Comm 3000Q Study Guide

Chapter 1
What is Research?
- Discovery of answers to questions by applying scientific and systematic procedure
Qualitative & Quantitative
- Both are empirical in that they both are based on observations or experience of communication
Communication research allows researcher to:
- DESCRIBE communication behavior
- DETERMINE causes of communication behavior
- PREDICT future communication behavior
- EXPLAIN communication behavior
- CONTROL communication outcomes
Proprietary Research
- Research by an individual or org. for its own use
Theory
- Set of interrelated concepts, definitions, and propositions that presents a systematic view of a
phenomenon
o Supported but NEVER proven
o Best research is theory-driven
5 Steps of Research Process:
1. Form question/statement
2. Formulate hypothesis
3. Think through the hypothesis or research question
4. Design/conduct the observation/measurement experiment
5. Analyze data and interpreted to Q the hypothesis
Qualities of Scientific Research
1. Based on evidence.
2. Propositions are testable.
3. Explores all possible explanations.
4. Results are replicable.
5. Results are made public.
6. Self-correcting nature.
7. Relies on measurement and observation.
8. Recognizes possibility of error and tries to control it.
9. Objective.
10. Scientists are skeptical.
11. Aims for generalizability.
12. Heuristic in nature.

Limitations of Science
Science cannot answer every type of question
Fact and definition
Value: Cannot answer to morals
Policy: Can make recommendations
Heisenbergs Uncertainty Principle
All observation contains error
Try to correct error
Results are probabilities
But my friend doesnt act that way
Science aims for generalizability
The Law of the Hammer
Every methodological technique or tool has an appropriate use

Chapter 2
Inductive Research Model
- Move from specific of date to more general
explanation of theory
- Bottom-up approach
- Based more on qualitative research
Ex. Gang involvement experiment
Observation Pattern Hypothesis Theory



Deductive Research Model
- Based on what is already known
- From known or assumed position supported by theory to
particulars of data
- Top-down approach
- Test and confirm hypothesis
- Quantitative
- Observation used to confirm hypothesis
Theory Hypothesis Observation Confirmation


Evaluating Guiding Questions
- Is question: Clear, Unbiased, Unique
- What is the communication orientation?
- Can we measure/observe the phenomena?
- Who cares?
Theory fit in.
- Research can validate theory; research can develop theory
o Validated debunked
o Contribute to theory development
- Theory organizes science
6 Steps of Theory Building
1. Describe an event or observation that needs understanding
2. Create a logical explanation for the event
3. Move from specific explanation to more general application
4. Derive predictions from explanations
5. Select a focus and test the theory
6. Use results to confirm, revise, expand, generalize or abandon developed theory
Theory is used in 4 ways
1. For providing patterns for interpreting data
2. Theory link multiple studies of different types
3. Provides frame work for understanding concepts and issues that are significant in
interactions
4. Help us interpret larger meanings

Chapter 3
What is Quantitative Communication Research?
- Allows comparison of communication phenomena via descriptive or inferential statistics
- Methodologies include frequencies (counting), survey research, and experiments.
- Relies on deductive reasoning
Conceptualizing Quantitative Research
- Overall purpose/objective?
- Research lit
- Research questions/hypothesis
- Selecting appropriate methods
- Valid/reliable data (MUST BE addressed BEFORE research)
What is a construct?
- Construct: Label attached to an abstract thing or idea that distinguishes it from other
things/ideas. Not directly observable
o Example: a) relationship satisfaction b) extraversion.
- Concept: Part of the theoretical definition of a construct, must be observable and linked to other
concepts.
o Example: a) The degree to which partners find enjoyment and fulfillment in a romantic
relationship and b) degree of socialization in an individuals life.
- Operationalization: How we will observe and measure the variable.
- Variables: Used to identify the construct.
Hypothesis: There is a positive correlation between partners extraversion and relationship
satisfaction.

Difference between Directional and Non Directional Hypotheses
Directional Hypotheses: State the nature and direction of relationship or difference between
two variables.
E.g. Increases in extraversion will lead to increases in relationship satisfaction.
Non-Directional Hypotheses: State that a relationship exists, but do not specify the nature or
direction.
E.g. There is a relationship between extraversion and relationship satisfaction.
More Types of Hypotheses
Relational Hypothesis: States existence of a functional relationship between two variables.
Directional Relational ex. Stress negatively effects well-being
Comparative Hypothesis: States the expectation of a difference between two or more groups.
Men will experience higher levels of relationship satisfaction than women. (directional)
Null Hypothesis: States that no relationship (other than by random chance) exists between
variables.
There will be no difference between men and women on levels of relationship
satisfaction.
Research Questions: Used when we cannot make a prediction
Independent vs. Dependent Variables
Independent Variable: The variable that is manipulated or varied to see the effect on other variables
(aka antecedent variable)
CAUSE
When research does not manipulate the variable we call this the predictor variable
Dependent Variable: Variable influenced or changed by independent variable (consequence variable)
This is the variable of primary interest.
EFFECT
When researcher does NOT manipulate the first variable, we call this the outcome
variable.
What is Operationalization?
- Process of determining how well measure a variable.
- Most variables can be operationalized in several ways.
- An operational definition must:
o Describe a unit of measurement.
o Specify a level of measurement.
o Provide a logical/mathematical statement about how measurement is supposed to be
made and combined.

