WV Global Agricultural Strategy v2.4

World Vision
Global Agricultural Strategy

Edition 2.4
The Global Agricultural Working Groups
June 2009
DRAFT - Not for circulation

World Vision (WV) Global Agriculture Strategy—June 2009
DRAFT- Not for circulation
Table of Contents
ACRONYMS .......................................................................................................................................... 3
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...................................................................................................................... 4
1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................ 9
1.1 The Global Agri-Food System and Its Sustainability ............................................................................ 9

1.2 Agriculture, Food Security and Child Well-being.............................................................................. 10
1.3 A Truly Sustainable Agriculture....................................................................................................... 10
1.4 Ecological sustainability ................................................................................................................. 11
1.5 Economic viability .......................................................................................................................... 11
1.6 Social justice and acceptability......................................................................................................... 11
2. AGRICULTURAL LANDSCAPE ................................................................................................... 13
2.1 Demographic Issues ....................................................................................................................... 13

2.2 Agricultural Productivity................................................................................................................. 15
2.3 Access to Infrastructure and Improved Technology.......................................................................... 17
2.4 Markets - Information, Linkages, Value Chains ................................................................................. 18
2.5 The Environment Policy ................................................................................................................. 18
2.6 Conflict and Emergency Settings ..................................................................................................... 19
2.7 Spiritual Context ........................................................................................................................... 20
3. WORLD VISION PERFORMANCE............................................................................................... 21
3.1 Programming ................................................................................................................................. 21

3.2 Staff Capacity for Impact ................................................................................................................ 23
3.3 Programme Interventions ............................................................................................................... 23
3.4 Targeting....................................................................................................................................... 25
4. STRATEGIC CONTEXT - STRENGTHS, WEAKNESSES, OPPORTUNITIES AND RISKS

(SWOR)................................................................................................................................................ 26
4.1 Strengths....................................................................................................................................... 26
4.2 Weaknesses .................................................................................................................................. 26
4.3 Opportunities................................................................................................................................ 27
4.4 Risks ............................................................................................................................................. 28
5. GLOBAL AGRICULTURAL STRATEGY ..................................................................................... 30
5.1 Alignment with existing World Vision models, strategies and partners .............................................. 31
5.2 Smallholder Agriculture DADDs (Do-Assure-Don’t Do) .................................................................. 33
5.3 Programming Principles .................................................................................................................. 36
5.4 Targeted Groups ........................................................................................................................... 38
5.5 Core Interventions Related to Objectives ....................................................................................... 39
Page 2 of 41
ACRONYMS
ADP Area Development Programme

ALST Africa Livelihood Security Team
APRO Asia and the Pacific Regional Office
ARC Agricultural Research Council
ARO Africa Regional Office
AWG Agricultural Working Group
CA Conservation Agriculture
CGIAR Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research
DADD Do-Assure-Don’t Do
DRM Disaster Risk Management
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
FAO Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations
HEA Humanitarian & Emergency Affairs
HIV and Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) and Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
AIDS
ICT Information and communication technology
LACRO Latin America and Caribbean Regional Office
MED Micro Enterprise Development
MEERO Middle East and Europe Regional Office
MFI Microfinance Institution
MoM Models of Ministry
NGOs Non Government Organisations
NRM Natural Resource Management
NO National Office
OPVs Open Pollinated Varieties
QPM / DT Quality Protein Maize / Drought Tolerant
RPO Regional Producer Organisation
SALT Slope Agriculture Land Technology
SO Support Office
SWOR Performance, and Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Risks
TLA Transformed Livelihood Security
TD Transformational Development
UNDP United National Development Programme
WASH Water, Sanitation and Hygiene
WV World Vision
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
For more than 800 million people, many of whom are children, there has long been a food crisis. The situation
deteriorated alarmingly during the food price inflation crisis of 2008, making the plight of many of the world’s
poorest and most vulnerable even worse. Income growth, climate change, high fuel/energy prices, globalisation,
urbanisation, and degradation of the natural resource base are transforming the entire global system of food
production, marketing, distribution, and consumption, possibly for the long-term. The situation demands that
World Vision respond with a multi-faceted, multi-sectoral response.
Productive agriculture, together with proper management of the natural resources on which it depends, is
essential to the well-being of children and their families. To ensure that well-being is sustained, agricultural
production needs to be ecologically sound and economically viable. To ensure that all can benefit equitably, it
also needs to be built solidly on social justice and gender equity. Such agriculture contributes to child well-
being by providing a safe, secure source of nutritious foods and other products, by providing families with
sustainable income-earning opportunities so they can adequately provide and care for their children, and by
minimising the adverse effects that poor agricultural activities can have on the environment.
In July 2008 the Vice President responsible for Children In Ministry and Integrated Technical Teams,
commissioned the World Vision (WV) Africa Region to develop and lead an agriculture working group (AWG)
from across the partnership in order to develop a Partnership Global Agriculture Strategy including a DADD
(Do-Assure-Don’t Do) for the sector.
The development of this strategy is in line with WV’s development objectives to see communities and
households resilient and secure against shocks, and is a response to the ongoing global food crisis and the
continued severe degradation of natural resources and associated agro-ecosystem processes. It is in full
alignment with WV’s core vision of ensuring the sustained well-being of children and aims at achieving the
following goal:
To promote ecologically-sound, socially and economically viable and just

smallholder agriculture and Natural Resource Management (NRM)
practices that contribute to the well-being of children.
Strategic Objectives
Following an analysis of WV’s landscape context, past performances, strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and
risks, the AWG identified the following Strategic Objectives, which will be supported by core interventions to
help WV realise this goal:
1. Promote more productive and sustainable agricultural systems

Given the fact that gains in agricultural productivity have barely exceeded population growth rates since
the latter half of the twentieth century it is essential that productivity be a key focus of WV’s agriculture
strategy and that this growth is balanced with considerations for the environment , social acceptability and
justice.
2. Protect and/or restore healthy agro-ecosystems and adjacent landscapes through

appropriate natural resource management
Productive agricultural systems rely on functioning ecosystems, hence it is essential that WV protect and
restore agro-ecological systems and adjacent landscapes. Appropriate soil and water conservation
practices will additionally facilitate adaptation to climate change and reduce vulnerability to climate
extremes.
3. Support viable markets and smallholder agricultural enterprises

