Graduate School of Development Studies

A Research Paper presented by:

Suvianita Khanis
(Indonesia)
in partial fulfllment of the requirements for obtaining
the degree of
MAS!RS "# ARS I$ %!&!'"PM!$ S(%I!S
Speciali)ation:
Women Gender and Development
(WGD)
Members of the e*amining committee:
%r+ Ratna Saptari ,Super-isor.
%r+ hanh/%am ruong ,Second Reader.
he 0ague1 he $etherlands
$o-ember1 2343
Citizenship and Identity Construction
Among Three Generations of Chinese Women
In Indonesia
Disclaimer:
his document represents part of the author5s study programme
6hile at the Institute of Social Studies+ he -ie6s stated therein
are those of the author and not necessarily those of the Institute+
Inquiries:
Postal address: Institute of Social Studies
P.O. Box 29776
2502 LT The a!ue
The "etherlands
Location: #ortenaer$ade %2
25%& '( The a!ue
The "etherlands
Tele)hone: *+% 70 ,26 0,60
-ax: *+% 70 ,26 0799
ii
Acknowledgement
This research has .een a /e/ora.le learnin! ex)erience
for /e .oth acade/icall0 and )ersonall0. 1an0 hands
in2ol2e To /a$e this )a)er achie2a.le3 for that I 4ould li$e
to ex)ress /0 dee) !ratitude to4ards:
%. 5r. 6atna Sa)tari3 /0 su)er2isor for the su))ort3 and
/oti2ation
2. 5r. Thanh75a/ Truon! 3 /0 second reader for the
2alua.le in)ut and su))ort
+. 'lice "eli/a and 6i$a3 /0 discussants for the
constructi2e feed.ac$
,. 'll infor/ants 4ho 4ant to share their stories and
their hos)italit0
5. 10 -a/il0 here3 'lan and 8ster for their hos)italit0
6. 10 friends3 aelan! 9o3 :0nthia Ba;eno and "ora
S<o.a for su))ort and /a$e /e con=dent to .e here.
7. 10 fa/il0 4ho lets /e free fro/ follo4in! our
>tradition?3 es)eciall0 /0 /o/ 4ho al4a0s su))orts
and .elief 4ith /0 choices
iii
Contents
Acknowledgement iii
List of Acronyms vi
Abstract vii
Chapter 1 he Research Setting:
4+4 Introduction
4+2 A brief o-er-ie6 of 7hinese Indonesian 8omen
4+9 he Statement of Research Problem
:
4+: Research "b;ecti-e and Research <uestions
:
Research "b;ecti-e
Main <uestion
Sub <uestion
:
4+= Rele-ance and ;ustifcation
:
4+> Research Methods and Methodology
=
Source of %ata1 Method and 'imitation
=
?uilding relations and Inter-ie6ing
=
4+@ 'imitations of the Research
@
Chapter 2 7iti)enship and Identity: A theoretical frame6orA of
analysis B
2+4 8omen and !*periences
B
2+2 Identifcation and Self/(nderstanding
43
2+9 7oncluding RemarAs
42
i2
7hapter 9 0istorical Images: he ?acAground of he 7hinese
Indonesians 49
9+4 7iti)enship and $ational Identity: he 7onception of the
7hinese in Indonesia $ation/State
49
9+2 he 7hinese Indonesian and the $ation of Indonesia
4=
9+9 7hinese #amily and Cender Identity
4@
9+: hree Cenerations of 7hinese Indonesian 8omen
4B
4D93/4D=3: 7olonial period/he frst generation
4B
4D=4/4DB3: "ld "rder to $e6 "rder E he second
generation 4D
4DB4/today: $e6 "rder E Post Soeharto E the third
generation 4D
9+: 7oncluding RemarAs
23
7hapter :+ !*periences and Memories of hree Cenerations of
7hinese Indonesian 8omen
24
:+4 7hinese 6omen 6ithin the family 24
:+2 8omen5s e*periences
2:
:+9 Sense of identity
2D
:+: Religion E a ne6 identity
94
:+= 7oncluding RemarAs
99
7hapter =+ 7onclusion: %iFerent Meaning of hree Ceneration
9:
2
Appendices 40
Appendi* 4: ReGection
A mirror to myself: Self/reGecti-ity in the oral history
process :3
Appendi* 2 :'ist of Informants
:9
References 37
2i
List of Acronyms
B'#O17 P#B : Peres/ian Badan #o/uni$asi Pen!ha0atan
#esatuan Ban!sa
@The :oordinatin! Bod0 for "ational Anit0B
B'P86#I : Badan Per/us;a4aratan #e4ar!ane!araan
Indonesia @The Bod0 of the Indonesian
:iti<enshi) :onsultati2eB
I"TI : Perhi/)uan I"TI @:hinese Indonesian
'ssociationB
#TP : #artu Tanda Pendudu$ @Identit0 cardB
LP#B : Le/.a!a Pe/.inaan #esatuan Ban!sa
PBI : Persatuan Ban!sa Indonesia @Indonesian
"ational Anit0B
Perana$an : :hinese descendants 4ho are locall0 .orn
:hinese or the0 could .orn fro/ /ixed
/arria!e fa/il0
PITI : Per$u/)ulan Isla/ Tion!hoa Indonesia
@:hinese Indonesian
Isla/ associationB
P6: : Peo)leCs 6e)u.lic :hina
PS1TI : Pa!u0u)an Sosial 1ar!a Tion!hoa
Indonesia
@Indonesia :hinese Social 'ssociationB
PTI : Partai Tion!hoa Indonesia @:hinese Indonesian
Part0B
SB#6I : Surat Bu$ti #e4ar!ane!araan 6e)u.li$
Indonesia
@Indonesian citi<enshi) certi=cateB
Toto$ : :hinese i//i!rants 4ho are .orn in :hina
TDP- : Ti/ Da.un!an Pencari -a$ta @9oint fact7=ndin!
tea/B
T# : Tion! oa 4ee #oan @:hinese
associationB
2ii
Abstract
This stud0 exa/ines ho4 three !eneration of the :hinese
Indonesian 4o/en )ercei2e and de=ne their situation .ased
on their !ender and ethnicit0. Deneration sho4s the
co/)lexit0 of constructin! their citi<enshi) and identit0 as
4ell as the li/it of theories that ha2e en!a!ed 4ith the
conce)t of citi<enshi) and identit0. The )rocess of exclusion
and inclusion e/.odies in their histories that inEuence ho4
the0 identif0 the/sel2es as >:hinese? andFor >Indonesian?
has /ainl0 deter/ined .0 the state and the social relations
.et4een and a/on! :hinese the/sel2es and other
ethnicities.
Keywords
G:iti<enshi)3 identit03 :hinese Indonesian Ho/en3
exclusion3 inclusion3 a!enc0I
2iii
Chapter 1
The Research Setting: Introducing the concern and the background

The )ro.le/ of citi<enshi) and identit0 of :hinese Indonesians in Indonesia
is an old )heno/enon since the :olonial )eriod. The chan!in! )olitical
re!i/e creates 2arious issues for the :hinese IndonesiansC )osition in
Indonesia to4ard the nation7state3 societ0 and e2en a/on! the :hinese
Indonesians the/sel2es. This )a)er exa/ines :hinese Indonesian 4o/enCs
citi<enshi) and identit0 construction in relation to their !ender and ethnic
identities. Their identities are sha)ed a/on! others .0 their citi<enshi)
status and this in turn3 structures diJerent di/ensions of their social
relations. These di/ensions can .e di2ided in t4o /ain cate!ories: the =rst
is a 2ertical di/ension 4hich in2ol2es the !rou)3 to 4hich indi2iduals are
)art of3 in relation to the state. The second is a hori<ontal di/ension3 4hich
in2ol2es one @ethnicB !rou) in relation to other ethnic !rou)s3 includin!
:hinese ethnic !rou)s. 5i2ersit0 !enerates )olitical )ro.le/s in the
)rocess of nation .uildin! and )articularl0 >:hineseness? is .0 default seen
to .e )ro.le/atic in the context of Indonesian nation7.uildin!. Those of
:hinese ori!ins are reKuired to de=ne clearl0 4hether the0 are Indonesian
or :hinese.
I 4ill exa/ine the )ro.le/atics of :hinese Indonesian 4o/en as a
/eans to understand the de.ates on citi<enshi) and identit0 construction.
The =rst cha)ter of this )a)er 4ill ex)lain the context of research3 the
research Kuer03 the /oti2ation .ehind /0 research to)ic and the /ethod of
data collection and /ethodolo!0 used. The second cha)ter 4ill re2ie4 so/e
theories of citi<enshi) in order to )ro2ide anal0tical tools to .etter
understand the :hinese Indonesian 4o/enCs status that de=nes their
)osition le!all0 and sociall0 in Indonesia. The third cha)ter 4ill exa/ine the
)osition of the :hinese as historical su.;ects .0 sho4in! the diJerent
)eriods in histor0 7 fro/ the 5utch 8ast Indies :olonial to the )ost7:olonial
)eriod. It 4ill exa/ine the social relations a/on! the :hinese in creatin!
their status and )osition in the Indonesian )rocess of nation7 for/ation3
hi!hli!htin! the di2ersit0 a/on! the :hinese the/sel2es3 )oliticall0 and
culturall0. :ha)ter four 4ill anal0se the conce)t of citi<enshi) and identit0
throu!h the narrati2es of the :hinese 4o/en on four the/es: 4o/en 4ithin
the fa/il03 their ne4 sense of identit0 in relation to reli!ion. Lastl03 cha)ter
%
=2e )ro2ides initial conclusions and so/e thou!hts on the :hinese
Indonesian 4o/enCs status.
1.1 Introduction
The curiosit0 underl0in! /0 choice of research to)ic co/es fro/ /0 o4n
ex)eriences as a :hinese 4o/an. Hhen I 4as a child3 I could not
understand 4h0 /0 /other could not ex)lain clearl0 4hat the /eanin! of
>:hineseness? 4as. I re/e/.er at that ti/e3 4hen I as$ed /0 /other 4hat
:hinese /eant3 she onl0 said3 >Lou are Indonesian and 4e are Indonesian3?
.ut I 4as not satis=ed 4ith her ex)lanation. I as$ed re)eatedl0 and then /0
/other said3 >Lou /ust not as$ /e a!ain .ecause if 0ou as$ it a!ain the
/ilitar0 4ould co/e to our ho/e. Lou are scared3 arenCt 0ouM? Then in
%99&3 as /0 /other and I 4atched the ne4s of the 1a0 riots
%
on tele2ision3
she said >see3 ho4e2er stron!l0 0ou tr0 to .e Indonesian3 one da0 )eo)le
4ill al4a0s reco!ni<e 0ou as a :hinese3 althou!h 0ou are not reall0
:hinese.?
'lthou!h :hinese )eo)le ha2e li2ed in the Indonesian archi)ela!o for
centuries3 e2en .efore the !reat #in!do/ of Sri4i;a0a in 67%2
th
centur03 the
stories of Nthe :hinese )eo)leC3 )articularl0 those 4ho li2ed in 9a2a and
se2eral other islands in "usantara focuses /ainl0 on the 5utch :olonial
)eriod @On!ho$ha/3 200&B. :laudine Sal/on )oints out that until nearl0 the
end of the nineteenth centur03 it 4as onl0 :hinese /en 4ho /i!rated to
South78ast 'sia3 and then later the 4o/en follo4ed3 includin! to the 5utch
8ast Indies. Thus3 .efore the end of the nineteenth centur03 :hinese /en
/ainl0 too$ nati2e 4o/en as their 4i2es and at the sa/e ti/e3 the0 see/ to
ha2e .een inte!rated into the local societ0. Later3 those /ixed .lood fa/ilies
created h0.rid cultures and used Lo4 1ala0 lan!ua!e as their lan!ua!e at
ho/e @Sal/on3 %976 in Bin!lin!3 2007O #4artanada3 2006B. 'lthou!h the
:hinese )eo)le had .een inte!rated into the local societ03 their identit0 as
Indonesians 4as still Kuestioned .ecause 5utch :olonial )olic0 i/)osed a
s0ste/ of se!re!ation3 4here ad/inistrati2el0 inha.itants 4ere di2ided into
ethnic !rou)s. 'nderson ar!ues that throu!h >the a)artheid? of the 5utch
:olonial )olicies the :hinese )o)ulation 4as then seen as a >:hinese
%
The 1a0 riots ha))ened in %99& 4hen Soeharto fell. 't that ti/e /an0 :hinese
4o/en 4ere ra)ed and %3%9& )eo)le died accordin! to the "ational :o//ission of
u/an 6i!hts on 9une3 23 %99&. The riots ha))ened in 9a$arta3 Sura.a0a .ut there
is no data on ho4 /an0 :hinese )eo)le died. 1uch :hinese )ro)ert0 4as the
tar!et of )illa!e and so/e 4as .urned .0 /o.s. To this da0 no !o2ern/ent has
ad2ocated these cases and e2en the e2idence that 4as collected .0 TDP- has
disa))eared.
2
/inorit0? @in oon3 200&3 ).+B. The :hinese3 throu!hout Indonesian histor03
ha2e .een 2ie4ed as outsiders3 as forei!ners or aliens (Vreemde
OosterlingenB.
In the context of the Indonesian nation .uildin! )rocess3 the Old Order
!o2ern/ent of Soe$arno tried to include :hinese as )art of the nation
.ecause of the a4areness that Indonesia 4as .ased on /ulticultural
identities. Throu!h the ideolo!0 of Pancasila and the national /otto
Bhinneka Tunggal Ika @unit0 in di2ersit0B3 he atte/)ted to unite the
diJerent ethnic !rou)s @'!uilar3 200%B Thus in this )eriod3 the :hinese 4ere
a.le to ex)ress their collecti2e identities3 culturall0 and )oliticall0.
:on2ersel03 in the "e4 Order !o2ern/ent3 Soeharto i/)osed assi/ilation
)olicies and at the sa/e ti/e .rou!ht in a sti!/ati<ation of :hinese identit0
.0 fra/in! it as a >masalah cina? @the :hinese )ro.le/B and this ulti/atel0
classi=ed the/ as a ho/o!enous !rou) @1ac$ie3 %976O #4artanada3 2006O
On!ho$ha/3 200&B. This sti!/ati<ation3 as oon @200&B /entions3 i/)lied
that their lo0alt0 to the state 4as Kuestiona.le. In the )ost Soeharto )eriod3
as /an0 of his )olicies 4ere dis/antled and 4here decentrali<ation /eant
that local identities 4ere allo4ed to Eourish3 ca/e a /o/ent 4hen the
:hinese could ex)ress their ethnic identit0 /ore freel03 althou!h to so/e
de!ree the trau/a of anti7:hinese stories 4as still around.
o4e2er3 in the histor0 of the :hinese Indonesian co//unit03 fro/ the
5utch 8ast7Indies )eriod to the Indonesia inde)endence3 this !rou) has
ne2er .een united. 'ccordin! to Leo Sur0adinata @200%B culturall0 :hinese
Indonesian can .e di2ided into t4o !rou)s3 na/el0 the Chinese peranakan
and Chinese totok
2
. Politicall03 as #ahin )oints out the :hinese can .e
di2ided into four !rou)s: @%B those 4ho 4ere )ro75utch3 @2B those 4ho 4ere
)ro7Indonesian nationhood3 @+B those 4ho 4ere )ro7:hina3 @,B those 4ho did
2
Sur0adinata @200%B. Peranakan :hinese refers to /ixed .lood :hinese 4ho 4ere
.orn in the 5utch 8ast Indies or local7.orn3 4ith 1ala0 as their =rst lan!ua!e3
and 3 in !eneral3 /ore culturall0 assi/ilated. Totok :hinese refers to the )ure
.lood3 4ho /i!rated to the colon0 and 4hose =rst lan!ua!e is a :hinese dialect or
4ho for/all0 recei2ed :hinese7lan!ua!e education. Thus3 :hinese 4ho 4ere .orn
.efore Soeharto ca/e to )o4er could .e assu/ed to .e totok3 des)ite .ein! .orn
in Indonesia. 's )art of the )rocess of >Indonesiani<ation? the0 had to hold Surat
Bukti Kewarganegaraan epu!lik Indonesia ("BKI# @Letter of Proof of the
Indonesian 6e)u.lic :iti<enshi)B as the Indonesian citi<enshi) docu/ent is $no4n
@#4artanada3 2006B. This 4as the case e2en for :hinese 4ho had li2ed in Indonesia
for /ore than =2e !enerations and did not )ractice :hinese culture @arsono P
Trihar0anto3 200&B.
+
not choose their )osition @#ahin3 %9,6B. '/on! these !rou)s3 there 4ere
tensions re!ardin! their )olitical orientations and 4hat should the0 do or
should not do.
1.2 A brief overview of Chinese Indonesian women
:hinese Indonesian 4o/en ha2e li2ed for 0ears in Indonesia3 althou!h
accordin! to 1ac$ie @%976B the0 started to /i!rate to Indonesia in the late
%9
th
centur0. o4e2er3 .efore the :hinese 4o/en /i!rated3 /an0 4ere
.orn fro/ /ixed /arria!es .et4een :hinese /en and local 4o/en. The
descendants of this !rou)3 called :hinese peranakan3 li2ed in a h0.rid
culture3 /ixed .et4een :hinese3 5utch and 1ala03 4here /ost of the/
used the local lan!ua!e or a /ixture of :hinese dialect and 5utch lan!ua!e
in e2er0da0 life @Sur0adinata3 %997B. Then3 in the 20
th
centur03 /an0
:hinese decendents 4ere .orn fro/ the :hinese cou)les that later .eca/e
the !rou) called totok 4ho s)ea$ :hinese dialect and identif0 4ith :hinese
culture. In !eneral3 4ithin the :hinese fa/il03 :hinese 4o/en3 .oth
peranakan and totok3 li2e 4ithin the structures of :onfucian ideolo!0
+
in a
)atriarchal s0ste/ that .elie2es that 4o/enCs )osition should .e under
/enCs control3 4hile the /en are seen as >!old? for the fa/il0.
Sociolo!icall03 :hinese Indonesian 4o/enCs )osition are inEuenced .0
!ender3 culture3 reli!ion and ethnicit0 in e2er0da0 life. The for/ation of
their identit0 is also inEuenced .0 those factors in the do/estic and )u.lic
s)heres. 5o/esticall03 4o/en ha2e a critical role to )rotect and care for
their fa/ilies. 1oreo2er3 all )olicies to4ard :hinese )eo)le 4ill inEuence
the do/estic arena3 for instance ho4 the0 /ana!e their fa/ilies. Therefore3
their histor0 has .een situated .et4een these t4o di/ensions: =rst3 the
external )rocesses 4here state3 societ0 and co//unit0 sha)e their identit0
constructions3 and in ho4 others de=ne the/ and ho4 the0 )ercei2e others.
Second3 the Ninternal )rocessesC 4here.0 the0 construct their identities
throu!h an understandin! of the/sel2es. These contexts )lace the/ in an
a/.i!uous situation 4here the0 acti2el0 ne!otiate 4ith others. Tan :hee
Ben! @200%B sa0s3 >8thnic identities of :hinese in South 8ast 'sia ha2e
.een sha)ed .0 their local ex)eriences and )rocesses of locali<ation?. 1. Li
@200+B3 sa0s3 >:hinese IndonesiansC identities ha2e .een /ulti)lied in
accordance 4ith their de!rees of ada)tation and acculturation to their local
circu/stances? @in oon3 200&3 ). 2&B.
+
See 1el0 D. Tan3 %997 on The 8thnic :hinese in Indonesia : Issues of Identit0
,
1. Statement of the Research !rob"em
The status of :hinese citi<enshi) has .een sha)ed throu!hout histor0. 's a
/inorit0 !rou)3 their ethnic identit0 is /ore )ro.le/atic than that of other
:hinese 4ho li2e in Southeast 'sian countries. Han! Dun!4u sa0s that the0
are a >uniKue? !rou) .ecause the0 ha2e a lon! histor0 of 2iolence and
discri/ination @1ac$ie3 %976B. The >masalah cina? @the Chinese pro!lem# is
a )ro.le/ that casts the/ as >forei!ners? or >other?. This sti!/ati<ation is
not onl0 an ethnic /atter .ut is also !endered. The )rocess of exclusion and
inclusion is e/.odied in their histories. These ex)eriences ha.ituated their
.eha2iour and life3 4hich inEuence the construction of their identit0 and
citi<enshi). Therefore3 understandin! their life7stories 4ill contri.ute to
conce)ts of citi<enshi). Three !eneration of this stud0 is a 4a0 to
understand ho4 the /o2e/ent of 2ie4s to4ard the :hinese 4o/en and
ho4 the0 see the/sel2es and other ethnic.

