Copper-nickel

FABRICATION
Handling I Welding I Properties
Resistance to corrosion and biofouling
Important applications

NiDI CDA
Nickel Development Institute Copper Development Association Copper Development Association Inc
2 Copper-nickel fabrication

Introduction
Copper-nickel alloys have a remarkable combination of good
resistance to both corrosion and biofouling in seawater. As they are
also readily welded and fabricated, they are an obvious choice for
pipe systems, heat exchangers, boat hulls and other structures
engineered for marine use.
Copper-nickels have been specified for seawater use for over 50 years;
they are the materials of first choice for seawater pipework and
condenser service for many of the world's navies and merchant ships.
They are used in desalination, power plants and offshore fire water
systems, and for the sheathed protection of oil and gas platform legs and
risers. In all such applications, their durability is proven. Fabrication of
copper-nickels is not difficult, although a higher degree of cleanliness is
required than for steel. They are ductile and easily formed. Their
machinability is similar to that of aluminium bronzes, phosphor bronzes
and other copper alloys that do not have special free-cutting additions.
Copper-nickels can be welded by most standard processes.
The core of this book is welding and fabrication. General engineering
properties, corrosion and biofouling resistance and applications are
included only where they influence decisions on fabrication. It provides
an informed understanding of the two primary copper-nickel alloys, to
allow good fabrication and operation.
1999
The material presented in this publication has been prepared for the general information of
the reader and should not be used or relied on for specific applications without first securing
competent advice.
The Nickel Development Institute, the Copper Development Association, the Copper
Development Association Inc, their members, staff and consultants do not represent or
warrant its suitability for any general or specific use and assume no liability or responsibility
of any kind in connection with the information herein.
3 Copper-nickel fabrication

Contents
The alloys 4
Standards | Composition | Mechanical and physical properties
General handling 6
Cutting and machining | Forming | Heat treatment | Descaling | Painting
Welding 8
Mechanical properties | Preparation | Tack welding | Weld preparations
Welding consumables | Manual metal arc | Gas-shielded tungsten arc
Gas-shielded metal arc | Post-weld treatment | Inspection
Clad plate 13
Cutting | Welding
Brazing 14
Tube to tubesheet fabrication 15
Boat hulls 17
Sheathing of offshore structures 18
Linings 19
Desalination plants 20
Seawater corrosion resistance 21
Flow rates | Sand abrasion | Localized corrosion | Galvanic behaviour
Handling sulphides | Ferrous sulphate dosing
Biofouling resistance 25
Checklist: resistance to corrosion and biofouling 26
Bibliography 27
Further information and advice 28
Hull
construction
of the
Sieglinde
Marie using
6-mm-thick 90-
10 copper-
nickel plate
4 Copper-nickel fabrication

The alloys
There are two main grades of copper-
nickel alloy used in marine service 90-
10 (10% nickel) and 70-30 (30% nickel).
The 70-30 alloy is stronger and has
greater resistance to seawater flow; but
90-10 will provide good service for most
applications and being less expensive
tends to be more widely used. Both alloys
contain small but important additions of
iron and manganese which have been
chosen to provide the best combination of
resistance to flowing sea water and to
overall corrosion.

Standards
Table 1 gives some of the more common
international designations for both alloys.
Table I Designations in standards for 90-10 and 70-30 alloys
Alloy UNS ISO CEN
90Cu-10Ni C70600 CuNi10Fe1Mn CW352H
70Cu-30Ni C71500 CuNi30Fe1Mn CW354H

Composition
The chemical composition ranges for the
two alloys vary among the different
standards. If the product is to be welded
subsequently, the ranges should preferably
be within the limits given in Table 2. The
maximum limits for some specific
impurities are tightened because of their
effects on hot ductility, and thus hot
workability and weldability. These same
detrimental elements can arise from
external contamination and so precautions
are necessary when the alloys are handled
during forming and welding.
Mechanical and physical properties
Copper-nickels are stronger than copper but
lower in strength than steels. Their
ductility, toughness and formability are all
excellent. They do not embrittle at low
temperatures.
Table 3, opposite, gives typical annealed
mechanical properties for copper-nickel
plate; strength can be increased by cold
working but not by heat treatment. Heat
Table 2 Typical chemical composition ranges of 90-10 and 70-30
alloys for welding applications
Alloy
mass %
Cu Ni Fe Mn Zn C Pb S P **
90-10 Rem* 9-11 1-2 0.5-1 0.5 0.05 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.1
70-30 Rem* 29-33 0.4-1 0.5-1.5 0.5 0.05 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.1
Single figures are maxima
* Remainder
** Total other impurities
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5 Copper-nickel fabrication

The alloys
exchanger tubing is normally produced and
ordered in the light drawn rather than
annealed condition. For design purposes,
precise values should be taken from
relevant international standards based on
product form and size.

Table 4 compares various physical
properties with those of steel. The 70-30
alloy is essentially non-magnetic and has a
magnetic permeability very close to unity.
The 90-10 alloy has a higher iron content
and can have a permeability between 1.01
and in excess of 1.2 depending on the final
heat treatment condition. A fast cool from
the solution heat treatment temperature is
required to achieve a low permeability.
Table 3 Typical mechanical properties of annealed copper-
nickel sheet and plate (taken from EN 1652:1997)
Alloy
0.2% Proof
strength min
N/mM
2
*
Tensile
strength
min N/mM
2
*
Elongation
min
%
Hardness
HV
90-10 100 300 30 90
70-30 120 350 35 100
* 1 N/mm
2
is equivalent to 145psi
Table 4 Typical physical properties of copper-nickels and
steel
Units 90-10 70-30 Steel
Density kg/dm
3
8.90 8.95 7.85
Melting points C 1100-1145 1170-1240 1460-1490
Specific heat J/kgK 377 377 485
Thermal
conductivity
W/mK 50 29 50
Coefficient of linear
expansion 10-300C
10
-6
/K 17 16 12
Electrical
resistivity
microhm/
cm
19 34 30
Modulus
of elasticity
GPa 135 152 210
Modulus
of rigidity
GPa 50 56 81

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General handling
The precautions required for handling
copper-nickels will be familiar to any
fabricator who routinely handles
materials like stainless steels and
aluminium alloys, but may be new to
those used to dealing with only carbon
steels.

Cleanliness is paramount: contamination
can cause cracking and porosity during
heat treatment, or welding and may affect
the corrosion resistance of the alloy.
Ideally, fabrication should be done in an
area devoted solely to copper-nickel
alloys. Where this is impracticable, the
standard of care of the material should be
well above that necessary for carbon
steels.