Better organised and trained smallholders can increase household income and reduce farming risks
through improved access to viable markets and through small value-adding enterprises all along the value
chain to add value to agricultural production and make it more profitable and sustainable.
4. Build smallholder household resilience and capacity to manage risk in the face of shocks
In the face of little production knowledge, poor soil conditions, climate change and food price inflation,
managing risk will be a key attribute to sustainable smallholder agriculture. Therefore, it is important to
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focus on building the resilience of the agricultural ecosystem and the adaptive capacity of the households
and communities that depend on it for all or part of their livelihood strategies.
5. Advocate at all levels (local, national, regional, international and World Vision-internal) for
policies, legal/regulatory environments and information flows supportive of smallholder
agricultural development
World vision must ensure that its own policies and budget allocation provide for adequate investment in
agriculture in order to create an enabling environment for attaining food security, WV will be on a more
credible footing when promoting policy change and appropriate legislation at government and international
levels. There should also be active advocacy to counteract past policies that promoted models of
agriculture that were biased toward large-scale enterprises and dependent upon very high levels of
external inputs and promotion of technologies in inappropriate contexts.
6. Promote understanding by youth that agriculture and related activities can be profitable,
honourable and provide exciting career options
The future of agriculture is intimately linked to the youth—the present and future generations. Given
World Vision’s strategic child focus, orientation must be given to senior, middle management and field
level staff so they can educate and convince rural youth of the advantages of making an honourable living
from agriculture.
The Global Agriculture Strategy supports World Vision’s foundational building block of an Integrated Focus. It
is community-based and employs a bottom-up participatory approach, involving communities in analysis, design
and action. The proposed agriculture strategy is resolutely child-focused. The six objectives above are
intentionally designed to actively and directly improve the food security, health, nutrition and general well-
being of children and their families.
The strategy is aligned with and contributes to WV’s Models of Ministry (MoM) by ensuring a transformational
environment that empowers farmers, communities and children, and leads to healthy children living in secure
households in resilient communities. The agriculture strategy is additionally aligned to the strategies and
policies of other WV sectors and host governments and communities.
Contextual and performance issues that influenced the formulation of the strategy
1. Demography including the different, locally contextualised roles of women, men, youth and vulnerable
groups such as orphans, minorities, marginalised ethnic groups, the disabled, and others; rural/urban
population trends and migration; the progressive decline of the agriculture sector; the impact of HIV and
AIDS, especially in Africa; and levels of malnutrition.
2. Agricultural productivity including know-how, natural resource management, climate
change/variability, soil depletion and deforestation, and decreasing social capital.
3. Access to agriculture infrastructure and technology including roads, irrigation, services, transport,
communications, research and extension.
4. Markets including access to markets and market information; enterprise and market development; value
chain approaches and improved rural-urban linkages through upgrading agricultural value chains; access to
credit and other financial services; impact of world food crisis on world markets; changing consumer
habits and; changing patterns of international trade
5. Policy environment (global, regional/national, internal), including access and rights to land (land tenure)
and other productive assets; international trade agreements and; private sector investment
6. Conflict and emergency settings including displaced populations, impacts on agricultural production,
and impacts on trader routes.
7. Spiritual beliefs including religious and other world views; their influence on attitudes and behaviour;
opportunities for collaboration and social mobilisation; and sources of conflict
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SWOR Analysis
A thorough SWOR (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Risks) analysis was undertaken to ensure that
the AWG made accurate decisions when developing the goals and objectives of the strategy. Some of the key
points collated from the various regional analyses are described below. A complete list can be found in Section
4.
Strengths
One of World Vision’s greatest strengths is the community based grassroots approach the organisation uses
within the context of long-term engagements. This has fostered good relations with farming and rural
communities, governments and international partners. WV is currently positioned in areas of need and is
already targeting smallholders. Due to global reach and flexibility in sponsorship funding it can respond
decisively to the needs of the poor. Strong potential exists for cross-sectoral integration and co-ordination,
with value added by staff that has considerable capacity, experience and expertise.
Weaknesses
Although agriculture is clearly one of the key sectors contributing to child well-being and the survival and
nutrition of most people in the areas where World Vision is working, investment in the sector has not been
proportionately significant or effective. The attention given to risk management, market mechanisms, gender
roles, a youth focus, and appropriate delivery models is not as strong as it could be and the lack of a common
approach to agricultural interventions further hinders the success of projects. The agriculture sector is in need
of greater networking; current collaboration is limited, localised and without strategic intent. Lessons learned
are not always communicated widely or effectively among Area Development Programmes (ADPs), across
National Offices (NOs) or regions. Furthermore, at times the free inputs and services that WV programmes
offer, which do provide social protection, also compromise community ownership, the fiscal sustainability of
services and create heavy dependency.
Opportunities
World Vision’s key focus on the well-being of children combined with the burgeoning youth populations that
exist in WV’s areas of implementation provide the agency with a comparative advantage for strengthening the
future food and livelihood security of young people. As a result of enduring engagements with communities,
WV additionally has a comparative advantage for tackling long-term Natural Resource Management (NRM).
National and local governments are generally appreciative of support in agriculture creating opportunities for
WV to develop partnerships and relationships with agriculture policy makers. Additionally, the time is ripe for
an agricultural focus; state of the art research and technology available to incorporate into programming; new
funding opportunities exist (such as agro-forestry); and increasing attention is now paid to agriculture, by both
farmers and other sectors, as a result of more awareness to food price increases and climate change.
Risks
Some of the external conditions challenging the agriculture sector include a bias in government investment
toward large scale commercialised and trans-national agriculture, impacts of trade agreements, and land tenure
systems that are not supportive of production maximisation. Moreover, within national contexts, little
attention is given to the creation of attractive environments for private sector investment in the agriculture
industry.
Environmental conditions which threaten WV agriculture programmes include the increased frequency, scale
and severity of natural disasters, climate change, and the loss of bio-diversity due to environmental
degradation, and urbanisation which is encroaching on agricultural land.
Social risks include population growth and a reduction in agricultural labour due to urban migration and
rampant disease like malaria, and HIV and AIDS.
Core Interventions Related to Objectives

The priority list of core interventions outlined in the following paragraphs is constant throughout, being
applicable globally, though needing to be adapted as necessary to local contexts. The proposed interventions
encompass technical, social, financial, economic and political aspects of agricultural development. A
comprehensive list can be found in section 5.5.
Objective 1: Promote more productive and sustainable agricultural systems will be realised through the
use of context-specific and appropriate technologies, practices, and delivery mechanisms such as: agricultural
inputs, non-chemical or integrated pest management, high-value crops, post-harvest handling, storage and
marketing, capacity building for farmers, promotion of best practices, and the establishment of strategic links.
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Objective 2: Protect and/or restore healthy agro-ecosystems and adjacent landscapes will be realised
through appropriate natural resource management at the community and watershed scales such as:
diversification of farming systems, soil conservation, soil fertility management, water conservation and
watershed management.
Objective 3: Support viable markets and smallholder agricultural enterprises will be realised through
market assessments, value chain analysis and development, savings, improved credit availability and market
access, strengthened urban/rural linkages and rural producer organisations.
Objective 4: Build smallholder household resilience and capacity to manage risk in the face of shocks
will be realised through: improved information infrastructure, crop and livestock diversification, environmental
restoration, food and grain banks, crop and weather insurance, and improved Microfinance Institution (MFI)
services and products for agriculture linkages.
Objective 5: Advocate at all levels (local, national, regional, international and World Vision-internal)
for policies and legal / regulatory environments supportive of smallholder agricultural development will
be realised through support for farmer organisations, collaboration with other stakeholders, and the
encouragement of self-regulation by target groups.
Objective 6: Promote understanding by youth that agriculture and related activities are potentially
profitable, honourable and exciting career options will be realised by creating opportunities for education
and capacity building in activities such as formal agriculture training, 4-H or young farmers clubs, mass media
campaigns, and extension campaigns which engage youth and their parents in discussions and activities that
promote the value and know-how of agriculture.
Do-Assure-Don’t Do (DADD)
DO Assure
 Promote productive and sustainable  A bottom-up participatory approach
agricultural systems and supportive social effectively involving community members in
networks. the process of analysis, design and action
 Protect and/or restore healthy agro-  Create labour opportunities
ecosystems  Gender equity
 Support viable markets and smallholder  Availability of local inputs and products
agricultural enterprises  Linkage of agriculture productivity, nutrition
 Build smallholder household resilience and and food security with child well being
capacity to manage risk  Appropriate inclusion of Bible-related
 Advocate for policies supportive of examples and business ethics in training
smallholder agricultural development  Stakeholder involvement and networking in
 Promote an understanding by youth that the agricultural development process
agriculture is a viable vocation  Appropriate research
 Build Partnerships  Appropriate interventions in conflict,
 Evaluate the sustainability of agricultural displacement, landless labourers
activities  Access to information about conservation
 Build organisational and community agriculture
understanding of the link between  Just regulatory frameworks
smallholder agriculture  Environmental impact studies per national and
internationally accepted guidelines
 A material base and soft base when
introducing agriculture products
Key Partners for Core Focus Local agriculture extension service providers, agriculture universities
and research stations at local, national, regional and international levels; agriculture ministries, local
schools, local community organizations (farmers’ organizations, agricultural co-ops), businesses and
markets; UN agencies (FAO, WFP, IFAD); other NGOs;
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ADDITIONS TO THE AGRICULTURE CORE FOCUS
 Food for assets – are appropriate when they are targeted at helping to overcome labour constraints to
adoption of improved agricultural practices at the household or community level
 Biofuels – consider pilot projects related to smallholder (at the household level) agroforestry systems
for food and fuel production leading to alternative energy use independence and security
 Crop insurance schemes
 Community-based social protection and safety nets
 Early warning systems
PHASE DOWN AND TRANSITION “DON’T DO”

