opened. Each test phase lasted
approximately two weeks and was conducted as follows:
Phase 1 - Radon vent stack and foundation vents closed.
Phase 2 - Radon vent stack closed and foundation vents open.
Phase 3 - Radon vent stack and foundation vents open.
Phase 4 - Radon vent stack and extra foundation vents open.
Phase 5 tests (with activated radon-resistant construction) were not required in any of the homes
since all Phase 3 and 4 test results were below-2 pCi/1. Test results are presented in Figure 19
and listed in Table 1. Detailed test results are listed in Appendix C, and climatic data are listed
in Appendix D.
Figure 19
Summary of Test Results
18
Table 1
Summary of Test Results
'Phase 1 Tests: Radon vent stack and foundation vents closed.
'Phase 2 Tests: Radon vent stack closed and foundation vents open.
3Phase 3 Tests: Radon vent stack and foundation vents open.
4Averages do not include ID7, VA2, IN1, and PA2 due to incomplete Phase 2 or 3 results.
Phase 1 tests in ID2 and PA2 were conducted with the vent stack open and the foundation vents
closed. The occupants of these homes were concerned about possible adverse health effects
caused by sealing the vent stack. However, the owners agreed to allow testing with the
foundation vents closed while the vent stack remained open.
19
DISCUSSION
Baseline radon levels (Phase 1 levels) were reduced in 15 of the 17 homes when the foundation
vents were opened during Phase 2 tests. Phase 2 tests were not conducted in VA2 and PA2 due
to scheduling difficulties with the homeowners. Only three of the homes, TN2, TN4, and ID4,
had baseline measurements exceeding the EPA action level of 4 pCi/1. Opening the foundation
vents reduced these indoor measurements below the action level in each of these homes. Smaller
reductions were observed when the radon vent stacks were opened during Phase 3 tests. Four
homes had Phase 3 radon levels that were equal to or slightly greater than the corresponding
Phase 2 radon levels. Standard t-tests conducted on the paired data (Phase 1 and 2; Phase 2 and
3) indicated that these reductions are statistically significant at the 95% confidence level [4].
Nashville, Tennessee
Tests in the Nashville homes were conducted between March and May 1995. Passive stacks and
foundation vents were closed during Phase 1 tests. Foundation vents were opened during Phase
2 tests, and passive stacks were opened during Phase 3 tests. Average measurements from the
lowest habitable level of each home are shown in Figure 20.
Figure 20
Radon Levels in Tennessee Homes
Opening the foundation vents during Phase 2 tests reduced the baseline radon levels (Phase 1
levels) in all of the Tennessee homes. TN2 and TN4 were reduced below the EPA action level
of 4-pCi/1. Opening the radon vent stacks during Phase 3 tests (foundation vents remained open)
provided additional reductions in all homes except TN1. The average Phase 2 radon level in
TN1 was 1.0-pCi/1, while the average Phase 3 level was 1.2-pCi/1. Phase 3 measurements may
have been affected by interior painting that was performed during the tests.
20
Coeur d'Alene, Idaho
Tests in the Idaho homes were conducted between January and May 1995. Passive stacks and
foundation vents were closed during Phase 1 tests. Foundation vents were opened during Phase
2 tests, and passive stacks were opened during Phase 3 tests. Average measurements from the
lowest habitable level of each home are shown in Figure 21.
Figure 21
Radon Levels' in Idaho Homes
Opening the foundation vents during Phase 2 tests reduced baseline radon levels (Phase 1 levels)
in all of the Idaho homes. ID4 was the only home with baseline radon levels above the EPA
action level, and these levels were reduced below the action level when the foundation vents were
opened. Opening the radon vent stacks during Phase 3 tests provided additional reductions in
all homes except ID3 and ID7. Since the builder did not install a vent stack in ID3, this home
was fitted with an "improvised" vent stack consisting of a length of 4-inch diameter drain tile
routed from under the vapor barrier to a foundation vent. Test results indicate that this
improvised stack had no measurable effect on radon levels. Phase 3 tests were not conducted
in ID7.
All of the Idaho homes, except ID6, were built with a non-closeable combustion air vent in the
utility room floor above the crawl space. Although the CABO One and Two Family Dwelling
Code recognizes this vent configuration as an approved method of supplying combustion air to
fuel-burning appliances, these vents provide a direct path for radon to enter the living areas of
a home. However, these vents do not appear to adversely affect the performance of the radon-
resistant features in the Idaho homes.
