MAGNETIC PARTICLE

EXAMINATION
BECHTEL
MATERIALS AND QUALITY SERVICES
&
SUPPLIER QUALITY DEPARTMENT
SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
1.0 INTRODUCTION TO MAGNETIC PARTICLE EXAMINATION l
1.1 History of Magnetic Particle Examination 1
1.2 Purpose of Magnetic Particle Examination 1
3 Advantages and Limitations of Magnetic Particle Examination 2
2.0 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MAGNETIC PARTICLE EXAMINATION
2.1 Theory of Magnetism
4
2.2 Magnetic Fields and Their Lines of Force 5
2.3 Magnetization Used in Magnetic Particle Examination 9
3.0 MATERIALS THAT CAN BE EXAMINED 12
3.1 Types of Materials 12
3.2 Examination Environment 12
4.0 EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES 13
4.1 Types of Power Supply 13
4.2 Types of Prods and Contact Tips 16
4.3 Magnetic Particles 16
4.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Dry Method 19
4.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Wet Method 19
4.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Fluorescent Particle Method 20
5.O SURFACE PREPARATION 21
5.1 Types of Surfaces 21
5.2 Acceptable and Unacceptable Examination Surfaces 21
5.3 Acceptable Methods of Surface Preparation 21
5.4 Preparation of Welds 21
6.0 EXAMINATION TECHNIQUE 23
6.1 Examination Sequence 23
6.2 Prod Placement 23
6.3 Current Requirements 23
6.4 Current and Magnetization 23
6.5 Magnetizing with Prod Contacts 24
6.6 Magnetizing with Yokes 25
6.7 Powder Application and Removal 25
6.8 Questionable Areas and Re-examination 26
7.0 OBSERVATION OF EXAMINATION RESULTS 27
7.l Inspection 27
7.2 Classification and Characteristics of Discontinuities 27
7.3 Types and Identification of Discontinuities 30
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)
PAGE
8.0 RECORDING RESULTS OF EXAMINATION 35
8.1 Lacquer Transfer Technique 35
8.2 Daylight Photography 35
8.3 Transparent Tape 35
9.0 BIBLIOGRAPHY 36
10.0 APPLICABLE SPECIFICATIONS AND PROCEDURES 37
11.0 GLOSSARY 38
12.0 NOTES 45
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1.0 INTRODUCTION TO MAGNETIC PARTICLE EXAMINATION
1.1 History of Magnetic Particle Examination
Prior to World War II, use of nondestructive examination was almost nonexistent. The early
examination methods were limited to destructive testing. Destructive testing was considered
necessary to provide data for use in design, or to check the overall physical properties of the
material. These tests included; chemical analysis, tensile, compressive or impact test of steel
and other metals, and similar efforts intended to reassure the engineer that he was getting the
properties that were assumed in the design. Large factors of safety had to be used in the design
making the equipment large and heavy, and no way of knowing if the parts contained defects,
which would increase their failure rates. What was needed was a way to detect and classify
defects in the parts, without destroying the part under test.
Nondestructive examinations are inspection methods used to detect internal, surface, and
concealed defects or flaws in materials using methods that do not damage or destroy the item
being examined. Some of the more common nondestructive examination methods are liquid
penetrant, radiographic, ultrasonic and magnetic particle. Magnetic particle examination is today
one of the most widely used methods of non- destructive examination. It was first used on a
large scale in the years immediately preceding World War II. Since that time, techniques and
equipment have been developed and refined until today the speed and sensitivity of the
magnetic particle method makes it practically indispensable for many applications.
1.2 Purpose of Magnetic Particle Examination
The magnetic particle examination method is used to detect discontinuities at or slightly below
the surface of ferromagnetic materials. Under proper conditions - that is, with proper powder and
magnetization - exceedingly fine discontinuities can be detected. Even grain boundaries in steel
and the outlines of magnetic domains can be shown by using special techniques. The magnetic
particle method is the most sensitive means available for locating very fine and very shallow
surface cracks in ferromagnetic materials. The magnetic particle method will also produce
indications at cracks that are large enough to be seen by the naked eye. In this case, magnetic
particle examination is worth while because the presence of a prominent and easily seen powder
pattern makes for more rapid inspection, and assures that the crack will not be missed by the
examiner. Exceedingly wide surface cracks will not produce a powder pattern if the surface
opening is too wide for the particle to bridge.
Subsurface discontinuities are also indicated by magnetic particle examination although certain
limitations must be recognized and understood.
Fine and sharp discontinuities close to the surface normally produce a good sharp indication. For
subsurface discontinuities the indication will be fainter. Put another way, the deeper the
discontinuity lies below the surface, the larger it must be to give a readable indication.
A general statement can therefore be made that the magnetic particle method of nondestructive
examination is of importance for finding all sizes and depths of flaws that break the surface, but
runs into difficulty detecting internal discontinuities as they lie deeper and deeper below the
surface.
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1.3 Advantages and Limitations of Magnetic Particle Examination
1.3.1 Advantages - The magnetic particle method has a number of advantages when used on
ferromagnetic materials. Some of these are:
l. A sensitive means of locating small and near surface discontinuities in ferromagnetic
materials.
2. This method is rapid and the equipment is easy to operate.
3. The indications are produced directly on the surface of the part, and are a magnetic
picture of the actual discontinuity.
4. Operators can be trained to perform the examination easily without lengthy or highly
technical training.
5. There is little or no limitation due to size of the part being tested.
6. It will detect cracks filled with foreign material.
7. Normally no elaborate precleaning is necessary.
8. It may work through thin coatings of paint or other nonmagnetic coatings. However,
under such tests, the prod contact areas must be cleaned to bare metal. This type of
examination is not a normal or recommended practice since it is used only under certain
specific conditions.
9. Skilled operators can estimate the depth of cracks quite accurately with suitable powders
and proper technique.
10. It lends itself well to automation.
11. It is relatively inexpensive to perform.
12. It utilizes electro-mechanical equipment that can be ruggedly built and adequately
maintained by existing plant personnel.
1.3.2 Limitations - although the method has many desirable and attractive advantages, it has certain
limitations. The examiner must be aware of and take into account these limitations. Some of
these are:
l. It will work only on ferromagnetic materials.
2. It is not, in all cases, reliable for locating discontinuities which lie wholly below the
surface.
3. The magnetic field must be in a direction that will intercept the principle plane of the
discontinuity. Sometimes this will require two or more sequential inspections with
different magnetizations.
4. A second step, demagnetization, following inspection, is often necessary.
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5. Post-cleaning, to remove remnants of the magnetic particles clinging to the surface, may
sometimes be required after examination and demagnetizing. 6. Odd-shaped parts
sometimes present a problem in how to apply the magnetizing forces to produce a field
in the proper direction.
7. Heavy currents are sometimes required for the examination of large castings and
forgings.
8. Care is required to avoid local heating and burning of highly finished parts at the points
of electrical contact.
9. Individual handling of parts for magnetization is usually necessary, which is a
disadvantage, particularly with large numbers of small parts.
10. Although the indications are easily seen, experience and skill in interpreting their
significance is required. Compared to some other methods such as radiography,
ultrasonics, and eddy-currents, interpretation of magnetic particle indications is simpler.
2.0 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MAGNETIC PARTICLE EXAMINATION
2.1 Theory of Magnetism
A body which possesses the ability to attract iron pieces is called a magnet. Magnets may be
permanent, retaining their magnetism more or less permanently; or they may be temporary,
retaining their magnetism only as long as a magnetizing force is being applied. Each magnet
has two opposite poles, which are attracted by the earths magnetic poles; hence, the poles are
respectively called the north and south poles, as illustrated in Figure 2-1.
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The two magnets will attract each other because unlike poles attract each other. A south pole of
one magnet is attracted by the north pole of the other magnet. Just as the earth itself is a large
magnet having a north and south pole, materials which can be magnetized are made up of
domains or regions which have a north and south-pole. The north and south poles are in direct
relationship with positive and negative charges. These charges can add to or cancel each other.
In an unmagnetized piece of iron the domains are arranged in a haphazard fashion as in Figure
2, thus we have a canceling effect. Now if all the domains in Figure 2-2 were lined up in an
organized manner, as in Figure 2-3, the piece of iron would be a magnet.
In Figure 2-3 all the north poles are
oriented in one direction and all the south
poles are oriented in one direction. With
all of the domains like this, the piece of
iron then has a north and south pole. The
force of the magnetic bar now develops a
total force equal to the sum of all the
domains. This alignment of domains
produces a magnetic field.
2.2 Magnetic Fields and Their Lines of
Force
A magnetic field exists within and around
a permanent magnet or around a
conductor carrying an electric current.
The magnetic field surrounding a
permanent bar magnet has polarity, but
the magnetic field surrounding a
conductor does not. As an example, the
earth itself can be thought of as a bar
magnet because of its two poles. Figure
2-4 shows the magnetic lines of force
which surround every magnet and have
definite characteristic patterns. In all
magnets, the lines of force flow from the
south pole to the north pole. The force
that attracts other magnetizable materials
to the magnetic poles is knows as
magnetic flux. Magnetic flux is made up
of all the lines of force. The magnetic
lines of force never cross; they seek the
path of least resistance; they are most densely packed at the poles of the magnet; and they flow
from north to south outside the magnet, and from south to north within the magnet.
A permanent bar magnet is the simplest example of longitudinal magnetization. Since the
direction of the magnetic flux is axial, it has two poles. Longitudinal magnetization is said to exist
in an object when the flux lines traverse in a direction essentially parallel to one of its axes. if a
straight bar magnet is bent, it becomes a horseshoe magnet. When the magnet is bent farther to
make a complete loop and the ends are fused together, the poles disappear; for example, a
closed magnetic circuit is formed. If the circle is cut, either partially or all the way through, the
poles reappear as shown in Figure 2-5.