AND EXCEPTION ONLY ACTIVITIES
Exception Only Criteria for Exception
 Free distribution of agricultural inputs and assets (when  Loss due to disaster
not a small component of an integrated project)
 Minor roads, bridges where these
 Food-for-Work improve economic and social access
to isolated communities
 Infrastructure development (roads, bridges, electric
power)
 Cash transfers
The full section on “DO” for agriculture can be found in section 5.2.
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1
1. INTRODUCTION
Child hunger and malnutrition are unfortunately not new. For more than 800 million people, many of whom
are children, there has long been a food crisis. 2 Hunger and malnutrition are the underlying causes of death of
over 3.5 million children every year. One in every four children under the age of five in the developing world is
underweight and one of every three is stunted. 3 4 Rates of malnutrition are twice as high for children living in
rural areas.
Soaring food prices—fuelled by income growth, climate change, high fuel/energy prices, globalisation,
urbanisation and the production of biofuels—are transforming the global agri-food system, including food
production, marketing, distribution and consumption, possibly for the long-term. Although prices decreased
somewhat in early 2009, increased food price volatility is expected to continue, and high prices are predicted
to remain above 2004 levels through at least 2015. 5 In addition, degradation of the natural resource base on
which agriculture depends is compromising the earth’s capacity to produce food. 6
World Vision as an organisation is called to respond in new ways to this recent and potentially systemic
change in the global agri-food situation. The current food price crisis, combined with natural resource
degradation, has both short -and long-term implications. The situation demands that World Vision respond
with a multi-faceted, multi-sectoral response. In 2008, the Global Centre charged the Africa Region in
developing and leading an Agricultural Working Group (AWG) from across the Partnership in order to
develop a Global Strategy on Agriculture. The working group was comprised of WV staff (mainly agriculturists)
from Support Offices (SO), National Offices (NO) and the four regional offices: Africa (ARO), Asia and the
Pacific (APRO), Latin America and Caribbean (LACRO), and Middle East and Europe (MEERO). This team
conducted a contextual analysis at the NO and regional levels that characterised 1) the Landscape, 2) the
Performance, and 3) the Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Risks (SWOR) related to agricultural
programmes. The AWG team then used this information to develop World Vision’s Global Agricultural
Strategy.
This Strategy is in line with WV’s development objectives to see communities and households resilient and
secure against shocks, and is a response to the ongoing global food crisis and to the continuing deterioration of
natural resources and agro-ecosystem processes. It is in accordance with WV’s core vision of ensuring the
sustained well-being of children as well as with the first Millennium Development Goal of “eradicating hunger
and extreme poverty”.
Productive and sustainable agricultural systems, together with proper management of the natural resources on
which they depend, are essential to the well-being of children and their families. To ensure well-being these
systems must be both ecologically sound and economically viable. To ensure that all can benefit equitably, they
also need to be built solidly on social justice and gender equity. Such an agriculture system contributes to child
well-being by providing a safe, secure source of nutritious foods and other products, by providing families with
sustainable income-earning opportunities so they can adequately provide and care for their children, and by
minimising the adverse effects that inappropriate agricultural activities can have on the environment.
1.1 The Global Agri-Food System and Its Sustainability

Rising incomes and changes in dietary patterns, as well as population growth, globalisation, rapid technological
change, and biofuels production have all resulted in progressive, large-scale changes in the global agricultural
and food system. The characteristics of agricultural value chains—from input supply through production,
processing, transport, wholesale and retail sales (affected by the rise of supermarkets), and final use by
consumers—are undergoing systemic change in many parts of the world. This has had a dramatic effect on
smallholder farmers, particularly in developing countries. The current and probable future impacts of changing
food systems on smallholder farmers must be taken into account when developing a strategy for development
of the sector.
1
Adapted from World Vision’s Food Security Strategy Framework. Draft August 2008.
2
Tony Rinaudo. 2008. World food crisis: drawing good from bad. World Vision.
3
Cackler and Sur (2008), presentation to the World Bank – CSO Roundtable, 15 July 2008
4
UNICEF .2006. Progress for Children. Accessed at http://www.unicef.org/progressforchildren
5
World Bank. 2008. The global food crisis response programme at the World Bank. Presentation at the Food and Energy Price
Briefing July 9, 2008 by Christopher Delgado.
6
World Bank. 2008 World Development Report.
Page 9 of 41
In the face of these changes, sustainably combating poverty through agricultural development is a global task
with three intertwined dimensions: ecological, economic and social. The ecological dimension concerns the
conservation of a sound environment for future generations; the economic dimension concerns a global
development partnership which overcomes discrimination between poor and rich countries; the social
dimension considers social responsibility, acceptability and justice. 7
1.2 Agriculture, Food Security and Child Well-being

The UN Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) defines food security as existing when all people, at all
times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and
food preferences for an active and healthy life. Food security is a function of availability of food, the ability of
people to access what food may be available, and proper utilisation of food to ensure proper nutrition.
Because a large number of constraints (e.g., poverty, disease, lack of purchasing power, lack of rights and
access to land and other productive resources, poor nutritional practices, etc.) contribute to food insecurity,
increased agricultural production alone cannot ensure food security and the eradication of hunger. Even
sustainable agriculture, in itself, does not guarantee food security. Agricultural productivity must be
accompanied by improvements in nutrition education, better environmental stewardship, better access to
clean water, more equitable economic opportunities and just social and political systems in order for
communities and households to achieve truly sustainable food security.
While we realise that food security is no guarantee that a child will be well nourished, we know that in the
absence of food security, it is impossible for a family to provide adequate nourishment for their children. That
is, food security is necessary, but is not alone sufficient, for good child nutrition.
It is important to stress that food aid alone, while it may address immediate food shortages, also does not
ensure food security, especially in the medium and long term. Households truly food secure and economically
resilient will not need to rely on the provision of food commodities. 8
The same applies to sustainable and resilient livelihoods. There is no guarantee that a household with an
adequate livelihood strategy will choose to feed their children well and provide adequate health care and
schooling, but in the absence of livelihood security we know that the children will not do well at all. Like food
security, livelihood security is necessary, but is not alone sufficient, for child well-being.
Where the primary livelihood strategies involve agricultural activities for household food needs or sale to earn
money, the same principle applies; a sustainable, resilient, ecologically sound, and economically viable
agricultural system is a necessary but not sufficient condition for improved child well-being. While such a
system offers no guarantee of success, in the absence of such agricultural system, failure is guaranteed.
1.3 A Truly Sustainable Agriculture