21
Roanoke, Virginia
Tests in the Virginia homes were conducted between March and May 1995. Passive stacks and
foundation vents were closed during Phase 1 tests. Foundation vents were opened during Phase
2 tests, and passive stacks were opened during Phase 3 tests. Extra foundation vents were opened
in VA1 during Phase 4 tests. Average measurements from the lowest habitable level of each
home are shown in Figure 22.
Figure 22
Radon Levels in Virginia Homes
Baseline radon levels (Phase 1 levels) in VA1 were reduced when the foundation vents were
opened during Phase 2 tests. Opening the vent stack during Phase 3 tests appeared to provide
little or no additional reductions. However, additional reductions were measured during Phase
4 tests where extra foundation vents were opened (vent stack and original foundation vents
remained open). Indoor radon levels during all tests in VA1 remained below the EPA action
level.
Phase 1 and 3 tests were conducted in VA2. Since this home had non-closeable foundation
vents, Phase 3 tests were conducted first to permit the fabrication of vent covers for Phase 1 and
2 tests. Due to scheduling difficulties with the homeowners and impending warm weather, Phase
2 tests were skipped in order to measure baseline radon levels. Although Phase 3 radon levels
were lower than baseline levels, measurements during all tests were below 1-pCi/1.
22
Indianapolis, Indiana
Tests in the Indiana home were conducted during April and May 1995. The passive stack and
foundation vents were closed during Phase 1 tests. Foundation vents were opened during Phase
2 tests, and the passive stack was opened during Phase 3 tests. Average measurements from the
lowest habitable level are shown in Figure 23.
Figure 23
Radon Levels in Indiana Home
Radon levels in the Indiana home were extremely low. The average baseline radon level (Phase
1 level) of 0.4-pCi/1 fell to 0.1-pCi/1 after the foundation vents were opened during Phase 2 tests.
Phase 3 tests were not conducted.
The soil radon level for this home was similar to several of the Tennessee homes that exhibited
higher indoor radon levels (see Table 1). However, the Indiana home had several unique
construction features including a gas-permeable aggregate layer under the vapor barrier and
foundation walls insulated with spray polyurethane foam. Furthermore, the builder did not
insulate or seal the sheet metal ductwork since the crawl space was insulated. The effect of these
construction features cannot be determined from the test results.
23
Lake Ariel, Pennsylvania
Tests in the Pennsylvania homes were conducted during October and November 1995. Passive
stacks and foundation vents were closed during Phase 1 tests. Foundation vents were opened
during Phase 2 tests, and passive stacks were opened during Phase 3 tests. Average
measurements from the lowest habitable level of each home are shown in Figure 24.
Figure 24
Radon Levels in Pennsylvania Homes
Radon levels in both of the Pennsylvania homes were very low. Average Phase 2 and 3 radon
levels in PA1 were slightly higher than the average baseline level (Phase 1 level). Furthermore,
opening the radon vent stack during Phase 3 tests provided no measurable reductions from Phase
2 levels. Despite these inconclusive results, average radon levels in PA1 never exceeded 0.6-
pCi/1.
Opening the foundation vents and the radon vent stack provided small reductions in PA2,
although average radon levels never exceeded 1.0-pCi/1. Phase 2 tests were not conducted due
to scheduling difficulties with the homeowners.
The builders used a unique method of sealing the vapor barrier. Since the crawl space floors
were flat, the builders poured a skim coat of concrete (approximately 2-inches thick) over the
barrier. This concrete layer covered the entire floor, and effectively "sealed" the barrier at seams,
foundation walls, and piers. Although the effect of the concrete layer on indoor radon levels
cannot be determined from the test results, it should be noted that the crawl spaces resembled
ventilated basements instead of "typical" crawl spaces.
24
Huntsville, Alabama
Tests in the Alabama home were conducted during April and May 1995. The passive stack and
foundation vents were closed during Phase 1 tests. Foundation vents were opened during Phase
2 tests, and the passive stack was opened during Phase 3 tests. Average measurements from the
lowest habitable level are shown in Figure 25.