1.# Research $b%ective and Research &uestions
Research objective
This stud0 ai/s to contri.ute to the current de.ate on the conce)t of
citi<enshi) and identit0 throu!h the inter7!enerational narrati2es of the
:hinese Indonesian 4o/en on their !ender and ethnic identit0
Main Question
o4 do :hinese Indonesian 4o/en of diJerent !enerations )ercei2e and
de=ne their situation .ased on !ender and ethnicit0M o4 do the0 res)ond
to the )rocesses of exclusion and inclusion at state and co//unit07le2els
and ho4 does this inEuence their o4n self7)erce)tionsM
Sub-Questions
Hhat factors contri.ute to the construction of citi<enshi) and
identit0 of the :hinese Indonesian 4o/enM
Hhat does !eneration /ean to the construction of
citi<enshi)M
1.' Re"evance and %usti(cation
1an0 scholars ha2e done studies on the :hinese Indonesians3 such as Leo
Sur0adinata 4ho did /uch research on )olitics3 econo/ics3 culture and
reli!ion of the :hinese Indonesians and the )ro.le/ the0 faced3 also a.out
the leaders of the :hinese Indonesians durin! the :olonial )eriod .efore
Indonesia inde)endence. Thun! T;u Lan3 1el0 D. Tan3 :harles :o))el and
5
others ha2e studied the :hinese IndonesiansC identit0. Studies on :hinese
Indonesia 4o/en are ho4e2er li/ited. This stud0 4ill atte/)t to =ll the
!a)s of :hinese Indonesians studies es)eciall0 on the inter7!enerational
as)ects of :hinese Indonesian 4o/en. Hhen !ender is e/.odied in histor0
and the :hinese Indonesians situated in diJerent re!i/es3 it 4ill aJect
!enerations diJerentl0 and ho4 the0 ex)erience e2er0da0 life. Denerations
sho4 ho4 diJerent ti/es and )laces contri.ute to the notion of identit0O
each !eneration has their o4n /eanin! of their life althou!h the0 co/e
fro/ the sa/e ethnic !rou). Therefore3 an !enerational stud0 of :hinese
4o/en 4ill contri.ute to the understandin! of the co/)lexit0 of the
:hinese Indonesian 4o/anCs identit0. Anderstandin! the :hinese
Indonesian 4o/anCs ex)eriences in e2er0da0 life is necessar0 .ecause as
9oan Scott @%9&&B )oints out3 understandin! 4o/enCs narrati2es /eans
reco!ni<in! 4o/enCs $no4led!e and the 4orlds that are situated in their
e2er0da0 life. Ho/enCs histor0 is inte!rated into )olitical histor03 /eanin!
)ri2ate and )u.lic are interconnected3 thus 4o/enCs ex)eriences need to .e
in2esti!ated and anal0<ed to understand ho4 these aJect their !ender and
identit0 construction.

1.) Research *ethods and *ethodo"og+
Source of ,ata- *ethod and .imitation
This research is .ased on )ri/ar0 data !ained fro/ oral histor0
,
sources as
/0 stud0 is su.;ecti2e. I also use secondar0 data such as literature3
)u.lications and )hotos of the infor/ants and fa/ilies. This /ethod /a$es
it )ossi.le to ca)ture the )eo)leCs li2es and ho4 the0 constructed their
4orlds Q.eliefs3 i/a!es3 2alues3 ideolo!07 throu!h their /e/ories3 that also
sho4 the relationshi) .et4een su.;ecti2it0 and structures. This /ethod is
used .ecause it can reach /ar!inali<ed 2oices and 2ie4s >fro/ .elo4?. I
$no4 this /ethod also has li/its in ter/s of >o.;ecti2it0? as /an0 scholars
ha2e critici<ed fro/ diJerent )oints of 2ie4. The criticis/s concern the
)o4er relation .et4een researchers and researched 4here the a!enda of
researcher is in2ol2ed in the )rocess of research fro/ draftin! the
Kuestions to 4ritin! the result @8rel3 20093 Tho/son3 2009B
Besides3 as an insider of this research3 I a/ a4are that /0 )osition to so/e
de!ree 4ill hel) /e in .uildin! relationshi)s and !ainin! data. Structurall0
I share so/e co//onalities and fa/iliarities as a :hinese Indonesian
,
Oral histor03 as Ta/ara Diles7Rernic$ @2006B sa0s3 can )ro2ide insi!hts into the
)ast and hel)s to sho4 in s)eci=c3 rich and dee) 4a0s ho4 )eo)le understand
the/sel2es and ho4 this chan!es in relation to the historical )rocess surroundin!
the/
6
4o/an .ecause )olicies ha2e ruled us in the sa/e 4a0s. o4e2er the 4a0s
IF4e res)ond and ne!otiate to structure not onl0 de)end on /0 ethnicit0
and !ender .ut also ti/e3 a!e3 and context. In these senses3 I could .e an
outsider of the research. 5ealin! 4ith these issues3 I tr0 to .e honest a.out
/0self durin! the )rocess of inter2ie4s. I told so/e of /0 .io!ra)h0 that
could assist co//onalit0 and fa/iliarit0 4ith /0 infor/ants3 such as ho4 I
!re4 u) as a :hinese 4o/an3 4hich clan I .elon! to3 /0 education
.ac$!round and /0 localit0.
Tellin! oneCs life stor0 is not al4a0s eas03 es)ecial0 if the stor0 is )ersonal
in character3 i.e. a.out fa/il03 herFhis self and also 4hen it is told to
stran!ers. 'lthou!h to so/e extent I a/ an insider3 infor/ants can not
al4a0s tell /e their life7stories easil0. Perha)s as an insider I create unease
.ecause 4e are the sa/e 0et diJerent3 and 4ithin oneCs o4n ethnic !rou)
so/e ad/issions can .e sha/eful.
/ui"ding re"ations and Interviewing
In =ndin! infor/ants3 I used the sno4.all techniKue that started fro/ /0
contact )erson =rst. The techniKue hel)ed /e to =nd other infor/ants
Kuic$l03 ho4e2er it is no !uarantee of re)resentati2eness of infor/ants
@OSLear03 200,B3 as the /ethod is infor/ants7dri2en and connected to their
net4or$s3 researcher .ias and s0/)athies 4ill also ha2e an inEuence. I also
/ade contact directl0 4ith so/e infor/ants 4ho/ I had $no4n )re2iousl0
and for these infor/ants it see/ed it 4as easier to tell their stories
co/)ared to those I had not /et .efore. o4e2er3 the de!ree of o)enness
4as diJerent .et4een !enerations3 the second and the third !eneration 4as
easier to !et close to3 )erha)s .ecause /0 a!e is closer to theirs.
I .e!an .0 introducin! /0self and ex)lained the research ai/3 allo4in! the
infor/ants to as$ Kuestions. Then I added that the0 ha2e the o)tion to
ans4er /0 Kuestions or not if the0 feel unco/forta.le 4ith the/. I
ex)lained that their stories @the recordsB 4ould .e $e)t in a safe )lace and
their identit0 4ould .e not )u.lished. The trau/atic /e/or0 is real3 one of
/0 infor/ants told /0 contact )erson that she 4as afraid her stor0 4ould
.e )u.lished in the /edia and she 4ould !et into trou.le as a result. I found
that infor/ants 4ho $no4 /e .efore /ore easil0 o)ened u) and shared
their stories3 also infor/ants 4ho are third7!eneration 4ere /ore o)en
co/)ared to the =rst and second !enerations.
7
I di2ided !enerations accordin! to the )eriod of ti/e and )olitical
situation at the ti/e of their .irth to cate!ori<e the/ into si/ilar social
structures3 na/el0 @%B %9+07%9503 @2B %95%7%9&03 @+B%9&%72000. The
historical .ac$!round of this !eneration I ex)lain /ore in cha)ter +. So/e
of the =rst !eneration 4ere .orn in Sa/)it and Sa/arinda .ut then the0
/o2ed to Sura.a0a. The second and third !enerations !re4 u) in Sura.a0a.
The inter2ie4s 4ere done fro/ %0 9ul0 to 22 'u!ust 20%0 in Sura.a0a and
1alan!. 1ost 4ere done in infor/antsC houses and onl0 three inter2ie4s
4ere done outside. This !a2e /e a chance to o.ser2e their en2iron/ent.
The inter2ie4s lasted .et4een %.5 and 7 hours. Our co//onalities and
diJerences did not directl0 inEuence the facts discussed .ut the0 hel)ed to
.rea$ do4n .oundaries of clan3 ethnicit0 and !ender to !ain a co//on
understandin! of con2ersations and shared /eanin!s3 ho4e2er a!e3
!eneration and educational diJerences to so/e extent created hierarchical
co//unication .et4een researcher and researched. The inter2ie4s /ostl0
used a /ixed lan!ua!e of !ahasa @Indonesian Lan!ua!eB3 local lan!ua!es
such as Ban;ar3 9a2a and "ura!a$aan
5
and a :hinese dialect de)endin! on
their clan3 such as o$$ien3 #hee3 #4antun!3 -u$ien and 1andarin. The
:hinese dialect 4as usuall0 used .0 the =rst and second !enerations 4hile
the second and third !eneration /ixed it 4ith 8n!lish lan!ua!e. I cannot
understand all :hinese dialects ho4e2er the infor/ants so/eti/e used
the/3 thin$in! that I could understand .ecause of /0 >:hineseness?. So/e
the/es and stories the0 assu/ed 4ould .e understood .0 a :hinese3 as
the0 said: >0ou $no4 it? or >0our /otherFsister /ust $no4 it3 as$ her?.
The infor/ants shared on 2arious to)ics such as fa/il03 reli!ion3
sexualit03 social and econo/ic issues. The stories so/eti/es shoc$ed /e
and /ade it diJicult to /e to as$ further Kuestions3
6
)articularl0 those that
/irror /0self and /0 fa/il0: it 4as not al4a0s eas0 hearin! infor/antsC
stories. So/e infor/ants tried to in2esti!ate /e3 as$in! a.out s/0 feelin!
as a :hinese 4o/an in Indonesia. Therefore3 /0 interactions 4ith
infor/ants caused /e to directl0 reEect a.out >4ho a/ I? as a :hinese
4o/an in Indonesia.
5
The :hinese in Sura.a0a use a s)ecial dialect that is a /ixture of 9a2anese and
:hinese inEuencesO )erana$an. It is a )roduct of their h0.rid cultureO ho4e2er not
all )erana$an in Sura.a0a use the lan!ua!e. -or exa/)le the0 call a .i! sister
>ci$de?3 >:i$? fro/ >Taci$? @.i! sister in :hineseB Or >:ici$? @Sister in :hineseB
and >5e? fro/ >Dede? @.i! in 9a2aB so >:i$de? /eans .i! sister.
6
The /ethod of collection3 listenin! to life stories3 creates s)ace for infor/ants to
recount all di/ensions of their life histor0. The stories usuall0 are told o2er se2eral
sessions3 !i2in! infor/ants ti/es to reEect and recollect their /e/ories. The
stories also e/otionall0 aJected the inter2ie4ee @/eB @u!o Sli/ and Paul
Tho/)son3 2006B
&

1.0 .imitations of the Research
This stud0 is li/ited to onl0 fe4 of life7stories of :hinese Indonesian 4o/en
4ith diJerent .ac$!rounds of their life. I a/ a4are that this stud0 not to
!enerali<e of 4hole )ro.le/s of :hinese 4o/en in Indonesia. The :hinese
Indonesian 4o/en are 2er0 co/)lex and 2arious. The cate!or0 totok and
peranakan that I use here is onl0 one thin! that is assu/ed 4ill inEuence
the construction of their citi<enshi) and identit0. To understand :hinese
4o/en3 I thin$ their localit0 also i/)ortant to .e accounted .ecause social
and )olitical s0ste/ at local le2el also 2arious in treatin! :hinese .eside the
nu/.er of )o)ulation in each local areas is diJerent 4here it also
contri.ute to the d0na/ic of social relationshi) .et4een :hinese
the/sel2es and other ethnic. To this research3 I ha2e focused onl0 on their
su.;ecti2it0 to understand ho4 the0 de=ne and )ercei2e the/sel2es in
relation to the construction of their citi<enshi) and identit0. ence3 the
=ndin! has onl0 ta$en to understand the construction of citi<enshi) and
identit0 in the context of infor/ants
-inall03 this research does not exa/ine the i/)act of the stru!!lin! of
their citi<enshi) ri!hts. "e2ertheless3 it loo$s ho4 4ith the )rocess of
exclusion and inclusion the0 can sur2i2e throu!h their a!enc0 and ho4 it
!i2es /eanin! to their ethnic and !ender identit0.
9
Chapter 2
Citi1enship and Identit+: A theoretica" framework of ana"+sis
This cha)ter 4ill discuss the conce)ts that I use to anal0<e the :hinese
Indonesian 4o/enCs identities fro/ three !enerations. These conce)ts3 and
the de.ates re!ardin! these conce)ts3 4ill hel) /e exa/ine the dail0
ex)eriences of the + !enerations of 4o/en I studied.
2.1 2omen3s e4periences
In understandin! the context of the :hinese Indonesian 4o/enCs citi<enshi)
I 4ill use a historical )ers)ecti2e to anal0se the diJerent ex)eriences of
citi<enshi) and .elon!in! that are ex)erienced .0 three !enerations of the
:hinese 4o/en. The three !enerations are situated in diJerent )olitical
situations and ti/es3 that inEuence ho4 the0 de=ne the/sel2es. The
conce)ts of :iti<enshi) and identit0 are used to understand the co/)lexit0
of :hinese 4o/enCs life.
The de.ate on the conce)ts of citi<enshi) and nationalit0 not onl0
focuses on the notion of ci2ic and )olitical )ossi.ilities or le!al conce)ts. In
fact3 it is /ore co/)lex. In the context of :hinese Indonesians3
/isreco!nition3 /ar!inali<ation and e2en 2iolence are all )art of their
histor0 throu!h diJerent re!i/es. This exclusion in their e2er0da0 life
aJects their sense of .elon!in!3 their identit0 and social relations to others.
'ssi/ilation3 thou!ht to .e a 4a0 to inte!rate and ada)t to a social and
cultural fra/e4or$3 is a )ro.le/ .ecause the :hinese )ositions and status
ha2e .een de.ated .et4een ethnic !rou)s Qthe :hinese and others3 and
a/on! the :hinese the/sel2es. This situation is diJerent fro/ :hinese in
Thailand that ha2e .een assi/ilated to societ0 and culture3 as S$inner found
@%96+ in #4o$7.un3 20053 ). %9B. The second7third !eneration descendants
feel Thai in their identit0. e also )oints out as)ects that contri.uted to
2oluntar0 assi/ilation to Thai that diJer fro/ those in other South 8ast
'sian countries @B. The :hinese )osition in the context of Indonesia3 a )ost7
:olonial state3 is inEuenced .0 :olonial histor0 that considered the/ a
>/inorit0?. Then ca/e the conce)t of >dual nationalit0?3 a le!ac0 of
continuin! :olonial inEuence in the ne4 state in 4hich their lo0alt0 to the
state 4as Kuestioned. Indonesia3 a )ost:olonial nation7state3 .uild its
countr0 .0 the s)irit of nationalis/ 4here.0 ado)tin! the national identit0
is the >ter/inal? of lo0alt0 to the nation7state as T$. Oo//en calls it@20063
).,%B. 's 'nderson su!!ests3 the he!e/onic )o4er of nationalis/ is una.le
allo4 for local >diJerences? and it for/ulates national societ0 throu!h
%0
s)eci=c sites and social relations @:aren #a)lan3 %999: ).7B. The ar!u/ent
that 'nderson )osits 2ie4s natiaonalis/ as a )o4er that forces citi<ens to
)erfor/ in >ho/o!enous 4a0s of .ein!?O thus the :hinese /ust understand
4hat the0 can and cannot do. To :hinese 4o/en3 assi/ilation .eco/es a
)ro.le/ .ecause the :hinese are not ha.ituated to >feel? as )art of the
Indonesian societ0 and .ein! )art of the Indonesian nation. The0 re/e/.er
historical anti7:hinese senti/ent3 in )articular at the ti/es of re!i/e
chan!e. -or exa/)le3 under 9a)anese colonisation /an0 :hinese 4ere
$illed3 and in the re2olution )eriod the :hinese 4ere la.eled as >not )ro
nationalist?. 1an0 4ere $illed and in %965 4hen co//unis/ 4as
associated 4ith :hinese and other /ar!inali<ed !rou)s. The /edia 4as
controlled 3 )articuarl0 in SoehartoCs ti/e. :learl0 not all !enerations
ex)erienced these e2ents and the 4a0s !enerations !i2e /eanin! to the/
4ith re!ard to their ethnic identit0 are diJerent. In this sense3 the :hinese
)osition is 2ulnera.le 4ith re!ard to the state and societ0. :iti<enshi) is not
onl0 a.out accessin! their ri!hts and doin! their duties .ut it is also a.out
e/otional connections. It is a.out su.;ecti2it0 and /e/ories. ence3 to
understand the co/)lexit0 of this citi<enshi) re!ardin! the :hinese
4o/enCs contexts3 I 4ill use 6uth ListerCs conce)t of citi<enshi). She ar!ues
citi<enshi) is a contested and a contextual conce)t. The conce)t of
citi<enshi) identit0 /eans /e/.ershi) of a co//unit0O it is .et4een
indi2idual and state3 indi2idual and co//unit0. Therefore3 /e/.ershi) and
identit0 is a for/ of social relationshi) that is Euid and ne!otiated. To
understand this conce)t I 4ill use the life7stories of three !enerations as the
.asis of /0 anal0sis3 as 4ell as secondar0 resources.
In ListerCs stud0 on the citi<enshi) of /i!rants she res)onds to the
notion of exclusion or inclusion .0 ar!uin! that it is a 4a0 of )racticin! and
conce)tuali<in! citi<enshi) 4here a!enc0 is needed in order to !ain
eKualit0 and full citi<enshi). She ar!ues that the exclusion o)erates .oth
le!all0 and sociolo!icall0 throu!h a >for/al and su.stanti2e )attern of
citi<enshi) 4here it also sho4s the de!ree of citi<ens3 4here the0 could .e
cate!ori<ed as >non or )artial? citi<ens? @Lister3 %997: ).,+B. Lister )oints
out that in the context of i//i!rant 4o/en in 8uro)e3 exclusion is
s0/.oli<ed .0 the i/a!e of N-ortress 4estern 8uro)ean?O in this sense3 le!al
status is i/)ortant to access )olitical and ci2il ri!hts. This a))roach is
useful in understandin! ho4 exclusion and inclusion o)erate in the context
of :hinese Indonesian 4o/en. Hhat are the .oundaries of exclusion and
inclusion to the /atters of citi<enshi)M 'lthou!h I use ListerCs in this stud03
this conce)t contains the .ias of the 8uro)ean context of li.eral de/ocrac0
%%
and the 4elfare state3 that ri!ht is the focus of a!enc0. It /eans the su.;ect7
citi<ens consciousl0 understand that a!enc0 is needed to o.tain ri!hts
4ithin a )olitical state.
6a0 Pahl @%990 in Lister3 %9973).+2 B adds the notion of >acti2e
citi<enshi)?3 as local )eo)le 4or$in! to!ether to i/)ro2e their Kualit0 of
li2e to create and en;o0 )ros)erit03 that is )ro/oted in the British contex.
This self7res)onsi.ilit0 as 'ih4a On! notes is an eJect of de2elo)/ent of
the /ar$et and )olitical li.eralis/ 4hereas in the 8ast and South 'sian
en2iron/ent citi<enshi) is related to social o.li!ations to .uild the nation
@20063 ). 502B. :urrentl0 in Indonesia3 )olitical )artici)ation is )ro/oted to
.uild nation7state. Thus for :hinese 4o/en3 inclusion in citi<enshi) refers
to )olitical reco!nition of their su.;ect7citi<enshi) and !ainin! their histor0
in the context of Indonesia.
'ih4a On! ar!ues in the context of citi<enshi)3 >culture3 @race3 ethnicit0
and !enderB is not an auoto/atic or e2en the /ost i/)ortant anal0tical
do/ain. 6ather3 4hat /atters is to identif0 2arious do/ains in 4hich these
)reexistin! racial3 ethnic3 !ender and cultural for/s are )ro.le/ati<ed and
.eco/e a.sor.ed and recast .0 social technolo!ies of !o2ern/ent that
de=ne the /odern su.;ect? @On!3 200+3 ). 6B. Therefore3 these social
technolo!ies )roduce )olicies that structure 4o/enCs citi<enshi) status
diJerentl0 to /en3 for exa/)le3 assi/ilation )olic03 codes3 and s)eci=c
access to states. The :hinese 4o/en ex)erience exclusion althou!h the
/o2e/ent and de!ree of this exclusion follo4s the .oundaries of class3 a!e3
!eneration3 reli!ion3 ethnic and )olitical chan!e. The )rocess of exclusion
4as stron!l0 ex)erienced durin! the Soeharto )eriod )articularl0 .0 the
=rst7second !eneration of this stud0. The third7!eneration 4as )oliticall0
structured 4hen SoehartoCs )o4er orientation 4as chan!in!3 co//unis/
4as not a tar!et and the reli!ious /o2e/ent 4as startin!. 'ssi/ilation
)olicies 4ere stron!l0 forced onto the :hinese that atte/)ted to
essentialise ethnicit0 .0 la.elin! the :hinese as >alien? and pri!umi
@indi!enous or nati2eB as >authentic?. This assi/ilation )olic0 4as a for/al
exclusion in that the0 4ere una.le to en;o0 their citi<enshi) )ri2ile!es
.ecause the technolo!ies of !o2ern/ent )roduced s)eci=c codes on their
identit0 @'!uilar3 200%B. Therefore3 this exclusion as 6oo/ calls it is >a
2oca.ular0 of disad2anta!e? @in OSBrien P Penna3 2006B /eanin! it is
relational )rocess3 d0na/ic and co/)lex that is ex)erienced in )articular
situations and also contextual on s)eci=c circu/stances3 )lace3 and ti/e.
o4e2er3 #4o$7Bun @2005B )oints out assi/ilation does not /ean clear
%2
fro/ an0 interest3 it is a !a/e .et4een assi/ilator that con=r/s his
cultural su)eriorit0 and racial ho/o!eneit03 and the to7.e assi/ilated 4ho
tries to o.tain cultural acce)tance and structural inte!ration. This
ar!u/ent su!!ests the ethnic senti/ents and the stru!!le of ethnicit0 can
.e sol2ed .0 the feelin! of e/otional .onds of ho/o!eneit0. o4e2er3 in the
:hinese Indonesian context3 this assu/)tion did not 4or$. 'cce)tance fro/
do/inant !rou)s could not control ethnic senti/ents 4here elites 4ere
usin! so/e :hineseCs econo/ic )osition to /aintain )o4er. This
encoura!ed e2en stron!er anti7:hinese feelin!.
To :hinese Indonesian 4o/en3 ad/ission is also .ounded .0 the
exclusion of SB#6I @Indonesian citi<enshi) certi=cateB3 in 4hich e2er0
:hinese Indonesian at se2enteen 0ears of a!e is reKuired to ha2e hisFher
o4n certi=cate of citi<enshi). The ti/e ta$en to o.tain the certi=cate is
itself an issue. -or exa/)le3 .ecause it ta$es a lon! ti/e and is ex)ensi2e3
4hile in the )rocess of !ainin! the citi<enshi) certi=cate3 if there is a child
4ho .eco/es %7 0ears old sheFhe has to a))l0 se)aratel0 fro/ the )arent3
/eanin! it ta$es lon!er and is e2en /ore ex)ensi2e. Based on /arria!e
La4 "o %F%97, /en are leaders of fa/ilies. This )olic0 creates )osi.ilities
for 4o/en to .e stateless and althou!h the0 /a0 hold Indonesian
citi<enshi) 4hen the0 are /arried3 their children ta$e the fatherCs
citi<enshi). The uncertain identit0 also can .e seen throu!h
institutionali<ed3 s0ste/ati<ed dicri/inator0 )ractices a!ainst the :hinese
Indonesians after the cou) of Soeharto in %965 @'!uilar3 200%B.
2.2 Identi(cation and Se"f56nderstanding
"ational identit0 is ter/ that is /eant to unif0 the relationshi) of )eo)le to
state. It also creates /atters of >unreco!ni<ed Other? identities. Identit0
itself as Brettell P Sar!ent notes it is a )rocess of distin!uishin! oneself
fro/ others. Identit0 as self7understandin! in relation to ethnicit0 is /ore
discussed in anthro)olo!03 that is3 ho4 )eo)le cate!ori<e the/sel2es and
are cate!ori<ed .0 others in s)eci=c !rou)s of )eo)le .ased on ethnic
@culturalB /ar$ers@2006O ). +B. 's for :hinese 4o/en3 their identit0 is a
dialo!ic )rocess .et4een the/sel2es and social relations and -rederic$
Barth @%969 in Sar!ent3 20063 ).+B adds to the conce)t that this ethnic
identi=cation is created3 con=r/ed3 denied and )reser2ed 4here this
)rocess includes a!enc0. In this sense3 identit0 is an acti2e )rocess.
o4e2er3 6osaldo @%9&& in #4o$7.un3 ).%5B. ar!ues ethnic identit0 in
certain e)isodes can Nthic$enC or .eco/e Nfro<enC 4hereas traditions are not
%+
si/)l0 re)eated .ut it is a )rocess of selecti2el0 rein2ented identit0 This is
as criticis/ to Stuart all @%997B 4ho notes that identit0 is al4a0s
fra!/ented and continuousl0 in )rocess. It is created .0 histor0 throu!h
chan!e and transfor/ation. Thus3 for hi/ identit0 as a )roduct is
)ro.le/atic and inco/)lete. Identit0 also ex)lains s)eci=c )ositions3
diJerences3 ti/es3 and )laces so it 4ill .e /ulti)le. In this sense3 the
:hinese 4o/enCs identit0 can share their co//unalities in one ti/e .ut not
in another ti/eO not onl0 that3 it also reEects the )ast such as the :olonial
)eriod3 and stories that the :hinese 4o/en ex)erienced.
To !o dee)l0 into anal0sis I also use the conce)t of ha.itus and
structures and a!enc0. I ha2e a))iled these conce)ts to anal0se the :hinese
4o/enCs citi<enshi) and identit0 contruction 4ith lin$s to social structures
@institutions3 tradition3 ritualsB and ca)a.ilit0 and $no4led!e of a!ents. This
a))roach can ex)olore ho4 the0 arran!e the/sel2es as su.;ects 4ith
a!enc0. Hhat i/)ortant for/s of a!enc0 do the0 use to ne!otiate and
e2aluate the exclusion of their )osition 4ithin stucturesM :an this for/ .e
o)erated .0 the/ to ful=ll their >for/al? and >su.tanti2e? citi<enshi)
ri!htsM Hhen the0 hold SB#6I ho4 do the0 exercise their a!enc0M