Historically, agricultural development has been shown to be particularly effective, to have a “special power” in
spurring and sustaining broader economic development. With few exceptions—mostly small city states such as
Singapore and Hong Kong—agricultural development has led to broader national development. By extension,
an indispensable component of sustainable development is a sustainable agri-food system. To ensure long-term
sustainability, however, agricultural systems must be ecologically sound, economically viable, and socially
responsible. A sustainable agriculture system is one that produces little or no waste or pollution, one that
combines production and consumption needs with environmental protection, one that achieves profitability by
reducing economic costs (including social and environmental “externalities”) as much as by increasing sales. A
sustainable, just and socially responsible agriculture system not only produces plentiful high-quality food with
consideration for the environment, but also meets the needs of vulnerable populations. This entails rural
development in the broad sense: ensuring that the rural poor have improved transport, improved input and
output market facilities and linkages, improved quality of and access to information, improved credit and other
financial services, access to peaceable environments and improved opportunities for participation in planning
and decision making. Only when production and environmental concerns are complemented by socially
acceptable and just approaches and methods can a truly sustainable agriculture be achieved.
7
Sustainable Agriculture Information Network. 2006. Sustainable agriculture: A pathway out of poverty for India’s rural poor.
8
Tony Rinaudo. 2008. World food crisis: drawing good from bad. World Vision.
Page 10 of 41
1.4 Ecological sustainability 9 10
When ecosystem processes are compromised, long-term agricultural production and consequently food
security are also compromised. Ensuring agro-ecological sustainability leading to good agricultural production
and, by consequence, achieve and maintain food security requires attention to a number of considerations:
 Soil: Improving fertility and soil structure; preventing erosion by the adoption of soil and water
conservation practices and, for example, through reforestation, livestock grazing rotation, agro-
forestry, etc.
 Water: Increasing soil organic matter content to raise its water holding capacity; increasing water
use efficiency through improved surface water management practices, e.g., drip irrigation; and
practices such as the use of swales/drainage filters, mulching, and appropriate crop selection and
rotation.
 Biodiversity: Protecting and increasing both natural and agricultural plant and animal diversity,
including soil biodiversity; reducing risks inherent to mono-cropping—and increasing whole-system
resilience—through multiple cropping, inter-cropping and mixed crop/animal farming practices.
 Environmental: Reducing or eliminating the effects (damage / pollution) of hazardous chemicals by
ensuring correct know-how and capacity for use, and promoting practices such as integrated pest
management and integrated nutrient management.
 Planning: Improving productivity; conserving soil, plant and animal biodiversity; avoiding land use
conflicts and expansion of farming into marginal areas; preserving rural jobs; working with natural
processes to maximise yields while restoring or even enhancing rural landscapes.
 Climate: Reducing the impact of greenhouse gases through agricultural practices that reduce fossil
fuel emissions; building soil carbon and minimising methane and nitrous oxide production; rationalising
the use of energy-intensive inputs such as nitrogen fertilizers; creating agricultural systems adapted
and resilient to climate variability and change; reclaiming and rehabilitating marginalised lands by
encouraging the planting of economically viable, multi-use shrubs and small trees.
1.5 Economic viability 11

Ensuring economic viability will require attention to:
 Local focus and orientation vs. export: Ensuring that crop and livestock production for export
does not compromise the need to meet domestic demand and contribute to local food security.
 Risk reduction: Developing preparedness plans to meet foreseeable disasters e.g. floods, drought.
This builds confidence to adopt innovations and to invest and expand agricultural activities.
 Linkages with MFIs: Expanding and introducing innovative products, where possible, into the small-
scale agriculture sector.
 Niche markets: Responding to increasing demand for certified organic or other cash and niche
products.
 Profitability: Improving returns to key factors of production such as land, inputs, credit, appropriate
technology and know-how, and—especially in the case of smallholders—household labour.
 Employment: Giving priority to labour-intensive activities that provide rural employment, to
counteract, where feasible, specialisation and intensive mechanisation.
1.6 Social justice and acceptability 12

Promoting social sustainability involves consideration of:
 Inclusiveness : Intentionally targeting marginal, minority and vulnerable population groups.

 Politics and “power relations”: Fostering awareness of feelings of social injustice on the part of
those who are excluded from development opportunities as well as from better-off sympathisers.
9
Sustainable Agriculture Information Network.2006. Sustainable agriculture: A pathway out of poverty for India’s rural poor.
10
Rinaudo, Tony. 2008. World food crisis: drawing good from bad. World Vision.
11
Ibid
12
Sustainable Agriculture Information Network.2006. Sustainable agriculture: A pathway out of poverty for India’s rural poor.
Page 11 of 41
 Local norms: Respecting, adapting to and building on local customs, traditions, community norms,
taboos, etc.
 Traditional indigenous knowledge: Acknowledging and valuing hard-won traditional know-how
and innovation; supplementing and leveraging it with appropriate introduction of and training on
appropriate more “modern” and “scientific” knowledge.
 Gender: Ensuring that access to opportunities, resources and ownership, as well allocation of and
control over benefits are justly and equitably shared by women and men.
 Broad participation: Engaging the broadest feasible range of stakeholders; promoting dialogue and
democracy by empowering stakeholders to organise and speak with their own voice.
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2. AGRICULTURAL LANDSCAPE
The purpose of a ‘Landscape Analysis’ is to describe the physical, social, natural, economic, technological,
demographic, political and spiritual context of a sector in order to inform strategic decisions on effective
approaches to programming at the global level. As might be expected, the characteristics of agricultural
landscapes vary considerably across each of World Vision’s four regions and each National office. There is
nonetheless sufficient commonality to identify key areas affecting agriculture production systems across WV’s
areas of operation.
Through its agricultural landscape analysis, the AWG identified issues under several contextual areas that
influenced formulation of the current strategy:
1. Demographic issues, including the different, locally contextualised roles of women, men, youth and
vulnerable groups such as orphans, minorities, marginalised ethnic groups, the disabled, and others;
rural/urban population trends and migration; the progressive decline of the agriculture sector; the
impact of HIV and AIDS, especially in Africa; and levels of malnutrition.
2. Agricultural productivity, including know-how, natural resource management and climate
change/variability, soil depletion and deforestation, and decreasing social capital
3. Agriculture infrastructure (roads, irrigation, services, transport, communications), and technology
and knowledge (including research and extension).
4. Markets, including access to markets and market information; enterprise and market development;
value chain approaches and improved rural-urban linkages through upgrading agricultural value chains;
access to credit and other financial services; impact of world food crisis on world markets; changing
consumer habits; changing patterns of international trade.
5. Policy environment (global, regional/national, internal), including access and rights to land (land
tenure) and other productive assets; international trade agreements and; private sector investment.
6. Conflict, disaster and emergency settings, including displaced populations, impacts on
agricultural production, and impacts on trader routes.
7. Spiritual beliefs, including religious and other world views; their influence on attitudes and
behaviour; opportunities for collaboration and social mobilisation; and sources of conflict
2.1 Demographic Issues
2.1.1 Gender and youth

It is important to begin by emphasising that “gender” is not synonymous with “women.” Gender, as a
consideration important to the analysis of agricultural and food systems, and to defining the agricultural
landscape in which WV works, involves a critical awareness of and sensitivity to the different roles,
responsibilities and rights—which vary from one context to another—of both women and men.
2.1.2 Women and female-headed households