Figure 25
Radon Levels in Alabama Home
Radon levels in the Alabama home were extremely low. However, average baseline radon levels
(Phase 1 levels) were reduced when the foundation vents were opened during Phase 2 tests.
Opening the vent stack during Phase 3 tests had little or no measurable effect on indoor radon
levels.
Although the Alabama home had the highest soil radon measurement in this study (see Table l),
indoor radon levels remained below 1.0-pCi/1 during all tests. It should be noted that this was
the only home in the study where the builder tightly sealed the vapor barrier at seams, piers, and
foundation walls. Furthermore, since this home did not have central heating and air conditioning,
penetrations between the crawl space and the living area were minimized. Although the effect
of these construction features cannot be determined from the test results, it is possible that they
contributed to the low baseline radon levels.
25
CONCLUSIONS
Only three of the 17 homes had average baseline radon levels (Phase 1 levels) greater than or
equal to the EPA action level of 4.0-pCi/1. Radon levels in all three homes fell below the action
level when the foundation vents were opened during Phase 2 tests.
Phase 2 and Phase 3 radon levels in all homes were below the EPA action level. The highest
average Phase 2 radon level was 2.4-pCi/1. Phase 2 radon levels were consistently lower than
baseline radon levels. Test results from most of the homes indicate that foundation vents appear
to have a measurable effect on indoor radon levels. The (geometric) average baseline radon level
of 2.2-pCi/1 fell to 0.7-pCi/1 when the foundation vents were opened during Phase 2 tests. The
highest average Phase 3 radon level was 1.6-pCi/1. Average Phase 3 radon levels in all but two
of the remaining homes were below 1.0-pCi/1. The (geometric) average Phase 2 radon level of
0.7-pCi/1 fell to 0.5-pCi/1 when the vent stacks were opened during Phase 3 tests.
One home was subjected to an additional set of tests intended to measure the effect of extra
foundation vents on indoor radon levels (Phase 4 tests). Although the average radon level was
only 1.6-pCi/1 with the vent stack and (original) foundation vents open, the extra foundation vents
reduced the average level to 1.3-pCi/1.
The effect of the vent stacks on indoor radon levels is difficult to determine. Since opening the
foundation vents during Phase 2 tests generally reduced baseline radon levels below 1 .0-pCi/1 in
most of the homes, there was little opportunity for additional reductions during Phase 3 tests
when the vent stacks were opened. However, in the three homes with baseline radon levels
above the EPA action level, opening the vent stacks resulted in reductions from Phase 2 levels.
Since indoor radon levels in all of the homes were below 2.0-pCi/1 with the vent stacks and
foundation vents open, none of the homes required active radon-resistant construction.
In summary, measurements in the homes in this study indicate that passive foundation vents may
be an effective stand-alone mitigation system in crawl space homes, especially where adequate
vent area is provided. This method should be investigated further in homes with higher baseline
radon levels. It should also be noted that many local practices can be in conflict with the EPA
recommendation (for example, most of the homes in this study had closeable foundation vents.
Solutions to these issues should be investigated to provide greater flexibility in using the Model
Standards Code.
26
REFERENCES
[l ] U.S. EPA. Model Standards and Techniques for Control of Radon in New Residential
Buildings. Published by the United States Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C..
EPA. 402-R-94-009. March 1994.
[2] U.S. EPA. EPA's Map of Radon Zones. Published by the United States Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.. EPA 402-R-93. September 1993.
[3] CABO. 1995 CABO One and Two Family Dwelling Code. Published by the Council of'
American Building Officials, Falls Church, Virginia. 1995.
[4] Gidra, I.N. Probability and Statistical Inference for Scientists and Engineers. Prentice-Hall,
Inc. 1973. pp. 265-269.
27
Appendix A - Quality Control Procedures
A - 1
Soil Tests
Soil radon measurements were obtained by connecting the scintillation cell of a
continuous radon monitor (a Pylon AB-5) to a hollow steel probe driven into soil. A
small pump drew an air sample from the probe into the radon monitor.
The accuracy of these measurements was maintained using the following quality
assurance procedures:
Scintillation cells were flushed before each test. Each cell was flushed for at least
10 minutes before each use and for approximately an hour at the end of each day
of testing.