Sheets should remain in their
packing until needed and should be
separated normally by protective
material to avoid abrasion.
Plates and sheets are best stored
vertically in covered racks.
Walking over sheets should be
avoided.
Plastic film may be interposed
between the sheet and rolls when roll
forming.
Grease and paint should be kept
away from the surface, particularly
near edges of weld preparations; all
traces of marking crayons must be
removed before making a joint.
Stainless steel brushes should be
used, and tools such as grinding
discs should not be interchanged
between copper-nickel and other
materials.

Cutting and machining
Most normal cutting processes shearing,
abrasive disc cutting, plasma arc, etc
are acceptable for copper-nickel. High-
speed abrasive wheels work well for
bevelling edges and trimming material.
The oxyacetylene process is ineffective in
cutting these alloys, but the plasma-arc
process gives excellent results. Band saws
or shears may be used for cutting, but
allowance made for their relative softness
and ductility.

Although copper-nickels are not as readily
machined as free cutting materials, they are
not difficult to machine: they can be ranked
with aluminium bronze and phosphor
bronze alloys. They are much easier to
machine than, say, stainless steels and
other alloys which work-harden rapidly.
More details and recommended speeds and
oils are detailed in Machining Brass,
Copper and Its Alloys, CDA Publication
TN 44 (see Bibliography, page 27).

Forming
Copper-nickels can be hot or cold formed,
although cold working is preferred with
an inter-stage anneal often necessary when
the cold work exceeds about 40-50% of the
total. A 20% cold reduction approximately
halves the as-annealed elongation and
doubles the proof strength.

Tubes can be bent by normal copper
bending methods including bending
machines. Care must be taken to get
smooth bends and avoid wrinkling, because
liquid turbulence in service can lead to
impingement attack. Bends with radii
greater than three times the diameter are
usually acceptable. But with tubes of less
than 80mm nominal diameter, a tube bend
radius of twice the tube diameter can be
produced. Smaller radii require
prefabricated bends.

When tubes are filled before bending,
non-carbonaceous filler materials e.g.,
dry, oil-free silica sand are preferred
wherever possible and should be
completely removed afterwards.
Lubricating oil and filler residues must be
7 Copper-nickel fabrication

General handling
removed before annealing to prevent
formation of carbonaceous films that may
reduce the corrosion resistance in service.

Hot working copper-nickels can lead to
hot cracking and should be avoided or
attempted only with advice from a
supplier. The recommended temperature
ranges are:
90-10 850-950C
70-30 925-1025C.

Care must be taken below 750C since low
ductility may develop. An anneal after hot
working is normally unnecessary.

Hot pipe bending is possible but not
generally recommended; heating should be
uniform over the whole circumference.
When required, the pipe should be filled
with dried, oil-free silica sand with no
carbonaceous material. Bending should be
done in one movement and jerking
avoided. After bending, the filler must be
removed completely (washing, degreasing
and pickling).

Heat treatment
The work piece should be clean and free
from any contamination before and during
heating. Copper-nickels can embrittle if
heated in the presence of contaminants
like sulphur, phosphorus, lead and other
low melting point metals. Sources of
contamination include paints, marking
crayons, lubricating grease and fluids, and
fuels. Fuels used must be low in sulphur;
normally, fuel oils containing less than
0.5% by weight of sulphur are
satisfactory.

Oxidizing atmospheres cause surface
scaling. Furnace atmospheres should be
between neutral and slightly reducing and
must not fluctuate between oxidizing and
reducing conditions.
Flame impingement must be avoided. For a
recrystallization anneal, soaking times of
3-5 minutes per mm thickness can be used.
The recommended temperatures are:
90-10 750-825C
70-30 650-850C.

Stress relieving is seldom used, but if
required the recommended temperatures
are:
90-10 250-500C
70-30 300-400C.

Descaling
The surface oxide films on both alloys can
be very tenacious. Oxides and
discolouration adjacent to welds can be
removed with very fine abrasive belts or
discs. If pickling is required, a hot 5-10%
sulphuric acid solution containing 0.35 g/1
potassium dichromate is satisfactory.
Before pickling, oxides can be broken up
by a grit blast. The pickled components
should be rinsed thoroughly in hot, fresh
water and finally dried in hot air.

Painting
Painting copper-nickel is, strictly,
unnecessary as the alloys inherently resist
corrosion and biofouling. But painting is
sometimes desirable, perhaps for aesthetic
reasons, or to reduce the exposed metal
area in a bimetallic couple and so reduce
the risk of galvanic corrosion.

A thorough roughening by grit or sand
blasting is crucial before paint is applied.
Compared with steel, less pressure and a
finer particle size should be used. Above
the water line on boat hulls, epoxy
followed by polyurethane coatings can be
applied. Leading paint suppliers will
normally prefer to recommend appropriate
paint specifications based on their
proprietary products for specific
applications.
8 Copper-nickel fabrication

Welding
The appropriate welding process depends
on the skills and equipment available,
although a large project may justify new
equipment and special training. It is highly
desirable that welders are given a period of
familiarization with the material and the
techniques used in handling it. Insurance
and inspection bodies may require
qualification of both welders and welding
procedures with appropriate test pieces.

The most widely available welding method
is the manual metal arc (MMA or SMAW)
process using flux-coated stick electrodes.
This process is quite suitable for welding
copper-nickel alloys and has the advantage
of using relatively inexpensive equipment.
The gas-shielded tungsten arc (TIG or
GTAW) process can give very high quality
welds even in complex joints. The gas-
shielded metal arc (MIG or GMAW)
process, using a continuous wire feed, is
faster and can be closely controlled with
modern sophisticated equipment. Relevant
features of these three processes are
described starting on page 10.

The general guideline for welding
conditions is to avoid high levels of heat
input. Manufacturers of flux-coated
electrodes specify recommended current
ranges. But it is not always helpful to
recommend particular levels for the gas-
shielded processes since welding
conditions depend on the particular type of
joint and sequence of runs and for the
MIG (GMAW) process, on the mode of
metal transfer. Weld procedure trials are a
better means of determining appropriate
conditions than following data given in a
table.

There is no need to pre-heat the base metal
before tacking or welding unless
this is necessary to ensure that the base
metal is dry. To avoid microfissuring, the
interpass temperature is maintained below
150C.

Welding by TIG (GTAW) without filler
metal autogenous welding is not
recommended because of possible weld
porosity from a reaction with the
atmosphere. Filler metals contain
additives to prevent this. Although it is
possible to weld copper-nickel alloys
using the oxyacetylene process, it is not a
practicable or desirable process for
fabrication.