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Figure 2-3 Magnetic Field Surrounding a Bar Magnet
If a bar magnet is broken in two, making
two shorter bars, each immediately
becomes a separate bar magnet with a
north and south pole. if the two bars are
again fused together, with opposite
magnetic poles adjacent, the poles will not
completely disappear. A small
concentrated leakage field will remain in
the fusion area. Similarly, if the bar is cut
only partially, two opposite poles will
appear, and a leakage field will exist in
the area of the cut. It can be seen that
leakage fields are actually magnetic lines
of force that leave the bar and pass
through the air from one pole to the other
of opposite polarity. Figure 2-5 Poles in a Straight Bar, Horseshoe, and Broken Magnet
Since the new opposite poles were created by the interruption of the paths of the lines of force
within the magnet, it follows that nonmetallic inclusions in a magnetized article, or changes in the
material of the article, will also cause the creation of two opposite poles and a resultant leakage
field. Magnetic particle examination is a process used to detect the presence of a leakage field
and thereby the presence of discontinuities, either voids or inclusions.
When an electric current passes through a conductor, a magnetic field is formed around the
conductor. If the conductor has a uniform shape, the density of the field (number of lines of force
per unit area) is uniform at any point along the conductor, and it uniformly decreases as the
distance from the electrical conductor increases. The direction of the magnetic field (lines of
force) is at a 90 degree angle to that of the current in the conductor. An easy method for finding
the direction of an electrically induced magnetic field is to imagine grasping the conductor in the
right hand with the thumb pointing in the direction of current flow. The fingers will then point in
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the direction of the lines of force. This is the right-hand rule. From Figure 2-6 it can be seen that
the current flow in the conductor creates circular lines of force.
When a current carrying
conductor is formed into a
loop, the lines of force circling
the conductor form a
magnetic field inside and
outside the loop. inside the
loop the field is similar to that
of a bar magnet and is said to
be a longitudinal magnetic
field. when a coil consists of
several loops, the magnetic
field within the coil is
strengthened in proportion to
the number of loops,
therefore a current carrying
conductor can be used to
establish a magnetic field.
The effects of flux direction
can be seen in Figures 2-7 and 2-8. In Figure 2-7, the bar is said to be longitudinally
magnetized. A crack produced by partially breaking the bar transversely will lie at right angles to
the long axis of the bar. A crack oriented transversely offers the greatest interruption to the lines
of force and therefore forms a strong leakage field.
A linear crack-like
discontinuity lying parallel to
the axis of the bar and
parallel to the lines of force
will produce no leakage field
as no lines of force would be
cut.
Therefore, if a discontinuity is
to produce a leakage field and
a readable magnetic particle
pattern it must intercept the
lines of force at some angle.
The leakage field will be
strongest if the angle is 90
degrees and will become
weaker as the angle the
discontinuity makes with the
lines of force becomes smaller. Figure 2-7
It is often true that a crack which has a general direction that is parallel to the axis of the bar, but
which deviates somewhat from & straight line, may give quite strong magnetic particle
indications. In such a case, the segments of the crack not exactly parallel to the axis do intercept
the lines of force.
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In Figure 2-8 the bar is said to
be circularly magnetized. In
this case, it is the crack lying
parallel to the longitudinal
axis of the bar or tube which
intercepts the flux lines at 90
degrees. Cracks at right
angles to the axis would be
parallel to the field and would
create no leakage field.
Cracks at intermediate angles
would create leakage fields of
strengths varying with the
angle; and the crack,
essentially transverse, which
deviates from a straight line
would probably give an
indication.
Figure 2-8
2.3.1 Longitudinal magnetization of a specimen is accomplished by the use of longitudinal fields
set up in a coil or solenoid. When the length of a specimen is several times its diameter or cross
section, the specimen may be successfully magnetized by placing it lengthwise in the field of the
coil or solenoid. This is referred to as a "coil shot" which is shown in Figure 2-9.
The yoke method, as shown
in Figure 2-10, may be used
to magnetize a specimen
longitudinally. Essentially, it
is a temporary horseshoe
magnet made of soft, low
retentivity iron, which is
magnetized by a small coil
wound around its horizontal
bar. Yokes may be designed
to use either A.C or D.C.
current or both. With D.C.,
the flux density of the
magnetic field can be changed by varying the amount of current. Direct current will allow greater
penetration for the detection of some subsurface defects. The use of A.C. current when
employing the yoke method allows the detection of surface defects. When the energized yoke is
placed on a specimen, the flux flow from the yoke's south pole through the specimen to the north
pole induces a local longitudinal field in the specimen.
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2.3.2 A circular magnetic field is induced by
using direct or indirect magnetization or by the use of a conductor surrounded by a hollow
article.
Direct induction of a circular field into an article is accomplished by passing a current through the
article. This method, illustrated in Figure 2-11, is called a head shot. Specimen, is by the use of
prods. Prod magnetization is used where the size or location of an article does not permit the
use of a head shot. The prod method of magnetization is shown in Figure 2-12.
In the indirect method for inducing a circular field, the specimen is placed so that a current
carrying conductor induces a magnetic field into the specimen. This method, as shown in Figure 2-
13, is known as the central conductor technique.
2.9 Magnetization Used in Magnetic Particle Examination
3.O MATERIALS THAT CAN BE EXAMINED
3.1 Types of Materials
Figure 2.10
3.1.1 Some materials are attracted by a magnet, while others are repelled. From the definition of
magnetism it follows that magnetic materials are those which are attracted by magnetism. These
materials are known as ferromagnetic materials. diamagnetic materials are repelled by
magnetism. In the magnetic particle examination method, ferromagnetic material is of concern,
as only ferromagnetic materials can be strongly magnetized. Below is a table detailing the
characteristics of diamagnetic and ferromagnetic materials.
Figure 2.11
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Diamagnetic Materials
1. Cannot be magnetized.
2. Are repelled by magnetism.
3. Cannot be magnetic particle
examined.
Ferromagnetic Materials
1. Can be strongly magnetized.
2. Are strongly attracted to magnetic
fields.
3. Can be magnetic particle examined.
Figure 2.12
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3.1.2 The magnetic particle examination
method can be used on any ferromagnetic
material, though not in all cases with equal
effectiveness. It works best on steels and alloys
that have a high permeability. Permeability is the
term used to refer to the ease with which a
magnetic field or flux can be set up in a magnetic
circuit. It is not a constant value for a given
material, but is a ratio. At any given value of
magnetizing force, permeability is BIN, the ratio
of flux density, B, to magnetizing force, H.
Subsurface discontinuities lying wholly below the
surface are more likely to be located in soft steels
having high permeability, than in hardened steels
and alloys which in nearly all cases have a lower
permeability. This difference is less critical if only
surface defects are being sought.
Figure 2.13
In the case of gray or malleable iron castings, surface discontinuities are easily located. The
method also works quite well on metallic nickel and cobalt. Stainless steel and other alloys, which
are in the austenitic state, cannot be examined with magnetic particles at all, since iron in these
alloys are non-magnetic.
3.2 Examination Environment
1. At all times personal safety must be of the utmost concern. Instructions pertaining to the
operation of power supply and equipment should be read and understood before the
equipment is used.
2. The sample under examination should be protected from the elements, such as wind,
rain, snow, etc.
3. Good lighting is required. If natural lighting is not adequate, artificial lighting must be
provided.
4.0 EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES REQUIRED
4.1 Types of Power Supplies
There are basically two types of electric current in common use, and both are suitable for
magnetizing purposes of magnetic particle examination. These are direct current (DC) and
alternating current (AC). Direct current is a constant current flowing in one direction only.
Alternating current is considered to be commercial AC, which is current reversing its direction
completely at the rate of 50 or 60 cycles per second.
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The magnetic force fields produced by direct and by alternating current differ in many
characteristics. The difference that is of importance in magnetic particle examination is that
fields produced by direct current generally penetrate the entire cross section of the part, whereas
the fields produced by alternating current are confined to the metal at and near the surface of the
part. Straight DC available at 110, 220 or 440 volts is suitable for use with solenoids and yokes.
Since DC can- not be stepped down in voltage except by motor generators, it is not suitable for
circular magnetization usage where the current must be varied in accordance with the specimen
size. Because direct current is constant and surge free, the DC power source does not motivate
the magnetic particles to pulsate or move. The magnetic particles are held fast and collect
heavily on irregular surfaces.
Alternating current is most often available in voltage ranging from 110 volts through 440 volts.
Commonly used single-phase alternating current usually alternates at 60 cycles per second. This
type of current creates a maximum flux at the surface of the magnetized article, and has
relatively little penetrating ability. Alternating current provides some pulsation for the movement
of magnetic particles due to the periodic reversing in polarity. The pulsating action caused by the
reversing polarity enables the magnetic particles to move over the surface freely.
The basic half-wave rectifier circuit
consists of a rectifier connected in series
between the AC voltage source and the
circuit load resistance. The rectifier
permits current to flow only during the
positive half cycles of the applied AC
voltage; the circuit thus becomes a
pulsating DC as illustrated in Figure 4-1.
The most predominant application for
half-wave current is for weld inspection. In
this application, half-wave current is used
with dry powder and prod magnetization,
which provides the highest sensitivity for
discontinuities which lie wholly below the
surface. In many cases, suitable
amperages can be obtained from relatively Figure 3-1 Rectification of Alternating Current
small portable units. Half-wave current is to Half-Wave Direct Current
widely used for casting inspection when
sensitivity to sub-surface discontinuities is required.
The surges of current occurring at each cycle motivate the magnetic particles which forces them
to move and form indications. Even in the valleys of a weld ripple, the particles move and do not
become trapped.
It is generally accepted that the best types of magnetizing current for magnetic particle
examinations are alternating and half-wave rectified currents. Alternating current is best suited
for locating surface discontinuities (because of skin effect). Half-wave rectified current is best
suited for locating below-the- surface discontinuities.
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The strength of the magnetizing current plays an important role in detecting discontinuities. Too
strong a current will cause the particle to cling to the surface, especially with the dry powder
method and will not allow the particles free movement and allowing them to be attracted to areas
of flux leakage. On the other hand, when current is applied and no pattern is observed it could
be an indication that insufficient current is being applied. There are numerous mathematical
formulas that are useful in determining correct current, such as the coil method. Multiplication of
the numbers of coils times the current (amps) gives a magnetizing force.
c (a) = f
c Number of coil turns
a 1 current (amps)
f a magnetizing force
The influence of Length/Diameter ratio for DC coil magnetization method is an important formula
to remember. The part to be inspected should be at least two to three times as long as its
diameter. This formula works well in many cases but specific variables should first be met which
are the following:
l. The cross sectional area of a part should not be greater than one tenth of the area of the
coil opening.