To exa/ine these issues I 4ill use BourdieuCs conce)t of ha.itus in
understandin! the notion of a!enc0. 't an indi2idual le2el ha.itus is >a
/ental stucture? that situates 4a0s of .ein! and interaction 4ithin the
social =eld. It ex)resses ho4 indi2iduals .eco/e the/sel2es. 'ccordin! to
hi/3 ha.itus is creati2e3 in2enti2e .ut it 4or$s 4ithin the structures. e
e/)hasi<es that >ha.itus is N/adeC not si/)l0 inherited3 ha.itus is histor0
that is turned into natureO the )ast is in the )resent? @in 1cLeod3 2005 ).
%,B. In relation to !ender conce)tion3 1c. "a0 @200,B critics BourdieuCs
ha.itus .0 ar!uin! ha.itus is not a =xed 4a0 of .ein! .ut a d0na/ic
interaction .et4een cultural and econo/ic forces and identit0 for/ation
and social structure. '!enc0 is ca)acit0 for action3 an unsta.le and a
!enerati2e structure3 accordin! to Bourdieu3 @in 1cLeod3 2005B.
Three !enerationsC life7stories in this stud0 re2eal the structures
creatin! diJerent /eanin!s to the/. 8ach !eneration has its o4n
ex)eriences and /e/ories relatin! to !ender ha.itus. To so/e extent I
4ould a!ree 4ith 1c."a0 es)eciall0 for the second7third !eneration3 tha
reli!ion and class aJect !ender ha.itus3 .ut for the =rst !eneration ha.itus
see/s to .e related to ideas re!ardin! 4o/enCs >nature?. In this stud03
re!ardin! a!enc03 the life7stories sho4 it still 4or$in! 4ithin structures. -or
exa/)le3 the =rst7second !eneration li2e in the s0/.olic i/a!e of hu/.le
%,
4o/en. 's Ban :hao @in 1ei;3 2009O ).6%B3 a :onfucian3 noted3 in the
%essons &or women' these can .e seen throu!h :hinese traditions 4hen
the0 4elco/e their ne4.orn dau!hters. B0 @%B )uttin! their dau!hter under
a .ed as a s0/.ol of 4o/enCs )osition under /en3 and .ein! 4ea$3 @2B
!i2in! the/ a )ot to0 as s0/.olic of 4o/enCs ;o. in the do/estic arena3 @+B
)ra0in! to the ancestorsC souls and infor/in! the/ of the .irth of the
dau!hter as a s0/.ol of 4o/enCs duties in $ee)in! tradition and ta$in!
care of the ancestral ta.le cult.
-orced identit0 QNnational identit0C is a tool of the assi/ilation )olic0.
o4e2er3 this )olic0 4as reacted to diJerentl0 .0 :hinese Indonesians.
So/e reall0 o.e0ed the )olic0 and chan!ed their identit0 directl0 O others
>;ust follo4ed? the rule in order to sur2i2e. It is also $no4n that so/e
:hinese radicall0 con2erted their reli!ion to Isla/ to $ee) their )ro)ert0
and for their )h0sical securit0 O Isla/ .ein! s0/.olic of pri!umi7
Indonesians @Sur0adinata3 %997B. In contrast to the :hinese in The
Phili)ines3 as :aroline au ar!ues3 the0 could inte!rate their identit0 4ith
the national narati2e throu!h >naturali<ed allienness?3 4ith corres)ondin!
exclusions and inclusions. istoricall03 exclusion and inclusion in the )ost7
:olonial )eriod created >econo/ic in;ustice?. Soeharto ear/ar$ed certain
areas of the econo/0 as )laces for the :hinese to earn their /one0. This
created the i/a!e that all :hinese are rich. -orced identit0 4as a lan!ua!e
that sti!/ati<ed the :hinese as >other?. So these structures )ut :hinese
4o/en in a 2ulnera.le )osition. Bourdieu clearl0 ar!ues ho4 this could
ha))en to citi<ens3 >the state is one of the /ost i/)ortant a!ents of
identi=cation and cate!ori<ation 4here it >situates su.;ecti2it0?O it is a
)ractical sense of the/sel2es and their social 4orld Q self7understandin! of
4here the0 .elon! in oneCs social location? @in :oo)er3 20003 ).%7B.
1oreo2er3 Diddens3 throu!h his conce)t of structure and a!enc0 ar!ues
that >s)ace and ti/e are .asic conditions for social s0ste/s and social acts?
@-al$hei/er3 20073 ) 2&&B. Throu!h this conce)t he also )oints out that
a!ents o)erate 4ithin structural constraintsO 4ith >a reEection u)on 1arxCs
o.ser2ation that N1en /a$e their o4n histor03 .ut the0 do not /a$e it ;ust
as the0 )lease TC @Ba.er3 %99%3 ) 22%B. Ti/e and s)ace reEect on chan!in!
social structures that are transfor/ed and re)laced throu!h ti/e and
s)ace. In the context of the :hinese 4o/en the re!i/es and !enerations as
structures chan!ed and 4ere re)laced and these structures li/ited their
choices. So3 structures li/it the a.ilit0 of a!ents to reach their !oals. 's
%5
:oo)er )oints out3 identit0 is >a cate!or0 of e2er0da0 social )ractice 4hich
is de2elo)ed .0 diJerent actors? @:oo)er3 20003 ).%0B.
2. Conc"uding Remarks
Therefore3 the a.o2e conce)ts are /0 anal0tical tools to exa/ine3
reEect and deli.erate on the construction of citi<enshi) and identit0 of the
:hinese Indonesian 4o/en construction. I 4ill a))lied the 6uth ListerCs
conce)t on citi<enshi) and BourdieuCs conce)t on ha.itus to understand
ho4 a!enc0 4or$ and co/.ine 4ith DiddenCs on structure and a!enc0 in
understandin! the citi<enshi) and identit0 contraction of three !enerations
of :hinese 4o/en.
%6
Chapter
7istorica" /ackground of the Chinese Indonesians
:hinese identities are a )roduct of diJerence and exclusion that are
e/.edded in histor03 4hich is a construction of )olicies. The )o4er is
i/)osed on the/ as a !rou) of :hinese3 althou!h internall0 the0
diJerentiate the/sel2es as diJerent $inds of :hinese cate!ories. In the
/oral collecti2e /e/or0 of the nations of Indonesia it see/s that :hinese
Indonesians are a.sent as a cate!or0 of orang Indonesia asli @nati2e
IndonesianB. The :olonial and )ost7:olonial )eriod contri.uted to
conce)tuali<in! :hinese Indonesians throu!h their citi<enshi) la4s and
other de2elo)/ent )olicies3 4hich la.eled :hinese descents as a !rou) of
>orang asing > @aliens or forei!nersB and )uttin! the/ in a sin!le cate!or0
of >orang cina? @:hinese )eo)leB. The )olicies i!nored their histories that
ha2e .een inte!rated into societ0 and sha)in! a/.i!uous identities for
!enerations. It is ar!ued that histor0 and social chan!e deter/ined the
)o4er relation of ethnicit0 and !ender that aJect the :hinese IndonesianCs
identit0.
This sho4s the social )o4er relations that inEuence the construction of
the :hinese IndonesianCs identities3 )articularl0 of 4o/en. :hinese
Indonesian 4o/en ha2e to follo4 2alues and .eliefs that traditionall0
started fro/ :onfucian )ractices 4ithin :hinese fa/ilies3 .e the0
peranakan or totok.
.1 The Conception of the Chinese in the Indonesian 8ation5State
T# O//en @%9973 ).2B ar!ues that the notion of nation7state is a conEation
that /edia and scholars ha2e used. o4e2er3 :onnor @%99, in O//en3
%9973 ).2+B ex)lains the conEation of state and nation .ecause of the idea
that the inha.itants of a state should .e a sin!le cate!or0 and its cate!or0
could .e called nationals. Therefore3 the stateCs culture has to the one that
)eo)le ado)t or assi/ilate the/sel2es. Thus3 the >)urit0? or the >nati2e7
ness? of the state are issues that )erha)s aJect )eo)leCs li2es. :hinese3 in
the context of Indonesia3 are warga negara asing @H"'7 alien citi<ensB 4ho
ha2e acti2el0 to choose their citi<enshi) in order to .e of the nation of
Indonesia @Tan3 %997B
%7
Since the :olonial )eriod3 in the 5utch Indies3 :hinese ha2e .een a
contro2ersial su.;ect re!ardin! their citi<enshi) status. 'lthou!h the0 ha2e
li2ed in the "usantara 'rchi)ela!o for !enerations3 the0 4ere treated as
forei!ners and the 5utch :olonial authorities se!re!ated the/ fro/ local
)eo)le .0 centrali<in! the/ into :hinese settle/ents or :hinato4ns called
wi(kenstelsel in order to control their acti2ities. ' passenstelsel @)ass
s0ste/B 4as reKuired for :hinese to tra2el outside the <one. 1oreo2er3 the
:olonial !o2ern/ent re!arded the/ as Vreemde Oosterlingen @forei!n
orientalB3 that is3 the second
7
stratu/ a/on! the three !rou)s of inha.itants
in the colon0. Indeed3 throu!h The 8ast Indian Do2ern/ent 'ct of %&5,3
:hineseCs status could .e either: @%B the0 are si/ilar to local )eo)le le!all0
and ad/inistrati2el0. @2B in a li/ited sense the0 4ere 5utch citi<ens 4here
accordin! to ci2il la4 the0 could clai/ to .e 5utch :iti<ens. But .ased on
citi<enshi) la4 in %&923 :hinese 4ere considered to .e forei!ners @Hill/ott3
2009B.
In the earl0 ninth centur03 accordin! to 5onal @%96% in Hill/ott3 2009B
the 1anchu Do2ern/ent
&
announced a la4 on citi<enshi) for :hinese3
.ased on )rinci)le (us sanguinis. Thus :hinese re!ardless of their
.irth)laces 4ere :hinese citi<ens. The 5utch :olonials used the )rinci)le of
(us soli3 the )rinci)le later ado)ted .0 the ne4 countr03 Indonesia.
Therefore the :hinese 4ho 4ere .orn in the Indies had dual citi<enshi).
The local :hinese de2elo)ed their solidarit0 as a !rou) of peranakan or as
)art of the ne4 :hinese i//i!rants that calls itself totok or singkeh
9
. The
rise of the nationalist /o2e/ent a/on! the Indies :hinese aJected their
citi<enshi) )osition. Throu!h ne!otiation .et4een the :hinese !o2ern/ent
and the 5utch Indies3 the :hinese !o2ern/ent released its clai/ o2er the
peranakan !rou) as su.;ects of ;urisdiction. o4e2er3 durin! the 9a)anese
occu)ation
%0
of the 8ast Indies the0 set u) a sin!le :hinese association3 )ua
7
In %&,5 the 5utch !o2ern/ent i/)osed a s0ste/ of se!re!ation3 4here
ad/inistrati2el0 the )o)ulation 4as di2ided into three cate!ories: @%B the
8uro)eans3 @2B the :hinese3 'ra.ian3 Indians 4ho 4ere called >-orei!n Oriental?3
and @+B "ati2es 4ho also 4ere di2ided .0 ethnicit0 such as Balinese3 '/.onese3
9a2anese3 and 1ala0.
&
See 5onald 8. Hill/ott3 2009
9
See On!ho$ha/3 %9&93 :hinese :a)italis/ in 5utch 9a2a
%0
In the 9a)anese )eriod3 .et4een %9,2 and %9,53 /an0 :hinese acti2ists 4ho
4ere assu/ed to .e in the nationalist /o2e/ent and anti79a)anese3 and 4ere
arrested and e2en $illed. 'll :hinese or!ani<ations 4ere closed do4n and the
9a)anese :olonial !o2ern/ent used a sin!le :hinese or!ani<ation to control the/3
uni=ed the co//unit0 into one !rou) as >:hinese?3 and se)arated the/ fro/ the
%&
Chiao Tsung )ui3 and )rohi.ited :hinese acti2ities and /o2e/ents. The
)olic0 re;ected the histor0 that so/e :hinese had local roots3 and did not
distin!uish .et4een peranakan and totok. The0 ho/o!eni<ed the Indies
:hinese as one ethnic !rou).
:hinese at that ti/e 4ere also di2ided into diJerent )olitical 2ie4s such
as 4ho 4ere )ro 5utch3 )ro nationalist7inde)endence3 )ro :hinese and 4ho
those did not ha2e an0 2ie4s. 82en the )ro :hinese also di2ided into )ro
Kuomintang @nationalist7 :hian! #ai She$B and Khuchantang @co//unist Q
1ao Uedon!B.
'ccordin! to Hill/ott @2009B the )ro.le/ of :hinese national identit0
did not end 4ith the ne4 state3 Indonesia3 in %9,5. The ne4 !o2ern/ent3
Old Order3 throu!h the citi<enshi) 'ct in %9,63 declared that :hinese had to
choose their citi<enshi) .0 )resentin! a for/al declaration re;ectin!
:hinese citi<enshi) at the local district court
%%
and a))l0in! for Indonesia
citi<enshi). In %9553 .oth !o2ern/ents had a!ree/ents on citi<enshi) 7dual
:hinese Indonesian nationalit07 the Indonesian !o2ern/ent a!ree/ents
%2