Nevertheless, smallholder agriculture in many developing countries continues to be characterised by systems
in which women perform a large proportion of food production activities while access to resources and
allocation of benefits traditionally are decided by men and tend to favour men. In many regions, women take
primary responsibility for ensuring household food security and assume the greatest portion of the burden of
household agricultural labour. According to the World Bank and other institutions, 42 per cent of the
economically active population involved in agriculture in Africa is female. FAO suggests that such figures in fact
underestimate women's role, since there is sometimes a tendency to register women in farm households as
housewives, although most carry out a wide range of agricultural activities in addition to domestic work. FAO
found, in a survey of nine African countries in 1996, that women's contribution to the production of food
crops ranges from 30 per cent in Sudan to 80 per cent in the Republic of Congo, with estimates for other
countries tending toward the higher end of the scale 13 .
13
UNDPI - ‘Africa Recovery’ Vol. 11 No. 2 -- October 1997
Page 13 of 41
Increasing rates of urban migration, ongoing civil conflict, and outbreaks of pandemic disease have led to an
increase in the number of female-headed households in poor, rural communities. Almost one-third of rural
households in Africa are headed by women. In Latin America, more than 40 million homes depend on women’s
labour for survival. While not all of these households are entirely dependent on agriculture, the vulnerability of
female-headed households is clear; 79 percent are below the poverty line. 14
In many areas, women are disempowered in terms of access to land and other productive assets. Often their
access is through their husband and secure only so long as he is alive or she is married to him. When women
do own land, the land holding is often smaller and located in more marginal areas. Women also often have less
access than men to credit, which limits among other factors their ability to purchase seeds, fertilizers and
other inputs needed to adopt new farming techniques.
Even where women are the main providers of agricultural labour, men are often disproportionately targeted
for training by outside interventions. Only 5 per cent of the resources provided through extension services in
Africa are available to women and according to the Director of the FAO's Women in Development Service -
“Of total extension agents at work in Africa today, only 17 per cent are women." 15 Few governments or
NGOs have developed agricultural technologies that account for the physical, economic and time constraints
of women and women are routinely under-represented as extension agents.
Additional considerations are that women exhibit relatively high rates of illiteracy. Women are also often
physically endangered and/or sexually exploited in their efforts to access agricultural markets and provide for
their families.
2.1.3 Youth
Many parts of the developing world, including many regions in which WV carries out its work, are
experiencing a demographic “youth bulge”. Rapidly growing youth populations have implications for human and
economic development. Unemployment can be exacerbated and dependency on parents is often prolonged. In
areas where educational and employment opportunities are limited, poor and disaffected youth are susceptible
to despair, leading in many places to increased rates of out-migration, violence, gang activities, drug and alcohol
abuse, prostitution and suicide. Finding or creating sources of productive employment for their burgeoning
youth populations is an increasingly high priority for many governments throughout the developing world 16 .
2.1.4 Rural / Urban population trends

Among the most notable global population trends, and one that will have a direct and significant impact on the
agricultural sector, is a continuing trend of rural to urban migration. Latest news on urbanisation indicates that
by 2015 it is projected that the world will be urbanised in the following manner by continent: Africa 53
percent, Asia 54 percent, Latin America and Caribbean 85 percent, Europe 80 percent, North America 84
percent and Oceania 77 percent. 17
Latin America serves as a case in point. By 2010 it is expected that 79 percent of the total regional population
will reside in urban areas and only 21 percent in rural areas. If current rates of migration continue until 2015,
only 19 percent of the regional population will reside in rural areas. In fact, the intensive mechanisation and
modernisation of agriculture in some countries, such as Brazil, has itself contributed to this movement of
people. 18
Africa's population is predominantly rural. The urbanisation level stayed at 35 percent in 1995. Although Africa
is the lowest urbanised continent, its growth rate of urbanisation is the highest. Africa's urban population has
been consistently growing above 4 percent per annum from 1950 onwards. Even between 2000 and 2005, it is
estimated to have grown 4 percent per annum. 19
14
World Vision. 2008. LACRO regional Landscape/Performance and SWOR report. Elaboracion Estrategia Global de
Agricultura. DRAFT.
15
UNDPI. 1997.
16
Report of the World Summit for Social Development, Copenhagen, 6-12 March 1995 (United Nations publication, Sales No.
96.IV.8).
17
Population reports, Latest news on urbanisation, Volume XXX, Number 4, Fall 2002 Series M, Number 16 Special Topics,
Published by the Population Information Programme, Center for Communication Programmes, The Johns Hopkins University
Bloomberg School of Public Health, 111 Market Place, Suite 310, Baltimore, Maryland 21202, USA,
18
S.Helfand and G.C. Rezende. Brazilian Agriculture in the 1990s: Impact of the Policy Reforms. 2001. Prepared for the XXIV
International Conference of Agricultural Economists, Berlin, August 13-18, 2000.
19
UNCHS (Habitat), Tools and Statistics Unit, 31. December 1999
Page 14 of 41
2.1.5 Declines in the agricultural sector

Similar trends are evident in the percentage of the population employed in the agricultural sector. Again, Latin
America demonstrates trends that are seen elsewhere in the developing world. In 1990, nearly 25 percent of
the workforce was employed in the agricultural sector. As of 2006, the proportion had declined to just over
22 percent. Such trends represent clear threats to both food and livelihood security as the growing number of
urban poor becomes increasingly dependent on a decreasing number of farmers to ensure food security. 20
2.1.6 Populations with HIV and AIDS

An estimated 22.5 million adults and children are made highly vulnerable to the food crisis by HIV and AIDS 21 .
The great majority of the population in the countries most affected by HIV and AIDS live in rural areas. It is to
be expected that HIV and AIDS will continue to cause serious damage to the agriculture sector in those
countries, especially in countries that rely heavily on manpower for production. Among the factors are the loss
of knowledge about traditional farming methods and the loss of assets that occur as key members of rural
households are struck by the disease. The increasing prevalence of the virus has a direct impact on available
agricultural labour, especially in southern and eastern Africa. The loss of labour may lead to declines in crop
variety and to changes in cropping systems, particularly a change from more labour-intensive systems to less
intensive systems. Absenteeism caused by HIV-related illnesses and the loss of labour from AIDS-related
deaths may lead to the reduction of the area of land under cultivation and to declining yields resulting in
reduced food production and food insecurity. Furthermore, the disease has lead to an increase in the
proportion of non-productive members of farming households that share the available food stocks.
2.1.7 Malnutrition 22
In 1995, 167 million children under five-years old—almost one-third of developing country children—were
malnourished. 23 Based on recent trends in sub-Saharan Africa the percentage of underweight children is
projected by IFPRI to decline only marginally from 32.1 percent in 1995 to 28.8 percent in 2020. This
compares with a projected decline over the same period for all developing countries from 31percent to 18.4
percent. Recent developmental gains in reducing malnutrition are at risk of being reversed. According to a
recent World Bank study, at least another 105 million people across the world, of which 35 million will be
children, may be pushed by economic recession deeper into poverty. 24 In March 2008, World Vision estimates
it was unable to feed 1.5 million of its food aid beneficiaries due to both inaccessibility and unavailability of
staple foods. The recent crisis has highlighted the vulnerability of households, communities, and governments
to achieving food security, particularly amongst poorer populations already affected by undernourishment,
instability, HIV, conflict and drought.
2.2 Agricultural Productivity

In each of the four regions included in this review, the agricultural sector (comprised of farming, livestock and
fisheries) continues to be a critical component of the national economy. Throughout the developing world,
especially in poor agrarian countries with low levels of industrialisation, agriculture accounts for a significant
portion of GNP, foreign exchange export earnings, and the labour force. In many poor nations, gains in
agricultural productivity have barely exceeded population growth rates since the latter half of the twentieth
century and in some cases, such as the Africa region, population growth is faster than agricultural production
growth 25 . This limited growth in the agricultural sector provides one explanation for the limited progress
made toward reducing hunger and poverty in many countries.
Land degradation, climate change, and failings in various land tenure systems threaten land productivity in all
regions. The onset of HIV and AIDS in Africa has caused labour and land productivity to lag far behind other
developing regions. Numerous civil conflicts and the resulting large numbers of displaced populations have also
reduced productivity. Southern and Eastern Africa, in particular, are home to a growing number of households
that are chronically vulnerable to food and livelihood insecurity as a result of declining agricultural yields. In
recent years, low rates of cereal production and crop yields have translated into falling per capital food
production. In some cases 26 , a significant proportion of agricultural land holdings may be left uncultivated due
20
CEPAL. 2008 Anuario estadistico de America Latina y el Caribe.
21
The Impact of AIDS - UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs/Population Division 2007
22
Adapted from World Vision’s Food Security Strategy Framework. Draft August 2008.
23
IFPRI 2020 Brief No.64
24
UN High Level Taskforce on the Global Food Crisis, Comprehensive Framework for Action July 2008
25
Africa Agricultural Working Group. 2008. Africa Agricultural Landscape, Performance and SWOT. DRAFT.
26
WV Zimbabwe. 2007. Household Livelihood Security Assessment. May 2007
Page 15 of 41
to lack of resources – labour, draft power, inputs and rainfall. The resulting dependence on food imports
comes at a time of drastic increases in food commodity and energy prices, further jeopardising the short-term
and long-term food security of millions of poor households throughout Africa.
2.2.1 Natural resource management