2. The part or section to be inspected should not be greater than 18 inches.
3. The part should be held against the inside wall of the coil - not positioned in the center.
4. The part has a Length/Diameter ratio of between 2 and 15.
5. The part is positioned in the coil with its long axis parallel to the applied field.
To use the formula c(a) a f, the Length
Distance ratio is reduced to a number
and divided into 45,000. The result will
be the number of ampereturns
(magnetizing force) necessary to
magnetize the part. The number of
ampere-turns should then be divided by
the number of turns in the coil, this will
give the correct current amps to be
selected.
Current (amps) for the flexible cable
method using prods, leeches, and
clamps, will vary depending upon the
code or specification you are working to.
A good rule of thumb is 100 to 125 amps for each inch of prod spacing. Figure 4-2 gives a
general range of amps for each inch of spacing but the governing code or procedure should be
checked for specific requirements.
PROD SPACING
(INCHES) AMPERES
3 300 - 375
4 400 - 500
5 500 - 625
6 600 - 750
7 700 - 875
8 800 -1000
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Figure 4-3
After completion of a magnetic particle examination, it may be necessary to demagnetize the
part. There are various methods which can be used. The AC coil method is the most common
method of demagnetization. The coil is designed to operate at line voltage and a frequency of 60
cycles per second. When a part is placed in the coil it is subjected to a reversing field due to the
alternating action of the current. The magnitude of the field is gradually reduced as the part is
slowly withdrawn from the coil. The current should not be shut off until the part is well out of
range of the magnetic field.
In the DC reversing method (as shown in Figure 4-3), demagnetization is accomplished by use of
a coil or passing the current directly through the part. The D.C. reversing method is similar to the
A.C. coil method, in that the direct current is alternately reversed in direction and amplitude. The
D.C. method is very good for large parts because of its deep penetrating ability.
Some portable magnetic particle examination equipment (prod and yoke) may be used to
demagnetize a part using the following techniques.
l. With the prods placed on the area to be demagnetized increase amperage to maximum and
decrease slowly to zero.
2. When utilizing yoke equipment, demagnetization may be accomplished on large pieces
by placing the poles in the same position as used to magnetize the part, switch on the
equipment with the selector switch in the A.C. position and remove from the work piece
to a distance of two
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4.2 Types of Prods and Contact Tips
The magnetizing equipment should be capable of inducing into the examined object a magnetic
flux of sufficient intensity to reveal surface and near surface discontinuities The power source
should be capable of producing either direct or rectified alternating current. An ammeter should
be located in the "prod circuit" and be visible and readable by the operator when performing the
examination.
Prod type electrical contacts are used to pass current through the parts being examined. Copper
tipped prods may be used when the open circuit is 25 volts or less but steel or aluminum tipped
prods should be used to prevent copper penetration into the examined object when the open
circuit voltage exceeds 25 volts. The prod handles should be equipped with an on-off switch to
control the flow of current.
4.3 Magnetic Particles
4.3.1 The success of magnetic particle examination is dependent upon selection of material
(medium) and the method used to conduct the examination. When the medium, whether dry or
liquid, is applied to the specimen while the magnetizing current is flowing, the procedure is known
as the continuous method. If the medium is applied after the magnetizing current is shut off, the
procedure is known as the residual method. The medium comes in either powder or paste form.
In the dry method, the powder in its dry form, is applied by sprinkling the specimen. When the
wet method is used the medium, which may be a paste or a powder, is first mixed with a liquid to
make a bath, which is then sprayed or brushed onto the surface of the specimen. No one
medium or method is best for detection of all conditions or types of discontinuities.
4.3.2 Great importance is attached to detecting mediums and their effect on the indications
obtained. Four properties enter into the selection of a satisfactory medium: magnetic, geometric,
mobility, and visibility.
1. Magnetic Properties
It is desirable that the particles of the examination medium possess two important
properties: high permeability and low retentivity. Permeability is defined as the degree
of ease with which a particle is magnetized, retentivity, is that property which enables
particles to hold, to a greater or lesser degree, a certain amount of residual magnetism.
Particles incorporating high permeability and low retentivity have maximum response in
a leakage field, and at the same time do not remain magnetized when the pass out of
the influence of the magnetic field.
2. Geometric Properties
The spherical shaped particle offers a high degree of mobility but has low attractive
power. On the other hand, the long slender Jagged particle has a high degree of
attractive power and low mobility. A multi-facet nugget type particle is a good
compromise in that it reasonably combines the optimum qualities of the other two types.
Particle size is an important consideration as it is desirable to have particles of various
sizes. Small particles are required to bridge a tight-lipped crack and larger sizes are
necessary for wider cracks. Also, a weak leakage field is unable to hold a large particle
but is able to fix and retain one of a smaller size. Dry powder magnetic particles are
made up in a wide range of sizes, though all will pass through a 100-mesh screen.
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a. In the wet method, magnetic oxides of iron are employed. While extremely fine
in size, they are of lower permeability than the metallic dry particles, having
neither the most desirable shape nor variety of size. The advantages of applying
these particles in the form of a suspension are numerous. When used, other
factors need to be considered; particularly, the ability to maintain a suspension.
b. Magnetic particles, unless extremely fine, cannot be maintained in suspension
without sacrificing mobility. Fine magnetic oxides are used because they can be
suspended in a liquid when a dispersing agent is employed.
3. Mobility
When the particles are brought into the influence of the leakage field of a discontinuity,
they are free to form a pattern or indication. This freedom is influenced by condition,
shape, and application of the particles.
a. In the dry method, mobility is obtained by dusting or blowing the particles over
the surface of the article. This permits the leakage field at the discontinuity to
catch and hold some particles as they move by. Mobility is also obtained by
vibrating the article after the particles have been dusted on. This is why AC is
used advantageously since the influence of the alternating field causes the
particles to "dance and thus provides mobility.
b. The principal advantage of the wet method is the excellent mobility (freedom to
move in three dimensions) of the suspended particles. It is important to use a
low viscosity liquid so that the suspended particles are retarded as little as
possible by the liquid in which they are suspended. The most nearly ideal
condition from the point of mobility, is a cloud of particles floated with very low
velocity up to the surface being tested. This condition is obtained only with
special equipment.
4. Visibility
An indication must be readily visible. A good light source is essential. With various
types of surfaces, from highly polished articles to rough castings, no one color is always
satisfactory. The choice of color is entirely dependent on visibility. The most widely
used colors of particle are grey, red, and black. The grey powder has excellent contrast
against practically all surfaces, with exception of certain silver-gray sandblast surfaces.
Recent developments are the fluorescent powders and pastes, particles coated with a
dye which fluoresce brilliantly under an ultra- violet or black light, thereby increasing
visibility.
4.3.3 Methods of Application
Dry magnetic particles are commonly applied from shaker cans or bulbs. This is the simplest,
but not necessarily the best, method. Automatic particle blowing equipment is usually
economical in its use of particles and in most instances the most satisfactory way of floating the
dry particles to the examination surface.
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4.3.4 Particle Requirements
To properly function, the particles composing the medium in both the wet and dry method must
be:
a. Non-toxic.
b. Finely divided.
c. Ferromagnetic.
d. Free of contaminants.
e. High in permeability.
f. Low in retentivity.
g. High in color contrast (visibility).
h. Within correct size range.
4.3.5 Wet Suspensions (Bath)
The bath used with the wet method of magnetic particle examination consists of a liquid vehicle
in which the particles are suspended. The liquid vehicles used is usually light oil. Water treated
with anticorrosion, anti-foam, or wetting agents, may also be used. The vehicle must be
nonfluorescent, non-toxic, non-volatile, and with a high flashpoint. The particles used are
obtainable in a powder or paste form or in a highly concentrated liquid form and may either be
fluorescent or nonfluorescent. To achieve the required test sensitivity, the degree of particle
concentration in the bath must be correct. Too light a concentration leads to very light indication
of discontinuities; too heavy a concentration results in too much over-all surface coverage, which
may mask or cause incorrect interpretation of discontinuity indications. The wet suspension
method is good for shop work on small or consistent size items which can be tested in an
assembly line fashion, for mobil field work the dry method is usually used.
4.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Dry Method
4.4.1 Advantages:
l. Excellent for locating defects wholly below the surface and deeper than a few
thousandths of an inch.
2. Easy to use for large objects with portable equipment.
3. Easy to use for field inspection with portable equipment.
4. Good mobility when used with A.C. or Half Wave D.C.
5. Not as "messy as the wet method.
6. Equipment may be less expensive.
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4.4.2 Disadvantages:
1. Not as sensitive as the wet method for very fine and shallow cracks.
2. Not easy to cover all surfaces properly, especially of irregular shaped or large parts.
3. Slower than the wet method for large numbers of small parts.
4. Not readily useable for the short, timed 'shot" technique of the continuous method.
5. Difficult to adapt to a mechanized test system.
4.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Wet Method
4.5.1 Advantages:
l. It is the most sensitive method for very shallow and fine surface cracks.
2. It quickly and thoroughly covers all surfaces of irregular shaped parts, large or small,
with magnetic particles.
3. It is the fastest and most thorough method for examining large numbers of small parts.
4. The magnetic particles have excellent mobility in liquid suspension.
5. It is easy to measure and control the concentration of particles in the bath, which makes
for uniformity and accurate reproducibility of results. 6. It is easy to recover and re-use
the at
7. It is well adapted to the short, timed "shot" technique of magnetization for the continuous
method.
8. It is readily adaptable to automatic unit operation.
4.5.2 Disadvantages:
1. It is usually not capable of finding defects lying wholly below the surface if more than a
few thousandths deep.
2. It is "messy" to work with, especially when used for the expendable technique, and in
field testing.