.ein! sti)ulated in the 'ct no. 2F%95& and i/)le/ented throu!h
Do2ern/ent 6e!ulation no. 20F%959. It decreed that 4ithin t4o 0ears3 fro/
%960 to %9623 the /atter of :hinese citi<enshi) .et4een the 6e)u.lic of
Indonesia and Peo)leCs 6e)u.lic of :hina 4ould .e settled. Therefore3
:hinese Indonesians had to choose their citi<enshi). If a hus.and chose
Indonesian citi<enshi) this did not /ean that the 4ife 4as Indonesian. The
'ct dre4 reactions fro/ diJerent :hinese !rou)s in Indonesia. The t4o .i!
:hinese or!ani<ations 4ere B'P86#I and LP#B. The =rst su))orted
inte!ratin! their culture to Indonesia3 .ut LP#B thou!ht that :hinese
should co/)letel0 assi/ilate into Indonesian culture.
"e2ertheless3 the 'ct no. ,F%969 cancelled the a!ree/ents on :hinese
Indonesians citi<enshi)3 ensurin! that :hinese Indonesians 4ho 4ere .orn
after %962 had Indonesian nationalit0. One article sti)ulates that :hinese
nati2es as The 5utch 8ast Indies 5id )re2iousl0.
%%
The citi<enshi) 'ct of %9,6 e/.odied a )assi2e s0ste/ that :hinese 4ho 4ere
.orn in Indonesia and li2ed there continuousl0 for =2e 0ears 4ere auto/aticall0
Indonesian citi<ens3 exce)t those 4ho chose :hinese citi<enshi) .0 for/all0
re;ectin! Indonesian citi<enshi) @Hill/ott3 2009B. Therefore the )olic0 forced
Indonesian :hinese to ha2e a SB#6I as a )roof their citi<enshi). 'ccordin! to
Hah0u 8Jend0 SB#6I itself is contrar0 to the La4 and also an irrational )olic0
@LPI3 20%0B that discri/inated a!ainst ethnic :hinese and excluded the/ fro/
the IndonesiaCs histor0.
%2
I!id
%9
Indonesians .orn after %962 4ould .eco/e Indonesian :iti<ens as adults
and did not need SB#6I @Indonesian citi<enshi) certi=cateB. o4e2er3 in the
Soeharto )eriod3 :hinese )eo)le had to sho4 their SB#6I or their fatherCs
SB#6I if the0 4anted to a))l0 to schools3 ;o.s3 #TP3 Pass)ort3 the )er/it
letter to de2elo) a ne4 .usiness and other docu/ents. Poor :hinese
!enerall0 did not re!ister their dau!hters to !et a SB#6I 3 thin$in! the0
4ould =nd hus.ands 4ho are :hinese Indonesian /en 4ho hold Indonesian
:iti<enshi) 7 H"I @*arga +egara Indonesia Q Indonesian citi<ensB /eanin!
the0 ha2e SB#6I.
.2 The Chinese Indonesian and the 8ation of Indonesia
istoricall0 the 5utch :olonials la.eled the/ as >other?. 'lthou!h :hinese3
)articularl0 Chinese peranakan ha2e li2ed there for !enerations3 the0 4ere
*+I keturunan asing @Indonesian citi<en of forei!n descendantB. The 4ord
asing3 sho4s that :hinese Indonesian is not )art of the nation. In /odern
Indonesia3 as a ne4 state3 ethnic :hinese 4ill al4a0s .e su.;ect to a
Kuestion of their lo0alt0 to the state
%+
. The nation of Indonesia is .uilt .0 the
i/a!ination as a >historical .ein!?3 as 'nderson @20063 ). 7B sa0s
>-inall03 it is i/a!ined as a co//unit03 .ecause3 re!ardless of
the actual ineKualit0 and ex)loitation that /a0 )re2ail in each3
the nation is al4a0s concei2ed as a dee)3 hori<ontal
co/radeshi). Alti/atel0 it is this fraternit0 that /a$es it
)ossi.le3 o2er the )ast t4o centuries for so /an0 /illions of
)eo)le not so /uch to $ill as 4illin!l0 to die for such li/ited
i/a!inin!s?
:hinese as >/inorit0 !rou)Foutsiders? 4ill ha2e diJicult0 inte!ratin!
into the societ03 the nation of Indonesia. Lu2al75a2is @%997B ar!ues that the
ai/ of nationalis/ and racis/ is naturali<ation. It sha)es /inorities as
%+
See the de.ate .et4een #4ee in! T;iat and so/e ,pri!umi? such as Sanoesi
Pane3 5r. Soeto/o3 1r. Sin!!ih3 and 5r. Sati/an in the ne4s )a)ers in %9+, as
-ata )ari ("emarangB3 Oetoesan Indonesia (.og$akarta#3 "oeara Oemoem
("ura!a(a#' Bahagia @Se/aran!B and Pemandangan (/akartaB. The de.ate 4as
a.out the peranakan status in the 8ast Indies 4here #4ee )ro)osed peranakan
had to assi/ilate to the Indonesian co//unit0 and societ0. Lo0alt0 and
consistenc0 4ere Kuestioned .0 pri!umi and e2en .0 so/e :hinese the/sel2es.
Lie/ #oen ian in %925 in Soeara Poe.li$ @ne4s )a)erB )oints out that the
:hinese )erana$an is a child of the soil @IndonesiaB and could not thin$ of
Indonesia as an alien land. o4e2er3 he did a!ree 4ith the conce)t of assi/ilation :
:hinese had to .e )art of IndonesiaCs nation @Sur0adinata3 20%0 ). 297+5B
20
de2iants that could .e !uided to >ethnic cleansin!? and excludes the/ fro/
)o4er resources.
The :hinese in the :olonial )eriod acti2el0 de.ated the status of
:hinese 4ithin the "etherlands7Indies. o4 should the :hinese react
)oliticall0 and sociall0 to the :olonial !o2ern/ent that related to the
:hineseCs life and the pri!umis lifeM The de.ates a.out :hinese /atters are
)u.lished in the /edia 3 /ostl0 at that ti/e in 9a2a3 includin! Sura.a0a.
Therefore3 at that ti/e the :hinese )olitical and cultural orientation can .e
easil0 reco!ni<ed. In the Old Order )eriod3 :hinese as !rou)s 4ere di2ided
into diJerent )olitical 2ie4s 4ith re!ard to their citi<enshi) Q i.e. the
B'P86#I3 the :hinese 1usli/ :o//unit0 @PITIB3 and the LP#B @Le/.a!a
Pe/.inaan #esatuan Ban!sa 7 that in the "e4 Order chan!ed its na/e to
B'#O17P#B
%,
.B Thus3 )eo)le 4ho li2e in this )eriod 4ill ha2e diJerence
ex)eriences co/)ared to the :hinese 4ho li2ed in a diJerent )eriod.
Politicall0 and historicall03 the Soeharto re!i/e >Indonesiani<ed? the
:hinese in Indonesia .0 rulin! a )rohi.ition of :hinese 4a0s of ex)ression
in cultural and social life3 and in )olitics. To )ursue this )ro;ect the
!o2ern/ent acti2el0 )roduced >forei!nness? and situated the/ as a
2ulnera.le race 4hich /eans )s0cholo!icall0 :hinese are constructed as
a/.i!uous identities and a tar!et of anti7:hinese actions such as the chaos
in %9&& @Sur0adinata3 %999O oon3 200&B. Ander Soeharto3 :hinese
Indonesians held Indonesian citi<enshi) and chan!ed their :hinese na/e to
an >Indonesian na/e? or e2en did not ha2e a :hinese na/eO
ad/inistrati2el0 their Kartu Tanda Penduduk @#TP or identit0 cardB ha2e a
s)ecial code and their .irth certi=cate is diJerent fro/ other races
%5
.
'Kuilar 9r @200%B ar!ues that the codin! s0ste/ as a tool 4as used .0 the
%,
Ba)er$i 4as a /ass :hinese or!ani<ation founded in %95, that su))orted
:hinese inte!ration thou!h3 in 4hich :hinese should .e acce)ted as one of the
suku !angsa @racesB si/ilar to other ethnic !rou)s in Indonesia. The :hinese 4ith
their culture3 2alues and reli!ions naturall0 inte!rated into Indonesia nation7state.
9unus 9ah0a3 a :hinese 1usli/3 2ie4s that :hinese ha2e to assi/ilate to the nation
.0 con2ersion to Isla/3 4hich 4as thou!ht too drastic for so/e :hinese. The other
is the LP#B3 su))orted .0 the Indonesian /ilitar03 that ad2ocated assi/ilation as a
4a0 for the :hinese to .eco/e Indonesian. This or!ani<ation chan!ed its na/e to
B'#O17P#B in the Soeharto )eriod in %96&.
%5
The head oJicer of Pendaftaran Pendudu$ dan :atatan Si)il #ota Se/aran!3
1och Tatan! Setia4an sa0s that discri/inati2e treat/ent is ha))enin! toda0 3 as
can .e seen clearl0 in the .irth certi=cate3 4hich easil0 distin!uishes :hinese
fro/ non :hinese @@LPIB3 20%0B :hineseCs #TP starts 4ith code 0%
2%
.ureaucrac03 )olice and /ilitar0 to discri/inate a!ainst and /ani)ulate
the/. The state created .oundraries .et4een pri!umi @nati2e )eo)leB and
non0pri!umi @as :hinese are usuall0 assu/ed to .eB as a diJerentiatin!
cate!or03 in the sa/e 4a0 it also ho/o!eni<ed each cate!or0 and refused to
ac$no4led!e di2ersit0 4ithin the !rou)s. Thus as Sur0adinata @200+B sa0s3
the national identit0 of Indonesia is .uilt throu!h the notion of
>pri!uminisi?. In this sense3 the state can .e descri.ed as:
>a .od0 of institutions 4hich are centrall0 or!ani<ed around the
intention of control 4ith a !i2en a))aratus of enforce/ent
@;uridical and re)ressi2eB at its co//and and .asis T 5iJerent
for/s of state 4ill in2ol2e diJerent relationshi)s .et4een the
controlFcoercion t4in 4hich is a residin! characteristic of the
state? @'nthias and Lu2al75a2is3 %9&9:5 in Lu2al75a2is3 %997B
ere3 ethnicit0 is a resource of the nation .ut a .oundar0 as 4ell. 's
oon @200&B noted3 the stereot0)in! of :hinese Indonesians .0 pri!umi and
state ai/s to /aintain the .oundaries and )ut the/ in o))osition to the
nation. One of the /0ths of :hinese Indonesians is >once a :hinese3 al4a0s
a :hinese?. It is assu/ed that :hinese 4ill ne2er .e Indonesians ho4e2er
stron!l0 the0 tr0. So3 >:hineseness?? is also constructed .0 societ0
%6
.
1oreo2er the /0th of >pendatang1 @ne4 co/erB and >penumpang1
@)assen!erB is ex)ressed )u.licl03 such as on %2 Octo.er 20063 9usuf #alla
the 2ice President of Indonesia3 in a /eetin! 4ith :hinese Indonesian
8ntre)reneurs stated that :hinese 8ntre)reneurs should not treat
Indonesia as a >hotel? and run a4a0 4hen the countr0 in crisis @-oru/
Buda0a Tion!hoa3 2006B.. 'lthou!h at that ti/e the Indonesian
!o2ern/entCs )osition 4as that :hinese are not treated as non0pri!umiO this
state/ent i/)lies that :hinese are al4a0s >pendatang?

. The Chinese 9ami"+ and :ender Identit+
:onfucian )atriarch0 is a foundation of :hinese fa/il0 dail0 life3 althou!h
the0 /a0 not hold :onfucianis/ as their reli!ion. :hinese fathers ha2e
)o4er o2er their 4i2es and childrenO therefore 4o/en ha2e to .e lo0al to
and res)ect their hus.ands. >)auw? @lo0alt0B is one of :onfuciusC
%6
1isdeeds .0 :hinese Indonesians are )resented .0 the /edia as .0 :hineseO
re)orts on )raise4orth0 deeds do not /ention the :hinese an!le. 1an0 :hinese
Indonesians hide their :hinese identit0 to safe!uard their .usiness careers.
22
teachin!s O children ha2e to !i2e their lo0alt0 to )arents and fa/il0
ancestors. :hinese fa/ilies .elie2e that >uhauw? @.ein! lo0alB is )art of
:hinese cultureO the >uhauw? conce)t /a$es 4o/en o.edient to the fa/il0
order. u Shih @200% in 1ei;3 20093 ). 5&B )oints out that :onfuciusC >rule
.0 /an not rule .0 la4?
%7
3 can /ean that 4hate2er father3 elder and .rother
sa0s in ter/s of social relations /a0 not .e o))osed. Traditionall0 4o/en
4ho are /arried ha2e to /o2e to the hus.andCs house .ut 1el0 D. Tan
@%997B /entions that :hinese )erana$an 4o/en ado)t 9a2anese culture3 for
exa/)le :hinese )erana$an fro/ Su$a.u/i use the .ilateral fa/il0 as their
fa/il0 s0ste/3 that /eans the dau!hters after /arria!e could li2e 4ith their
o4n )arents 4ith their hus.ands.
5urin! the 5utch :olonial )eriod so/e :hinese 4o/en3 ex)eciall0
fro/ the /idle class3 could attened schoolO /ost 4ent to :hinese or 5utch
schools. -e4 :hinese Indonesian 4o/en )artici)ated in )olitical acti2ities
e2en in the Soe$arno )eriod
%&
O ho4e2er )ost the Soeharto )eriod /an0
:hinese Indonesian 4o/en .eca/e dentists3 la40ers3 and a fe4 "DO
acti2ists ha2e e/er!ed )u.licl0 @Tan3 %997B.
In %9003 the :hinese Peranakan esta.lished Tiong )oa )wee Koan
@T#B
%9
in 9a$arta 4ith one of its /issions to $ee) :hinese tradition and
cultures ali2e .0 esta.lishin! :hinese schools. The 4ord >tion!hoa? 4as
introduced .0 T# in %92& as a )olitical decision. 'nother institution
4ith a si/ilar /ission 4as Khong Kauw )wee @:onfucius 6eli!ion Societ0#3
4hich 4as esta.lished in %9%& in Solo and is no4 $no4n as 1'T'#I"
@1a;elis Tin!!i '!a/a #hon! ucu IndonesiaB. Its /ission 4as to )ro/ote
:onfucian reli!ion in the dail0 life of :hinese fa/ilies. Lie/ Sin! 1ei;Cs
research on >:hinese Ho/en Professionals in the )rocess of the chan!in!
identit0? ar!ues education and .ein! a )rofessional are 4a0s for 4o/en to
chan!e their )osition 4ithin the fa/il0 and societ0 to construct a >ne4
identit0? that is a!ainst the construction of :hinese as ? other?. She
%7
In :hina it is also $no4n as the Kuan xi7 custo/ of social relation in doin!
.usiness7 the four /ain rules are @%B relationshi) .et4een )arents and children
@:hCen!FaJectionBO @2B 6elationshi) .et4een !o2ern/ent and )eo)le
@IFri!hteousnessBO @+B relationshi) .et4een hus.ands and 4i2es @)iehFdistinctionBO
@,B relationshi) a/on! .iolo!ical si.lin!s
%&
Of )ro/inent Indonesian :hinese3 onl0 22 are fe/ale O /ostl0 in s)ort and the
arts @Tan3 %997B
%9
The esta.lishin! of T# also has critics fro/ the :hinese peranakan the/sel2es
4ho thou!ht it onl0 follo4ed :hinese custo/ and 2alues3 4hereas :hinese
Peranakan are not the sa/e as :hinese fro/ the /ainland. "ot all :hinese sent
their children to T# schools. See #4ee in! T;iat @Sur0adinata3 20%0B
2+
ex)lains that )rofessional :hinese Indonesian 4o/en can create a ne4
identit0 .0 ado)tin! local cultures. ere3 the :hinese 4o/en not onl0
acce)t the identit0 i/)osed on the/3 the0 also acti2el0 create their identit0
as a 4a0 to co/.at exclusion.
Ti/es and !enerations contri.ute diJerentl0 to for/attin! the identit0 of
:hinese 4o/en .ecause the contexts of histor0 chan!e /atters of
econo/ics3 societ03 )olitics and location. ere3 the identit0 of the :hinese
4o/en can .e seen as a )rocess 3 .oth collecti2el0 and indi2iduall0.
.# Three :enerations of Chinese Indonesian 2omen
1;<51;'<: Co"onia" period5The (rst generation
Politicall0 and sociall0 the0 li2ed durin! the :olonial )eriod fro/ the 5utch
8ast Indies and 9a)an u) to the ne4 )ost7:olonial Indonesian state. The
5utch colonial )eriod 4as a )eriod 4hen the :hinese could o)enl0 ex)ress
their culture and )olitical orientation. The "ationalist /o2e/ent started
4hen the :hinese peranakan .eca/e a4are of their citi<enshi) and identit0.
8cono/icall0 the )olic0 created a )ri2ile!ed )osition for the :hinese 4ho
functioned as /iddle/en .et4een nati2es and the 5utch @#4artanada3
2006B3 ho4e2er this )osition also sha)ed a dichoto/0 .et4een )olitics and
econo/ics. Later this )olic0 4as used .0 SoehartoCs )ost7:olonial
!o2ern/ent to )osition the :hinese in the econo/ic area onl0. 'lthou!h
so/e had considera.le econo/ic )o4er3 )oliticall0 the0 4ere 4ea$.
-ro/ the 5utch :olonial )eriod to the earl0 )ost7:olonial )eriod the
:hinese co//unit0 acti2el0 de.ated their identit0 and citi<enshi) status.
The !rou)s o)enl0 de.ated throu!h the /edia of :hinese orFand -ela$u
ne4s)a)ers. "ot onl0 :hinese )eo)le res)onded to the :hinese citi<enshi)
Kuestion .ut so/e pri!umi leaders such as 5r. Soeto/o3 '/ir S;arifuddin3
5r. T;i)to and Sanusi Pane su))orted the idea of Lie/ #oen ian
20
that the
20
See Lie/ #oen ian: Perana$an 0an! /encari identitas in Sur0adinata3 20%0O
Lie/ ar!ued that ,Peranakan tidak !isa terus menganggap Indonesia se!agai
negeri asing' negeri tumpangan. -ereka pun$a kedudukan' kepentingan dan 2
tam!ah lama akan semakin keras men$urung mereka pada pengakuan' !ahwa
mereka se!enarn$a sudah (adi satu !agian $ang lengket sama negeri ini dan anak
negerin$a1 Lie/ 4as a ;ournalist 4ho )re2iousl0 su))orted :hinese natiolalis/ .ut
later he chan!ed his )olitical 2ie4 and su))orted the Indonesian nationalist
/o2e/ent for Indonesian inde)ence. 't that ti/e he 4as in Sura.a0a as :hief
8ditor of Sin Tit Po3 one of the :hinese )erana$anCs /edia and then he .uilt Partai
Tion!hoa Indonesia @PTI7 :hinese Indonesian Part0B 4hich 4as considered to .e
the e/.r0o of the idea of assi/ilation. Later in the )ost7:olonial ti/e B'P86#I
adoa)ted this idea.
2,
peranakan should identif0 the/sel2es as Indonesier
2%
3 ho4e2er so/e other
pri!umi leaders started to Kuestion the lo0alt0 of the :hinese to the ne4
countr0. In the 9a)anese :olonial )eriod /an0 :hinese 4ere $illed and
the0 4ere structured as one cate!or0 of :hinese. It 4as a 2er0 diJicult ti/e
for /ost )eo)le.
:ulturall03 4o/en at this ti/e 4ere stron!l0 situated .0 :hinese
tradition to ful=ll the roles of :hinaCs ancient tradition3 to .e o.edient
dau!hters and 4i2es. DirlsC education 4as restricted and onl0 fe4 4o/en
had o))ortunities to stud0. Those 4ho did 4ere /ainl0 of peranakan
descent that 4ere oriented to4ards the 5utch 8ast IndiesO so/e e2en
studied in olland. O2erall3 fe4 peranakan and totok 4ent to school and
fe4er !raduated3 so/e .ecause of unsta.le )olitical situations and 4ars.
1ost 4ere forced .0 their )arents and /atch /a$ers to /arr0 at an earl0
a!e.
1;'151;=<: $"d $rder to 8ew $rder > The second generation
In this )eriod :hinese citi<enshi) status 4as seriousl0 discussed .et4een
the Old Order !o2ern/ent and the P6:. Politicall0 Soe$arno included all
nations to .uild Indonesian nationalis/3 ho4e2er fro/ the "e4 Order
)eriod the :hinese )osition 4as disad2anta!ed.
%965 4as a si!ni=cant ti/e 4hen the :hinese 4ere )ositioned as
>co//unist? and forced identit0 4as started. The "e4 Order de2elo)ed its
)o4er .0 )rohi.itin! all left 4in! ideolo!0 or acti2ities that had sus)ected
relations to co//unis/. Thus3 the :hinese 4ere forced to .eco/e a)olitical
)ersons and 4ere constructed as /orall0 not )art of the nation3 des)ite
li2in! in Indonesia. 1ilitar0 )o4er 4as used to control :hinese acti2it0 and
assi/ilation 4as forced. Hithin the fa/il0 reli!ion @:onfucianis/B started to
.eco/e an i/)ortant issue. Hhen the :hinese schools 4ere closed /an0 of
the/ continued their stud0 in :atholic /issionar0 schools and 4hen the0
had to chan!e their reli!ion /an0 :hinese .eca/e :atholic or Protestant.
't that ti/e3 reli!ions 4ere extre/el0 se!re!ated and institutionali<ed as a
/atter of state )olic0.
'ccordin! to /arital la43 citi<ens 4ho 4anted to /arr0 throu!h the
ci2il court /ust 2erif0 that the0 had under!one a reli!ious /arria!e =rst3
thus de facto reli!ious leaders had a dut0 to re!ister their /arried )eo)le.
So reli!ion 4as a reKuire/ent for /arria!e3 and /arria!e 4as therefore
/ainl0 restricted to cou)les of the sa/e reli!ion.
2%
25
1;=15toda+: 8ew $rder > !ost Soeharto > the third generation
't the end of SuhartoSs rei!n3 in %990 the di)lo/atic relationshi) .et4een
the P6: and Indonesia 4as re.uilt a!ain after .ein! fro<en in %967. The
:hinese started to connect a!ain to their fa/ilies 4ho in the Old Order
)eriod 4ere se)arated .ecause of the )olitical situation. "e2ertheless the
restriction of :hinese cultural ex)ression re/ained. 1an0 :hinese .eca/e
)rofessionals and /an0 4o/en 4or$ed in the )u.lic s)here .ut hid their
ethnic identit0 . The i/a!e of :hinese as /iddle class and rich 4as
stren!thened throu!h the )ri2ile!e en;o0ed .0 so/e :hinese 4ho .uilt a
coalition 4ith the re!i/e.
Post Soeharto 4as 4hen the :hinese !ot their freedo/ of ex)ression
4ith /an0 of the/ loudl0 dra4in! attention to :hinese /atters3 and the
citi<enshi) la4 4as then introduced to sol2e the issue of :hinese
statelessness.