Mechanical properties of welds
A 70-30 copper-nickel filler material is
recommended for welding the 90-10 and
70-30 copper-nickel alloys. Because of
the higher nickel content, the weld metal
is stronger and more noble galvanically
than the 90-10 copper-nickel base metal.
When evaluating the results of test welds,
a transverse bend test is not appropriate
because deformation is concentrated in
the relatively soft material adjacent to the
weld. A longitudinal bend test should be
used instead. Table 5 shows typical
properties of all-weld metals.
Table 5 Typical all-weld metal mechanical properties
(not to be used for design purposes)
Welding process
0.2% proof
strength
N/mm
2
*
Tensile
strength
N/mm
2
*
Elongation
5d%**
Hardness
HV
TIG or GTAW
(bare wire)
200 385 40 105
MMA or SMAW (flux
coated electrode)
270 420 34 120
* 1 N/mm
2
equals 145 psi
** d is the diameter of the test piece gauge length

9 Copper-nickel fabrication

Welding

TIG (GTAW)
welding a 90-10
copper-nickel
assembly
Preparation for welding
As with heat treatment, all traces of the
elements which cause cracking (sulphur,
phosphorus, lead etc.) must be removed.
This includes crayons, paints,
temperature indication markers, cutting
fluids, oil and grease. (Fittings of other
alloys, such as gunmetal copper-tin-
zinc alloy are also a source of
detrimental elements and should not be
welded to copper-nickel alloys.)

The joint area should be thoroughly
cleaned before welding starts. The weld
preparation, and an adjacent area either
side of the preparation at least 50 mm
wide, must be degreased and any
markings removed. Uncontaminated
organic solvents should be applied with
clean cloths and the area dried. The
appearance of the cloths used for drying
is a useful indicator of cleanliness: they
should be free of any residue.

Tack welding
Because of their high coefficient of
thermal expansion relative to carbon
steel, copper-nickels have a greater
potential for distortion when welded.
Welding fixtures can help, but their use
is limited to subassemblies. So tack
welds should be made to maintain a
uniform gap and alignment between the
parts being welded. They must be
positioned at about half the spacing usual
for carbon steel and are preferably quite
short. The TIG (GTAW) process is often
used for tacking, but where it is available,
MIG (GMAW) spot-welding is a
convenient and well-controlled technique
for the purpose. Tacks should be wire-
brushed or ground to clean metal where
they are to be incorporated into the joint
weld metal.

Weld preparations
It is possible to weld copper-nickel up to
3mm thick with a square butt preparation.
Above this thickness, a bevelled
preparation must be used; the included
angle of the V should be larger than for
carbon steel typically, 70 or above
because the molten weld metal is not as
fluid as with carbon steels, and needs
manipulation of the electrode or torch to
ensure fusion with the side walls. Figure 1
shows some weld preparations.

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10 Copper-nickel fabrication

Welding
Although it is possible to weld in all
customary welding positions, it is
desirable to weld down-hand, which
allows higher deposition rates and may
demand less skill. It will normally be
impracticable to turn a large structure
such as a hull into the most favourable
position for welding, but it is worth the
effort of manipulating subassemblies for
down-hand welding, rather than attempt
to operate in a less favourable position.

Welding consumables
Consumables of 70-30 copper-nickel
should be used to weld both alloys,
although there are welding consumables
of similar composition to 90-10 copper-
nickel. The 70-30 consumables offer
superior deposition characteristics and
the corrosion resistance of 70-30 weld
metal is at least comparable to each of
the base metal alloys.

For welding copper-nickel to steel,
nickel-copper consumables containing
about 65% nickel are used as they can
absorb more iron dilution from the steel
than copper-nickel weld metals.
Many weld consumable manufacturers
offer copper-nickel and nickel-copper
electrodes and filler wires to recognized
specifications see Table 6. These contain
an addition of titanium to react with
atmospheric nitrogen and oxygen, which
would otherwise create porosity. If weld
metal porosity persists despite the use of
the correct filler material, the most likely
causes are inadequate shielding of the
weld pool and improper weld joint
cleaning. Other possible causes include an
excessively long arc, moisture on the weld
preparation or the flux coating being not
fully dry.

Manual metal arc (MMA or SMAW)
Flux-coated electrodes are designed to
operate with direct current, electrode
positive.
No special electrode baking or drying
treatment is required unless they have
been exposed to the atmosphere for
some time. In this case, they should
be dried in an oven, e.g., 1-2 hours at
250C.
The electrode size should be slightly
smaller than that of a carbon steel
electrode under comparable
conditions, taking into account the
need for manipulation.
Table 6 Welding consumables specifications
Wel ding
process
Form Type
AWS
spec
BS2901
spec
DIN
spec
Cu-30%NI

A5.6
ECuNi

1733:
EL-CuNi30Mn
MMA or
SMAW
Flux
coated
electrode

65%Ni-Cu
A5.11
ENiCu-7

1736:
EL-NiCu30Mn
Cu-30%Ni A5.7 ERCuNi
Part 3 Grade
C18
1733:
SG-CuNi30Fe TIG or
GTAW
MIG or
GMAW
Wi re in straight
l engths or
spools
65%Ni-Cu A5.14 ERNiCu-7
Part 5 Grade
NA33
1736:
NiCu30MnTi
AWS - American Welding Society
DIN - German Standards Institute
11 Copper-nickel fabrication

Welding
Manual metal
arc welding of a
boat hull
Any weaving should not be more
than three times the electrode
diameter.
A long arc should be avoided, since
this results in weld porosity
through reaction with the
surrounding atmosphere.
Start/stop positions can be
unsound: reversing the electrode
direction to remelt initially
deposited weld metal or the crater
at the end of a run can help to avoid
problems.
Slag must be removed between runs
by chipping and brushing to leave a
clean surface for the next run.

Gas-shielded tungsten arc
(TIG or GTAW)
Unlike MMA (SMAW), separate control
of heat input via the arc and filler
material addition gives TIG (GTAW) a
degree of flexibility which is an
advantage when welding shaped joints
or inserting root runs in thicker joints.
Filler material should be
incorporated and simple fusion of
the base metal avoided.
Argon and argon + 1.5% hydrogen
are suitable shielding gases.
The arc should be kept as short as
possible to ensure that the shielding
gas protects the weld pool
adequately.
Direct current should be used.

Gas-shielded metal arc
(MIG or GMAW)
The higher capital cost of equipment and
the need to buy complete spools of filler
wire make MIG (GMAW) more
appropriate for extensive welding
operations, such as the construction of
complete boat hulls. High-quality
welding is made considerably easier by
modern power sources and controls.