3. When oil is used for a bath with direct contact for circular magnetization, it can present a
fire hazard.
4. A recirculating system is required to keep the particles in suspension.
5. Sometimes it presents a post-inspection cleaning problem to remove magnetic particles
clinging to the surface.
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4.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Fluorescent Particle Method
4.6.1 Advantages:
Fluorescent particles have one tremendous advantage over the untreated or "visible" particles.
This is their ability to give off a brilliant glow under "black light". This brilliant glow serves three
principal purposes:
1. In semi- or complete darkness even very minute amounts of the fluorescent oxide are
easily seen, having the effect of increasing the apparent sensitivity of the process
tremendously, even though, magnetically, the fluorescent particles are not superior to
the untreated oxides.
2. Even on discontinuities large enough to give good visible indications, fluorescent
indications are more easily seen so that missing an indication is greatly reduced even
when the speed of scanning parts is increased.
3. Inside drilled holes or cavities, or in sharp corners such as threads or keyways, the
fluorescent indications are clearly and readily seen, while visible color indications may
be obscured.
The fluorescent particle method is faster, more reliable, and more sensitive to very fine
defects than the visible colored particle method in most applications. Indications are
harder to overlook, especially in high volume testing. In addition, the fluorescent method
has all the other advantages possessed by the liquid suspension technique.
4.6.2 Disadvantages:
Fluorescent magnetic particles used in suspension in liquids have the same unfavorable
characteristics which go with the usual wet method techniques. There is also the additional
requirement for a source of "black light" and an inspection area from which at least most of the
white light can be excluded. Experience had shown however that these added special
requirements are more than justified by the gains
5.0 SURFACE PREPARATION BEFORE EXAMINATION
5.1 Types of Surfaces
In general, the smoother the surface of the part to be examined and the more uniform its color,
the more favorable are the conditions for the formation and the observation of the powder
pattern. This statement applies particularly to inspections being made on horizontal surfaces.
For sloping and vertical surfaces, the dry powder may not be held on a very smooth surface by a
weak leakage field. The surface should be clean, dry, and free of grease. The dry particles will
stick to wet or oily surfaces, and not be free to move around over the surface to form indications.
This may completely prevent the detection of significant discontinuities. An initial application of
the dry magnetic powder, followed by wiping, often will give a surface over which a second
application of powder will move readily. If it is feasible to use it, vapor decreasing will give a dry,
oil-free surface.
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5.2 Acceptable and Unacceptable Examination Surfaces
Paint or plating on the surface of a part has the effect of making a surface defect behave like a
subsurface one. The relative thickness of the plating or paint film and the size of the defects
sought determine whether or not the coatings should be stripped. The dry method is more
effective in producing indications through non- magnetic coatings than the wet method. If fine
cracks are expected, the surface should be stripped of the coating if its thickness exceeds 0.005
inch. Most coatings of cadmium, nickel or chromium are usually thinner than this and the plating
makes an excellent background for viewing indications. Hot galvanized coatings are thicker and
in general should be removed before testing, unless only gross discontinuities are important.
Broken or patchy layers of heavy scale also tend to interfere by their tendency to hold powder
around the edges of the breaks or patches, and should be removed if they are extensive enough
to interfere seriously with the detection of genuine discontinuities.
5.3 Acceptable Methods of Surface Preparation
Any loose dirt, paint, rust, or scale should be removed with a wire brush, shot, grit blasting, or
other means. If cleaning is done with shot or grit blasting, there is a peening effect, especially on
softer steels, which may close up fine surface discontinuities. The effect is more pronounced
with shot than with grit, but if these cleaning methods are used the operator should be aware of
the danger of missing very fine cracks. A thin, hard, uniform coating of rust or scale will not
usually interfere with the detection of any but the smallest defects. The examiner should know
the size of the smallest defect he is to consider significant, in order to judge whether or not such
a coating of rust or scale should be removed.
5.4 Preparation of Welds
The surface to be examined, including at least one inch on either side of the weld, should be free
of water, grease, oils, paint, rust, slag, loose scale, or other material which can produce
inaccurate examination results.
The surface finish of the welds, weld grooves, and adjacent base metal should be such that
proper interpretation can be accomplished. As-welded surfaces, following the removal of slag by
chipping and wire brushing, should be considered suitable with- out grinding if this does not
interfere with the interpretation of the examination results and if the weld contour blends into the
base metal without undercutting. When a weld is to be examined in the as-welded surface
condition, the weld should be free of sharp surface irregularities, such as deep valleys between
stringer beads. In some cases, surface preparation by grinding or machining may be necessary
when surface irregularities could mask unacceptable indications.
6.1 Examination Sequence
1. Position prods.
2. Switch on the magnetizing current.
3. Apply magnetic particles.
4. Remove the excess magnetic particles.
5. Switch off current and remove prods.
6. Evaluate magnetic particle indications.
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6.2 Prod Placement
At least two separate examinations shall be carried out on each area so the lines of flux in one
examination are approximately perpendicular to the lines of flux in the other. A different means
of magnetizing may be used for the second examination.
Examinations shall be conducted with sufficient overlap to assure 100 percent coverage at the
established test sensitivity. For example:
1. When positioning prods longitudinally along a weld, a minimum overlap of one inch shall
be maintained between subsequent positions.
2. When positioning prods transversely along the weld, spacing between subsequent
positions shall be a maximum of 1/2 of the prod or pole spacing or three inches,
whichever is smaller.
When examining welds, the adjacent base material within 1/2 inch on each side of the
weld shall be included in the examination.
6.3 Current Requirements
Direct or rectified current should generally be used at a minimum of 100 and a maximum of 125
amps per inch of prod spacing for material 3/4 inch thick or greater. For material less than 3/4
inch thick, amperage should be 90-110 amps per inch of prod spacing.
If arc burns occur on the examined object during magnetic particle examination, they should be
removed by grinding and the removal of arc burns verified by either the magnetic particle yoke
method or the liquid penetrant method.
6.4 Current and Magnetization
6.4.1 Residual and Continuous Current
The choice between the residual and the continuous method of applying current is a relatively
easy one. In the residual method, parts are magnetized and subsequently the magnetic particles
are applied. The method can be used only on parts having sufficient retentivity. The permanent
field they retain must be sufficiently strong to produce leakage fields at discontinuities which in
turn will produce readable indications. This method, in general, is reliable only for the detection
of Since hard materials which have high retentivity are usually low in permeability, higher than
usual magnetizing currents may be necessary to obtain a sufficiently high level of residual
magnetism.
The residual method, either wet or dry, has many attractive features and finds many applications,
even though the continuous method has the inherent advantage of greater sensitivity.
The advantage of the continuous method is basic. When the magnetizing force is applied to a
ferromagnetic part, the field rises to a maximum, its value or intensity deriving from the strength
of the magnetizing force and the material permeability of the part. But when the magnetizing
force is removed, the residual magnetism in the part is always less than the field present while
the magnetizing force was acting. The amount of difference depends on the retentivity of the
material. The continuous method, for a given value of magnetizing current, is therefore always
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more sensitive than the residual, at least so far as sensitivity is determined by the strength of
field in the part.
The continuous method is the only possible one to use on low carbon steels or iron having little or
no retentivity. It is frequently used with AC on such materials because the alternating current
field produces excellent mobility of the particles.
6.5 Magnetization with Prod Contacts
Magnetization by passing current directly through the part, or through a local portion of the part,
is often resorted to for the inspection of large and massive articles too bulky to be put into a unit
having clamping contact heads. Such local contacts do not always produce true circular fields,
but are very convenient and practical for many applications. Examinations of large castings and
weldments are frequently made in this manner.
The field produced by the prod method passes between the contact points and the field crosses
the area between the contacts at 90 degrees to the current. Cracks parallel to the line between
the prods will be shown by this method of magnetization.
This method is widely used and has many advantages. Easy portability makes it the most
convenient method for field use for the examination of large tanks and welded structures.
Sensitivity to defects lying wholly below the surface is greater with this method of magnetizing
than with any other, especially when half wave current is used.
The use of prod contacts has some disadvantages of which the operator should be aware. They
are:
l. It is necessary to scan the surface of the part being examined in small sections, since
suitable fields exist only between and near the prod contact. Since the spacings are
seldom greater than 12 inches and usually much less, this means many separate
contacts and a time consuming job. Modern techniques such as the "overall" method
previously referred to, have in a great many cases replaced inspection with prods, and
have shortened the time for such inspections by very large percentages.
2. Interference of the external field that exists between the prods sometimes makes
observation of pertinent indications difficult. The strength of the current that can be used
is limited by this effect.
3. Great care must be used to avoid burning of the part under the contact points. Burning
may be caused by dirty contacts, insufficient contact pressure or excessive currents.
The chance of such damage is particularly great on steel with 0.30 to 0.40 percent
carbon or higher. The heat under the contact points produces local spots of very hard
material that can interfere with later operations, such as machining. Sometimes actual
cracks are produced by this heating affect. Contact heating is not likely to damage low
carbon steel such as used for structural purposes.
6.6 Magnetizing with Yokes
When using a yoke, the same requirements for surface preparation as for the prod method apply,
although with the yoke method no electrical contact is required.
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The direction of the magnetic field when employing a yoke is basically perpendicular to the
magnetic field produced by prods placed in the same location (see Figure 10 and Figure 12),
therefore positioning the yoke with respect to the direction of the defects must be exactly
opposite that when using the prod method.
6.7 Powder Application and Removal
A few rules for the application of the dry powders will, if followed, make the process of
examination easier and more effective. It should be remembered that the dry particles are
heavier and individually have a much greater mass than the very fine particles of the wet
method. Therefore if, they are applied to the surface of a part with any appreciable velocity, the
fields at the discontinuities may not be able to stop them and hold them. This is especially true
when vertical or overhead surfaces are being examined. The powder should reach the surface of
parts as a thin cloud with practically zero velocity, drifting to the surface so that leakage fields
have only to hold it in place. For vertical and overhead surfaces, the fields must overcome the
pull of gravity which tends to cause the particles to fall away. Since the dry particles have a wide
range of sizes, the finer particles will be held under these conditions unless the leakage fields are
extremely weak.