Agricultural livelihoods are more dependent than any other on regular access to a healthy and diverse natural
resource base. However, climate change, increasing population density, improper management of collective
resources, inappropriate expansion into marginal environments, increasing frequency and severity of natural
disasters, and limited access to water each compromise the sustainability of agricultural livelihoods in much of
the developing world. Population growth has forced the poor onto marginal lands to agricultural production,
leading to environmental degradation, greater vulnerability and increased food insecurity. A lack of emphasis
on good soil and water conservation and appropriate management practices in some agricultural development
efforts has only served to exacerbate this process.
2.2.2 Climate change 27

Climate change will continue to have an increasing effect on agriculture worldwide. This effect is likely to be
most marked in parts of the sub-tropics where annual average rainfall is declining. Further it will have an
impact on human health, livelihood assets, distribution channels, as well as food production. Its impacts will be
both short term, resulting from more frequent and more intense extreme weather events, and long term,
caused by changing temperatures and precipitation patterns 28
Climate determines to a great extent which crops can grow in an agricultural ecosystem. Climate change can
have both positive and negative effects on agriculture. The challenge for agriculture is to adapt fast enough to a
changing climate, and to shift to production practices which reduce the ‘carbon footprint’ of food production.
In 2000, agriculture was responsible for 14 percent of global greenhouse gas emissions from fertilizers,
livestock, wetland rice cultivation, manure management methods and burning of savannah and agricultural
residues, each responsible for producing significant levels of methane (CH4), Carbon dioxide (CO2) and/or
Nitrous oxide (N2O). 29
The conversion of forest and grassland to agriculture is another major source of CO2 through a 50 per cent
loss of soil carbon. Developing countries are most likely to suffer the negative effects of climate change. Access
to food in all regions may be severely compromised by climate variability and change due to reductions in the
land area suitable for agriculture, the length of growing seasons, as well as potential yields, especially in semi-
arid and arid regions. Rain-fed agriculture, which covers 96 percent of all cultivated land in sub-Saharan Africa,
will be particularly affected. In fact, it is estimated that by the 2020s, yield from rain-fed agriculture in some
African countries could be reduced by up to 50 per cent. It is also estimated that land that is unsuitable for
rain-fed agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa due to climate, soil or terrain constraints may increase by 30 to 60
million hectares.
Heightened climate variability will also quite likely increase the risk of flooding and drought, impacting the
many rural areas that are dependent on rain-fed agriculture. The Africa AWG noted that by 2020, between 75
and 250 million people on the continent are expected to face an increase in ‘water stress’ due to climate
change. Agriculture through much of the world is very vulnerable to variations in weather patterns from year
to year, season to season and within seasons even now. 30 In most regions this trend will only be aggravated by
climate change unless a concerted effort is made to proactively build the resilience of agro-ecosystems. There
is also a serious risk to many areas that are low-lying and near the ocean due to changes in groundwater and
the potential for inundation as sea levels rise or as storms get more intense 31 . The FAO states that 'Nations
that have pushed for monoculture crop production for foreign markets will need to assess their own food
security potential. It is well established that diversified agricultural systems are more resilient and will fare
better under climate change scenarios.
27
Adapted from World Business Council for Sustainable Development and International Union for Conservation of Nature, July
2008. Agricultural Ecosystems: Facts and Trends
28
FAO June 2008: Climate Change and Food Security - A Framework
29
WRI. 2005. ‘Navigating the Numbers’, World Resources Institute, Washington, D.C.
30
In part because of inadequate attention to best practice in the areas of soil conservation, water management, and
nutrient/carbon cycles.
31
Ibid. FAO
Page 16 of 41
2.2.3 Soil depletion and deforestation

Throughout all regions, increasing population density in rural communities has led to greater pressure on
agricultural land and increasing rates of soil depletion. Similarly, deforestation has contributed to the loss of
productive soil and frequent flooding of agricultural lands. In many parts of Africa, extensive livestock
production and increasing pastoralism have led to the deterioration of grasslands and contributed to inter-
ethnic conflict related to agricultural land. Many regions in Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean are
particularly prone to natural disasters which can have a long-term impact on agricultural productivity in
affected areas. Each of these factors contributes to a deterioration of biodiversity. Continued declines in the
biodiversity of both natural areas and agro-ecological systems are likely to compromise resilience to natural
disasters and lead to more severe and frequent pest outbreaks.
2.2.4 Decreasing social capital

Increasing rates of poverty, endemic diseases, urban migration, and conflict have had a detrimental effect on
social capital in many developing countries. Nevertheless, rural communities can be helped to become much
more resilient to these and other shocks. As a result, some rural agricultural communities are in fact very
hardy and resourceful, characteristics that are necessary in many small farming situations. Therefore it is of
great importance to identify best practices in reversing the decline in social capital and in assisting rural
communities to become less vulnerable and more resilient. This will most probably include advocating for
justice and for international solidarity with the poor countries and the poor and smallholder farmers in these
societies.
2.3 Access to Infrastructure and Improved Technology

Along with the above listed constraints, including the lack of access and tenure rights to productive arable land,
access to appropriate technologies and infrastructure is one of the most critical determinants of agricultural
productivity. This includes infrastructure that supports on-farm production (irrigation, energy, transportation,
pre- and post-harvest technology, storage), ensures efficient trading and exchange (telecommunications,
accessible markets), adds value to the domestic economy (agro-processing and packaging facilities), and enables
produce to move rapidly and efficiently from farm-gate to processing facilities and on to wholesalers
(transportation and bulk storage). 32
Throughout the developing world, the lack of access to appropriate agricultural technologies/practices and
infrastructure has created significant disadvantages for poor, rural households. For example in many areas, the
lack of access to irrigation infrastructure, improved seed and livestock breeds, and affordable inputs has
severely limited agricultural productivity throughout much of the developing world, especially in Southern and
Eastern Africa. Small-scale farmers in all four regions continue to experience significant crop losses (25%-50%)
due to inadequate post-harvest storage facilities. In Latin America, recent decades have seen a substantial
increase in the use of improved seeds (including genetically modified varieties), market information systems,
and agricultural machinery. However, each of these gains predominantly benefits large commercial producers
and further erodes the competitiveness of small-scale farmers. Consequently, the modernisation of agriculture
throughout the region has in many cases decreased the food and livelihood security of millions of
households. 33
2.3.1 Limited investment by governments