MIG (GMAW) can be operated over a
range of currents to provide various
transfer modes.
Dip (or short circuiting) transfer Low
heat input, used for thinner sections.
Spray transfer Relatively high heat
input and suitable only for thicker
materials say, above 6 mm thickness -
and down-hand welding.
Pulsed-arc transfer A more advanced
technique in which metal transfer is
closely controlled, providing a
combination of low overall heat input
and adequate fusion to the base metal. It
is suitable for a range of thicknesses,
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12 Copper-nickel fabrication

A finished weld
of a flange to a
pipe
although spray transfer may offer better
economics for thick materials. There are
substantial advantages for the operator
and a greater assurance of good-quality
welds than with the dip-transfer process
which is prone to lack-of-fusion defects
in heavier section welds. More advanced
synergic welding power sources control
the detachment of the droplet from the
wire-effectively while reducing the
number of variables to be set by the
welder.

Because of the range of transfer
conditions which are possible with the
gas-shielded metal arc process, welding
parameters can vary widely. In all cases
these should be set for the equipment,
and the position and thickness of the
material, by careful welding procedure
trials directed toward stable transfer
conditions and welds of good
appearance. It is not desirable simply to
reproduce published welding conditions,
since indicated currents not only depend
on transfer mode but on the type of
indicating instrument and power source
in use.
Argon or a mixture with helium is
the preferred shielding gas.
The spooled filler wire must be kept
dry and not exposed to
contamination.
Attention should be paid to the
effectiveness of the wire feeding
system when welds have to be made
some distance from the welding
equipment, since filler wire is
relatively soft.
Low friction liners are essential for
the feed hose.

Post-weld treatment
No heat treatment is necessary after
welding. All traces of slag should be
removed from joints made by the manual
metal arc process and the weld area may
be cleaned, for example with a rotating
flap wheel or stainless steel brush, to leave
a bright finish.

Inspection
Welds should be inspected visually for
defects such as cracks, undercut, lack of
fusion and penetration, and weld contour.
Liquid dye penetrant inspection is a simple
method for ensuring that there is no
cracking at the surface. For critical
applications, more advanced inspection
techniques (e.g., radiography) are adopted,
but these are not required for general
fabrications.
Welding
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Clad plate
Thicker plate sections e.g., tube sheets
and water boxes can be constructed
economically using steel plate which has
been roll-clad with 90-10 or 70-30
copper-nickel. Plate 8 mm thick (2 mm
copper-nickel, 6 mm steel) has been
successfully used to build four fire boats
in Italy. This type of material can have
advantages, but is not so readily available
as solid copper-nickel plate.
Clad plate should be handled with the
care appropriate to copper-nickel alloy,
not that for structural steel.
Cutting
Unlike solid copper-nickel plate, it is
possible to use oxyacetylene equipment
for cutting clad plate if the ratio of steel to
clad thickness is 4:1 or greater (20% clad
or less). The clad side of the plate is face
down so that cutting starts from the steel
side and the slag stream from the backing
steel is a cutting agent for the cladding.
This is not necessary for plasma-arc
cutting, but trials may be needed to find
the most suitable settings for either
cutting procedure. The cut face must be
ground or machined to clean metal before
welding.
respective weld metals being mixed.
Otherwise, cracking is likely from the
copper in carbon steel weld metal or the
iron in copper-nickel weld metal. The
region beside the interface between the
backing material and the cladding is
welded with 65% nickel-copper filler
material which can cope with iron pickup
from the carbon steel side. When the clad
plate thickness is less than about 10 mm,
65% nickel-copper filler metal is often
used for the complete weld.
When it is possible to weld from either
side on plates 12 mm and thicker, the
usual procedure is to weld the steel side
first with a steel filler metal. The alloy
side is prepared for welding by
backgouging to sound metal and welded
with a first pass of 65% nickel-copper
alloy followed by 70-30 copper-nickel.
Figure 2 shows the sequence.
When access is possible only from the
steel side, the joint is prepared to give
access to the copper-nickel cladding, so
that it can be welded like a solid alloy.
The weld joint in the steel backing is
then made with the 65% nickel-copper
followed by the steel filler runs.
Welding
When designing weld procedures for
14 Copper-nickel fabrication


Brazing
over manual feeding better control of
quality and minimal use of flux (residues
of which must always be removed after
the joint has been made, usually by
washing with hot water). The larger the
pipe size, the more difficult it is to
achieve uniform heating around the
diameter to reach the brazing
temperatures. Some organizations limit
brazing to pipe diameters up to and
including about 50 mm.

Furnace brazing is possible, and better
where significant numbers of assemblies
are to be joined.

Exothermic, endothermic or dissociated
ammonia atmospheres are suitable,
together with inert gas. Because of the
high vapour pressure of some brazing
alloy constituents, vacuum brazing is less
suitable.
Copper-nickel alloys are readily brazed
by all processes, although torch brazing
is commonest. Since the process relies
on wetting the surfaces to be joined by
the brazing alloy, absolute cleanliness
is essential. Fluxes alone are not
capable of removing all contamination,
particularly those containing lead or
sulphur, and oils, paint, etc which
should be removed carefully with
solvents and degreasing agents. Oxides
and dirt can be eliminated with emery
paper or a chemical cleaning process.

If parts have been cold formed, they
may contain significant internal
stresses, which promote intergranular
penetration by molten filler material
during brazing - resulting in cracking at
the joint. Removal of stresses by full
annealing is not necessary; heating to
600-650C for a few minutes is
sufficient for adequate stress relief and
this can be done simply with an oxyfuel
torch, taking care that the part is heated
uniformly.

While phosphorus-bearing brazing
alloys are often recommended for
joining copper alloys, they are not
suitable for copper-nickels because the
nickel reacts with phosphorus to form a
brittle nickel phosphide phase. Silver
brazing alloys (silver solders) should
be used. They offer a useful
combination of melting range, flow
characteristics and mechanical
properties. They also perform well in
brazed joints with copper-nickels
exposed to sea water. Alloys containing
cadmium are no longer recommended
because of health hazards in
application, but there is a range of
silver-copper-zinc alloys which are
suitable and safe.

For brazing pipe and fittings, preplaced
brazing alloy rings are preferred
Copper-nickel fabrication 15
Tube to tubesheet fabrication
In heat exchangers and condensers, tubes
are joined to tubesheets to prevent
leakage between the tube side and shell
side. Often the easiest and least expensive
method is to expand the tube
mechanically into the drilled hole in the
tubesheet, usually by roller expansion.
Ideally, the tubesheet should be harder
and less galvanically noble than the tubes.
A mechanically expanded joint may be
acceptable when:
service temperatures are under about
200C
tube sheets are sufficiently thick to
allow rolling-in a suitable length of
tube
design pressures are relatively low
a weld joint is not needed to support
the tube bundle.

A mechanical joint is not used for severe
services where a leak could present a
catastrophic safety hazard.