Background radon levels were measured before each test. The readings were
subtracted from the soil readings to ensure that they would not skew soil radon
measurements.
The accuracy of the continuous radon monitor was verified by calibration against
a calibrated test cell.
Indoor Tests
Electret ion chamber (E-PERM) radon detectors were used to measure all indoor radon
concentrations. All testing was conducted in accordance with EPAs Indoor Radon and
Radon Decay Product Measurement Protocols (1 992). Several specific quality assurance
procedures were employed to ensure the accuracy of these indoor measurements.
Test Procedures
E-PERMS were deployed in accordance with EPAs Protocol for Radon and Radon Decay
Product Measurement in Homes (1993) and Indoor Radon and Radon Decay Product
Measurement Protocol (1992). E-PERMS were deployed in accordance with the
following procedure:
E-PERMS were located in areas least susceptible to drafts, away from exterior
walls, vents, doors, fireplaces, and excessive heat sources.
E-PERMS were placed in areas where they would not be disturbed during
deployment.
E-PERMS were placed at least 30-inches above the floor.
A - 2
Procedure Documentation
A database was maintained during the project to record key construction characteristics
and radon measurements for each home. A travel log was also kept to record activities
accomplished during each visit to each home.
The construction characteristics log contains the following information:
Location of test devices
Duration of tests
Type of tests
Topography
Other unusual conditions
Type of heating and cooling system
Description of the home, including foundation type, number of stories, and
construction materials
Details of radon reduction/prevention techniques
The E-PERM log contains the following information for each home:
E-PERM serial numbers
Indoor test locations
Duration of each test phase (date and time of E-PERM installation and retrieval)
Measured indoor radon concentration (pCi/1)
The travel log contains the following information for each home:
Date of each visit
Activities conducted during each visit
Duplicate Tests
Duplicate E-PERMS were installed side-by-side in the lowest occupied level of each
home. Although EPA protocol only requires 10-percent of all homes to be tested with
duplicate E-PERMS, all 17 homes in the study were tested with duplicates to maximize
measurement reliability. According to EPA protocol, duplicate measurements must not
vary by more than 10-percent for measurements exceeding 4.0-pCi/1. If the readings vary
by a greater value, the home must be retested and the measurement equipment checked
for proper operation.
A - 3
Accuracy of Recorded Data and Analytical Procedures
Radon measurements obtained from each tested home were screened by the Research
Center for accuracy. The screening process involved comparing readings obtained from
different phases of testing. Readings obtained from tests conducted with the radon vent
pipe open (Phase 2 tests) were compared to readings obtained with the vent pipe closed
(Phase 1 tests). If readings obtained with the vent pipe open were higher than readings
obtained with the vent pipe closed, a retest was ordered. Extremely high or low readings
were also subject to scrutiny.
The Research Center compiled a database consisting of E-PERM test results for all the
tested homes. The error associated with all E-PERM results is calculated in accordance
with procedures dictated by Rad-Elec, Inc., the E-PERM manufacturer. These errors are
listed with the test results presented in Appendix C.
E-PERM Measurement and Calibration
The E-PERM voltage reader, used to obtain the measured radon concentrations, was
calibrated with two reference cells every two months. The readings obtained from these
reference cells were compared against their certified values and are entered in a logbook.
If the reference cell readings differed by more than a specified amount, test protocol
required the voltage reader to be returned to the manufacturer for calibration.
Measurements indicated that calibration cell readings were within specified tolerances
throughout the project. Both reference cells were certified by Rad Elec, Inc. in January,
1995.
The Research Centers measurement capabilities are also verified by the EPAs National
Radon Measurement Proficiency (RMP) Program. RMP laboratories periodically test the
Research Centers measuring capabilities by exposing E-PERMS submitted by the
Research Center to a known radon concentration in an EPA radon chamber. Without
knowledge of this radon concentration, the E-PERMS are returned to the Research Center
for measurement. The readings are then submitted to the RMP laboratory for comparison
against the known values. The values measured by the Research Center must fall within
25-percent of the known values to meet the RMPs performance requirement. The
Research Center is currently listed by the RMP for performance of radon tests using
short-term (SST) E-PERMS.