Governments in developing countries have tended to give low priority to agriculture within their national
strategies, including giving little attention to the creation of attractive environments for private investment in
the agricultural industry generally. Farmers’ needs and the needs of agribusiness too often do not sufficiently
drive the orientation of agricultural research and extension services, causing lack of relevance and impact.
While Agriculture Ministries in most developing countries support a system of agricultural extension agents,
findings suggest that such efforts are often under-staffed and are relatively ineffective at encouraging adoption
of emerging agricultural technologies that are appropriate for the small-scale farming sector.
Further, governments and relevant institutions in the developed world have tended to give low priority to
investment in the small-scale agriculture sector in developing countries, especially in Africa. Part of the reason
32
World Vision. Africa Agricultural Working Group. 2008. Africa Agricultural Landscape, Performance and SWOT. DRAFT.
33
World Vision. 2008. LACRO regional Landscape/Performance and SWOR report. Elaboracion Estrategia Global de
Agricultura. DRAFT.
Africa Agricultural Working Group. 2008. Africa Agricultural Landscape, Performance and SWOT. DRAFT.
Page 17 of 41
for this is the apparent lack of success of many agriculture development programmes and projects compared
with other sectors. In addition, International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) and
International Monetary Fund (IMF) policies promoting structural adjustment have had a disproportional impact
on rural people in developing countries, where rural development initiatives are one of the first casualties.
2.4 Markets - Information, Linkages, Value Chains

Efficient marketing systems and infrastructure are often unavailable and/or underdeveloped in most areas, and
governments often do not provide an enabling environment for the smallholder producer. There is weak
international trading at government and sub regional levels, with sporadic collaboration with the private sector
(supply and service delivery).These factors combined result in higher market transaction costs and a lack of
influence among small-scale producers within the agricultural marketing chain.
Lack of knowledge of available production and marketing data and resources within the existing agricultural
marketing chain is common. Small-scale producers, generally poorly educated, thus have difficulty in keeping up
with market trends and have very little negotiating strength within the various agricultural product value
chains. In addition, some governments set low prices on staple commodities making it very hard for
smallholder producers to sell at a profit.
2.4.1 Access to financial services

Rural farmers generally have little or no access to financial services to support their farming operations. Given
the cost of agricultural inputs, the lack of infrastructure, limited access to markets, and seasonal fluctuations in
commodity prices, the inability to obtain credit to support production threatens both food and livelihood
security of millions of households over the short- and long-term. The lack of access to formal credit markets
often forces agricultural households to sell productive assets or turn to the informal credit market, typically
under highly exploitative terms. Under such conditions, the onset of a natural disaster or severe market
disruptions can easily push impoverished agricultural households from a state of transitory vulnerability to one
of chronic food and livelihood insecurity.
The lack of capital impacts the majority of small-scale farmers just wanting to produce enough staple food for
their families. This constraint also prevents them from experimenting with emerging agricultural technologies
and practices, or engaging in the more intensive production of high value export crops such as coffee and
cashew nuts among others.
Impact of the world food price crisis
Recent hikes in world food prices have thrown many developing countries, especially net food importers, into
a state of market turbulence with profound social, economical and political implications. Since the onset of
price increases for basic commodities, import costs have increased significantly, making it extremely difficult
for many countries to ensure access to affordable food for the entire population. The FAO estimated that the
cost of grain imports would increase by 56 percent in 2007/2008, following an already significant rise in
2006/2007. In poor and food deficit African countries, the cost of cereal imports was expected to soar by 74
percent in 2008/2009. 34
The impact of rising prices on net-buyers and food-deficit households is exacerbated by decreased agricultural
production, although there are instances where the opposite has taken place due to the attraction of higher
farm-gate prices. Regions with declining production are increasingly dependent on imports. Currently, 20
percent of Africa cereal production consumption depends on imports 35 , including food aid. As import capacity
changes due to spiking prices, food security risks are heightened. However farmers generally stand to benefit
from higher grain and oilseed prices; while higher prices do present a problem for those who have to buy their
food, these are also a welcome incentive to farmers to invest in agriculture and in increased production.
2.5 The Environment Policy

Increasingly, agriculture throughout the developing world is characterised by two distinct, and at times
competing, sub-sectors: subsistence agriculture and the export market. While millions of poor households
continue to practice subsistence agriculture as a means of providing for household consumption, they are often
unable to benefit from policies or economies of scale geared toward the commercial export market. In
34
ICTSD. (2008). Raising agricultural productivity in Africa: The energy challenge 2:2, May 2008.
35
http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/ai465e/ai465e07.htm
Page 18 of 41
general, subsistence farmers are resource-poor with low-incomes, have highly fragmented and relatively small
land holdings (often less than one or two hectares), own few productive assets, and live in less favoured areas
with either limited agricultural potential or poor market access.
Poor farmers are often placed at a disadvantage due to unequal land distribution and land tenure systems,
commodity price fluctuations, and input subsidies that favour large producers who mainly target agricultural
export markets. Analysis conducted by the Asia and Pacific Region Agricultural Working Group (APRO-AWG)
observed that small-scale, low external input agriculture, with a focus on sustainable production and poverty
reduction was frequently neglected in National Poverty Reduction Strategies.
Land tenure and access
Access to land presents challenges in all regions. Latin America however is particularly plagued with inequitable
land distribution.
Despite previous efforts at agrarian reform in Latin America, land tenure remains highly skewed toward a
relatively small number of wealthy land owners. Unequal access to land perpetuates other structural
disadvantages faced by the rural poor, especially among women and ethnic minorities. Land is not the only
resource plagued by inequitable distribution in LATIN AMERICA; the majority of this region has inadequate
access to needed food, due to unequal distribution of available food.
In contrast, in the Middle East and Eastern Europe, most of the population whose livelihoods are based on
agriculture have access to land. However, many of the poorest in rural areas have no access to land. Female-
headed households face particular discrimination in relation to land access.
In many parts of Africa and Asia, land is held under customary land tenure system. However customary land
administration is getting weak and is not being replaced by satisfactory arrangements. Land appropriation (and
consequent displacement of populations with customary tenure/access rights) by large private companies and
government is common and is of particular concern in light of growing interest in large-scale plantation-style
carbon-sequestration and biofuel production enterprises.
Trade agreements
International and regional trade agreements, while purporting to invigorate national economies, have in fact
created further disadvantages for small-scale farmers. While some countries and regions (Central America,
Brazil, Colombia, Dominican Republic) maintain direct intervention in basic grain markets (wheat, maize, rice),
there has been a progressive transition toward the provision of integrated interventions in support of small-
scale producers. These include investments in plant and animal health, irrigation and land certification.
Among the 14 countries in the MEERO region, 10 are former- communist states currently undertaking land
reform. 36 Despite their proximity to European markets, few are members of the EU and thus are not able to
benefit from regional agricultural trade agreements. Furthermore, the agricultural sector in many of these
countries remains subject to an array of policy, structural, technological, financial and institutional constraints,
hindering its development and resulting in the low performance of the sector as a whole.
Private sector investment
Finally, low population densities, remote locations, and seasonally - dependent production systems make
participation by the private sector investment in agricultural services and infrastructure a higher risk than
other ventures. As a result, few governments are actively pursuing public-private partnerships specifically
designed to support rural agricultural economies.
2.6 Conflict and Emergency Settings

Natural and man-made emergency situations will continue to impact World Vision’s attempts at improving
child well-being and household food security through agriculture. Conflict and emergencies arising from socio-
political causes often result in displaced populations not having access to land. Conflict and emergencies may
also render the agricultural production efforts of populations less productive even when land is available.
Additional complications include looting of water pumps as well as security problems that cause traders to re-
route, thereby increasing prices to a point where urban dwellers choose to purchase imported food in place of
36
Albania, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bosnia, Georgia, Kosovo, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Montenegro and Uzbekistan.
Page 19 of 41
local products 37 . According to FAO, during the last third of the 20th century, Africa has lost over $120 billion
worth of agriculture production due to conflict 38 .
Sustainable peace and reduced violence has been linked to the conditions of food production and
distribution 39 . If agriculture projects help construct social contexts that promote greater equity, they may
contribute to deterring conflict 40 .
2.7 Spiritual Context