When a tube-to-tubesheet (T/TS) weld is
made in a copper-nickel construction, it is
most often an automatic gas-shielded
tungsten arc (TIG or GTAW) weld made
either with or without filler metal.
Manual welding can be used on special
designs and is often the standard method
for weld repairing. With manual welding,
filler metal addition is recommended,
particularly to avoid porosity from lack of
complete gas shielding over the molten
weld metal. While the TIG (GTAW)
process is well adapted to make T/TS
welds with thin wall tubes, other welding
processes may be better suited for large-
diameter and thicker wall tubes.
Alternative welding processes include
MMA (SMAW), MIG (GMAW) or
plasma arc. Explosive welding is another
joining option, although it is seldom used
in copper-nickel construction.

There are many different T/TS weld joint
designs used in industry and each
has its particular advantages and
disadvantages. Figure 3 (page 16)
illustrates the common welds that can be
made on the tubesheet face flush tube,
recessed tube, trepanned tube sheet,
added-ring and face-side fillet weld.

Selection of the particular automatic TIG
(GTAW) weld joint configuration to use
involves considerations as:
joint crevice leak path size
requirement
filler metal requirements
tubesheet heat sink
structural flexibility
available equipment
tube dimensions and fillet size.

Successful T/TS welding depends
critically on the accurate machining of
holes, joint preparation on the tubesheet
and cleaning all surfaces prior to
welding. Accurately machined holes are
particularly important to make sure the
tungsten electrode is always positioned
correctly in the weld joint.

The tubesheet should be cleaned
immediately after drilling and
positioned so that, during cleaning, the
Tube to
tubesheet
welding of a
large heat
exchanger
using automatic
TIG (GTAW)
welding heads
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Copper-nickel fabrication 16
Tube to tubesheet fabrication
Large heat
exchanger
contaminants drain from the tubesheet and
do not accumulate on one surface.
Compressed air should not be used to
blow off the cleaning solution unless
equipment is installed to remove the
normal moisture and oil contamination.
Dry nitrogen is often a good alternative to
compressed air.

Prior to T/TS welding, it is often desirable
to expand the tube into the tubesheet, for
example by a light roll to ensure the
tube is centred in the hole for good
tracking in automatic welding. A `hard
roll' prior to welding increases the chance
of producing a weld defect from escaping
gas as the weld is being made. After
welding on thicker tubesheets, the tube is
often given a hard roll stopping about
25mm short of the back side.

The completed T/TS weld should be
inspected visually for defects. A liquid
penetrant inspection is also quite standard.
Other inspections might be imposed a
leak test and in some T/TS designs a
radiographic inspection can be made of
selected areas. Defects such as cracks or
porosity should be ground out and
repaired by TIG (GTAW) with filler
metal.
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Copper-nickel fabrication 17
Boat hulls
Growth of marine organisms on the steel
hulls of marine vessels has a significantly
detrimental effect on their performance by
increasing drag. It is customary to inhibit
growth with a biocidal coating, replaced
from time to time in dry dock. The
obvious benefits of copper-nickel alloys in
maintaining a smooth hull surface can be
achieved by:
sheathing a steel hull with copper-
nickel alloy sheet
construction of the hull from roll-
bonded clad plate
construction of the hull from solid
copper-nickel alloy plate.

Techniques for sheathing a hull mainly
involve dissimilar metal welds to the hull.
MIG (GMAW) spot welding can be used
to ensure a close fit of the sheathing to the
underlying steel. This process operates
automatically, so that the degree of
penetration into the backing steel, and thus
the iron content of the weld metal, can be
controlled reproducibly. In tanker trials,
sheathed panels of 90-10 copper-nickel
alloy covering fully submerged, alternate
wet/dry and splash zone conditions
performed well over a period of two years.
There was minimal corrosion and fouling
and although the surface of the exposed
steel had roughened the trial panels
remained smooth.
Several boats have been fabricated from
roll-bonded clad plate. Four fireboats in
Italy were constructed using plate of 6
mm carbon steel and 2 mm 90-10 copper-
nickel alloy. When formulating a welding
procedure for clad plate, the cladding and
backing steel must be treated as separate
components. If it is possible to weld from
either side, the steel side is welded first
and the assembly inverted to allow the
cladding to be prepared and welded. The
first run on the alloy side is of 65% Ni-
Cu filler metal and the weld is completed
with 70-30 copper-nickel filler metal.
The sequence has to be modified when
access is possible only from one side, but
the transition region is always welded
with nickel-copper filler metal to avoid
cracking. It is possible, and may be
convenient, to use the 65% NiCu filler
metal throughout the joint - but there will
be biofouling on the welds at the surface.

While construction from copper-nickel
alloy plate is straightforward, welding to
the steel framing requires dissimilar
metal joints. These can be made by the
techniques described, but must be
protected against galvanic corrosion
within the hull, usually by painting.
In 1971 Copper Mariner was the
first copper-nickel hulled boat
using 6mm thick plate
Copper-nickel fabrication 18
Sheathing of offshore structures
The corrosion rate of steel in the splash
zone varies with location and season but is
generally 0.5-1.5mm/yr. This increases
dramatically at the higher surface
temperatures found in hot riser pipes
fluid conduits that extend from a sea floor
well or pipeline to the platform structure at
the sea surface. At temperatures of over
90C, steel corrosion rates can reach
8mm/yr.

Splash zone sheathing is normally 3-5 mm
thick. The sheathing should span at least
from below mean tide level to well into the
atmospheric zone. Potential galvanic
corrosion on the adjacent steel is addressed
by painting the top section; the bottom,
submerged junction will be protected by
the cathodic protection normally applied to
the structure.

Attachment of the alloys has involved
straps and fixings, but the normal method
is welding. Both 90-10 and 70-30 alloys
can be welded to steel carefully, because
of alloy mixing. The sheet is pre-formed to
half cylinders and longitudinal joints are
lapped so that the alloy is welded to itself.
Horizontal butt welds between sections can
be made directly to the steel and are often
a 3-bead method such that the cap pass
experiences minimum dilution from the
steel. Occasionally, where the steel has a
rough surface or it is not considered
appropriate to weld the alloy sheathing
directly to the steel riser or other structure,
horizontal steel bands are initially welded
to the steel and the sheathing welded to the
band.

Sheathing thus involves a combination of
similar and dissimilar metal welds, which
are made according to the principles
already discussed: nickel-copper welding
consumables for part or all of joints
between the copper-nickel alloy and steel
to avoid the possibility of weld cracking,
and 70-30 copper-nickel for the copper-
nickel to copper-nickel welds. Figure 4
shows an outline of a typical cladding
assembly with an indication of the types of
joint involved and the weld procedure.
Phase I of
Morecambe gas
field platforms.
Structural
members are
sheathed in the
splash zone with
90-10 copper-
nickel.