A - 4
Appendix B - Construction Characteristics
B - 1
CONSTRUCTION CHARACTERISTICS DATA SHEET
Sites:
Location: Nashville, Tennessee
Description
Two-story wood-framed homes built over ventilated crawl space foundations with 7 to
10 (closeable) foundation vents. Each vent has exterior dimensions of 8" x 16" with
unspecified free area. Foundation walls and piers are CMU block. Crawl space
access doors are located in foundation walls (exterior).
HVAC Systems
Gas-fired forced-hot air furnaces with central air conditioning. HVAC units are
located outdoors and ductwork is routed through foundation walls through the crawl
spaces. Ductwork is insulated and taped.
Radon-Resistant Construction
Crawl space floors are covered with 6-mil polyethylene vapor barrier. Barrier is
sealed at foundation walls, piers, utility penetrations, and seams in TN2 and TN4 with
a general construction adhesive (caulk). Barrier is sealed along seams in the vicinity
of the radon vent stack in TNl and TN3. 3-inch diameter PVC vent pipes extend
from tee fittings on crawl space floors through the roof of each home. Tee fittings on
the bottom of all vent pipes are sealed underneath the vapor barrier. Top courses of
block walls are not solid, but are covered with polyethylene vapor barrier and 2x8 sill
plates. There are no visible openings between crawl spaces and living areas above
the crawl spaces.
TN1, TN2, TN3, and TN4
B - 2
CONSTRUCTION CHARACTERISTICS DATA SHEET
Sites:
Location: Coeur d'Alene, Idaho
Description
Wood-framed ranch-style (single level) homes built over ventilated crawl space
foundations with 7 to 10 (closeable) foundation vents. Exterior dimensions of each
vent is 8" x 16" with 100-square inches of free area. Foundation walls are cast
concrete. Crawl space floors are divided into three or four individual sections by
concrete footers that support floor joists (instead of piers). Crawl space access doors
are located in bedroom closets (indoors).
HVAC Systems
Gas-fired forced-hot air furnaces with central air conditioning. Furnaces are located in
utility rooms adjacent to garages. One noncloseable combustion air duct (4" x 12") is
located in the floor of each utility room, and an identical vent is located in the
partition wall between the utility room and living area. Ductwork is insulated, taped,
and routed through crawl spaces.
Radon-Resistant Construction
Crawl space floors are covered with 6-mil polyethylene vapor barrier. Barrier is
sealed at foundation walls, piers, utility penetrations, and seams in ID1 and ID4 with a
general construction adhesive (caulk). Vapor barrier in the other homes is pulled
tightly against foundation walls and piers but is not sealed. 3-inch diameter PVC vent
pipes extend from tee fittings on crawl space floors through the roof of each home.
Tee fittings on the bottom of all vent pipes are sealed underneath the vapor barrier.
Each individual section of the crawl space floor in each home is connected to the vent
pipe by pipes routed between each floor section. Foundation walls are cast concrete.
ID1, ID2, ID3, ID4, ID5, and ID7
B - 3
CONSTRUCTION CHARACTERISTICS DATA SHEET
Site: ID6
Location: Coeur d'Alene, Idaho
Description
Wood-framed "tri-level" home. The second level is built over a ventilated crawl space
(approximately two-thirds of the foundation footprint) and the first and third levels are
built slab-on-grade. The crawl space has 7 closeable foundation vents with exterior
dimensions of 8" x 16" and 100-square inches free area. Foundation walls are cast
concrete. Crawl space floor is divided into three individual sections by concrete
footers that support floor joists (instead of piers). Crawl space access door is located
under stairwell between first and second levels (indoors).
HVAC System
Gas-fired forced-hot air furnace with central air conditioning. Furnace is installed on
a slab in the crawl space. Ductwork is insulated, taped, and routed through the crawl
space.
Radon-Resistant Construction
Crawl space floor (except for furnace slab) is covered with 6-mil polyethylene vapor
barrier. Vapor barrier is pulled tightly against foundation walls and piers but is not
sealed. A 3-inch diameter PVC vent pipe extends from a tee fitting on the crawl
space floor through the roof. The tee fitting on the bottom of vent stack is sealed
underneath the vapor barrier. Foundation walls are cast concrete. There are no visible
openings between crawl space and living area above the crawl space.