.' Conc"uding Remarks
istoricall0 and )oliticall03 the Indonesian state and the :hinese co//unit0
itself construct :hineseness diJerentl0. istor0 sho4s ho4 state and societ0
)lace :hinese 4o/en in the context of Indonesian nation3 in a )articular
4a0 and this inEuences the social relations of the :hinese 4ith other ethnic
!rou)s and a/on! the/sel2es as a :hinese co//unit0. The )eriod of
SoehartoCs rule stron!l0 forced :hinese into dichoto/0 of ethnic identit0
that creates a/.i!uit0 of their identit0. State )olic0 stren!thened the
sti!/ati<ation of the :hinese as the Other 4hen the0 4ere associated 4ith
as the co//unist /o2e/ent 4hich 4as later .anned. The freedo/ of
ex)ression 4hich e/er!ed in the )ost Soeharto )eriod )ro2ided ne4 s)aces
for the 0oun!er !eneration to rethin$ their :hineseness in the context of
the Indonesian nation and each !eneration translates it in diJerent 4a0s.
.
26
Chapter #
?4periences and *emories of Three :enerations of the
Chinese Indonesians
This cha)ter 4ill )resent 2arious as)ects of citi<enshi) and identit03
focusin! on .oth ho4 these are constructed and ex)erienced .0 the :hinese
Indonesian 4o/en the/sel2es and ho4 the0 are created .0 social
structures. The anal0sis focuses on three the/es: 4o/en 4ithin the fa/il03
4o/enCs ex)eriences3 and their ne4 sense of identit0 throu!h reli!ion. The
anal0sis focuses on su.;ecti2it0 of dail0 ex)eriences of :hinese Indonesian
4o/en .ased on li/ited nu/.er of life7stories fro/ :hinese Indonesian
4o/en.
This cha)ter 4ill ar!ue that not onl0 )olitical histories construct the
:hinese 4o/ensC identities .ut also sociolo!ical ex)eriences aJect their
)erce)tion and )s0cholo!icall0 those ex)eriences are internali<ed
consciousl0 and unconsciousl0. 1e/or0 contri.utes to the for/ation of their
identit0 and this identit0 inEuences ho4 their citi<enshi) status is
deter/ined 2ice 2ersa3 ho4e2er3 the /e/or0 is also selected in relation to
their contexts and )ositions.
#.1 2omen within the 9ami"+
:hinese 4o/en in a :hinese fa/il0 are considered to .elon! to /en. Their
life .elon!s to their father .ut after /arria!e3 the0 .elon! to their
hus.ands. Ho/en do not ha2e )o4er to decide ho4 the0 4ant to li2e. 82en
if there is 2iolence a!ainst 4o/en .0 the hus.ands3 their )arents cannot
reall0 hel). 1oreo2er3 if the0 are :onfucians3 4hen the0 die their ancestral
cult ta.les @altarsB are ta$en .0 the hus.andCs fa/il0. o4e2er3 the sad
thin! is3 4hen a sin!le 4o/an dies3 so/eti/es the )arents do not e2en
erect an altar for her. -or :hinese3 /arria!e is a 2er0 i/)ortant dut0.
Hithout /arria!e the0 are dee/ed to fail .oth as 4o/en and as children
4ho are res)ectful and lo0al Quhauw7 to their )arents. This status as a
/arried 4o/an is i/)ortant and )s0cholo!icall0 it see/s the0 should
i!nore their indi2idual desires althou!h the0 re!ard this as unfair. These
situations are illustrated throu!h the life7stories of Lie3 .orn in %9++3 and
her dau!hter -an!3 .orn in %962. 5es)ite their a!e !a) /ore than +0 0ears3
their ex)eriences relatin! their /arria!e stories are si/ilar3 as the fathers
27
in la4 4ere in .oth cases 2er0 )o4erful. -or Lie3 her relationshi) to her
/other in la4 4as diJicult and full of conEict. er hus.and 4as 2alued as a
lo0al son to his )arents 4ho considered hi/ uhauw . Hhen Lie !a2e .irth to
her se2enth dau!hter her /other in la4 as$ed her hus.and to !i2e a4a0 her
dau!hter to an0.od0 4ho 4anted her. She 4as reall0 disa))ointed 4hen her
hus.and a!reed 4ith the idea. To )rotect her dau!hter she fou!ht alone
a!ainst her hus.andCs fa/il0. She !i2es as the reason:
>4h0 should I !i2e /0 dau!hter if 4e can feed herM I =!ht 4ith /0 hus.and
and to su))ort the idea he e2en said that the dau!hter 4as not his and it
4as as a result of /0 aJair to other /en. It 4as 2er0 hurt /e. o4 can he
sa0 that 4hile I a/ onl0 4or$in! to feed /0 childrenM It 4as .ecause her
/o/3 I hate it?. @Lie3 6F&F%0B
This occurred3 she assu/ed3 .ecause her )arents 2er0 )oor. She thou!ht if
the0 4ere rich she 4ould not .e so treated. o4e2er she also /entions
that so/e of her friends 4ho 4ere rich also suJered 2iolence fro/ )arents
in la4 es)eciall0 fro/ /other in La4. These ex)eriences a))l0 to BanCs life7
stories too. She suJered 2iolence fro/ her /other in la4 as lon! as she
li2ed 4ith her althou!h she ca/e fro/ a rich fa/il0 and her father
so/eti/es hel)ed her fa/il0 econo/icall0. This continued for around 20
0ears and .ecause of it she al4a0s felt unhealth0 and e2er0 4ee$ sa4 a
doctor. Both of the/ thou!ht it 4as .ecause the0 4ere a totok fa/il03 and
their )arents in the context of /arria!e 4ere >3er$ totok1. 1c"a0Cs
criticis/ @200,B to Bourdieu is that class also inEuences !ender ha.itus3
ho4e2er in the cases of Lie and Bun3 class did not al4a0s 4or$ in the sa/e
4a0. all /entions that identit0 is fra!/ented in the context of the =rst
!eneration and this is true hereO their identit0 is fra!/ented .ut hierarch0
also )la0s a )art. This hierarch0 is deter/ined .0 the context and ti/e3 as
T$. Oo/een @2006B /entions3 identit0 is not si/)l0 /ulti)le .ut it also
hierarchical.
'lthou!h LieCs ex)eriences are /isera.le3 she still tau!ht her dau!hters
that after the0 /arried the0 /ust o.e0 their hus.andCs rules. 'lthou!h this
)laced her in a 2er0 )ainful situation3 as she sa0s:
>It is our custo/3 0ou ha2e to .e uhauw and .e a !ood 4o/an.
Ho/en in fa/il0 /ust understand their )ositionO 4e do not ha2e an0
ri!hts. It is diJerent fro/ 9a2a or 1ela0 traditions3 4o/en are /ore
.e res)ected. I $no4 it is e2en stu)id .ut ho4 do 4e chan!e. He are
:hinese. He /ust res)ect to our traditions? @Lie3 6F&F%0B
2&
-an! 4as also forced to !i2e a4a0 her child to her .rother in la4 4ho 4as
childless. She tells that 4hen she ex)erienced the situation3 as her /other3
of !i2in! a4a0 her child3 she understood 4h0 her /other had 2er0 hurt
feelin!s to4ard her father for such a lon! ti/e. -or her3 .ein! a dau!hter in
a :hinese fa/il0 /eans .ein! read0 to sacri=ce her life .ut she also
/ention that toda0 is not the ti/e an0/ore for 4o/en to .e 2iolated. She
said3 >4e are not totok an0/ore3 4h0 should 4e follo4 the rules of hauw
and !ood 4o/enM?. She fou!ht 4hen the second ti/e her hus.and did the
sa/e thin!3 as$in! her a!ain to !i2e >our?C @herB child a4a0 e2en .efore she
deli2ered a .a.0. She said3 >I =!ht to /0 hus.and and /0 father in la43 the0
do not $no4 ho4 diJicult it is for /e3 e2en 4hen I a/ )re!nant?. Self7
understandin! is i/)ortant in ho4 the0 or!ani<e the/sel2es and dealin!
4ith culture. Hhile Lie /ust o.e0 custo/3 and it see/s this 4ould =x her
identit0 4hile her children3 -an! diJerentl0 identi=ed herself. She used the
$no4led!e of the :hinese social cate!oried to inter)ret ho4 her )osition
should .e in :hinese tradition and in the ne4 context of :hinese. 's she
sa0s3
>Ti/e is chan!in!3 I 4ill not treat /0 dau!hter as /0 /o/ treated
/e. He are 4o/en3 4e ha2e to .e s/art and not al4a0s de)end on
/en .ecause 4e ne2er $no4 4hat 4ill ha))en to :hinese. 'lthou!h
/0 /o/ thou!ht that 4e are totok .ut 4e are not an0/ore3 I a/
peranakan alread0. He li2e here3 donCt 4eM So it /eans totok does not
.elon! to us an0/ore. Bein! a totok ;ust /a$e 4o/en life 2er0
co/)licated and too /an0 rules /ust .e follo4ed. 'hT it is 2er0
tirin! to .e a !ood 4o/en? @-an!3 %2F&F%0B
Bein! a >!ood 4o/an? i/)lies that she is read0 to acce)t all actions
to4ard her. This su!!ests i!norin! their feelin!s and desires. -a/il0 has to
.e on the to) of the list of 4o/enCs concerns3 their .eha2ior as 4o/en is
deter/ined .0 their concerns of fa/il0 and ethnicit0. In this sense3 the0 are
/ore 2ulnera.le to 2iolence .oth fro/ their fa/il0 and the hus.andCs fa/il0.
Hith the lac$ of reco!nition of their citi<enshi) status3 and the state
re!ulated societ0Cs .eha2ior3 this le!al citi<enshi) lea2es the/ un)rotected
as su.;ect7citi<ens. Besides3 their access to !o2ern/ent institutions is
li/ited in /an0 casesO class and the relationshi) .et4een the elites and the
richest of :hinese also deter/ine this. Therefore3 this exclusion as 6oo/
calls it is >a 2oca.ular0 of disad2anta!e? @in OSBrien P Penna3 2006B
/eanin! it is relational )rocess3 d0na/ic and co/)lex that is ex)erienced in
)articular situations and is contextual in s)eci=c circu/stances3 )laces3 and
ti/es.
29
Lie acce)ted the totoks cultural .elief 4hereas her dau!hter did not.
This contradiction is clearer 4hen >national identit0? is forced on the/
throu!h the assi/ilation of Soeharto )olic0. The second7!eneration see/ed
to ado)t the >national culture? .ecause 4e >/ust? and at the sa/e ti/e
also >need? to )rotect oursel2es and out of traditions. I 4ill ela.orate on
this in the reli!ion )art.
Ho/en >should .e? sacri=ced =rst in the fa/il0O this is the life7stor0 of "io3
a =rst7!eneration. She 4as .orn into a peranakan fa/il0 4here :hinese
dialect had ne2er .een used. Hhen she 4as %0 0ears old her )arents 4ere
.an$ru)ted .ecause the PP %0F%959
22
)olic0 aJected her fa/il0 in 4hich
:hinese 4ere )rohi.ited to run their .usiness in 2illa!es. The0 li2ed in a
2illa!e in Blora. She 4as sent to her auntieCs house. It 4as her uncleCs
decision fro/ her /otherCs side. She told her stor0 .0 sa0in! : >If I could .e
a /an I 4ould li$e to .e one?. Since she 4as a child she had to hel) her
/other 4or$in! at ho/e and on the far/. If her /other needed her hel) on
a school da03 she 4as )rohi.ited fro/ !oin! to school 4hereas .oth of her
.rothers 4ent freel0. The situation .eca/e 4orse 4hen she li2ed in her
auntieCs house .ecause she 4as treated li$e a /aid. Then after %5 0ears she
!a2e u) and decided to /arr0 a /an she .arel0 $ne43 a fa/il0 of her
nei!h.or3 .ut her uncle did not a!ree 4ith her decision .ecause she 4as too
0oun!3 %7 0ears. She ;ust 4anted to lea2e the house3 as she said >I 4as 2er0
tired?. Then she left the house for her /otherCs house in Blora 4here a
4ee$ after the /an follo4ed her and 4ithin a /onth3 the0 4ere /arried and
.ac$ to Sura.a0a a!ain to her hus.andCs house. o4e2er3 her life did not
chan!e /uch. The "ioCs ex)eriences re2eal that !ender identit0 is not
al4a0s deter/ined .0 social cate!or0 of totok and peranakan .ut ti/e and
identi=cation of .elon!in! inEuence the 4a0s of their life. It also
distin!uishes .et4een 4hat the0 should do and should not do as :hinese
4o/en either as peranakan or totok.
The )olic0 of PP %0F%959 aJected three other infor/ants fro/ =rst7
!eneration and their stories are Kuite si/ilar to "ioCs3 the0 also a!reed to
/arr0 a )erson the0 .arel0 $ne4 or 4ho 4as introduced to the/. 1arria!e
is in the )arentsC hand3 or of elders 4ithin the fa/il0. o4e2er all this
/arria!e did not hel) the/ a!ainst 2iolence and ta$e the/ out of )o2ert0.
6elationshi)s 4ith )arents in la4 4ere decisi2e. Those stories could refer to
22
Peraturan Pe/erintah @Do2ern/ent )olic0B "o. %0F%959 is a )olic0 desi!n .0
1ilitar0 institution that .anned the :hinese to run their .usiness exce)t in cit0.
Hhile at that ti/e /an0 :hinese li2e in 2illa!e and also it 4as >in the na/e? of
national securit03 to )rotect pri!umis econo/ic )osition.
+0
BourdieuCs conce)t that a!enc0 4or$s 4ithin the structures. 1arria!e 4as
a 4a0 to o.tain their freedo/ .ut the structures located the/ in si/ilar
situations .ut in diJerent contexts.
Those ex)eriences 4ere not ex)erienced .0 the third7!eneration
.ecause the class )ositions of so/e infor/ants are chan!in! .ut for those
in the sa/e class the for/s are si/ilar .ut the issues altered3 the0 still ha2e
li/ited choices. -or exa/)le in the cases of I$a3 I$aCs /other is /arried to
9a2anees /an. The /arria!e is unha))03 her hus.and is una.le to feed the
fa/il0. This )ro.le/ e/)hases the stereot0)e of ethnic diJerences and
raises Kuestions to the assi/ilation )olic0. "io3 I$aCs !rand/other3
encoura!ed her to /arr0 a :hinese /an. Bein! third7!eneration the0 can
i!nore >the rules?. "io understood that she 4as a peranakan descendant
.ut she feel that societ0 treated her as >al4a0s? :hinese3 /eanin! as orang
totok. She identi=es herself as :hinese Qtotok7. 'fter our second /eetin!
she told /e the stor0 of her dau!hter3 I$aCs /other3 4ho /arried a 9a2aness
Qpri!umi7 /an. She 4as e/.arrassed to tell her dau!hterCs stor0 as she
ex)lained later to /e that it 4as sha/eful for her fa/il0 .ecause as :hinese
the0 should not /arr0 to other races. Later she ex)lained that at =rst3 she
did not $no4 her dau!hter /arried the /an3 it 4as 4ithout her a))ro2al.
:o/)are this to Luc3 a second !eneration3 pearanakan3 4ho is also afraid
that her dau!hter /a0 /arr0 a /an fro/ another race3 she could ne!otiate
the race issue as lon! as the0 are in the sa/e class. o4e2er3 she also
4onders if a /an fro/ another ethnic !rou) fro/ a si/ilar class 4ould
4ant to /arr0 a :hinese 4o/an.
#.2 2omen3s e4periences
The :hinese3 in the context of Indonesia3 are /ar!inali<ed citi<ens
4here the de!ree of inclusi2e citi<enshi) is deter/ined .0 the turno2er of
)o4er 4ithin the state. The )osition of the :hinese as a s)ecial ethnic
cate!or0 e/.odies3 since colonial ti/es to the )resent3 the constraints
a/on! :hinese the/sel2es re!ardin! their sense of .elon!in!. The life7
stories of the infor/ants sho4 diJerent le2els of .elon!in! as 4hat Lu2al
5a2is /entions that a sense of .elon!in! can .e o.tained throu!h ho4 the0
identif0 the/sel2es and ho4 others identif0 the/ @Lu2al75a2is3 20063
).%99B. The diJerentiation of the :hinese 4o/enCs .elon!in! is not a static
)osition .ut it is chan!in! throu!h ti/e3 !eneration and the )olitical
situation of the :hinese. The narrati2es of three !enerations descri.e ho4
+%
this .elon!in! 4or$s 4ithin the line of the .oundaries of exclusion and
inclusion fro/ the state and the societ0O e2en .et4een the/sel2es and
other ethnic !rou)s. The /o2e/ent of .elon!in! is not onl0 .et4een
!enerations .ut also 4ithin !eneration itself. The0 4a0s these !enerations
construct their su.;ecti2it0 is not eas0 as )uttin! the/ into cate!or03 it is
)s0cholo!ical3 cultural and social /atters that create certain conEicts
.et4een !enerations in de=nin! the/sel2es3 e2en 4ithin the/sel2es.
The assi/ilation that assu/es as a )rocess of acce)tance .0 /a;orit0
!rou) as #4o$7.un @2005B /entions )re2iousl0 in cha)ter t4o3 in the
context of I$a3 a third7!eneration 4o/an of /ix7/arried descendants3 the
notion of assi/ilation does not see/ to 4or$ since it is a )la0in! !a/e
.et4een do/inant and su.ordinate in order to !ain acce)tance3 . 's an
>assi/ilation? )roduct she feels a/.i!uit0 in her identit03 .et4een 9a2anese
and :hinese. The do/inant !rou)3 9a2anese7pri!umi7 does not al4a0s
acce)t her as )art of the co//unit0 .ecause her a))earance does not reall0
loo$ as 9a2anese .ut /ore as a /ixed race. She sa0s3
>It is confusin!3 if I a/ to!ether 4ith /0 pri!umi friends the0 see /e as
:hinese3 also it ha))ens the sa/e 4hen I !ather 4ith /0 :hinese friends3
the0 see /0 e0es as 9a2anese or pri!umi. Both3 so/eti/es do not reall0
acce)t /e3 .ut I feel /ore co/forta.le 4ith /0 pri!umi friends .ecause
4ith the/ I feel /ore free and the :hinese friends usuall0 )la0 too /an0
roles that I donCt li$e. The0 associate the/sel2es /ost ti/es exclusi2el0
4ith :hinese !rou)s onl0. @I$a3 %5F&F%0B
The ar!u/ent !oes that assi/ilation can reduce ethnic senti/ents and
the feelin! of e/otional .onds of ho/o!eneit0 can sol2e the stru!!le of
ethnicit0. o4e2er3 in the :hinese Indonesian 4o/enCs context3 this
assu/)tion did not 4or$. 'cce)tance fro/ the do/inant !rou) could not
control ethnic senti/ents 4here elites 4ere usin! >so/e :hineseCs
econo/ic )osition? to /aintain )o4er. This >usin! so/e? e2en encoura!es
stron!er anti7:hinese feelin!. Both the :hinese /iddle7hi!h class and the
do/inants richl0 internali<e the sti!/a of :hinese. Sur)risin!l03 4hen I as$
the third !eneration a.out :hineseness one stereot0)e the0 associate 4ith
is >rich?3 es)eciall0 /iddle class and the0 failed to reali<e that /an0
:hinese are li2in! in )o2ert0. The0 thou!ht if :hinese are )oor3 it is .ecause
the0 are la<0O :hinese should .e rich. I$a3 third7!eneration3 a )roduct of a
/ixed /arria!e is a4are that the sti!/a is al4a0s around her3 in fact3 she is
fro/ a )oor fa/il03 4here their )arents cannot al4a0s su))ort her. 's a
/ixed /arria!e descendant3 sociall0 and )s0cholo!icall0 she feels
+2
unco/forta.le .ecause neither !rou) reall0 acce)ts her as a >nature?. In
the context of I$a3 hence3 assi/ilation does not al4a0s 4or$ fro/ ethnic
senti/ent.
-orced identit0 is a /atter for :hinese 4o/en 4ho ha2e /ulti)le
identities3 a!enc0 is not a /atter of )olitical )artici)ation .ut /ore ho4
the0 can sur2i2e culturall0 and sociall0 in a situation 4hen throu!hout the
histor0 of the :hinese3 the )olitical re!i/es do not !uarantee their
citi<enshi) status. It sho4s that the status of the :hinese in the context of
Indonesian nation see/s to .e an >un=nished .usiness?. 5es)ite the fact
that historicall0 the peranakan ha2e clai/ed that the0 ha2e co//onalities
4ith other !rou)s 4ithin the Indonesian nation state3 the ne4 !eneration is
still stru!!lin! for the reco!nition of their citi<enshi) status and ri!hts3 as
1ar @.orn %9&&3 third7!enerationB said >4e are Indonesians 4ho ha2e the
sa/e ri!hts as other ethnic !rou)s .ut 4h0 should the0 diJerentiate /e as
:hineseM?.
-irst7second !enerations exercise their a!enc0 4ithin the fa/il0 nor/s3
4ith re!ard to /arital custo/. 1arria!e in the :hinese tradition see/s the
/ain drea/ of )arents for their children es)eciall0 their dau!hters 4here it
can lin$ to the i/a!e of 4o/en. 1arria!e is i/)ortant to :hinese 4o/en
.ecause it ful=lls their !ender roles and hel)s their )arents to acco/)lish
their o.li!ation .0 /arr0in! their children oJ. The life7stories of .ein! a
>!ood 4o/an? reEect on their a!enc0 and resistance. But this =rst7
!eneration case sho4s that ListerCs conce)t of citi<enshi) as a!enc0 cannot
.e Nuni2ersalC if exa/ined in other contexts. Thus3 the histor0 of 4o/en is
diJerent3 follo4in! ti/e and s)aceO ho4e2er3 it does not /ean her conce)t
could not .e used to exa/ine :hinese 4o/en. I thin$ that for third7
!eneration it /a0 .e useful in understandin! the /eanin! of inclusi2e
citi<enshi) 4ith re!ard to a!enc0.
Third7 !enerations 4hose feelin!s and culture ha2e assi/ilated to
societ0 are also startin! to Kuestion their )ositions in the >Indonesia nation7
state? and thin$ that >.usiness? or econo/0 is not the onl0 ;o. areas for
:hinese. o4e2er3 for the /iddle class3 such as Re3 1ar and Ste)3 4ho are
all acti2e in ca/)us acti2ities3 and used to 4or$in! 4ith pri!umi3 their
)erce)tion is chan!in! as a result of their acti2ities 4hich !i2e the/
$no4led!e of ethnic identit0 and critical ex)eriences a.out their )osition
4ithin the societ03 and a critiKue to their )arents on :hineseness as 4ell as
on Indonesianness. So/eti/es for the/ .ein! :hinese and .ein! Indonesia
are si/ilar. The0 feel the dichoto/0 identit0 4ill e/er!e 4hen so/eone
as$s their ethnicit0 or 4hen their )arents constrain the/ to =nd :hinese
++
/en co/)lete 4ith a si/ilar reli!ion. -or so/e fa/ilies .oth criteria /ust
.e ful=lled .ut /ost second7!eneration infor/ants sa0 ethnicit0 could .e
ne!otiated .ut not reli!ion. Sur)risin!l03 fro/ /0 o.ser2ation peranakan
descendants ho)e /ore that their children 4ill /arr0 to the sa/e ethnic
!rou) rather than totok descendants 4ho tau!ht that reli!ion is /ore
i/)ortant. Interestin!l03 if Leo Sur0adinata sa0s peranakan are /ore .ound
to their localit03 in this stud03 the life7stories of infor/ants sho4 that
peranakan descendants are /ore .ound to their ethnicit0 co/)are to totok
descendants 4ho are /ore o)en to their localit0. ence3 these peranakan
descendants tr0 to rein2ent their ethnic identit0 rather than totok. This is
can .e seen in sense of identit0 )art3 ReCs case and I ela.orate in the
reli!ion session in this cha)ter too.
Lac$ of reco!nition of :hinese historical roots in Indonesia3 in
)articular in the Soeharto )eriod3 contri.utes to the :hinese citi<enshi)
status. This exclusion also creates a stateless status3 in )articular for
:hinese 4o/en 4here IndonesianCs 1arital La4 "o. % F%97, in 4hich /en
are the leader of the fa/il03 4ho can !i2e citi<enshi) for their 4i2es3
deter/ine their )osition. In this sense3 the !ender nature3 the dichoto/0 of
)ri2ate and )u.lic3 is )ro.le/atic to 4o/enCs citi<enshi) in ter/s of
eKualit0. unCs life7stories3 .orn in %9623 second7!eneration3 sho4 this
issue. er /other is an Indonesian citi<en .ut the father is not althou!h he
is peranakan3 fourth !eneration. In the late %950s her !randfather 4as
afraid if the0 4ere Indonesian citi<ens his son /a0 .e drafted and sent to
the 4ar3 this 4as a ti/e of conEict .et4een Indonesian and 1ala0sia and
Soe$arno drafted )eo)le to =!ht 4ith 1ala0sia. Thus3 her fatherCs status is
>alien? citi<en3 and accordin! to 1arital La43 her status follo4s her father.
Anfortunatel03 she also /arried a :hinese Indonesian /an 4ho is >alien?
citi<en and all their children are stateless. She stru!!led /ore than %7
0ears to o.tain SB#6I Q citi<enshi) certi=cate7 t4o 0ears after she di2orced
fro/ her hus.and. She needed to feed her children .ut 4ith her >alien?
citi<en status3 she could not !et ;o.. The ex7hus.and ne2er su))orted her or
the children and her fa/il0 is )oor.
She identi=es herself as Indonesian and e2en feels co/forta.le ha2in!
relationshi)s 4ith pri!umi rather than :hinese. She sa0s
>Bein! :hinese is diJicult3 althou!h 0ou do not feel as :hinese .ut
)eo)le la.eled 0ou as richer3 in fact3 not all :hinese are rich and eas0
to o.tain /an0 docu/ents in !o2ern/ent institutions .ecause the0
as$ /ore /one0 to )ro2ide 0our reKuest. To !ain /0 SB#6I /ostl0 I
+,
=!ht 4ith the oJicers .ecause the0 ta$e /uch ti/e to 4or$ on /0
docu/ents and as$ a.out /0 >:hinese )ass)ort?. Of course I do not
ha2e .ecause I a/ Indonesian3 e2en I cannot s)ea$ an0 :hinese
dialect and ne2er .een to :hina and do not $no4 /0 :hinese
ancestors. I said all that facts to the oJicers and 4h0 do the0 still
thou!ht that I a/ :hinese 4hile in fact I a/ trul0 Indonesian. The0
are also as$ed /e /one03 I had ex)lained that I a/ not rich .ut the0
do not .elie2e /e? @un %9F&F%0B
unCs life7stories clearl0 de=ne the citi<enshi) status related to class3
!ender3 identi=cation and othersC identi=cation. Le!all03 for :hinese 4ho are
fro/ a hi!h class3 o.tainin! citi<enshi) status is not a .i! )ro.le/ .ut their
)osition as Lister @200+B calls it is still that of N)artial /e/.ershi)? 4here
the0 cannot 2oice their citi<enshi) ri!hts 4hich is theoreticall0 e/.odied in
their citi<enshi) status. The0 cannot sho4 their ethnic identit0. -or/all03 it
see/s that for :hinese althou!h the0 are Indonesian citi<ens or >alien?
citi<ens3 :hineseness is still considered as Nforei!nC. Thus3 citi<enshi) status
for :hinese 4o/en @as SB#6IB3 still )laces their )osition as structurall0
su.ordinate to /enO it also forces the/ to ta$e a distance fro/ their
traditions. -urther/ore3 it also de=nes their )osition at the le2el of
co//unit0 and societ0. Alti/atel0 their citi<enshi) status does not .rin!
the nor/al )ri2ile!es of citi<enshi). In the :hinese 4o/enCs context3
holdin! citi<enshi) status does not /ean an end to exclusionO the0 ha2e
rou!hl0 achie2ed ri!hts eKui2alent to those of other >alien? citi<ens. The0
are suJerin! fro/ stateCs construct that forces the/ to li2e in .et4een
identities3 :hinese and Indonesian. The state forces this identit0 as a
dichoto/0 4hile in fact culturall0 and sociall0 .oth ele/ents are inherent
in their li2es. Hhen the state calls the/ >warga keturunan? @:hinese
descentsQaliens?B /eanin! the0 are treated as the =rst >i//i!rants?3 it
i/)lies that the0 cannot chan!e3 as a sa0in! !oes >once .orn as :hinese3
the0 4ill fore2er .e :hinese?. This )o4er is creatin! a set of stereot0)es of
the :hinese that the0 4ill ne2er .e assi/ilated and inte!rated to societ0.
Thus3 as in unCs case3 o.tainin! citi<enshi) status Qfull /e/.ershi)7 in her
>o4n ho/e? is directl0 related to her a!enc03 4hereas for Didden an actor is
a 4ell7infor/ed a!ent 4hose acts de)end on >)ractical consciousness? and
>discursi2e consciousness?. @Ba.er3 %99%B and he also said that this a!enc0
exists in the /o/ents of social s0ste/ as I /ention in )re2ious cha)ter. -or
:hinese 4o/en3 the .oundar0 .et4een >alien? and >Indonesia? citi<enshi)
status deter/ines their econo/ic conditions and ri!hts as /others3 .ecause
as >alien?3 the0 le!all0 cannot clai/ their o4n children3 as unCs case. Hith
+5
SB#6I3 it is easier for the/ access certain ;o.s and education3 althou!h
ta$in! education /ostl0 in )ri2ate schools3 a citi<enshi) certi=cate is still
reKuired.
In e2er0da0 life3 the :hinese 4o/en learn ho4 to stru!!le for their li2es
and .e res)onsi.le for their o4n citi<enshi). It /eans )oor )eo)le @/inorit03
often 4o/enB ha2e to fend for the/sel2es. The context of the :hinese in
Indonesia3 since the Old order re!i/e and e2en 4orse under the "e4 Order3
is that althou!h the0 are su.;ect7citi<ens3 the0 are treated as aliens3 the
re!i/e callin! the/ warga negara asing @alien citi<enB. -or exa/)le3 in
education the0 ha2e onl0 li/ited accsess to )u.lic schools . 't =rst %0V of
)laces 4ere allocated to :hinese students in each )u.lic school .ut this
)ro)ortion decreased 0ear .0 0ear e2en durin! the Soeharto re!i/e @T;han3
20%0B . There are re!ulations that :hinese can re!ister onl0 in certain
su.;ects of stud0 and for certain ;o.s. In fact3 throu!h their a!enc0 the
:hinese 4or$ in diJerent sectors .ut in that case the0 /ust hide their
ethnic identit0. 'nother exa/)le3 in the Soe$arno )eriod3 in %95&3 to co)e
4ith these )ro.le/s B'P86#I @Badan Permus(awaratan Kewarganegaraan
IndonesiaB .uilt /an0 schools in /an0 areas of Indonesia to res)ond to a
re!ulation that the Chinese Indonesian citi<ens 4ere )rohi.ited to stud0 in
:hinese schools in the na/e of stateCs securit0 .ecause at that ti/e !ossi)
that :hinese are co//unist and 4ill s)read co//unis/ throu!h :hinese
descandants 4as a serious /atter. Besides .ein! res)onsi.le for their o4n
citi<enshi)3 it 4as also as a 4a0 to contri.ute to the nationCs de2elo)/ent as
B'P86#I )roclai/s
2+
of its )ro;ects. I thin$ it re)resents the :hinese
lo0alit0 to the state 4hen their lo0alt0 4as Kuestioned. istoricall03 the
diJerent :hinese or!ani<ations co/)eted .et4een the/sel2es to )ro2e
their >Indonesianess?. o4e2er3 durin! SoehartoCs ti/e all :hinese schools
4ere )rohi.ited to o)erate. This )olic0 created illiterates as so/e )eo)le3
es)eciall0 for 4o/en3 could onl0 read characters. BunCs life7stories
illustrate ho4 this )ollic0 aJected her life. She did not re!ister in an0 school
after the :hinese ones closed3 onl0 her .rother continued to stud0. er
fa/il0 used to s)ea$ :hinese dialect. The0 felt felt insecure 4ith other
races such as their /aids or nei!h.ours .ecause if uncounsiousl0 the0 used
a :hinese custo/ the0 could .e re)orted to the !o2ern/ent as co//unists3
as ha))ened to her friendCs fa/il03 alhou!h the /oti2e .ehind such
re)ortin! is 2arious such as hurt feelin!s3 racis/3 et cetera.
2+
See in Sia4 Dio$ T;an @#e4ar!ane!araan and Ba)er$i3 20%0B
+6
The sti!/a as >co//unist? 4as stron!l0 ex)erienced .0 the =rst7second
!eneration in the %960s. Bun3 =rst7!eneration3 ex)erienced it 4hen the
/ilitar0 ins)ected her house and she /ade sure that fa/il0 did not ha2e
an0 connection 4ith co//unists .0 re/o2in! all :hinese s0/.ols. Ho/en
in the house had to ensure that the house 4as alread0 clean of all si!n of
:hineseness3 for exa/)le e2en the :hinese character of ha))iness Q4ing&u7
/ust .e hidden. Bun and Lie sa4 their friendsC house 4here the /ilitar0
thre4 a4a0 their ancestral cult ta.leFaltar3 4hichs for :hinese it is 2er0
2alua.le and 2er0 i/)ortant .ecause the altar is a s0/.ol of their res)ect
for ancestors and a /ediu/ of co//unication .et4een the/ and the
ancestors. Those ex)eriences re/ind the/ that the countr0 Q>their ho/e?7
>does not al4a0s acce)t? the/ as the0 are. Therefore3 I 4ould ar!ue that
the construction of >other? in this context of the :hineseCs citi<enshi) is
ethnic @and !ender .asedB as do/ains of anal0sis in ho4 the constitution of
)olitical s0ste/ is functionin! to deter/ine i/a!inar0 .oundar0 of 4ho are
citi<ens that can en;o0 ci2il ri!ht and )olitical eKualit0 and 4ho are not
>real0 citi<en? citi<enshi) that o)erates throu!h social s0ste/. ence3
4o/en throu!h their understandin! of the/sel2es @ethnic3 class3 reli!ion3
and clanB ha2e a 4a0 to )ractice their a!enc0 in dealin! 4ith exclusion and
inclusion of citi<enshi)3 as Leat/en /entions >those 4ho are exluded fro/
4ithout? and >those 4ho are excluded fro/ 4ithin? s)eci=c citi<enshi)
co//unities and nation7states @Koute in Lister3 %997O ). +6B. The dee!ree of
acce)tance .0 do/inants and the/sel2es is inEuenced .0 structures at
state and co//unit0 le2els3 and the dialectic of )ast and )resent /e/ories.
-or :hinese 4o/en3 >$ee)in! silent? on their issues is .elie2ed to .e
the ri!ht 4a0 to )rotect their fa/il0 and to sustain their status in the fa/il0
and co//unit0 as >!ood 4o/en?. Thus3 the0 ha2e to sol2e their )ro.le/s
.0 the/sel2es. -irst7second !enerations a4are that the chan!in! of re!i/es
could inEuence their safet03 anti7:hinese riots .eca/e their /e/ories of
citi<enshi) and identit0. -irst7second !enerations understand their li/its.
Thus3 e2er0da0 life is ne!otiation 4ith diJerent the )olicies that deter/ine
their li2es.
#. Sense of identit+
Re3 a 22 0ear7old3 Indonesian7.orn3 third7!eneration of :hinese @fro/ her
/otherCs sideB3 a student in a uni2ersit0 in Sura.a0a3 4as in2ol2ed in 0outh
+7
Buddhist acti2ities .ecause her /other 4anted her to .e acti2e in reli!ion
acti2ities. er )arents ha2e diJerent reli!ionsO her /other has con2erted to
Buddhis/ for %7 0ears3 4hile her father is :onfucian and is acti2e doin! its
rituals althou!h in )rinci)le he cannot ex)lain the /eanin! of his reli!ion to
his children. In the Post Soeharto )eriod3 her father forced her to stud0
:hinese lan!ua!e .ecause she is of :hinese descent so a))ro)riatel0 she
$no4s 1andarin and in future /arried a :hinese Indonesian /an. In fact3
her )arents cannot s)ea$ :hinese3 and are descendants of /ixed .lood
fa/il0. Re feels 1andarin is not her lan!ua!e and it is unnecessar0 to lean it
4hile she uses !ahasa @Indonesian lan!ua!eB in da07to7da0 life. She
ex)eriences 9a2anese /en /ore sensiti2e to 4o/enCs fellin! co/)ared to
:hinese /en 4ho are onl0 .us0 4ith their .usiness. The sa/e can .e said
for third7!enerationO the consciousness of ethnic identit0 is sli!ht. 'lthou!h
she reall0 4ant to /arr0 to a 9a2aness /an she understand that it is diJicult
and her )arents 2er0 an!r03 she sa0s >a$u sa0an! /ere$a? @I lo2e the/B3 So
she 4ill follo4 4hat her )arents 4ant .ecause it )erha)s !ood for her that
not !i2e e/otional .urden to the/. It is as a result of .ein! lo0al and
res)ect to fa/il0 0,uhauw0 still inEuence this !eneration .ut the0 use the
4ord >sa$ang? @lo2eB not >!er!akti? @uhauw Qlo0alB. The $no4led!e of the
:hinese traditions is extre/el0 /odestO the0 identi=ed the/sel2es as
Indonesians rather than :hinese. This !rou) da07to7da0 li2e 4ith other
diJerent races and do diJerent acti2ities to!ether at schools. This
.ac$!round functions to .rea$ the ethnic .oundaries3 creates sa/eness of
feelin! as >Indonesian?3 and continuousl0 re!ulates their 4a0 of .ein! to
ensure that the0 are connected and tied to each other @1artsin3 20%0B. The
Sa/eness forces the/ to reEect that the0 are united3 .ut it also creates
diJiculties to understand 4h0 their )arents @second7!enerationB forced
the/ to /arr0 :hinese /en 4ho do not 4ith their ideals of /en. The0 $no4
so/ethin! a.out the histor0 of exclusion of :hinese in Indonesia. Hhen I
as$ed a.out the 1ei riotC9&
2,
/an0 of this !rou) did not $no43 the0 thou!ht
it 4as onl0 in 9a$arta and Sura.a0a 4as )eaceful. The0 re/e/.ered it as
the ti/e 4hen the0 4ent .ac$ earl0 fro/ school and it closed for t4o da0s
.ut the0 en;o0ed their ti/e and )la0ed at ho/e. 'ccordin! to the/3 the
:hinese hardl0 inte!rate the/sel2es to societ0 and ha2e diJiculties to ada)t
4ith pri!umi .ecause the0 ha2e diJerent orientations. Hhile the0 ex)lain
their identit0 is diJerent fro/ their )arents and !rand)arents3 the0 used a
4ord >kuno? @old7fashionB to distin!uish >the/? fro/ ?us?. The0 ex)lain3
2,
The 1ei riot in %99& is the ti/e 4hen Soeharto fell also it is $no4n as racial riot
4here /an0 :hinese 4o/en 4ere ra)ed. 't the ti/e of 1ei riots /ost of the third
!enerations 4ere around %07%+ 0ears old
+&
toda0 is a )eriod 4here :hinese should .e o)en and inte!rate the/sel2es to
societ0 .ecause the0 are Indonesians. Toda03 the o)enness of the :hinese
ex)ression throu!h ne4 re!i/e3 for the/ is not such a .i! issue .ecause
the0 identif0 the/sel2es as :hristianF:atholic not :onfucian. It see/s for
the/3 :hinese traditions associate 4ith :onfucianis/.
o4e2er3 the second !eneration does not feel )articularl0 inte!rated or
4elco/e in the countr0 4here the0 are citi<ens3 /e/ories of the )ast that
the0 ex)erienced sha)e their feelin!s a.out the )resent 4here the0 still =nd
life diJicult as :hinese and in )articular as )oor 4o/en. To so/e extent3
locall03 the0 feel acce)tance fro/ societ0 .ut3 4hen I as$ed ho4 the0 feel as
Indonesian3 it is so/ethin! that is diJicult for the/ to descri.e .ecause
their life7stories re2eal Euctuations. in their acce)tance .0 the lar!er
co//unit0. 'lienation 4as ex)erienced since the0 4ere children throu!h
hu/iliation as ,cina1 fro/ friends3 nei!h.ors3 and !o2ern/ent oJicers. The
feelin! as others 4as constructed throu!h diJerent social =elds such as
ho/es3 schools3 4or$ )laces3 /ar$ets3 streets3 and !o2ern/ent institutions.
's 4o/en3 so/e infor/ants tell si/ilar ex)eriences a.out sexual
harass/ent such as touchin! their .reast or other .od0 )arts and callin!