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Copper-nickel fabrication 19
Linings
Copper-nickel sheet can be a convenient
and economic alternative to solid alloy or
clad plate for lining a vessel. An early
example was the construction of a water
box in which the lining was fabricated as
a separate component from 1.2 mm thick
90-10 copper-nickel sheet, made to fit
closely into a carbon steel shell. It was
then attached to the shell by a pattern of
MIG (GMAW) spot welds, using an
automatically timed sequence. It was
necessary to ensure that the lining fit
closely in the shell and was in intimate
contact with it when the welds were
made. Seal welds around the flanged
opening completed the lining process.
Automatic spot welding allowed welds to
be made with a 70-30 copper-nickel alloy
filler wire with reproducibly low iron
dilution.

In recent years, techniques have been
extensively developed for lining vessels
and ducting with corrosion-resistant
alloys, particularly in the power
generation industry. Spot welds are
usually used to minimize bulging due to
the different thermal expansion of the
backing material and the lining, or from
the pressure variations. The lining is
attached as sheets or strips by a carefully
designed welding procedure. It is
important that the backing material
surface is thoroughly cleaned, usually by
grinding and blast cleaning with
abrasives to produce an uncontaminated
surface. The final surface should be
closely inspected and any areas of
localized thinning must be repaired
before lining starts.

Two welding procedures are commonly
adopted for lining.
Each sheet is fillet welded to the
backing material and a third,
covering bead deposited to complete
the joint.
Each strip is tack welded to the
backing material, overlapping the
adjacent sheet by a few centimetres.
A seal weld is then made directly
between the strips.

With both procedures, it is advisable to
use 65% nickel-copper filler material,
although 70-30 copper-nickel filler can be
used for the seal weld in the second
procedure.

The number and pattern of spot welds is
determined by the area of sheet or strip
between the welds. The reproducibility of
the technique also makes it ideal for the
repetitive sequence of tack welds. Fillet
and seal welds are best made by the MIG
(GMAW) process since it operates at
relatively high speeds and can be closely
controlled by modern power sources.
Details and regions of complex shape may
be welded by the TIG (GTAW) process:
although slow, it is flexible and facilitates
manipulation of the welding torch.

Throughout fabrication of a lining, care
must be taken to avoid surface damage to
the copper-nickel sheet; on completion,
any weld spatter and discolouration must
be removed. Welds should be examined
visually for defects, and the absence of
porosity or cracks breaking the surface of
welds can be confirmed by a penetrant
inspection technique.
Copper-nickel fabrication 20
Desalination plants
The multi-stage flash (MSF) process of
desalination involves large heat
exchangers producing up to 57,000 m
3
of
water per day. Copper-nickel alloys are
widely used to fabricate piping,
waterboxes, evaporator shells, tube
plates, etc. The 90-10 nickel alloy is
usually used in such fabrication,
although a 70-30 copper-nickel with 2%
iron and 2% manganese (C71640,
CW353H) is also widely used for heat
exchanger tubing.

About 40 waterboxes are needed in a
typical unit. The normal construction is
clad plate with 2-3 mm of 90-10 copper-
nickel on a mild steel plate. These have
performed very reliably in many plants
and are now the standard material for
both raw seawater and de-aerated brine.
Many hundreds are in service, with
thousands of tonnes of clad plate.

Some large plants use 90-10 clad plate
for the main shell. An economic choice
for small standard units is solid 90-10
copper-nickel with external carbon
steel reinforcements. Being able to
weld the alloy directly to the steel is a
key factor in this fabrication.

Both 90-10 and 70-30 alloys are used
for tubesheets and can be welded
directly to a carbon steel shell. When
copper-nickel clad tubesheets are used,
the cladding should be thick enough to
allow for a roller expanded joint
8-10 mm normally.

Piping of 90-10 copper-nickel is used
for both natural seawater and hot de-
aerated brine service. Large pipes up to
1.37 m OD are fabricated from plate;
seamless pipe is used for sizes up to
about 400 mm. Standard fittings such
as tees, bends, reducers, saddle joints
and flange connections are available
for the smaller sizes. These can be
welded to the pipe so that piping
systems can easily be assembled.
Diameters below about 50 mm OD are
normally joined by brazing with silver
solders
90-10 copper-
nickel brine
piping for a
desalination
plant
Copper-nickel fabrication 21
Seawater corrosion resistance
Section through
copper nickel
tube showing
protective
mature surface
oxide film
The resistance to seawater corrosion of
copper-nickel alloys results from the
formation of a thin, adherent, protective
surface film which forms naturally and
quickly on exposure to clean seawater.
The film is complex and predominantly
cuprous oxide, with the protective value
enhanced by the presence of nickel and
iron. The initial film forms fairly quickly
over the first couple of days but takes up
to three months to fully mature. This
initial exposure is crucial to the long-term
performance of copper-nickel.

Once a good surface film forms, the
corrosion rate will continue to decrease
over a period of years. For this reason, it
has always been difficult to predict the
life of copper-nickel alloys based on
short-term exposures. Normally,
corrosion rates of 0.02-0.002 mm/yr are
anticipated.

Flow rates
With increasing seawater flow rate,
corrosion remains low due to the
resilience of the protective surface film.
But when the velocity for a given
geometry is such that the shear stress
action of the seawater on the film is
sufficient to damage it, impingement
attack can result. General experience has
shown that 90-10 copper-nickel can
successfully be used in condensers and
heat exchangers with velocities up to 2.5
m/s; the 70-30 alloy can be used up to 3
m/s. For pipeline systems, higher sea-
water velocities can safely be used in
larger diameter pipes as indicated by BS
MA 18 Salt Water Piping Systems in
Ships which suggested a maximum
design velocity of 3.5 m/s in pipes of 100
mm and larger for 90-10 copper-nickel,
and 4 m/s for the 70-30 alloy. Although
these guideline values are now
considered to be conservative, they work
well because they take into account
effects from things such as bends which
cause areas of high local flow rate.
Nevertheless, extreme turbulence has to
be avoided from elements like tight
radius bends, partial blockages and areas
downstream of partially throttled valves.

Minimum flow rates of more than 1 m/s
are usually preferred to avoid sediment
build-up.

The seawater velocities considered until
now have been for continuous flow.
Firemains are normally used for test
purposes and fires, at intermittent
velocities as high as 12-15 m/s.
Experience has shown that these high
flow rates are acceptable in such short-
term operations.
Copper-nickel fabrication 22
Sea water corrosion resistance
The hydrodynamics of ship hulls are
somewhat different to pipework systems.
Experience to date has shown minimal
corrosion after 14 months at 24 knots
(12m/s) for the 90-10 alloy. The highest
recorded velocity is 38 knots (19m/s) for a
patrol boat which showed no measurable
thickness loss after 200 hours at maximum
operating speed. The upper service
velocity for hulls is still to be established.