B - 4
CONSTRUCTION CHARACTERISTICS DATA SHEET
Sites: VA1 and VA2
Location: Roanoke, Virginia
Description
Two-story wood-framed homes built over ventilated crawl spaces. VA1 has 6
closeable foundation vents with exterior dimensions of 8" x 16" and free area of 40-
square inches. VA2 has 10 noncloseable foundation vents with exterior dimensions of
8'' x 16" with unspecified free area. Foundation walls and piers are CMU block.
Crawl space access doors are located in foundation walls (exterior).
HVAC Systems
Electric forced-hot air furnaces with central air conditioning. Furnaces are suspended
from crawl space ceilings (floor joists). Ductwork is insulated, taped, and routed
through crawl spaces.
Radon-Resistant Construction
Crawl space floors are covered with 6-mil polyethylene vapor barrier. Barrier is
sealed at foundation walls, piers, utility penetrations, and seams with a general
construction adhesive (caulk). 3-inch diameter PVC vent pipes extend from tee
fittings on crawl space floors through the roof of each home. Tee fittings on the
bottom of all vent pipes were sealed underneath the vapor barrier. Top course of
block walls in VA2 is solid, while top course in VA1 is not solid. There were no
visible openings between crawl spaces and living areas above the crawl spaces.
B - 5
CONSTRUCTION CHARACTERISTICS DATA SHEET
Site: IN 1
Location: Indianapolis, Indiana
Description
Wood-framed rancher-style (single level) home built over a ventilated crawl space
with 7 closeable foundation vents with exterior dimensions of 8" x 16" and
unspecified free area. Foundation walls and piers are cast concrete. Interior side of
foundation walls is covered with foam insulation; unable to determine if solid top
course was used. Crawl space access door is located in bedroom closet (indoors).
HVAC System
Gas-fired forced-hot air furnace with central air conditioning. HVAC unit is located
outdoors and ducts are routed through the crawl space. Sheet-metal ductwork in crawl
space is not insulated or taped.
Radon-Resistant Construction
Crawl space floor is covered with a 4-inch layer of course aggregate (pea gravel) and
a 4-mil polyethylene vapor barrier. Vapor barrier is pulled tightly against foundation
walls and piers but is not sealed. A 3-inch diameter PVC vent pipe extends from a tee
fitting buried in the aggregate layer through the roof. The tee fitting on the bottom of
the vent stack is sealed underneath the vapor barrier. There are no visible openings
between crawl space and living area above the crawl space.
B - 6
CONSTRUCTION CHARACTERISTICS DATA SHEET
Site: PA1
Location: Lake Ariel, Pennsylvania
Description
Two-story log home built over a ventilated crawl space with 10 closeable foundation
vents with exterior dimensions of 8" x 16" and 40-square inches of free area.
Foundation walls and piers are CMU block. Interior side of foundation walls is
insulated with -inch polystyrene board. Crawl space access door is located under the
stairwell (indoors).
HVAC System
Hot water baseboard radiators supplied by a gas-fired boiler in the crawl space. No
central air conditioning and no ductwork.
Radon-Resistant Construction
Crawl space floor is covered with 6-mil polyethylene vapor barrier that is covered by
a skim coat (approximately 2-inches) of concrete. A 3-inch diameter PVC vent pipe
extends from a tee fitting buried under the slab through the roof. Foundation walls
have solid top course.
area above the crawl space.
There are no visible openings between crawl space and living
B - 7
CONSTRUCTION CHARACTERISTICS DATA SHEET
Site: PA2
Location: Lake Ariel, Pennsylvania
Description
Two-story wood-framed home built over a ventilated crawl space with 4 closeable
foundation vents with exterior dimensions of 8" x 16" and unspecified free area.
Vents are designed to close when outdoor temperature falls below freezing.
Foundation walls and piers are CMU block. Interior side of foundation walls is
insulated with -inch polystyrene board. Crawl space access door is located under the
stairwell (indoors).
HVAC System
Hot water baseboard radiators supplied by a gas-fired boiler in the crawl space. No
central air conditioning and no ductwork.
Radon-Resistant Construction
Crawl space floor is covered with 6-mil polyethylene vapor barrier that is covered by
a skim coat (approximately 2-inches) of concrete. A 3-inch diameter PVC vent pipe
extends from a tee fitting buried under the slab through the roof. Foundation walls
have solid top course. There are no visible openings between crawl space and living
area above the crawl space.