On horizontal surfaces this problem is minimized. The usual mistake is to apply too much
powder. Once on the horizontal surface of a part, the powder has no mobility (unless AC or half
wave is being used) and too heavy an application tends to obscure indications. If the part can be
lifted and tapped, the excess powder will fall away and indications will be more readily visible, or
the excess powder can be gently blown away with an air stream not strong enough to blow off
magnetically held particles forming an indication.
Various devices have been used to make proper powder application easy. Two of the most
widely used are the "squeeze bottle" and powder gun. The "squeeze bottle" is light and easy to
use. With some practice, by a combination of shaking and a squeeze on the bottle, powder can
be ejected with minimum velocity. Practicing with the bottle on a sheet of white paper will enable
the operator to produce an even, gentle overall coverage. With the powder gun or blower a
better Job of application can be done, especially on vertical and overhead surfaces. The powder
gun throws a cloud of powder at low velocity, much like a very thin paint spray. Held about a foot
distant from the surface being inspected, a very light dusting of powder permits easy observation
of the formation of indications. On horizontal surfaces the excess of powder is blown away with a
gentle air stream from the blower.
6.8 Questionable Areas and Re-examination
Surface and near surface discontinuities will be revealed by the retention of the ferromagnetic
powder near discontinuities. All indications revealed by magnetic particle examination are not
necessarily defects. Nonrelevant indications can be caused by excessive surface roughness or
magnetic permeability variations which can occur in weld metal heat affected zones. Indications
that are Judged to be nonrelevant should be regarded as unacceptable until the indications are
either eliminate by surface conditioning or are re-examined by magnetic particle or another type
of non destructive examination and the indication is demonstrated to be nonrelavent.
Relevant indications are those which result from unacceptable mechanical discontinuities. Linear
indications are those indications in which the length is more than three times the width. Rounded
indications are circular or elliptical with the length less than three times the width.
Sufficient illumination should be provided to assure adequate sensitivity.
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7.0 Visual Observation of Examination Results
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7.1 Inspection
A good light and good eyesight are the principal requirements for observing the presence of
indications on the surface of parts. Choice of the best color powder for contrast against the
surface is an aid to visibility. On the large discontinuities, powder build-up is often very heavy,
making indications stand out clearly from the surface. For finer cracks the build-up is less, since
only the smaller particles are held by the leakage field in this case. For exceedingly fine cracks it
may sometimes be better to go to some form of the wet method, which is more sensitive to very
fine discontinuities.
In the case of discontinuities lying wholly and deep below the surface, experience and skill, or
carefully established and controlled practices for repetitive tests are required to secure the best
results. The depth below the surface and the size and shape of the discontinuity determines the
strength and spread of the leakage field. An experienced examiner will observe the surface as
the powder is allowed to drift onto it so he can see faint but significant tendencies of the powder
to gather. Often indications are seen under these conditions, but are no longer visible when more
powder has been applied, the excess blown off, and the surface then examined for indications.
Standardized techniques for careful and proper application of the powder can provide excellent
sensitivity where similar assemblies are repetitively tested.
In the case of steels having appreciable retentivity, indications are held at the defect by the
remanent field, making the examination somewhat easier. In low carbon steels, such as low to
medium strength plate and structural steels, the retentivity is very low. On these it is important to
make the examination while the magnetizing current is on and the powder is being applied, since
indications may not remain in place after the current is turned off. This is particularly true on
vertical and overhead surfaces, where gravity plays a part in causing particles to fall away if
loosely held. Harder new high strength steels are being used more and more for pipe, pressure
vessels, and structural shapes. Smaller discontinuities become more important in this type of
steel. Since it is used at higher stress levels, great care must be taken in the examination of
these steels, especially for fine cracks open to the surface.
7.2 Classification and Characteristics of Discontinuities
7.2.1 Surface Discontinuities
Surface cracks and other surface discontinuities make up by far the largest an most important
group which magnetic particle examination is used to locate. This is true for two principal
reasons. First, the surface crack is the type most effectively located with magnetic particles; and
second, surface cracks are much more important and dangerous to the service life of a part than
are defects lying wholly below the surface. They are more frequently the object of the
examination. Fiber stresses are usually highest at the surface of a part, and any break in the
surface constitutes a point of still higher concentration of stress. A surface crack, by its nature, is
very sharp at the bottom and is the most severe kind of stress-riser. For this reason surface
discontinuities are looked for with extreme care if expected stresses are even moderately high.
The surface discontinuities looked for with magnetic particle examination include all fatigue and
service cracks and serious sources of potential failure such as seams, laps, quenching, grinding
cracks, and surface ruptures occurring in castings, The magnetic particle examination method is
a sensitive and reliable method for locating surface cracks in ferromagnetic material. This is due
largely to the fact that in a great majority of cases, no critical conditions or techniques are
required for the detection of surface discontinuities by this method. Magnetizing and particle
application methods may be critical in certain special instances, but in most applications the
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requirements are relatively easily met because leakage fields tend to be strong and are highly
localized. A few simple but important principles are involved which must be observed, but there
is usually a fairly wide latitude in the selection of procedures and materials when surface cracks
only are being sought. If the discontinuities are of a size or character to be in the threshold area
of detect- ability, special techniques may be necessary. It is relatively easy to define the
characteristics of a surface discontinuity that make it favorable for detection. For successful
detection in any given case, it must be possible to set up a field of sufficient strength and in a
generally favorable direction to produce strong leakage fields. This is especially true if the
discontinuities are small and fine. Assuming that this has been done, the most favorable
characteristics of a discontinuity itself for its detection are:
l. That its depth be at right angles to the surface,
2. That its width at the surface be small so that the air gap it creates is small,
3. That its length at the surface be large with respect to its width,
4. That it be comparatively deep in proportion to its surface
opening.
The field set up in the part should be at right angles to the length of the defect.
7.2.2 Sub-Surface Discontinuities
The magnetic particle method is capable of finding many discontinuities which do not break the
surface of the part in which they occur. This is an important characteristic since there are
circumstances when radiography and ultrasound, methods whose primary field is locating such
discontinuities, cannot be used.
These two methods are inherently better adapted to the location of interior discontinuities than
magnetic particle, but sometimes the shape of the part, location of the defect, or the cost or
availability of the methods and the equipment needed, makes the magnetic particle method the
best one to use. As a group those discontinuities which lie wholly below the surface are less
dangerous from the point of view of potential failure than are surface cracks. This is because
they are usually <though not always) more or less rounded in shape and, lying below the surface
and are in an area of fibre stress below the maximum. They are less severe stress-risers than
even a very small surface crack. The detection of such discontinuities with magnetic particles is
important and much work has been done to determine the optimum conditions for success in this
area.
The subsurface discontinuities which magnetic particles will locate may be divided into two
groups. The first of these comprises those small voids or non- metallic inclusions which lie close
to and often just under the surface of the part. Non-metallic inclusions are present in all steel
products to a greater or lesser degree. They may occur as scattered individual entities, or they
may be aligned as long stringers. In the examination of machined, highly finished parts, where
the wet stringers are often found. They are seldom significant unless they occur in excessive
numbers or lie in a transverse direction in an area of high stress.
Since they are usually very small they are not found unless they lie very close to the surface.
Because of the nature of these discontinuities they produce highly localized but rather weak
leakage fields. Contrary to what was stated earlier, that the dry method excels for finding deep
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lying defects, the wet method should be used for this type of discontinuity if its detection is
important. This is because these fine, non-metallic stringers are not really "deep-lying", for the
reason that, though sub-surface, they must be very close to the surface to be found at all, by any
method.
The second and much more important group of sub-surface discontinuities are those larger and
more serious conditions which may be quite deep in heavy sections - perhaps one quarter inch to
two inches or more below the surface. In weldments these may be lack of penetration, sub-
surface lack of fusion, or cracks in the beads. Such deep discontinuities in castings may be
internal shrinks, slag inclusions, or gas pockets.
7.2.3 Non-Relevant Discontinuities
Before an operator has progressed very far in his experience with magnetic particle examination
he will have become aware of non-relevant indication. They can sometimes be very puzzling,
since in many cases, no apparent reason exists for their occurrence.
Such indications are true particle patterns actually formed and held in place by magnetic leakage
fields; but the leakage fields responsible are not caused by conditions that are relevant to the
strength or useability of the part. The name non-relevant" has been given to this type of pattern.
Obviously the magnetic partial operator must be acquainted with these nonrelevant indications
and be able to recognize them for what they are.
l. False Indications: The term "false" has sometimes been applied to all non-relevant
indications since such indications are in nearly all cases magnetic in origin. There is
perhaps one truly false indication, and that is the case of particles held mechanically or
by gravity in surface irregularities, with no relation whatever to leakage fields. When
using the wet method, a "drainage line" of particles will often form and in such cases it is
only necessary to shake or blow, or to rinse off the particles to prove that they are not
magnetically held.
2. Cold Working: The type of plastic deformation called cold working produce a hardening
in steel with a consequent change in permeability. When the cold working is very local,
the abrupt permeability change is often sufficient to cause a particle pattern. The
indication produced is, at times, similar in appearance to magnetic writing. On
demagnetizing and remagnetizing, however, the indication from cold work reappears,
whereas that due to magnetic writing does not. If the object is sectioned and etched, no
discontinuities are found to account for the pattern, but examination under the
microscope will usually show the typical grain distortion representing cold work.
3. Grain Boundaries: When grain size is very large, the macrostructure showing grain
outlines may be found by a magnetic particle pattern even though no metallic
discontinuity exists. The pattern is due to sharply different permeability between
significant differences in grain size.
4. Boundary Zones in Welds: In weld inspection, an indication is often obtained at the
boundary between the fused metal and the base metal. Other indications in the form of
lines may appear at the edges of decarburized zones. These occurrences actually
indicate an abrupt change in permeability in the path of the magnetic flux, but are not
necessarily indicative of an objectionable condition. Many sound welds will yield a
powder line at the Junction of base and weld metal. If in doubt, a metallurgical
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evaluation should be obtained.