Sand abrasion
The effect of sand abrasion in seawater is
difficult to quantify. Sand loadings of less
than 200ppm rarely damage good
protective films on copper-nickel alloys.
Very fine sand (under 0.05mm) is
tolerable up to about 1000ppm. Larger
diameter sand particles tend to be
increasingly abrasive to the film in the
200-1000ppm range. The 70-30 alloys
have somewhat greater resistance to sand.
For sand loadings of 1000ppm and for
larger particles of sands in the 200-
1000ppm range, a 2% manganese, 2%
iron, 30% nickel, copper-nickel alloy,
C71640 (CW353H), is very resistant in the
waters from shallow estuaries and from
intakes of desalination plants along the
Arabian Gulf.

Localized corrosion
Copper-nickels have good inherent
resistance to chloride pitting and crevice
corrosion. Crevice corrosion is seldom
found. The mechanism is a metal ion
concentration cell type totally different
from that of stainless steels. Any
corrosion is outside the crevice and
shallow.

Copper-nickels are not susceptible to
chloride or sulphide stress corrosion
cracking or hydrogen embrittlement and
unlike brasses do not suffer cracking due
to ammonia in seawater service. But
ammonia can cause higher corrosion
rates, although copper-nickels are more
resistant than many other copper-based
alloys. Copper-nickel tubing is resistant
to chlorination at the dosing levels used
to control biofouling. Excessive
chlorination can be detrimental, as it
reduces erosion-corrosion resistance.

Dealloying is not common with copper-
nickel alloys. Denickelification of the
70-30 alloy has been encountered
occasionally in refinery overhead
condenser service, where hydrocarbon
streams condense at temperatures above
150C. This appears to be due to
thermogalvanic effects resulting from
local hot spots. The solution has been to
remove the deposits which lead to the hot
spots either by more frequent cleaning or
by increasing flow rates. Ammonia in
sea-water can produce a type of
dealloying which looks similar to hot
spot corrosion. This happens at around
ambient temperature, but only under heat
transfer conditions. It can be controlled
by adding ferrous sulphate to the sea-
water.

Galvanic behaviour
Copper-nickel alloys lie midway in the
galvanic series (Figure 5): they are
compatible with other copper alloys but
more noble than zinc, aluminium and
steel and less noble than stainless steels,
nickel alloys and titanium. The 70-30
alloy is slightly more noble than the 90-
10 alloy.

Handling sulphides
If exposed to polluted water, any
sulphides present can interfere with
surface film formation, producing a black
film containing cuprous oxide and
sulphide. This is not as protective as
films formed in clean water and higher
general corrosion rates and pitting can
result. The sulphide film can be
gradually replaced by an oxide film with
subsequent exposure to aerated
conditions, although high corrosion
rates can be expected in the interim.
Copper-nickel fabrication 23
Seawater corrosion resistance
However, if an established cuprous
oxide film is already present, then
periodic exposure to polluted water can
be tolerated without damage to the film.

Sulphides are present in polluted water
either as industrial effluent or when the
water conditions support the growth of
sulphate-reducing bacteria. They can
also appear in stagnant conditions by
decomposition of organic matter.
Exposure to sulphides should be
restricted wherever possible and
particularly during the first few months
of contact with seawater while the
oxide film is maturing.
For condensers and piping systems,
fitting out and commissioning are the
likeliest stages for sulphide problems.
Whether in a ship, platform topside or
power plant, aerated, clean seawater
should ideally be circulated at start-up
for long enough to form a good
protective film. This film provides a
high degree of corrosion protection
against subsequent sulphides.

Where it is not possible to use clean sea-
water, circulating the system initially
with fresh water containing ferrous
sulphate additive will encourage
effective film formation.

After brief exposure to sulphides during
normal operation, clean water should be
restored as soon as possible. Normal
harbour turnaround times which often
involve exposure to polluted water
have rarely led to significant problems.

Metal surfaces can be exposed to
sulphides under deposits or sediment
caused by sulphate-reducing bacteria, for
example where deposits are not removed
from tubing. The remedy is proper
scheduled cleaning often water
flushing or cleaning with non-metallic
brushes at 2-6 month intervals. Sponge
ball cleaning is an alternative. Such
procedures are also necessary to restore
optimum heat transfer.

Where there is long-term exposure to de-
aerated, sulphide-containing seawater, or
regular alternating exposure to sulphide
pollution and aeration, copper-nickel is
generally not recommended.

Ferrous sulphate dosing treatment
Ferrous sulphate dosing is not essential
to the successful performance of copper-
nickel but can be a remedy, or a
precaution if trouble is likely. Most ships
in service have operated successfully
without any ferrous sulphate dosing.

Copper-nickel fabrication 24
Seawater corrosion resistance
Ferrous sulphate treatment has been found
to suppress corrosion rates of copper-
nickel in both polluted and unpolluted
conditions. For commissioning, which can
last from a few weeks to 3 months, the
ferrous sulphate content of the cooling
water can be set up to about 2-3ppm,
following practical experience. An
alternative is to encourage good initial
film formation during fitting-out, then
leave fresh water containing 5ppm ferrous
sulphate in the system for a day. After
this, the system can be used for normal
fitting-out purposes, but 5ppm ferrous
sulphate should be added to the system
and circulated for an hour a day
throughout the fitting-out period. This is
also useful when systems are retubed or
renewed.

During normal service on ships,
additional ferrous sulphate dosing is
seldom required. If, however, exposure to
known polluted water is anticipated (e.g.,
when entering port), a reasonable
additional precaution would be to add
5ppm ferrous sulphate for one hour per
day from three days before entering until
leaving. One treatment a week can be
applied throughout prolonged voyages.
Chlorination treatment and ferrous
sulphate treatment should not be done
simultaneously.

An alternative method of adding iron is to
use a driven iron anode. This is more to
maintain a protective layer than to form
one, and reduces biofouling resistance.

Other pretreatment compounds have been
used with variable success. Sodium
dimethyldithiocarbamate has been used by
the British and German navies.
Inlet/outlet
manifolds for
seawater course
filtration unit in
90-10 copper-
nickel C
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Copper-nickel fabrication 25
Biofouling resistance
Copper-nickel alloys have a high inherent
resistance to macrofouling. This quality
can be exploited to reduce cleaning of
pipework or condensers, decrease wave
drag and reduce fouling removal costs of
platform structures. Optimum biofouling
resistance requires the alloy to be freely
exposed or electrically insulated from less
noble alloys.