B - 8
CONSTRUCTION CHARACTERISTICS DATA SHEET
Site: AL1
Location: Huntsville, Alabama
Description
Rancher-style (single level) home built over a ventilated crawl space with 7 closeable
foundation vents with exterior dimensions of 8" x 16" and unspecified free area.
Foundation walls and piers are CMU block. Crawl space access door is located in the
foundation wall (outdoors).
HVAC System
This home was not equipped with an HVAC system or ductwork during indoor radon
tests.
Radon-Resistant Construction
Crawl space floor is covered with 6-mil polyethylene vapor barrier that is sealed at
foundation walls, piers, and seams with a construction adhesive. A 3-inch diameter
PVC vent pipe extends from a tee fitting sealed under the vapor barrier through the
roof. Foundation walls do not have a solid top course. There are no visible openings
between crawl space and living area above the crawl space.
B - 9
Appendix C - Test Data
C-1
Tennessee Homes
Home
ID 1
ID2
3.73 0.62 0.84 0.1 1
TN3 2.26 0.55 1.48 0.43 0.89 0.1 1 14.1 7.2 7.8
2.58 0.54 1.38 0.40 0.82 0.1 1
TN4 5.48 0.62 2.42 0.45 1.41 0.13 7.6 1.1 7.2
5.09 0.61 2.44 0.46 1.51 0.13
I Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Duplicate Variation (%)
Radon Error Radon Error Radon Error Phase Phase Phase
(pCi/1) (pCi/1) (pCi/1) (pCi/1) (pCi/1) (pCi/1) 1 2 3
3.27 0.19 0.32 0.10 0.20 0.10 0.9 11.9
3.30 0.19 0.28 0.10 0.08 0.10
2.79 0.17 0.7 1 0.11 0.30 0.10 13.0 11.8 9.2
Idaho Homes
ID5
ID6
ID7
2.22 0.35 0.35 0.10 0.25 0.10 6.5 12.3 11.1
2.37 0.39 0.39 0.10 0.23 0.10
1.40 0.27 0.21 0.10 0.30 0.10 8.4 21.4
1.52 0.29 0.25 0.10 0.10 0.10
1.47 0.13 0.12 0.10 17.0 88.0
1.72 0.13 0.22 0.10
C-2
Virginia, Indiana, Pennsylvania, and Alabama Homes
Home
VA1
VA2
IN1
PA1
PA2
AL1
Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Duplicate Variation (%)
Radon Error Radon Error Radon Error Phase Phase Phase
2.75 0.39 1.59 0.13 1.60 0.13 2.3 4.4 5.8
2.8 1 0.40 1.66 0.13 1.69 0.13
0.75 0.11 0.37 0.10 7.0 6.0
0.70 0.1 1 0.39 0.10
(pCi/1) (pCi/1) (pCi/1) (pCi/1) (pCi/1) (pCi/1) 1 2 3
0.50 0.10 0.23 0.10 75.2 124.3
0.28 0.10 0.10 0.10
0.43 0.1 1 0.68 0.12 0.61 0.1 1 37.2 17.8 5.8
0.3 1 0.10 0.58 0.1 1 0.65 0.12
0.85 0.12 0.59 0.1 1 36.1 10.2
1.16 0.13 0.53 0.1 1
0.58 0.1 1 0.24 0.10 0.34 0.10 6.9 78.4 88.4
0.54 0.1 1 0.43 0.10 0.18 0.10
VA1
C-3
Radon Error Duplicate Variation
(pCi/1) (pCi/1) (%)
1.23 0.12
1.27 0.12
3.1
Appendix D - Climatic Data
D - 1
Average Daily Outdoor Temperatures (F)
Day
1
2
Nashville, TN Coeur d'Alene, ID
Mar.
1995
Mar. ' Jan. Feb.
1995 1995 1995
38 46 60 18 43 29 47 51
35 54 57 18 41 30 44 50
D - 2
Average Daily Outdoor Temperatures (F)
Day
1
2
Roanoke, VA Indianapolis, IN Scranton, PA
Oct. Nov.
1995 1995 1995
Mar.
47 48 55 40 46 59 52
44 45 50 46 53 66 62
D - 3