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5. Joint Between Dissimilar Magnetic Materials: Sometimes a piece of hard steel is
butt-welded to a softer piece by any of several methods. At the point of welding there
will be a sharp change of permeability, the soft steel having a high permeability and the
hard steel a much lower one. If a magnetic field is set up to flow across this Joint there
will be a concentrated leakage field and consequently a magnetic particle pattern. This
pattern, however, does not give any information regarding the soundness of the welded
Joint.
6. Forced Fits: When two members of an assembly are very tightly fitted together, as in a
pressed fit between a shaft and pinion gear, a magnetic particle pattern of this Joint may
be formed. If the fit is tight enough no indication may be produced, since the air gap
between the two members may be almost zero. If an indication appears it is never
misleading, unless the Joint is hidden by paint or rust and the operator does not know
that the joint exists. Polishing with fine emery cloth will reveal the line between the two
members of the assembly.
7.3 Types and Identification of Discontinuities
7.3.1 Inherent Discontinuities
Inherent discontinuities are those which are related to the melting and original solidification of the
metal in the ingot. As the metal is poured, gas bubble and slag are entrapped in the ingot. The
ingot is then cropped, which removes most of the impurities gathered in the top; however, some
entrapped discontinuities may find their way into the finished product. Following is a list of the
more common inherent discontinuities which may occur.
1. Inclusions: These are nonmetallic impurities such as slag, oxides, and sulphides which
are present in the original ingot. In the rolling of billets and bar stock, these materials
are rolled out length wise to form long stringers, or lines of nonmagnetic foreign
materials. In bar stock and forgings, they are often spoken of as nonmetallic inclusions
or non- metallic stringers. Inclusions in bar stock give straight indications parallel to the
longitudinal axis of the material, usually appearing as fine lines quite tightly adherent.
They are often short and are likely to occur in groups. They seldom appear on the
original bar surface, but are commonly found on machined surfaces. In forgings, they
parallel the grain flow lines. They are not objectional except when they occur in critical
areas, on highly stressed surfaces, or in unusual numbers.
2. Blowholes: Blowholes are formed by gas which is insoluble in the molten metal and is
trapped when the metal solidifies. As the ingot is worked into fabricated products, the
blowholes are elongated and their sides brought closer together. In finished articles,
they often appear as seams or laminations, depending on their location.
3. Pipe: Pipe is a discontinuity in the center of the ingot caused by internal shrinks or
cavities during solidification which have become elongated in the rolling operations. In
fabricated articles, they usually are found a considerable distance below the surface.
4. Segregations: When an ingot solidifies, the distribution of the various elements or
compounds generally is not uniform throughout the mass of the ingot and marked
segregations of some constituents may occur. As the ingot is forged and rolled, these
segregations are elongated and reduced in cross section. Upon subsequent processing,
they may appear as very thin parallel lines or bands, known as banding. Banding is not
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usually considered significant.
7.3.2 Processing Discontinuities
Processing discontinuities are those brought out or produced by forming or fabrication operations.
These discontinuities are divided into two main categories, primary processing discontinuities,
which include those caused during casting, rolling forging, and drawing; and finish processing
discontinuities, which include those cause by machining, final forming, grinding, heat treating,
and plating.
1. Cracks: Cracks may develop during such fabrication processes as forging, rolling,
drawing, bending, and welding. In hot fabricating processes they are often caused by
shrinkage during cooling. They also develop as ruptures in the metal caused by severe
distortion at sudden changes in section. Shrinkage cracks or hot tears develop during
solidification of the metal since it contracts as it freezes; tension stresses caused by this
contraction may rupture the metal.
2. Bursts: Bursts are ruptures that occur in a forging, often as the result of forging at too a
high temperature. They are large and very seldom healed during subsequent working.
(See Figure 19).
3. Forging: This is the method of forming metal by heating it to a plastic condition and
hammering or pressing it into the desired shape by use of dies. Typical discontinuities
developed in this process are:
a. Forging Laps: These are the result of metal being folded over and forced into
the surface but not welded to form a single piece. They may be caused by faulty
dies, oversized dies, oversized blanks, or improper handling of the metal in the
die. They may occur on any part of the forging.
b. Surface Tears: These are actually surface ruptures caused by improper
manipulation in the die.
4. Forging Flakes: Forging flakes are internal ruptures usually found only in heavy alloy
steel forgings. They are caused during cooling and, being internal, are seldom revealed
by magnetic particle examination until the forging has been machined down to the area
of the flakes.
5. Rolling: Rolling steel into bars and plate may also introduce discontinuities not present
in the original billet.
a. Seams: These are surface discontinuities, generally long, straight, and parallel
to the longitudinal axis of the bar. Seams are discontinuities in steel that
originate from blow-holes, cracks, splits, and tears introduced in earlier
fabricating operations. The original discontinuity can be closed by further
processing making the distance between adjacent faces very small.
b. Laminations: Laminations are thin, flat discontinuities found in steel plate or
strip and are a result of gas inclusions or pipe in the original ingot.
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c. Laps: These are similar to seams and may result from improper rolling
practices. In working down the billet into a bar, corners may be folded over or
small fins of metal forced out between the rolls may be flattened into the bar and
form a lap. They are usually straight and parallel to the longitudinal axis, and are
similar to seams but extend into the bar at an angle not normal to the surface.
6. Grinding Cracks: Grinding of hardened surfaces frequently introduce cracks. These
are actual thermal cracks similar to the heat treating and hardening cracks. The
overheating in this case occurs under the grinding wheel and may be due to the wheel
becoming glazed so that it rubs instead of cuts the surface. These types of cracks are
generally at right angles to the direction of grinding. Grinding cracks are usually shallow,
but as they are separations of the metal and are very sharp at their roots, they are often
potential sources of fatigue failures. Case-hardened articles are also sensitive to
improper grinding, and readily develop cracks unless proper precautions are taken.
7. Pickling and Etching Cracks: When removing scale by pickling, precleaning prior to
electroplating, or electroplating itself in which hydrogen is generated at the surface of the
article, cracks can be formed or minute cracks already present may be enlarged.
Cracking of this type is encountered in articles that are hardened by heat treatment or
cold-work, as in coldworked or heat-treated springs. The cracks usually develop at
points where minute cracks or excessive internal stresses exist. Cracks which are
formed or enlarged by pickling, precleaning, or electroplating are usually not detected
before the treatment; therefore, it is important that the examination be performed both
prior to and subsequent to plating operations.
8. Machining Tears: When an article is worked with a dull tool or by cutting at too great a
depth, the metal may not break away clean and the tool may leave a rough, torn surface.
Close examination of this rough, torn surface may reveal numerous short
discontinuities. Machining tears may be too deep to be completely removed by later
finish machining or grinding operations. They may also be covered over and concealed
by the burnishing action of finishing or polishing operations.
9. Heat Treating: In this operation the metal is heated and cooled under controlled
conditions for the purpose of hardening or securing other desired characteristics of grain
structure or strength in the finished article. Cracking during this process usually results
from stresses set up by unequal heating or cooling of certain portions of the piece.
Cracks can occur either in the heating or cooling cycles. The cracks are usually deep,
seldom follow a definite pattern and may be in any direction on the article. Quenching
cracks often start at a thin cross section, or where thick and thin cross sections meet.
10. Welding: Welding, a process for Joining metals, involves heating the edges to be
Joined by means of a torch or electric arc until they reach the fusion point. Additional
weld metal is supplied by a welding rod which is melted by the torch flame or arc and
flowed into the space between the edges being Joined after which the whole is allowed
to cool and "freeze" into a single piece.
a. Surface shrink cracks are the most common discontinuities found in weldments.
They are frequently found at a crater where the welding rod is removed from the
work. Crater cracks often are star-shaped, running out from the center of the
crater, though they may be single cracks. Longitudinal shrink cracks usually
occur in the center of the weld as well as near the edges of the bead.
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b. Cracks often appear in the parent metal at a point adjacent to the weld,
particularly when hard steels are welded. These cracks are caused by stresses
induced in the material from expansion and contraction due to thermal changes.
c. Lack of fusion is found in welds where temperature
has not been high enough to melt the parent metal to the weld, or by improper
positioning of the welding torch, causing a lack of bond.
d. Lack of complete penetration is caused by failure
of the weld metal to penetrate completely through the Joint before solidifying.
e. Overlapping is a common condition found in
weldments. It is caused by leaving a toe of the weld overlapping the parent
metal instead of being fused to it. The indication appears along the edge of the
overlap.
f. Slag and gas inclusions are the result of impurities
being trapped as the metal solidifies.
7.3.3 Service Discontinuities
Service or fatigue discontinuities are by far the most important discontinuities to be considered.
The articles that are in service, which may develop defects due to metal fatigue, are considered
extremely critical and demand close attention of nondestructive examination personnel.
Fatigue cracks normally develop in or adjacent to areas of stress concentration. These may
include oil holes, fillets, keyways, splines, and threads. These areas are usually designed to
withstand the stresses imposed; however, faulty design, such as oil holes with sharp edges or
poorly finished or insufficient fillets often result in a concentrated stress much higher than
expected. Also, the presence of any discontinuities in an area of stress concentration greatly
increases the possibilities of fatigue failure.
A fatigue failure is progressive in that it starts as a fine submicroscopic crack or an accumulation
of such cracks, and spreads under the action of repeated stressing. This spreading action
continues until the cross-section of the article has been reduced to such an extent that the article
ultimately fractures statically under a low load. Once a crack has started, its ability to progress is
greatly increased by the stress concentration at the crack tip. It is interesting to note that the rate
of progress of fatigue cracks may vary, depending on the stress condition. In some instances the
progress of the crack may be slow. This has been observed in some types of articles, which
have appeared to operate many hours in a cracked condition. In other instances where high
stresses are continually applied, particularly to brittle materials, the progress of the crack may be
practically instantaneous.