Lecture 4
Types of Bivariate Relationships
- COVARIANCE/CORRELATION: Variables change simultaneously.
Allows for explanation, but not prediction.
Positive, Negative, Curvilinear
- CAUSAL: Change in one variable (independent/antecedent) results in change in other variable
(dependent/consequent.)
- Curvilinear Example- One area increase and the other variable reaches a threshold and
decreases


Criteria for Causality
1. Space and time contiguity.
a. Two variables must exist in the same general time/space.
2. Covariance (correlation).
a. Is necessary but not sufficient for causality
3. Temporal Ordering.
a. The cause (independent) MUST precede the effect (dependent)
4. Necessary Connection.
a. Statement of why variables are related (theoretical)
b. Statement of how variables are related (operational)
Third Variable
- Intervening (Mediating) Variable: An element presumed to explain or link two other variables
o Example: Job Performance (X) + --> Job Satisfaction (Y)
True, but not necessarily the whole story
o Better Explanation: Job Performance + --> Rewards + --> Job Sat.
- Confounding Variable: Variable that confuses, or obscures the effect of the independent
variable on the dependent variable.
- Spurious Relationship: When presence of a third variable obscures the nature of the relationship
between two variables.
o Can create a relationship that doesnt exist.
Ice cream sales+ --> Drowning
o Can inflate a relationships strength
College Grades + --> Life-long Income.
Motivation + --> College Grades, Motivation + --> Life Income
Failing to measure motivation falsely INCREASES the first relationship.
Controlling: Manipulated Control
- Identify the potential confound (Variable Z) and either
o Hold it constant in sample (all cases in sample have same value of Z)
o Equalize assignment of cases based on value of Z across groups. (Experimental &
control groups have equal proportions of Z)
Controlling: Statistical Control
- Identify the potential confounding variable (Z)
- Measure the variable (Z) and include it as a control variable.
- Mathematically remove the effect of Z from the variation of the dependent variable Y.
- Assess unique effect of X on Y, with the effect of Z on Y removed
Controlling: Randomization
No need to identify the potential confounding variable(s) Z
Weakest but most commonly used
Random assignment to groups representing levels of independent variable (e.g.
experimental/control groups) assures that effects of other variables are equalized across groups,
or any errors in assignment are random.
Control
Method
Internal Validity External
Validity
Knowledge of
Confound
Manipulate Strong Weak None
Statistical Strong Better Vast
Randomize Weak Strong None

Control
Method
Internal
Validity:
Consideration
of pregnancy
External
Validity: Letting
nature take its
course
Knowledge of
Confound:
Knowledge of
impregnation
Manipulated:
Contraception
Strong Weak None
Statistical:
Pregnancy test
Strong Better Vast
Randomize:
Take your
chances
Weak Strong None

Types of Validity:
- Internal Validity: How sure are we that no confounding variables (within our design) have
obscured the relationship between our independent and dependent variables.
- External Validity: The ability to generalize the results of a specific study to the real world
o Trade-off between internal and external validity; the more control we have, the less
realistic the research may be.

Chapter 6
Role of Measurement
- Quantitative research involves using measurement to gather data to help answer our questions
The Levels of Measurement (precision):
- Nominal (lowest)
- Ordinal (higher)
- Interval (higher)
- Ratio (highest)
Nominal Data
o Describes presence or absence of some characteristic or attitude.
o No way to express partial presence
o Any value imposed on the categories is arbitrary
o Minimum of 2 categories, categories must be mutually exclusive and exhaustive
o Type or Category based; the categories have no logical rank or level.
o Ex: Sex- Male (1) Female (2). Ex: Northeast State: CT (1) RI (2) MA (3) NH (4)
Ordinal Data (putting things in order)
Measured by ranking elements in logical order from lowest to highest
More precise than nominal
Sequencing of data without precise measurement
Rankings are relative (there can be no zero)
Logical rank order, but no logical distance between elements.
Determined by more or less, but we dont know how much more or less.
Ex: Happiness- Unhappy (1) Somewhat Happy (2) Happy (3) Ex: Class standing (4) attractiveness


Interval Data
Measured based on specific numerical scores or values.
Distance between any two adjacent points assumed to be equal.
Zero is arbitrary; there is no absolute zero.
Rank ordered, values equally spread apart, but no true zero point.
Ex: Likert-type scales:
I like my life. Strongly Disagree 1--2--3--4--5--6--7 Strongly Agree
Ex: Semantic Differential Scale:
Describe this class: Lame 1--2--3--4--5--6--7 Awesome

Ratio Data
Interval-level data qualities, but also an absolute zero-point.
Ex: Number of children in your household:
0--1--2--3--4--5--6--7
Allows us to compare two people on a variable and determine the ratio of one persons value to
another persons.
Determining Reliability
- Test-Retest Reliability:
o Administering the same measure multiple times, and assess how consistent the
responses are.
o The more time between responses, the lower the reliability.
- Alternate form (Parallel Form) Reliability:
o Generate two versions of the same measurement, using items from same pool.
Administer both versions to same group
o If results of both versions are similar, strong alternate form reliability.
- Split-Half Reliability:
o Randomly split questionnaire in half, giving each half to different groups.
o Consistent results across both groups indicates reliable measure.
- Item-Total Reliability:
o Compares responses to individual items to responses to all items.
Reliability Coefficients:
- A calculated statistic to determine how reliable a measure is.
- Chronbachs Alpha ()
o Reliability coefficients range from 0 to 1; higher=better.
o Standard cutoff = .70 (higher=fairly reliable. Lower=unreliable.)
Reliability is necessary but not sufficient for validity
If it is reliable doesnt mean it is valid
If order for a x to be valid it must be reliable

Content Validity: How well a measure covers range/dimensions of meaning on a subject.
o Face Validity: Does it seem realistic?
o Expert panel validity: Same as face validity, but using experts as judges.
Criterion Validity: Validity in relation to some external criterion.
o Predictive Validity: Does measure accurately predict future behaviors?
Do those scoring high on apprehension scale behave apprehensively?
o Concurrent Validity: Does measure concur with other (valid) measures?