the/ >meme cina? @:hinese !irl B on the streets. The actors are identi=ed as
pri!umi. -an! sa0s3 >it is .ecause 4e are :hinese that those /en @pri!umiB
4ill do it3 and if it ha))ens to their o4n 4o/en3 e2er0one 4ill hit at that
/an3 .ut 4hen it ha))en to :hinese 4o/en the0 onl0 s/ile and let it
ha))en?. 8thnicit0 and !ender ha.itus situated the/ in a diJerent 4a0 of
.ein!3 Q3 the SuhartoCs re!i/e le!iti/ates this identi=cation throu!h not
onl0 )h0sical force .ut also s0/.olic 4a0s 2ia s)eci=c )olicies. -or exa/)le3
sha)in! se!re!ation of ;o.s3 schools3 la.elin! the :hinese in a )recise class3
and ad/inistrati2el0 codin! the identit0 card 4hich is re!ulated for/all0
and infor/all0. Theses !enerations of 4o/en sho4 ho4 this ethnic identit0
and !ender /o2e in sta.le as 4ell as unsta.le 4a0s that interact 4ith
reaJir/ and con=r/ continuousl0. -or exa/)le3 to )rotect her fa/il03 Luc3
second7!eneration told that on certain occasions the0 i!nored their ethnic
identit0 and 4ere afraid to .e $no4n as :hinese. Hhen her )h0sical
a))earance is confronted she ac$no4led!ed herself as 1enadonese @fro/
Sula4esiB or 5a0a$nese @fro/ #ali/antanB 4hich ha2e si/ilar a))earance
to :hinese. -or the third7!eneration3 Re feels unco/forta.le 4hen )eo)le
identif0 her as :hinese .ecause she feels as Indonesian. She li2es in a
situation 4here her )arents and her !rand/a treat her as :hinese.
8x)ressi2e identit0 can .een seen throu!h the ex)eriences at ho/e
4here the0 could do their :hinese traditions in the )ast and )ersonall0 feel
+9
a connection 4ith their ori!in Q their ho/eland. -or the second !eneration3
reli!ion is a >fro<en?e)isode 3 as .0 this the0 .eco/e assi/ilated into the
>national identit0?. o4e2er this !rou) also see/s to ha2e rein2ented their
ethnic identit0 /ore stron!l0 than the =rst7!eneration of :hinese 4o/en3
)erha)s the exclusion due to their ethnic identit0 4as /ore 4iderl0
ex)erienced3 4hile =rst7!eneration 4o/en had onl0 li/ited access to stud0
and ;o.s. This Nrein2entedC identit0 is stron!l0 felt .0 the third7!eneration
4hen their /other @second7!enerationB forces the/ to =nd :hinese /en.
The /e/ories and ex)eriences as a cate!or0 of :hinese also 4ere
ex)erienced .0 the =rst !eneration throu!h the son!
25
>cina loleng?3 4hich
fro/ the colonial to )ost colonial7 Soeharto re!i/e7 4as a >)o)ular son!?.
The reaction to this son! is 2ariedsO so/e of the =rst !eneration told their
dau!hters to .e cal/ and not a!ainst >the pri!umi? 4ho san! it .0
ex)lainin!3 >4e are diJerent and the0 @pri!umiB do not understand >us? and
4e ha2e to re/e/.er that 4e are ne4 co/ers in this land?. o4e2er3 so/e
other infor/ants3 =rst7second3 feel that the0 are Indonesian. -or the/
ethnicit0 onl0 distin!uishes so/e cultural diJerences .ut does not exclude
the/ fro/ the nation. 1oreo2er3 =rst7second !enerations li2e in a social
structure 4here at that ti/e the dichoto/0 .et4een the :hinese the/sel2es
4ere 2er0 stron! Q cate!or0 totok and peranakan Qas one criterion to choose
a hus.and. Then .et4een totok also the0 /ust a4are a.out their clan and
4hich clan can =t 4ith the/ so3 distinction a.out >the/? and >us? not onl0
externall0 .et4een Chinese and pri!umi .ut also internall0 the0 created
diJerent cate!ories of :hinese in order to ful=ll their !ender roles. Lie @the
=rst !enerationB sa0s a.out her situation 4hen she /arried:
>I 4as /arried in %9523 4hen Soe$arno era3 Indonesia has it inde)endent
alread0. o4e2er3 I had /isera.le here @in Sa/)it3 her )lace .efore /o2e to
Sura.a0aB3 /0 hus.and and his fa/il0 tortured /e 4here e2er0 da0 I had to
coo$ for all )eo)le and do other do/estic thin!s. It 4as 4a0s of totok fa/il0
treats their dau!hters in la4. 10 hus.and did not care of /eO he onl0
listened to his /other. 10 /other said3 it 4as /0 fate I could not lea2e it.
10 /other 4anted /e to acce)t hi/ .ecause he is totok and )okcia
@:hinese clanB. 10 /other in la4 is /0 /otherCs cousin. 'ctuall0 it 4as
)eriod of 1ao Uedon! 4hen )eo)le ha2e their o4n dates .ut I !ot /0
hus.and throu!h a /atch/a$er >@Lie 6F&F%0B
25
:ina Lolen!? is a >son!? that 4as sun! .0 pri!umi children and adults as
hu/iliation to distin!uish other !rou)s . The son! is : cina lon!len!3 /a$an .a.i3
$alau /ati /atan0a $e.encelen!. This son! /ostl0 understood .0 :hinese in
diJerent re!ions.
,0
-an!3 LieCs dau!hter3 said that3 >totok fa/ilies usuall0 4ant to =nd totok
)artners for their children?. This 4as her ex)erience. ' /atch/a$er is
co//on for toto$ fa/il0 to =nd si/ilar ethnic. So in -an!Cs case3 a
/atch/a$er also introduced her to her hus.and as her )arentsC 4ishes. In
this sense3 self7understandin! of the/ as an a4areness of .ein! diJerent
fro/ other :hinese !rou)3 and =ndin! the sa/e !rou) to their dau!hters
althou!h it 4as /isera.le for :hinese 4o/en li2e in toto$ tradition. Lie
continue to =nd totok /en for her dau!hters. It see/s as Bourdieu sa0s3
ha!itus is turn into nature @1cLeod3 2005B 4here the0 ;ust continue the
structures auto/aticall0. Later -an! turned a!ainst this structure .0 sa0in!
>/0 children do not ha2e to =nd totok or peranakan an0/ore3 the i/)ortant
is the0 ha2e to =nd )ersons 4ho ha2e si/ilar reli!ion to the/3 :atholic3
e2en the0 are not :hinese )ersons?.
#.# Re"igion > a new identit+
In this stud03 accordin! to /0 o.ser2ation and listenin! to life7stories of the
infor/ants3 3 it see/s that toda0 reli!ion or Qreli!ious identit07 in the
context of the :hinese 4o/en is an i/)ortant issue co/)ared to the
colonial and earl0 )ostcolonial )eriod. Since the colonial )eriod the
reli!ious identities of :hinese Indies are di2erse .ut :onfucianis/ is
do/inant. The :hinese 4ho hold :hristianit0F:atholicis/ as their reli!ion
at that ti/e 4ere identi=ed as peranakan3 althou!h not all peranakan are
:hristian and e2en so/e totok are :hristian. Isla/ is associated 4ith
pri!umi ' so :hinese 4ho con2erted their reli!ion to Isla/ 4ere seen to
chan!e their ethnic identit0 to .e pri!umi. The assi/ilation )olic0 forced
the :hinese3 to con2ert their reli!ion to the reli!ion ac$no4led!ed .0 the
state such as :hristian3 :atholic3 Isla/3 Buddha3 and indu. This reli!ion is
)art of the >national identit0? that e2er0 Indonesian has to hold one of the
reli!ions. Indi!enous reli!ion 4as )rohi.ited.
In this stud03 the second !eneration is stron!l0 situated .0 this )olic0.
So/e infor/ants ha2e chosen reli!ion in school .ecause reli!ion 4as one of
the /andator0 su.;ects that all students /ust stud0. -ar3 second7!eneration3
.orn in %9723 tells her ex)eriences a.out reli!ion and ho4 did she
con2erted:
>'t that ti/e is a chan!in! ti/e3 I 4as at ,
th
!rade3 4e handed a for/ of
reli!ion that /ust .e ta$en ho/e for )arents to =ll in 4hat reli!ion ha2e .e
con2erted. I sho4 the for/ to /0 /other .ut she onl0 said that u) to /e.
,%
Therefore3 I select :atholic3 /0 .i! .rother selects Buddha3 and /0 little
.rother selects :atholic. 10 /other does not care of reli!ion. 't that ti/e3
all students 4ho hold :onfucius /ust choose one. @-ar %9F&F%0B
In %96&3 4hen all :hinese schools 4ere closed3 /ost of the/ /o2ed to
:hristianF:atholic /issionar0 schools .ut /an0 of the/3 in )articular
4o/en3 sto))ed stud0in!. Hhile da07to7da03 the0 4ere structured in
a:hristian en2iron/ent and studied :hristianit0 in schools3 so/e
2oluntaril0 con2erted their reli!ion fro/ :onfucianis/ to :hristianF:atholic.
o4e2er3 for the =rst7!eneration the reasons the0 con2erted reli!ion are
inEuenced .0 their thin$in! )attern of :onfucianis/ that .elie2es an0one
4ho died /ust .e )ra0ed to and res)ected .0 their descendants. Hhen their
children con2erted their reli!ion3 the0 follo4 the childrenCs reli!ion. Lie
sa0s that as lon! as 0ou are :hinese3 4hate2er 0our reli!ion 0ou /ust not
for!et 0our tradition.
W.... So re/e/.er it is :hineseCs custo/s3 4e are :hinese. These custo/s
could not .e lost. 'lthou!h3 4e .eca/e a :hristian the tradition as :hinese
should not .e lost?. @Lie3 5F&F%0B
Sociall0 and econo/icall03 the >:hinese reli!ion? as On!o$a/ /entions
is a .urden for the fa/il0. Ho/en ha2e to ta$e care of the altar and )ro2ide
diJerent stuJ on the altar. So/e con2erted for econo/ic reasons as in SunCs
life7stories. She con2erted her reli!ion to :hristian three /onths after her
hus.and died .ecause she thou!ht it 4as too ex)ensi2e to )ro2ide for the
altar. Thus3 :hristianit0 in this sense3 !i2es her a 4a0 to sol2e her econo/ic
)ro.le/s. Later she also is acti2e in the church. The church su))ort her
4ith a /onthl0 allo4ance Q the0 call it rice /one03 to .u0 rice onl073 if she is
acti2e in the churchCs acti2ities. Sociall03 it is also !i2es freedo/ to 4o/en
fro/ their !ender roles .ecause the0 do not ha2e to follo4 N:hinese
traditionC .0 carin! for the altar.
Therefore3 for =rst7second !enerations3 this forced identit0 see/s to
/eet 4ith the 4o/enCs needs for the >ne4 identit0?. This >ne4 identit0? Q
/odern reli!ion7 can .e said to .e their a!enc0 to structures that situate
the/ in a )atriarchal s0ste/. o4e2er3 this ne4 reli!ion Q
:hristianF:atholic7 is also .ased on a )atriarchal ideolo!0 4here /en are
do/inant. -an!3 Bin!3 and :hin! tell si/ilar ex)eriences a.out the
diJerence .et4een the/. In :onfucius .elief3 /en can do an0thin! to
4o/en and sho4 no res)ect to 4o/en3 4hile in :hristianit0 )eo)le are
tau!ht to lo2e each other3 so for the/ 4ith this lo2e /en can res)ect and
,2
)ut 4o/en in .etter )osition. Throu!h reli!ious identit03 the :hinese 4ho
usuall0 distin!uish .et4een the/sel2es could .e united as >:hinese and in
the sa/e ti/e as Indonesian?3 althou!h this identit0 still )uts the/ as a
>/inorit0? cate!or0 4hen Isla/ is do/inant. The :hineseFethnic >/inorit0>
is an unsafe cate!or0 co/)ared to reli!ious >/inorit0? This >ne4 /inorit0?
constructs their )s0cholo!ical condition to feel free to /o2e as >Indonesian?
and so/eti/es as :hinese Indonesian3 4ith easier accesses to the )u.lic
s)here. Inclusi2e citi<enshi) can .e articulated too. 6eli!ious identit0
)ro2ides s)aces for articulatin! their ethnic identit0 .ut the :hinese
traditions 4ere not often )racticed a!ain.
If reli!ion for the second7!eneration refers to a!enc03 the third7
!eneration refers to it as >!i2en? Qso/e cannot con2ert .ecause their
)arents hold a reli!ion and the0 oJiciall0 ha2e .een .a)ti<ed as a .a.0 or
child. To the second7!eneration3 reli!ion is a criterion for their children
deter/inin! 4ho/ the0 can /arr0. The second7!eneration )ro)ose si/ilar
reli!ion rather than si/ilar ethnicit0 .ecause the0 thou!ht reli!ion !uides
the/ ho4 to li2e as !ood )eo)le. :hristian 2alues Qreli!ion ha.itus7 de=nes
their ne4 identit0. This reli!ion .eca/e stron!er3 not onl0 .ecause of forced
identit0 .ut in %990s3 in Indonesia3 the 4a2e of reli!ion /o2e/ents also
.eco/es stron!er and reli!ion .eca/e a cate!or0 indication in order to
se!re!ate )eo)le. Therefore3 .esides reli!ion as forced identit03 the
/o2e/ent of reli!ions also inEuences ho4 the :hinese 4o/en feel >ho/e?
and >4elco/e? and as the/sel2es3 4here :hristianit0 !i2es the/ >s)ace? to
articulate their ethnic identit0.
#.' Conc"uding Remarks
The a.o2e anal0sis on the issues of su.;ecti2it0 of the :hinese 4o/en dail0
life sho4s that !eneration contri.utes to the conce)tuali<ation of
citi<enshi) and identit0 at .oth le2els3 of theor0 and )ractice. 8ach
!eneration has its o4n issues related to their citi<enshi)3 for exa/)le3 =rst7
!eneration 4o/en focus /ore to ethnic identit0 and traditions as :hinese
4o/en stron!l0 inEuences in ho4 the0 de=ne and )ercei2e the/sel2es.
Second7!eneration3 throu!h forced Nnational identit0C3 reli!ion identit03 as
4a0s ho4 the0 articulate their ethnic identit0 and national identit0. Third7
!eneration sho4 ho4 assi/ilation )rocess 4or$ in their dail0 life thou!h
school acti2ities.
,+
Theoretical fra/e4or$s that ha2e .een used are not linier that can
ex)lain all !eneration in the sa/e 4a0s .ecause the context3 ti/e3
!eo)olitical inEuence ho4 each !eneration identif0 the/sel2es in the
context of Indonesia 4here in their /e/ories in )articular to second7third
!eneration the chan!in! re!i/es contri.utes to their )osition )oliticall0 and
sociall0.
,,
Chapter '
Conc"usion: ,i@erent *eaning of Three :eneration
This conclusion starts fro/ the Kuestions that I )osed in cha)ter % and lin$
4ith theories and the =ndin! as 4ell as /0 reEection on the /ethodolo!0
that I ha2e chosen. In !eneral3 ho4 do three !enerations of 4o/en
)ercei2e and de=ne their situation .ased on !ender and ethnicit0 in
res)onse to the )rocess exclusion and inclusionM o4 does this inEuence
their o4n self7)erce)tion in creatin! their citi<enshi) and identit0M Hhat
are factors that contri.ute to the construction of citi<enshi) and identit0M
Hhat !eneration /eans in the construction of citi<enshi) and identit0.
Hhen I started /0 research I reali<ed that !eneration is an i/)ortant
factor in understandin! citi<enshi) and identit0 construction of :hinese
4o/en in the context of Indonesia. Deneration as I found not onl0 hel)s to
sho4 the co/)lexit0 of constructin! their citi<enshi) and identit0 .ut also
criticall0 sho4s that conce)tual a))roaches do not al4a0s satisf0 /e in
understandin! their situations. This stud0 is sho4in! that theories on
citi<enshi) and identities cannot .e !enerali<ed to exa/ine diJerent
!enerationsO the contexts3 !eo)olitics and ti/e are factors that need to .e
considered. The )ro.le/s of each !eneration is diJerent one to another
althou!h structurall0 the0 ha2e si/ilar situations. 8ach !eneration has its
o4n i/a!ination of .ein! >Indonesian? andFor .ein! >:hinese? .ecause the
structures that situate the/ e/)hasi<e !eneration diJerentl0 and self7
identi=cation and identi=cation .0 others are also aJected .0 this. Social
and )olitical s0ste/s that e/.od0 in their life7stories are ex)erienced
diJerentl0 fro/ one to other !eneration e2en 4ithin the sa/e !eneration
.ecause social cate!or0 of their ethnic identit0 and !ender are diJerent. -or
exa/)le3 =rst and second !enerations of 4o/en 4ho ex)erienced 2iolence
and discri/ination a!ainst :hinese in the na/e of >nation7state? forced
the/ to .e a4are of their ethnic identit0 and the chan!e of re!i/es.
Besides3 their !ender identit0 also situated the/ to understand their
)osition 4ithin the fa/il0 and the state. These ex)eriences forced the/ to
/o2e a4a0 fro/ their 4orld Q:hineseness7 that see/s the0 lost their
>indi2idual identit0? in the situations 4hen :hinese cate!ories as >other?
and the tar!et of senti/ent anti7:hinese. ere3 4o/en also /ust a4are
4ith their )osition as carin! and )rotectin! to their fa/il0. On one hand3
the0 ha2e .een li2ed in the tradition that the0 4ere tau!ht to /aintain the
,5
continuit0 of :hinese traditions as their 4orld. On the other hand3 the0
2irtuall0 /ust lea2e fro/ their dail0 life as :hinese co//unit03 and /o2e to
the .i! co//unit03 Indonesian nation. Thus3 the feelin! and ex)eriences as
local /o2e to >national? le2el forced the/ to i!nored their :hineseness .0
)uttin! safet0 of their fa/il0 on the to) of their list.
Second7!eneration !i2es /eanin! diJerentl0 to the >national7identit0?
that forced to the/. -or the/3 The reKuire/ent to .e >Indonesian? 4ere
2alued as a 4a0 to /o2ed out fro/ the .urden of traditions as :hinese
4o/en3 thou!h con2ert their reli!ion Qne4 identit07 the reli!ion identit0 as
a 4a0 ho4 the0 rein2ented their :hineseness in relation to the state .ut
silentl0 the0 forced their children to .e :hinese as their i/a!ination of
:hinese. o4e2er3 if :hinese in =rst7!eneration /ore fra!/ented in di2erse
cate!ories accordin! to peranakan Q totok3 clan3 localit0 and )olitical
orientation3 in second7!eneration this ne4 identit0 Q reli!ion identit0 see/s
united the/ as >:hinese? e2en >:hinese Indonesian?. 's I /ention in
cha)ter ,3 this reli!ion as s)aces for dialo!ue to identif0 the/sel2es in the
context of )resent.
5iJerent fro/ second7!eneration that translates reli!ion as choice and
freedo/3 third7!eneration 4o/en loo$s at it as a !i2en that cannot chan!e3
in the sa/e 4a0 that =rst7!eneration 4o/en .elie2e that ethnicit0 is =xed.
The feelin! that the0 ha2e .een assi/ilated to the nation is stron!er a/on!
third !eneration 4o/en co/)are to the second7!eneration 4here it also
raises conEicts .et4een the/ in ter/s of ethnic identit0. 'lthou!h second7
!eneration 4o/en thin$ reli!ious identit0 /eans freedo/ fro/
:hineseness3 I thin$ it is onl0 at the le2el of >:hinese tradition? that is
eKuated 4ith :onfucianis/3 that the0 feel free fro/. Therefore3 /e/ories
as :hinese unconsciousl0 .ind the/ stron!l0 .ecause the ex)erience of
.ein! forced to i!nore their o4n :hineseness 4as an e/otional and
/e/ora.le one 4hich )laces the/ in a dile//atic situation re!ardin! their
ethnic identit03 i.e. .et4een feelin! Indonesian and :hinese at the sa/e
ti/e. Silentl0 to )rotect their ethnic identit0 Q their :hineseness7 second7
!eneration 4o/en tr0 to rein2ent their :hineseness accordin! to their o4n
2ersion .0 forcin! their dau!hters @childrenB to /arr0 4ith :hinese /en
4hiche2er their clan7Hhile3 for third7!eneration it is not i/)ortant an0/ore3
for the/ .ein! Indonesian /eans o)en to e2er0 )ossi.ilities to =nd /en
fro/ diJerent ethnic !rou)s as their s)ouse. o4e2er3 if the0 follo4 the
)arentsC 4ishes it is .ecause the0 lo2e the/ 4hich it eKui2alent to uhauw.
,6
Thus3 in so/e de!ree3 unconsciousl0 the third7!eneration 4o/en are still
inEuenced .0 :onfucianis/ 3 i.e. of .ein! lo0al to the fa/il0.
Therefore3 three !eneration )oints out diJerent 4a0s of .ein! althou!h
in so/e de!ree the0 are situated in si/ilar situations3 as I /ention in
)re2ious cha)ter3 the0 react diJerentl0 .ecause indi2iduall0 their
.ac$!rounds are diJerent and the o))ortunities to 4or$ and /eet 4ith
)eo)le fro/ other ethnic and class .ac$!rounds are also diJerent.
Therefore to ans4er to the )rocess of exclusion and inclusion3 and
citi<enshi) in the :hinese Indonesian 4o/enCs context is not onl0 a.out
ho4 the0 )artici)ate in )olitics as 4o/en .ut also the reco!nition of their
ethnic diJerences as rele2ant and inte!ral to the constitution of the nation.
Thus3 citi<enshi) in the :hinese 4o/enCs context can .e said is not onl0 a
relation to the state .ut it is also the relation .et4een :hinese !rou)s
the/sel2es and 4ith other ethnic !rou)s. It is not onl0 as Lister @%997B
)oints7out3 a re7articulation of the )u.lic7)ri2ate s)heres 4hich is
challen!in! to understand )rocesses of 4o/enCs exclusion at the le2el of
theor0 and )ractice .ut it also ho4 to understand their /ulti)le identities
4ithin the nation7state3 4hich is eKuall0 i/)ortant.
Therefore3 as I /entioned in the )re2ious cha)ter this stud0 sho4s that
!ender and ethnic identit0 are i/)ortant di/enstions to understand
:hinese 4o/enCs citi<enshi) and identit0 in relation to the )rocess of
exclusion and inclusion. Thus as 1anda$ini Pant @2006B states3 citi<enshi) is
a d0na/ic and fra!/ented ex)erience and a )rocess of self7ful=ll/ent and
self7/a$in! in diJerent social locations and ti/es.
o4e2er3 this stud0 cannot /a$e a !enerali<ation of all :hinese 4o/en
in Indonesia 4ith re!ard to their citi<enshi) and identit0 construction
.ecause the di2ersit0 of :hinese Indonesian 4here local !eo)olitics
contri.ute to the self7)erce)tion of 4o/en and ho4 the0 de=ne the/sel2es
in res)onse to the )rocesses of exclusion and inclusion. 1ore research still
needs to .e done on the role of localit0 and reli!ion in exa/inin! :hinese
Indonesian 4o/enCs citi<enshi) and identit0.
,7
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(pp+ =2/2D)+ 'ondon
: Sage Publication+
0oon1 7+ H+ (233B)+ %'inese "dentity in +ost Su'arto "ndonedia - %ulture. +olitic and
Media # !astbourne:
Susse* Academic Press+
,&
Nahin1 C+ M+ (4D:>)+ he 7hinese in Indonesia+ 0ar $ast Survey 1 -ol+ 4=1 no+ 24: 92>/
92D+
Nastoryano1 R+ (233=)+ 7iti)enship1 $ationhood1 and $on/erritoriality:ransnational
Participation in
!urope+ +olitical Science and +olitics 1 -ol+9B1 no+ :1 >D9/>D>+
!omentar )! di metro /7+ (233>1 "ctober 4D)+ Retrie-ed September 2=1 23431 from
#orum ?udaya
ionghoa: http:LL666+mail/
archi-e+comLbudayaPtionghuaQyahoogroups+comLmsg43=>B+html
N6artanada1 %+ (233>1 "ctober 4:)+ 0orum udaya /iong'oa# Retrie-ed March 421
23431 from
http:LLiccsg+6ordpress+comL233>L43L4:Ltionghoa/dalam/dinamiAa/se;arah/
indonesia/modern/reGeAsi/seorang/se;ara6an/peranaAanL
N6oA/bun1 7+ (233=)+ %'inese "dentities. $t'nicity and %osmopolitanism# 'ondon:
Rouladge+
'ister1 R+ (2339)+ %iti1ens'ip - 0eminist +erspective# $e6 HorA: $e6 HorA (ni-ersity
Press+
'ister1 R+ (4DD@)+ 7iti)enship: o6ards a #eminist Synthesis+ 0eminist Review 1 -ol+=@
(Autum): 2B/:B+
MacAie1 I+ (4D@>)+ /'e %'inese in "ndonesia# Melbourne: he Australian Institute of
International aFairs+
Martsin1 M+ (2343)+ Identitty in %ialogue: Identity as 0yper/Cenerali)ed Personal
Sense+ /'eory and
+syc'ology 1 -ol+ 23 (9): :9>/:=3+
Mc!6an1 7+ (233=)+ Cendered 7iti)enship in South Africa: Rights and ?eyond+ In A+
C+ (ed)1 89n:t'ingking
%iti1ens'ip (pp+ 4@@/4DB)+ Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing 'imited+
Mc'eod1 I+ (233=)+ #eminists re/reading ?ourdieu: "ld debates and ne6 questions
about gender habitus
and gender change+ /'eory and Researc' in $ducation 1 -ol+ 9 (4): 44/93+
Mc$ay1 '+ (233:)+ Agency and e*perience : gender as a li-ed relation+ Sociological
Review +
Mei;1 '+ S+ (233D)+ Ruang Sosial aru +erempuan /iong'oa- Sebua' !a;ian
+ascakolonial# IaAarta:
,9
Hayasan "bor Indonesia+
"M?rien1 M+1 O Penna1 S+ (233>)+ Social !*clusion in !urope:Some 7onceptual issues+
"nternational )ournal
of Social (elfare 1 -ol+3 (3): B:/D2+
"M'eary1 K+ (233:)+ /'e $ssential 3uide to *oing Researc'# 'ondon: Sage Publication
'td+
"ng1 A+ (2339)+ udd'a is 4idding- Refugee. %iti1ens'ip. /'e ,ew America #
?erAeley: (ni-ersity of
7alifornia Press+
"ng1 A+ (233>)+ Mutations in 7iti)enship+ /'eory. %ulture 5 Society 1 -ol+29 (2/9):
:DD/=3=+
"nghoAham+ (233B)+ Anti %ina. !apitalisme %ina dan 3erakan %ina-Se;ara' $tnis
%ina di "ndonesia#
IaAarta: Nomunitas ?ambu+
"ommen1 + (4DD@)+ Introduction: 7onceptauli)ing he 'inAage ?et6een 7iti)enship
and $ational
Identity+ In + "+ (ed)1 %iti1ens'ip and ,ational "dentity from %olonialism to
3lobalism (pp+ 4/=4)+ 'ondon: Sage Publication+
"ommen1 + (233>)+ Identity: !nabling and !ndangering 7iti)enship+ In R+ M+ andon1
+articipatory
%iti1ens'ip - "dentity. $<clusion. "nclusion (pp+ 2D/=3)+ 'ondon: SAC!
Publication+
Pant1 M+ (233>)+ Marginalised 7iti)enship of $omads+ In R+ M+ (eds)1 +articipatory
%iti1ens'ip "dentity.
$<clusion. "ndclusion (pp+ 444/42@)+ 'ondon: Sage Publication +
Sargent1 7+ ?+ (233>)+ Introduction Migration+ Identity and 7iti)enship:
Anthropological perspecti-es+
Americant e'avioral Scientist 1 -ol+ =31 no+ 4: 9/B+
Scott1 I+ 8+ (4DBB)+ 3ender and t'e politics of 'istory # $e6 HorA: 7olumbia
(ni-ersity Press+
Suryadinata1 '+ (2334)+ 7hinese Politics in Post/SuhartoMs Indonesia: ?eyond the
!thnic ApproachR Asian
Survey 1 -ol+ :41 no+ 9: =32/=2:+
Suryadinata1 '+ (4DD@)+ /'e %ulture of t'e %'inese Minority in "ndonesia # Singapore:
imes ?ooAs
International+
50
Suryadinata1 '+ (4DDD)+ he !thnic 7hinese Issue and $ational Integration in
Indonesia+ A +ublic Lecture
(pp+ 4/24)+ Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies+
Suryadinata1 '+ (2343)+ /oko' /iong'oa 5 "dentitas "ndonesia- *ari /;oe ou San
Sampai =ap /'iam 4ien#
IaAarta: Nomunitas ?ambu+
an1 M+ C+ (4DD@)+ he !thnic 7hinese in Indonesia : Issues of Identity + In '+ S+ (ed)1
$t'nic %'inese as
Sout'est Asians (pp+ 99/>=)+ Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian +
homson1 R+ p+ (233D)+ 7ritical %e-elopment: Introduction + In R+ p+ (eds)1 /'e >ral
4istory Reader (pp+ 4/
49)+ 'ondon: Routledge+
;han1 S+ C+ (2343)+ Ne6arganegaraan and ?aperAi+ In S+ + (edr)1 Renungan Seorang
+atriot "ndonesia
(pp+ 92=/9D2)+ IaAarta: 'embaga Na;ian Sinergi Indonesia +
8illmott1 %+ !+ (233D)+ /'e ,ational Status of t'e %'inese in "ndonesia ?@002?@AB#
Singapore: !quino*
Publishing+
Hu-al/%a-is1 $+ (233>)+ ?elonging and the politics of belonging+ +atterns of +re;udice
1 -ol+:31 no+ 9: 4D@/
24:+
Hu-al/%a-is1 $+ (4DD@)+ 3ender and ,ation# 'ondon: SAC! Publications+
Appenices
5%
Appendi4 1
ReAection
A mirror to m+se"f: Se"f5reAectivit+ in the ora" histor+ process
This reEection starts fro/ the /ethodolo!0 this research and /0 o4n
)osition as a :hinese7Indonesian 4o/an. The interaction 4ith the
infor/ants hel)ed /e to understand the histor0 that 4as hidden fro/ /0
!eneration. Listenin! their life7stories3 there are no clear .oundaries of
4o/enCs /ulti)l0 identities .ecause on the /ix and interact 4ith ti/e and
s)ace that are ex)erienced in e2er0da0 life. It can continuousl0 /o2e and
chan!e .ut certain ex)eriences caused the/ to >thic$en? or .e >fro<en?.
This research )ro2ides /e an o))ortunit0 to /eet /0self as a :hinese7
Indonesian 4o/an 4ho has co//onalities and diJerences 4ith the
infor/ants. These life7stories not onl0 reEect >our? histor0 as a /inorit0 and
4o/en .ut also stories of )o4er.
I 4as .orn in the )eriod 4hen Suharto ca/e to )o4er3 4hen he 4as
2ictorious and stron!. It 4as also the ti/e 4hen !raduall0 :hinese7
Indonesians started to !et a4a0 fro/ their cultural roots. -or exa/)le3 Leo
Sur0adinata said3 >I can .e cate!ori<ed as a :hinese peranakan
26
ho4e2er3
since I 4as a child /0 )arents al4a0s told /e that I a/ >orang totok? @totok
)eo)leB. 82er0 da0 I ha2e al4a0s to re/e/.er that I a/ a )okcia' 4ho are
$ind and ci2ili<ed3 therefore 4ith those )ositions3 later I ha2e to choose a
hus.and 4ho is a toto$ and e2en .etter if he is a o$cia too. Of course3 he
should not .e a Khe or e2en not a :hinese Pontiana$
27
. 'lthou!h later on3
so/e of /0 sisters 4ere /arried to those )eo)le. In fact3 the0 are ha))0
4ith their /arital life. The !ood is there are no co/)laints 4ith their
4eddin!. In /0 /ind then I sa03 >aha3 /0 fa/il0 has chan!ed?
82er0 da0 2oices a.out the :hinese rin! li$e .ells to /0 /ind 4here e2er I
a/O fro/ ho/e3 school3 church3 state3 street3 and e2en in a )lace for
relaxin! and chattin! a.out issues3 fro/ the li!ht to the su)er serious
to)ics. Since I 4as a child until adulthood3 al/ost e2er04here3 )eo)le
insulted /e .0 callin! /e >cina?. Later3 in colle!e in Sura.a0a3
unconsciousl03 the ter/ >cina? .eco/e a su.;ect of /0 ;o$e 4ith friends.
8thnicit0 .eco/es a ;o$e a/on! us 4ithout an0 ai/ to hurt each other.
26
See Sur0adinata3 200%
27
Pontiana$ is a cit0 in Hest #ali/antan 4here the /a;orit0 of )o)ulation is
:hinese. The stereot0)e there of the :hinese is that the0 are )oor3 .ad !u0s and a
/an has /an0 4i2es.
52
Cina' kalau memang cina' terus mau diapain5 @:hinese3 if it is3 so 4hatMB3 In
Indonesia3 .ein! >orang cina?
2&
and .ein! ,orang Indonesia13 I ha2e to
sho4 not onl0 to fa/ilies .ut also to the state3 thus3 to Indonesian stateO the
nationalist s)irit i/)ortantl0 has to .e )ro2en .0 follo4in! the co/)licated
rules that situate :hinese7Indonesians. The rules contri.ute to the suJerin!
of :hinese7Indonesians3 the 4o/en in )articular. This research sho4s /e
that the state )olicies ha2e diJerent i/)acts de)endin! on !ender and
class.
Then3 the /atter of reli!ion. In the )ast3 !enerall03 :hinese fa/ilies cared
little a.out reli!ious /atters. Before the %9&0s usuall0 in a :hinese fa/il03
the0 held diJerent reli!ions and there 4as no conEict .et4een children and
)arents or relati2es. '/on! those 4ho ac$no4led!e :onfucianis/3 /an0
not )ractice its rituals3 .ut the0 are enthusiastic to cele.rate imlek @:hinese
"e4 LearB. 'lthou!h in SoehartoCs )eriod it 4as done secretl0 in so/e
)laces .ecause it 4as )rohi.ited. Sur)risin!l03 toda0 reli!ion .eco/es /ore
i/)ortant and /ore )o4erful. It e2en .eco/es one criterion to choose a
s)ouse.
This research allo4ed /e to tra2el and =nd the )ieces of >/0self? throu!h
the narrati2es of infor/ants. 1an0 of the stories /ade /e shoc$ed3 sad3
and an!r0 .ecause I ne2er assu/ed that these exclusi2e )olicies 4ould
re/o2e the :hinese7Indonesians fro/ their >local roots7Indonesia?3
aJectin! the infor/antsC li2es ne!ati2el0 and )erha)s other :hinese 4o/en
4hose 2oices are not heard. -or exa/)le3 the issue of the >)urit0 of the
:hinese?3 for /e3 is a result of >successful? assi/ilation )olicies. These
)olicies ha2e situated the/ in >the i/a!ined :hinese as one co//unit0?
althou!h in realit03 the0 are not a ho/o!eneous co//unit0 4here silentl0
the0 are creatin! cate!ories a/on! the/sel2es.
Hhen I listen to the narrati2es3 /0 /ind /o2ed .ac$ and forth as I also
recalled /0 /e/ories Q relatin! /0 o4n ex)eriences that ha2e .een $e)t
for lon!. 8x)eriences of .ein! a :hinese7Indonesian 4o/an3 and at the
sa/e ti/e .ein! >orang "ampit? @/0 local7IndonesiaB create a co/)licated
and d0na/ic identit0. Then a Kuestion a))ears in /0 /ind >4hich $ind of
:hinese a/ IM? as if I follo4 the cate!ories of :hinese throu!h their
narrati2es. 1a0.e unconsciousl03 the desire to listen the infor/antsC stories
is an atte/)t to =nd )ieces of hidden histor0 of :hinese7Indonesians that I
2&
Tion!hoa is a ter/ that so/e :hinese Indonesians use in )reference to >cina?
.ecause :ina is the ter/ used in the Soeharto )eriod to insult :hinese )eo)le and
to create the su)eriorit0 of pri!umi. See @@LPIB3 20%0B
5+
had ne2er heard at schools and read fro/ Indonesian histor0 .oo$s3 4hich
tend to stereot0)e :hinese as co//unist3 rich3 stin!03 unsocia.le3 and
ne2er thin$in! of the societ0. The structures Q2ertical and hori<ontal7
located the/ on the ed!e of an a/.i!uous identit0. Anfortunatel03 the0 are
assu/ed to ha2e >one i/a!e3 cina?
The stories of the )ast @collecti2e and indi2idualB of these 4o/en sho4 ho4
di2erse the :hinese7Indonesians are3 )articularl0 the 4o/en. Throu!h the
infor/ants as 4ell3 4e could see the conce)t of identit0 and citi<enshi) as
constructed .0 diJerent external actors at the le2el of /acro3 /eso and
/icro
29
and .0 herFhis self .ecause s)ace and ti/e are diJerent fro/ one
!eneration to another. 1oreo2er3 the i/)lication of identit0 construction is
diJerent fro/ one )erson to another e2en 4ithin one fa/il0. Hhen I
inter2ie4ed infor/ants3 I created a /a) in /0 /ind of /0 relati2es and
tried to cate!ori<e the/ and /0self: our identit03 4ho and 4hat are the
:hineseM The narrati2es /a$e /e understand 4h0 the :hinese7Indonesians3
al4a0s contradict each other and create conEict.
Hhile tellin! their stories3 the infor/ants use /ixed lan!ua!es that indicate
/ulti)le identities and this sho4s an i/a!e of their h0.rid culture stron!l0
as 4ell. It is also a Kuestion for so/e infor/ants .ecause their !eneration
could no lon!er >reall0? .e ,orang Cina1. Then3 do the0 force their
!enerations to $ee) the i/a!ined >:hinese )urit0?M Suddenl03 I re/e/.er
/0 stor0 4hen I 4as in ;unior hi!h school. 't that ti/e3 the da0 of the
Scout3 the 2ice of )arlia/ent of /0 district3 a 9a2anese /an3 an ar/03 2isited
/0 school to cele.rate the da0. Hhen I san! >Indonesia 6a0a? @The national
anthe/B 4ith a stron! "ampit dialect3 he )unished /e and said loudl0 that I
san! li$e >orang cina?. I 4as the onl0 :hinese in the choir of the school.
'lthou!h3 /0 collea!ues also san! the sa/e 4a0 as /e. I cried and 4as
an!r03 afraid to =!ht .ac$ and instead ;ust hun! /0 head li$e a )erson 4ho
did 4ron!l0 in front of an authorit0.
Listenin! to 4o/enCs stories also re/inded /e a.out :hinese /en. The
ri!id construction of !ender in a diJerent ti/e3 I thin$3 4ould aJect
diJerentl0 the /e/ories of /en and 4o/en 7 on ho4 to .e >orang
tionghoa? and >orang Indonesia? or >orang "ampit?. Is /e/or0 of the
)ri2ate s)here re/e/.ered as )o4erfull0 as .0 these infor/ants Q the
Chinese Indonesian 4o/enM Is the stor0 of /en fro/ the )u.lic s)here
onl0M o4 do the0 locate !ender in their /e/or0M
29
See Oo//en3 2006
5,
Bein! an insider in this research )rocess /eant I /ust .e )re)ared for
/e/ories of the )ast and the inner conEict that could ha))en .oth in the
)rocess of collectin! data and at the ti/e of 4ritin! it. It /ade /e also
a4are a.out the challen!in! dichoto/0 of insiderFoutsider3 selfFother
throu!h /0 o4n res)onse. "e2ertheless3 ti/e has its o4n for/ and 4isdo/
and ti/e al4a0s /o2es as 4e /a$e lon! ;ourne0s to =nd out 4ho are 4e
fro/ the co/)lexities of this d0na/ic 4orld.
55
Appendi4 2
.ist of Informants
8
o
The (rst
generation
The second
generation
The third
generation
Time of
intervie
w
Co"onia" > ear"+
post co"onia"
period
@%B 5utch that
treats ethnicit0
into strati=ed
hierarch0 and
)uttin! :hinese
on the second
le2el of the ran$
then the i/)act
is creatin!
:hinese as
>/inorit0
!rou)?.
@2B 5ual identit0 of
:hinese 3 as
:hinese 8ast
Indies and
:hinese citi<ens
@+B 9a)an treats
:hinese as >one
ethnic? cate!ories
that refuses
:hinese histor0 in
the countr0.
@+B 6e2olution
)eriod is the
startin! of anti
:hinese action
!ost co"onia": $"d
$rder BSoekarnoC 5
8ew $rder
BSoehartoC period
@%B Old Order
!o2ern/ent
@Soe$arnoB : !i2es
freedo/ for :hinese to
ex)ress their culture
and )olitic
@2B 5ual identit0
Treats :hinese as )art
of The "ations of
Indonesia
@+B "aturali<ation
@2B"e4 Order
!o2ern/ent : a.
'ssi/ilation )olic0
4as i/)osed to
:hinese 4here the0
ha2e to chan!e ethnic
identit0 to .e
Indonesian.
.. Sti!/ati<ed :hinese
as co//unist and so
on.
!ost co"onia": .ast
8ew $rder 5 !ost
Soeharto period
@%B Last ti/e of "e4
Order !o2ern/ent
@2B6efor/ation era :
fro/ a.i.ie to
Susilo Ba/.an!
Ludho0ono !i2es
freedo/ for :hinese
to ex)ress their
culture and )olitics
% .ie
Has .orn in %9+, in
1arta)ura3
#ali/antan
She has 7 dau!hter
out of %2 children
She is o$cia
9ang
Has .orn in %962
In Sa/)it3 #ali/antan
She is the second
dau!hter of Lie.
She has 2 sons and %
dau!hter
Der
Has .orn in %9&9
In Sura.a0a
She is a student in
colle!e Qecono/ics
as her /a;or.
Since )ri/ar0 school
7F77%7F&
56
descent she 4as :atholic
.ecause of the
)arent Ba)tist her