Since cracked articles are a potential source of failure, their detection during examination is of
prime importance. The rapidly rotating and reciprocating parts of a pump or the vibration of a
structure produce many applications of repeated stress. Fatigue cracks start as fine
submicroscopic cracks and become detectable by examination as soon as they reach any
measurable length. Since a small fatigue crack may be confused with a much less significant
discontinuity, particular care is to be exercised in evaluating all indications. Fatigue cracks are
always cause for rejection unless the article can be salvaged by rework. A fatigue crack is often
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identified by its direction in relation to the applied stresses. For example, primary discontinuities,
such as seams and inclusions, normally run in the direction of the grain flow, while fatigue cracks
in most areas run transverse to the grain flow.
8.0 RECORDING RESULTS OF EXAMINATION SURFACE
8.1 Lacquer Transfer Technique
If it is desired to retain the indication in place on the specimen, a transparent lacquer is sprayed
over the discontinuity. Spraying or dipping are more effective that brushing because the latter,
no matter how carefully done, tends to disturb and mar the pattern. Stock lacquers are thinned at
least three to one before being used for this purpose.
1. Wet Method: When using the wet method, the surface is allowed to dry before the
lacquer is applied. Drying may be facilitated by the use of naptha.
2. Lacquer Mixtures: There is another use for lacquer which employs a colored lacquer
as a suspensoid for a powder of a different color. The magnetic field is applied before
the lacquer sets, and the pattern becomes permanently fixed after the lacquer dries. A
white lacquer with black paste in suspension gives a black pattern on a white background
and can be applied on practically any surface, or the lacquer can be applied first, allowed
to dry, and the powder applied afterwards. The resultant patterns are then
photographed.
8.2 Daylight Photography
Photography is one of the best ways to make permanent records of the appearance of
indications, but takes more time and equipment than the tape or lacquer techniques. Also, if
precise delineation of the contour of indications is important, the tape or lacquer records lifted
directly from the surface of the part can be more exact. A photograph, on the other hand, shows
the indication in its natural environment on the part in which the discontinuity occurs, and has this
advantage over the lifted records.
Black and white photographs of parts containing indications sometimes require some ingenuity in
"posing" the specimen and in securing lighting that sets off the indication so that it gives a clear
picture and be a faithful reproduction of the indication on the resulting photograph.
Use of the Polaroid camera and film process is a most convenient and quick method of making
photographic records. The immediate availability of the picture makes it possible to make
corrections in lighting or positioning quickly. Several successive shots can be made if duplicates
are wanted.
8.3 Transparent Tape Transfer Technique
Probably the most convenient and by far the most widely used method of preserving indications
and patterns is the transparent tape method. If the dry magnetic particle method is used, the
excess powder is blown carefully away or otherwise removed. If the wet method is employed,
sufficient time is allowed for the solvent to evaporate from the particles composing the indication.
A strip of transparent tape is then carefully laid over the indication and gently pressed down with
the fingers or a rounded stick. The tape is then peeled off, bringing the indication with it. The
strip is then laid on white paper for photographing, on tracing paper for blueprinting, or on a page
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of a permanent record book. With care, the transferred pattern remains well-defined and
accurate in every detail, and may serve as well as the original pattern as a basis for Judging and
studying the indication.
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9.0 BIBLIOGRAPHY
l. GENERAL DYNAMICS (Convair Division) Classroom Training Handbook NDT
MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING (CT-6-3).
2. PRINCIPLES OF MAGNETIC TESTING, C. E. Betz, Feb. 1, 1967, Magnaflux Corp.
3. NDT HANDBOOK, R. C. McMaster, Ronald Press Company 1963.
4. ASM METALS HANDBOOK VOLUME 11, NONDESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION, Aug.
1976.
5. HANDBOOK FOR STANDARDIZATION OF NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING
METHODS, MIL-HOBK-333 (USAF) 10 April, 1974.
6. THE STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS, VOLUME IV ELECTRONIC
PROPERTIES, R. M. Rose, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.
7. GLOSSARY OF TERMS FREQUENTLY USED IN NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING,
MATERIALS EVALUATION, April, 1975.
8. INTRODUCTION TO MATERIALS SCIENCE, A. G. GUY, McGraw-Hill, 1972.
10.0 APPLICABLE SPECIFICATIONS AND PROCEDURES
This area has been left blank to give room for insertion, by the individual, of specifications and
procedures to which the individual will be working.
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11.0 GLOSSARY
air gap - When a magnetic circuit contains a small gap which the magnetic flux must cross, the space is
referred to as an air gap. Cracks produce small air gaps on the surface of a part.
alternating current (AC) - Alternating current is current that reverses its direction of flow at regular
intervals. Such current is frequently referred to as AC.
ampere - The unit of electrical current. One ampere is the current which flows through a conductor
having a resistance of one ohm, at a potential of one volt.
ampere turns - Refers to the product of the number of turns in a coil and the number of amperes of
current flowing through it. This is a measure of the magnetizing or demagnetizing strength of the coil.
For example: 800 amperes in a 6-turn coil 4800 ampere turns.
artifact - An indication that is not associated with the actual condition of the object under test.
bath - The suspension of iron oxide particles in a vehicle (usually a light oil).
blowhole - A hole in a casting or a weld caused by gas entrapped during solidification normally vented
to the surface.
central conductor - A conductor that is passed through the opening in a ring or tube, or any hole in a
part, for the purpose of creating a circular of circumferential field in the tube or ring, or around the hole.
circular magnetization - Circular magnetization involves the production of a magnetic field in a part
such that the magnetic lines of force are mostly contained within the part.
coercive force - The reverse magnetizing force necessary to remove remnant or residual magnetism
and demagnetize the part.
coil shot - A short pulse of magnetizing current passed through a solenoid or coil surrounding a part, for
the purpose of longitudinal magnetization is called a "coil shot." Duration of the passage of the current is
usually only a fraction of a second.
cold cracks - Appear as a straight line, usually continuous throughout its length and generally exist
singly. These cracks start at the surface.
cold shut - (1) A discontinuity that appears in cast metal as a result of two streams of liquid meeting and
failing to unite; (2) a portion of the surface of a forging that is separated, in part, from the main body of
metal by oxide.
conductivity - This is the inverse of resistance and refers to the ability of a material to carry current or
heat.
continuous method - Current and bath are applied together; that is, the indicating particles are on the
part while the magnetizing current is being applied.
crack - A material separation which has a relatively large cross section in one direction and a small or
negligible cross section when viewed in a direction perpendicular to the first.
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defect - A discontinuity whose size, shape, orientation, location of properties make it detrimental to the
useful service of the part in which it occurs or which exceeds the accept/reject criteria for this given
design.
demagnetization - The process of removing existing magnetism from within a part.
dendrite - A crystal that has a tree-like branching pattern, most evident in cast metals usually formed
during solidification.
direct current (dc) - As the name implies, this term refers to an electric current flowing continually in
one direction through a conductor. Such current is frequently referred to as dc.
discontinuity - Any interruption in the normal physical structure or configuration of a part, such as
cracks, laps, seams, inclusions or porosity. A discontinuity may or may not affect the usefulness of a
part.
distorted field - The direction of a magnetic field in a symmetrical object will be substantially uniform if
produced by a uniformly applied magnetizing force, as in the case of a bar magnetized in a solenoid.
But if the piece being magnetized is irregular in shape, the field is distorted and does not follow a straight
path or have a uniform distribution.
dry method - An inspection method in which the particles employed are in dry powder form.
dry powder - Finely divided ferromagnetic particles selected and prepared for magnetic particle
inspection by the dry method.
electromagnet - When ferromagnetic material is surrounded by a coil carrying current it becomes
magnetized and is called an electromagnet.
false indication - In nondestructive inspection, an indication that may be interpreted erroneously as a
discontinuity or defect; a non-relevant indication, e.g., artifacts.
ferromagnetic materials - Materials which can be magnetized most strongly are called "ferromagnetic
materials"; iron and steel exhibit the strongest magnetic characteristics of the more common substances.
field, bipolar A longitudinal magnetic field within a part which creates two poles.
field, leakage - The field which leaves or enters the surface of a part at a pole.
field, longitudinal - A field which extends within a part from one or more poles to another or other poles,
and which is completed through a path external to the part.
field, magnetic - The space within and surrounding a magnetized part or a conductor carrying current in
which the magnetic force is exerted.
field, residual - The field which remains in a piece of magnetizable material after the magnetizing force
has been removed.
filled crack - A crack open to the surface, but filled with some foreign material, oxide grease, etc.
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fine crack - A discontinuity in a solid material with a very fine discontinuity, usually possessing length
and depth greater than the width.
flaw - An imperfection in an item or material which may or may not be harmful. If harmful, is it a defect
or discontinuity.
flux lines - Also called lines of force. Imaginary lines used as a means of explaining the behavior of
magnetic fields. Their conception is based on the pattern of lines produced when iron filings are
sprinkled on a piece of paper laid over a permanent magnet.
flux density - The strength of the magnetic field.
full-wave rectified single-phase ac - This is rectified alternating current for which the rectifier is so
connected that the reverse half of the cycle is "turned around" and fed into the circuit flowing in the same
direction as the first half of the cycle. This produces pulsating dc, but with no interval between the pulses.
Such current is also referred to as single-phase full-wave dc.
full-wave rectified three-phase ac - When three-phase alternating current is rectified, the full-wave
rectification system is used. The result is dc with very little pulsation; in fact, only a ripple of varying
voltage distinguishes it from straight dc.
Gauss - This is the unit of flux density or induction. The strength of field induced in a ferromagnetic
body is described as being so many Gauss. It is usually designated by the letter "B". Numerically, one
Gauss is one line of flux per square centimeter of area.
half-wave rectified ac - When a single-phase alternating current is rectified in the simplest manner, the
reverse half of the cycle is blocked out entirely. The result is a pulsating unidirectional current with
intervals when no current at all is flowing. This is often referred to as half-wave" or as pulsating direct
current.
heads - The clamping contacts on a stationary magnetizing unit.
head shot - A short pulse of magnetizing current passed through a part or a central conductor while
clamped between the head contacts of a stationary magnetizing unit, for the purpose of circular
magnetization of the part is called a "head shot." Duration of the passage of the current is usually less
than one second.
horseshoe magnet - A bar magnet, bent into the shape of a horseshoe so that the two poles are
adjacent. Usually the term applies to a permanent magnet.
hot cracks - Appear as ragged dark lines of variable width and numerous branches. They have no
continuity and may exist in groups. They may originate internally or at the surface. -
hot tear - A fracture formed in a metal during solidification.
indication - In nondestructive inspection, a response or evidence of a response that requires
interpretation to determine its significance.
indication (magnetic particle) - Refers to any magnetically held magnetic particle pattern on the
surface of a part being tested.