In offshore sheathing, neoprene or concrete
have been used to insulate the sheathing
from the cathodically protected (CP)
structures. However, it is now known that
some fouling reduction is obtained even
when CP is applied. Table 7 shows the
results of 10-year studies at LaQue
Corrosion Services in North Carolina. The
isolated pilings show negligible build-up.
When directly connected to the steel, with
or without cathodic protection, the fouling
rate was only 44% of that on the plain steel
piling. Similar results have been found in
service. A light scraping action can readily
remove any biofouling attachment which
does form.

Long-term exposure of copper-nickel to
quiet or stagnant seawater can lead to a
thickening of microfouling (slimes)
sufficient to allow some colonization of
macrofoulants. As these will not be as
rigorously attached as on many other
substrates, experience has shown that they
will periodically slough away or can be
again removed by a light scraping.
Exposure panels (left to right): steel, 90-10 copper-nickel sheathed
steel, copper-nickel all three protected with aluminium anodes and
freely exposed copper-nickel. After 12 months exposure at Langstone
Harbour, UK, there was no fouling on the freely exposed panel.
Table 7 Biofouling mass on copper-nickel sheathed test pilings
after 5 and 10 years exposure
Piling
Biofouling mass
kg/m
2

Percentage of
area covered
Bare steel control
(not sheathed)

5-year removal 18 100
10-year removal 12 100
Concrete insulated
5-year removal 0.36 1.9
10-year removal 0.14 1.2
Directly welded
5-year removal 7.95 44.3
10-year removal 4.43 36.8
Rubber insulated
5-year removal 0.26 1.4
10-year removal 0.62 5.3
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Copper-nickel fabrication 26
Checklist
FOR THE BEST RESISTANCE TO CORROSION AND BIOFOULING

Copper-nickel from a reputable supplier and to international standards

Cleanliness is the watchword for fabrication of copper-nickels

70-30 copper-nickel consumables used for similar welds in 90-10 and 70-30
copper-nickel

65% nickel-copper consumables used for copper-nickel-steel dissimilar welds

Maximum velocity limits for the alloys not exceeded

Velocity raisers e.g., sharp angled bends in pipe systems avoided

No polluted water used during commissioning

Ferrous sulphate added to enhance the protective film formation if extra
safeguard required

For best biofouling resistance, copper-nickels insulated electrically from less
noble alloys
The 70-30
copper-nickel
hull of the
Asperida after
12 years in
service
Copper-nickel fabrication 27

Bibliography
General
Copper-nickel alloys: properties and
applications. NiDI/CDA Publication TN 30
CDA Publication No 118. 90-10 Copper-
Nickel. 1997
CDA Publication TN 31. 90/10 and 70/30
Alloys Technical Data
Copper-nickel and Aluminium bronze
Datadisk. Available from CDA
Guidelines for the use of copper alloys in
seawater. A Tuthill. NiDI publication 12 003
The application of copper-nickel alloys in
marine systems. Technical report
(compendium) available from CDA Inc

Fabrication
Fabrication of copper-nickel alloys for
offshore applications. DE Jordan, C Powell.
Welding in Maritime Engineering, Oct 1998
Croatia
Guide to Welding of Copper-Nickel Alloys.
NiDI Publication 1280
Copper-Nickel Alloys. Engineering
properties. NiDI Publication 4353.
Machining Brass, Copper and Its Alloys.
CDA Publication TN 44
Fabrication of copper-nickel pipework. M
Jasner, Brazil, March 1997. KME
Welding Copper-Nickel Clad Steel. CDA Inc
Application Data Sheet

Piping systems, heat exchangers and
condensers
The Design and Installation of 90-10 Copper-
nickel Seawater Piping Systems. NiDI
Publication 11 007
Heat exchanger and Piping Systems from
Copper Alloy Commissioning, Operating
and Shutdown. M Jasner et al. KME
publication 1998
Successful welding of tubes to tubesheets.
D Reynolds, J Kratz, J Kiefer. 2nd
Symposium of Shell & Tube Heat
Exchangers, Houston, September 1981
Offshore sheathing
Corrosion and Biofouling Resistance of
Copper-Nickel in Offshore and Other Marine
Applications. UK Corrosion and Eurocorr 94,
Oct 1994, Bournemouth, UK
Metallic coatings for corrosion control for
marine structures. D Peters, H Michels,
C Powell. International workshop on Control
for Marine Structures and Pipelines.
Galveston, 1999

Boat hulls
Corrosion and Biofouling Protection of Ship
Hulls Using Copper-Nickel. Proceedings of
International Conference on Marine
Corrosion Prevention A reappraisal for the
next decade. C Powell. Oct 1994. London.
Royal Institute of Naval Architects
Copper-Nickel Sheathing Costing Study
Phase 3. MARAD Report 770 87026. US
Dept. of Transportation. August 1987
CA 706 Copper-Nickel Alloy Hulls: The
Copper Mariners Experience and
Economics. Monzolillo, Thiele and Tuthill.
The Society of Naval Architects and Marine
Engineers. 1976
Use of Copper-Nickel Cladding on Ships and
Boat Hulls. CDA Publication TN 36. 1985

Biofouling
Preventing Biofouling with Copper Alloys.
1995. CDA Publication 113
Corrosion and Biofouling Resistance of
Copper-Nickel in Offshore and Other Marine
Applications. UK Corrosion and Eurocorr 94,
Oct 1994, Bournemouth, UK
Seawater corrosion resistance of 90-10 and
70-30 copper-nickel 14-year exposures.
K Efird and Anderson. Material Performance,
November 1975
The Interrelation of Corrosion and Fouling
of Materials in Seawater. K Efird. NACE
Corrosion-75. Toronto, 1975
Controlling biofouling on ferry hulls with
copper-nickel. L Boulton, C Powell. 10th
International Congress on Marine Corrosion
and Fouling. Melbourne, 1999

Further information and advice
Copper Development Association (CDA)
Verulam Industrial Estate
244 London Road
St Albans
Hertfordshire ALI 1AQ
UK
Phone +44 1727 731200
Fax +44 1727 731216
Website www.cda.org.uk
Copper Development Association Inc (CDA Inc)
260 Madison Avenue
New York
New York 10016-2401
USA
Phone +1 212 251 7200
Fax +1 212 251 7234
Website www.copper.org
Nickel Development Institute (NiDI)
The Holloway
Alvechurch
Birmingham
B48 7QB
UK
Phone +44 1527 584777
Fax +44 1527 585562
Website ww.nidi.org
Nickel Development Institute
(NiDI) 214 King Street West
Suite 510
Toronto
Ontario
Canada M5H 3S6
Phone +1 416 591 7999
Fax +1 416 591 7987
Website www.nidi.org