2 8io
Has .orn in %9,& in
Blora. She is 4ho
sent .0 the uncle to
other auntie ho/e
to NsafeC fa/il0
.ecause of the
)olic0 7 PP %0F59
1arried .ecause
cannot stand fro/
the suJerin! in the
auntie house. She
is :onfucius
She is -u$ien 4ho
/arried 4ith
#4antun! Q
)erana$an
/ing
Has .orn in %970 in
Sura.a0a. She is
4or$in! in Phar/ac0
industr0 . she
se)arated fro/ her
hus.and .ecause !ot
)h0sical 2iolence. She
is :hristian
Ika
Has .orn in %992
In Blora. She 4as a
student in catholic
hi!h school in
Sura.a0a. er
)arents are /ixed
/arried .et4een
Sundaness and
NchineseC. The
/other is :hristian
and the father is
Isla/ and she is
:atholic

%2F&7
2%F&
+ !hien
Has .orn in %9+6
in Sura.a0a. She
ha2e dutch
education 4hen she
4as in )ri/ar0
school . in 2002 she
con2erted her
reli!ion to Buddha
.ut their children
are :hristian
she is #4antun! Q
)erana$an 4ho
/arried to ho$$ien7
)erana$an
.an
Has .orn in %962
In Sura.a0a
She is :hristian. She is
house4ife. er
hus.and is :onfucius
and all the hus.and
fa/il0 2er0 do/inate
Step
Has .orn in %9&7
In Sura.a0a
She is loo$in! for a
ne4 ;o. after
!raduate fro/
)s0cholo!0 facult0 in
Sura.a0a.
She 4as :hristian