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induction - Magnetic induction is the magnetism induced in a ferromagnetic body by some outside
magnetizing force.
inspection - The process of examining and checking materials and parts for possible defects or for
deviation from established standards.
interface - The mating surfaces between two adjacent members of a structure.
interpretation - The process of determining the nature of an indication.
leakage field - This is the field forced out into the air by the distortion of the field within a part caused by
the presence of a discontinuity.
line of force - The lines that can be produced by a permanent magnet or a conductor carrying electric
current by the use of a sheet of paper and iron filings are called magnetic lines of force. These lines are
imaginary lines but the concept is convenient for describing a magnetic field. A magnetic field has an
intensity of so many lines per square inch. These lines have a definite direction and always form closed
loops and return back onto themselves.
lines of force - When a piece of paper is laid over a magnet and iron filings or other iron powder is
sprinkled over the paper the powder arranges itself into a pattern. This pattern is called a magnetograph.
It appears to consist of a series of curved lines and suggests that the magnetic force of the field flows
along these lines. Although there is actually no known movement, it is most convenient to think of the
field as flowing through the magnet and through the air around it.
longitudinal direction - The principal direction of flow in a wrought material.
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longitudinal magnetization - Magnetization of a material in such a way the magnetic flux runs
substantially parallel to the long axis of the part, the flux path completing itself through the air outside the
material. It is sometimes called bipolar magnetization, because at least two external poles exist in
longitudinal magnetization.
magnet - Materials that show the power to attract iron and other substances to them-= selves, and that
exhibit polarity, are called magnets.
magnetic discontinuity - This refers to a break in magnetic uniformity of the part, a sudden change in
permeability. A magnetic discontinuity may not be related to any actual physical break in the metal, but
it may produce a magnetic particle indication.
magnetic field - The space around a magnet within which ferromagnetic materials are attracted is called
a magnetic field.
magnetic flux - The total number of magnetic lines existing in a magnetic circuit is called "magnetic
flux.
magnetic force - In magnetic particle inspection the magnetizing force is considered to be the total force
tending to set up a flux in a magnetic circuit. It is usually designated by letter "H."
magnetic loop - If a conductor carrying an electric current is bent in a loop, the magnetic lines of force
enter on one side of the loop and leave at the other, and the space within the loop is found to contain a
magnetic field which has very definite directional properties. Polarity is created within the coil with one
end being a north pole and the opposite end a south pole. The space enclosed by the loop is
longitudinally magnetized.
magnetic materials - Materials are affected by magnets in two general ways. Some of them are
attracted by a magnet, while others exert a repellent force. The first is called "paramagnetic" and the
latter "diamagnetic." In magnetic particle inspection we are not ordinarily concerned with either of the two
classes, but with what may be termed a subdivision of the first class called "ferromagnetic materials."
magnetic poles - The ability of a magnet to attract or repeal is not uniform over its surface, but is
concentrated at local areas called "poles." Each magnet has two poles, one which is attracted by the
earth's North Pole and is called the north pole of the magnet, while the other is attracted by the earth's
South Pole and is called the south pole of the magnet.
magnetic writing - A form of nonrelevant indication sometimes caused when the surface of a
magnetized part comes into contact with another piece of ferromagnetic material.
magnetically hard alloy - A ferromagnetic alloy capable of being magnetized permanently because of
its ability to retain induced magnetization and magnetic poles after removal of externally applied fields;
an alloy with high coercive force. The name is based on the fact that the quality of the early permanent
magnets was related to their hardness.
magnetically soft alloy - A ferromagnetic alloy that becomes magnetized readily upon application of a
field and that returns to practically a nonmagnetic condition when the field is removed; an alloy with the
properties of high magnetic permeability, low coercive force and low magnetic hysteresis loss.
magnetism - Magnetism is a property of matter. The ability of matter to attract or repel other matter is
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called magnetism if it is associated with the interaction of lines of force (flux) between magnetic poles on
the materials. Also recognized as a force-field surrounding conductors carrying electric current.
magnetizing current - The current passed through the part, encircling coil, yoke or other
electromagnetic device that gives rise to the required magnetic field.
magnetizing force - That force which establishes the magnetic flux in a magnetic circuit. Measured in
oersteds, it is a measure of the force acting on a unit pole. In magnetic particle testing it is a measure of
the force tending to draw particles to a defect.
magnetograph - A magnetograph is a picture of a magnetic field made by the use of iron powder under
conditions that allow it to arrange itself into the pattern of the field.
multi-directional magnetization - Two separate fields having different directions cannot exist in a part
at the same time. But two or more fields in different directions can be imposed upon a part sequentially
in rapid succession. When this is done, magnetic particle indications are formed when discontinuities are
located favorably with respect to the directions of each of the fields, and will persist as long as the rapid
alternations of field direction continue. This, in effect, does constitute two or more fields in different
directions at the same time, and enables the detection of defect oriented in any direction in one
operation.
nondestructive testing (NDT) - Testing to detect internal, surface and concealed defects or flaws in
materials using techniques that do not damage or destroy the items being tested.
nonrelevant indications - These are true indications produced by uncontrolled test conditions.
However, the conditions causing them are present by design or accident, or other features of the part
having no relation to the damaging flaws being sought. The term signifies that such an indication has no
relation to discontinuities that might constitute defects.
oersted - A unit of field strength which produces magnetic induction, designated by the letter H." The
magnetic field produced at the center of a plane circular coil of one turn and a radius of one centimeter,
which carries a current of (1/2) abamperes.
parallel magnetization - A magnetic field induced in a piece of magnetizable material which is placed
parallel to a conductor carrying an electric current.
paramagnetic (and diamagnetic) - All materials are affected by magnetic fields. Those which are
attracted are called paramagnetic. Those which are repelled are called diamagnetic. The reaction to a
magnetic field of these two classes of substances is very slight indeed. The few materials that are
strongly attracted by magnetic fields are called ferromagnetic.
paste (magnetic) - Finely divided, ferromagnetic particles in paste form used in preparing wet
suspensions magnetic particle inspection.
permanent magnets - A body which possesses the ability to retain or hold a large amount of the applied
magnet field after the active power of the field is removed.
permeability (magnetic) - The ease with which a magnetic field or flux can be set up in a magnetic
circuit. It is not a constant value for a given material, but is a ratio. At any given value of magnetizing
force, permeability is BIN the ratio of flux density (B, to magnetizing force H). It is a characteristic of the
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material being magnetized and is dependent upon the alloy, its heat treatment and configuration.
pole (magnetic) - The point at which magnetic lines of force emerge from or enter into a ferromagnetic
material. In a compact, sometimes intentional; (3) minute perforations in an electroplated coating.
porosity - A field of fine holes, voids or pores within a material.
prods - Two hand-held electrodes which are pressed against the surface of a part or make contact for
passing magnetizing current through the metal.
rectified alternating current - By means of a device called a rectifier, which permits current to flow in
one direction only, alternating current can be converted to direct or unidirectional current. This differs
from direct current in that the current value varies from a steady level. This variation may be extreme,
as in the case of half-wave rectified single-phase ac, or slight, as in the case of three-phase rectified ac.
rectifier - A tube or circuit capable of converting the high voltage alternating wave form into a usable
unidirectional voltage wave form.
reference standard - A reference used as a base for comparison.
reluctance - Reluctance refers to the degree of difficulty or resistance of a material to magnetize.
residual field - This is the field left in a piece of ferromagnetic material when the
residual method - The process whereby the magnetic substance is applied to the part being inspected
after it has been magnetized and the magnetizing current is off.
retentivity - Retentivity is the property of a given material of retaining, to a greater or lesser degree
some amount of residual magnetism.
saturation - Refers to that degree of magnetization where a further increase in H produces no further
increase in the field in a given material other than is produced in air.
sensitivity - The size of the smallest discontinuity detectable by a nondestructive test method.
shallow discontinuity - A discontinuity open to the surface of a solid object which possesses little depth
in proportion to the width of this opening. A scratch or nick may be a "shallow discontinuity" in this
sense.
single-phase alternating current - This term refers to a simple current alternating in direction.
Commercial single-phase current follows a sine wave. Such a current requires only two conductors for
its circuit. Most common commercial frequencies are 25, 50 and 60 cycles per second.
stringer - In wrought materials, an elongated configuration of microconstituents or foreign material
aligned in the direction of working.
suspension - The liquid bath in which ferromagnetic particles used in the wet method are suspended.
temporary magnets - Commonly a soft steel or iron piece which is readily magnetized but retains only a
very small field after the active power of the external magnetic field is removed.
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three-phase alternating current - Commercial electricity is commonly transmitted as three single-phase
currents, that is, three separate currents following separate sine curves, each at 60 cycles (or other
frequency) per second, but with the peaks of their individual curves one-third of a cycle apart. At least
three (sometimes four) -conductors are required for three-phase alternating current.
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threshold - In reference to currents or magnetic fields, the minimum strength necessary to create a
looked-for effect is called the threshold value. For example, the minimum current necessary to produce
a readable indication at a given defect is the threshold value of current for that purpose.
transverse - Literally, "across," usually signifying a direction or plane perpendicular to the longitudinal
direction.
void - Discontinuities in which there is a physical separation between opposite walls.
volt - The unit of electromotive force which tends to cause an electric current to flow through a
conductor.
wet method - The magnetic particle inspection method employing ferromagnetic particles suspended in
a light oil or water which acts as a vehicle.
wetting agent - A substance that will reduce the surface tension of a liquid or solid.
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12.0 NOTES
This area has been left blank for use by the individual.