%,F77
%9F&
, :wat
Has .orn in %9+, in
Dresi$ and /o2ed
to 1alan! 4hile the
9a)anese
occu)ation. She is
catholic .ecause of
their children stud0
in catholic school
and she closed to
catholic nuns 4ho
4ere her
.uc
Has .orn in %955
in 1alan!. She is
4or$in! as an
insurance a!ent in
1alan!.
She is catholic
*ar
Has .orn in %9&7
In 1alan!
She is 4or$in! in
consultant oJice
Ps0cholo!0 is her
/a;or 4hen she 4as
colla!e.
She 4as :atholic
since she 4as a .a.0.
Since child she 4as
stud0 in catholic
%7F7
7%9F&
57
nei!h.orhood. She
4as acti2e in
church acti2ities.
She sto))ed her
education 4hile
9a)anese
occu)ation
She is )erana$an

school in /iddle to
u))er class
5 T%ien
Has .orn in :hina
in %9+2. She ca/e
to Indonesia3 in
#rian in %956 four
0ears after she !ot
/arried 4ith the
hus.and 4ho li2ed
for a lon! ti/e in
Indonesia.
Throu!h /atch
/arried the0 /et in
:hina and four
/onth after
/arried the
us.and 4ent .ac$
to Indonesia.
She has ne2er
naturali<ed her
citi<enshi) as
hus.and order.
She is Buddha and
de2otin! to #4an
I/
She is ho$$ien

/ie
Has .orn in %96+
In #rian. She is a
.usiness 4o/an 4ho
acti2e in te/)le. She
con2erted her reli!ion
to Buddha. er
hus.and still
:onfucius 4here .oth
of the/ are acti2e in
their reli!ion acti2it0.
er second dau!hter
follo4s her fatherCs
reli!ion .ut the =rst
and the third follo4
her.
De
She 4as .orn in
%9&& in Sura.a0a
She is student in
)s0cholo!0 facult0
Buddha is her
reli!ion as her
/other
%0F7 Q
%6F&
6 Ein
Has .orn in %9,,
In Sura.a0a. She is
the =rst out of %%
children. She is
:onfucius
She is #4antun!
Ching
Has .orn in %970
In Sura.a0a. she is
4or$in! 4ith her
/other esta.lish
caterin! ser2ices. She
is the onl0 child 4ho
hel) her /other. She
is :hristian
She is #4antun!
%,F&7
2%F&
7 7in
Has .orn in %9,0
In 1adura. er
7un
Has .orn in %9,&
In Sura.a0a. she 4as
+%F7 Q
2%F&
5&
father has >n0ai?
.efore /arried to
her /other 4ho
co/e fro/ :hina.
The >n0ai? had not
a child and she
closed to n0ai e2en
her /other. "0ai
still li2e 4ith her
fa/il0 althou!h her
/other there. She
/o2ed 4hen she
4as old.
She is #4antun!
di2orce and has
ex)eriences as
stateless for a lon!
ti/e until in %999. She
has t4o son that the
=rst 4as /arried 4ith
'ra.ic descent 4o/an
and con2erted the
reli!ion to Isla/
& /an
Has .orn in %925
In Sura.a0a. she
4as stud0 in :hina
4hen she 4as %2
0ear old and four
0ears later she
returned to
Indonesia .ecause
it 4as the =rst
4orld 4ar3 and
china has 4ar as
4ell. 'fter .ac$ to
Indonesia she
sto))ed her
education. She
a!ree /arried to
her hus.and
.ecause 4anted to
run fro/ the ste)
/other.
She is ho$$ien
%9F77
2%F7
9 Sun
4as .orn in %9+0
in Sura.a0a. in
%959 her fa/il0
/o2ed to :hina
.ecause of PP
%0F59. Onl0 she and
her little sister
sta0ed in Indonesia
.ecause the0 had
/arried. The rest
of her fa/il0 /o2ed
%2F&7
%7F&
59
and li2ed in :hina
until toda0. She
con2erted her
reli!ion into
:hristian + /onths
after her hus.and
died. Po2ert0
)ushed her to
con2ert her
reli!ion.
She is -u$ien

%0 9ar
She 4as .orn in %972
In Sura.a0a. she 4as a
)s0cholo!ist and a
.usiness 4o/an 4ho
has se2eral franchises
of $inder!arten
schools.
She is catholic and her
)arents are :onfucius
She is ho$$ien
%9F&
%% Hat
She 4as Born in
%9,&
In Sa/arinda7
#ali/antan. She
/o2e to Sura.a0a
in %967 follo4s her
fa/il0. She is
:hristian Q
Pentecostal

27F7
60