The spiritual beliefs of groups in the highly diverse regions will play an important role in determining the
effectiveness of World Vision agriculture programmes. Spirituality may influence the adoption of techniques
and may create conflict which undermines agricultural efforts; it can also often be used as a positive method of
mobilisation.
In some WV regions there is potential conflict between spiritual ideologies. For example, in Africa, Christianity
is the predominant faith with Muslim and animism also present. Traditional and conservative farming
communities often take more time to initiate change due to their beliefs about how agriculture relates to
spiritual powers.
In other regions it is possible to mobilise the spirituality of the community to act positively in partnership.
37
C. Longley, R. Jones, M. Hussein Ahmed and P. Audi. Supporting Local Seed Systems in Southern Somalia: A
Developmental Approach to Agricultural Rehabilitation in Emergency Settings. Network Paper No. 115. ODI Agricultural
Research & Extension Network. 2001
38
E. Messner and Marc J. Cohen. Breaking the Links Between Conflict and Hunger in Africa. 2020 Africa Conference Brief 10.
IFPRI. 2004.
39
Indra de Soysa and Nils P. Gleditsch. To Cultivate Peace: Agriculture in a World of Conflict. Environmental Change &
Security Project Report, Issue 5. P15. 1999.
40
E. Messner et. al.
Page 20 of 41
3. WORLD VISION PERFORMANCE

Reviewing National Office (NO) performance in the agricultural sector enables WV to set clear performance
criteria, and gauge both the efficiency and effectiveness with which agricultural programmes are contributing
towards achievement of WV’s mission. Performance assessment also plays a critical role in the continuous
project cycle, informing project design and implementation as well as adding another critical component to
monitoring and evaluation.
3.1 Programming
Within the Agricultural sector, World Vision is primarily working with some of the world’s most vulnerable
rural populations. However, WV programming does not always exhibit an adequate understanding of gender
roles in agriculture and at times is based on inaccurate assumptions regarding the effectiveness of agricultural
extension agents. Further, WV quite often employs structures that run parallel to (but separate from)
government initiatives.
World Vision is in transition towards child-focused programming approaches where local level staff, work with
community partners to contribute to the well-being of children. This presents an opportunity to strengthen
agriculture components of programming in integration with other sectors to make a vital contribution to the
well-being of children.
The review carried out by the Africa sub-working group, suggests that only 10 to 20 percent of community
members sustain the technologies promoted by ‘lead farmers’ beyond the life of the project. Consequently,
there is a need to examine more effective approaches to promoting improved agricultural practices and
technologies among the communities where WV works. The approaches themselves may need to be examined
for their appropriateness (e.g. provision of maize seed in drought prone regions) and/or underlying reasons
why appropriate approaches are not being adopted need to be understood (e.g. lack of land ownership may be
the real reason for low adoption, rather than rejection of the approach outright).
Sometimes programmatic constraints exist within WV organisational frameworks which limit a national office’s
ability to identify and promote successful interventions on a wider scale. Questions such as the following need
to be asked: Is there adequate staff with the right qualifications? Is there an appropriate gender balance of staff?
Is an appropriate communication and accountability structure in place for ensuring innovations are
implemented effectively? Are staff members mobile enough to do the job? Are people with the necessary skills
in the right positions? Are incentives in place to keep good quality staff for sufficient time in the field? Is there a
mechanism in place to ensure staffing levels for long-term food security projects are not compromised during a
short-term crisis?
World Vision investment in agriculture

Although agriculture is clearly one of the key sectors contributing to child well-being and the survival and
nutrition of most people in the areas where WV is working, investment in the sector has not been
proportionately significant.
Each of the regional reviews suggests that a relatively low priority is currently given to the design and funding
of integrated, long-term agricultural projects. The Asia review noted that agriculture is only briefly mentioned
in the two core regional strategy documents, and even then it is viewed primarily as a mode (or sub-sector) of
economic development rather than a vital component of family health and child well-being. The LACRO
review stated that of the funding directed toward agriculture-related projects, most goes toward maintaining
household consumption and compensating technical consultants. WV does not devote significant funding to
productive infrastructure and relatively little attention is paid to the long-term improvement of agricultural
practices among small-scale farmers.
Short project timeframes of 2-3 years do not allow sufficient time for technical implementation and support.
The Africa review suggests that “agricultural projects have often been of short duration and designed with
short-term thinking. Limited funding has often led to projects not being designed comprehensively, focusing
only on one segment where funding is limited to this activity or donor-driven.” One example is the provision
of drip irrigation kits with little consideration for accompanying agricultural extension services or follow-up
funding.
Strategic collaboration
In some regions, strategic government frameworks intersect and complement WV objectives. For example in
Africa common foci of WV and government include:
 Support to productivity-increasing activities among smallholder farmers to increase food security;
 Extending the area under sustainable land management and reliable water control systems; and
Page 21 of 41
 Improving rural infrastructure and trade related capacities to improve market access.
In the Latin America and Caribbean region, microfinance institutions share common objectives with WV and
while they are capable of supplying financial resources for agricultural development, currently they run parallel
to agricultural activities and do not provide sufficient support.
While WV has collaborated with the local government, all four participating regions agree that in most cases,
dialogue and collaboration with local and regional governments and other stakeholders is limited, localised and
without strategic intent. Advocacy efforts in support of agricultural policies that support poor, rural
agricultural communities have also been limited.
On the other end of the scale, farmers themselves, who are key actors in their own development, are not
always appreciated by project staff for their role as partners. They are not considered able to offer ideas in
selecting and adapting innovations to local conditions, or to disseminate and share these innovations with
others.
World Vision has had limited connection with wider research institutions (e.g. Consultative Group on
International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), universities). For example, while the Africa Region developed and
signed MOUs with some of the CGIAR centers, these agreements have stayed inactive or have had little
operational impetus. Any such relationship has been formed in an ad hoc manner at a local level rather than as
a strategic partnership. Considerable synergy between WV and such institutions is clearly possible but has not
been advanced.
Gender
The conclusion of the review carried out by the MEER sub-working group, corroborated by those for the
other three regions, was that WV agricultural programmes often tend to reflect an incomplete understanding
of gender roles in agricultural production and create inadequate opportunities for gender-specific community
inputs in the design and implementation of agricultural activities. On the other hand, in the promotion of
gender equity there is a sometimes a concern that while women could be expected by external stakeholders
to be involved in every activity related to agriculture, they may not have a choice in this.
Risk management
World Vision is currently not paying enough attention to the cause-and-effect relationships between rural
poverty, food insecurity and child malnutrition, and the role of small-scale agriculture to alleviate these
conditions. Rain-fed agriculture is often an inherently high-risk enterprise, impacted by social, economic and
political factors in addition to agro-climatic ones. For example, many current programmes do not have
appropriate information systems for market prices and climate/weather conditions to help farmers manage
risk. In addition, through promotion of biodiversity on-farm and in adjacent landscapes, and through
appropriate production practices such as multiple cropping, integrated pest management, conservation tillage,
etc., risk in farming operations can be significantly reduced. Efforts to reverse soil degradation and improve soil
and water conservation through the adoption of improved Natural Resource Management (NRM) practices
hold much promise for reducing the risks posed by climate variability and change. Many countries, particularly
through grant-funded projects, are making advances in this area, and there are opportunities for collecting and
disseminating lessons learned.
Value chain / urban rural linkages

Lack of adequate attention to market mechanisms has limited the effectiveness of some WV agricultural
programmes. While farmers’ associations and agricultural marketing groups are supported financially and
technically by WV, the support has been limited, and opportunities for value chain development linking farmer
groups to input suppliers and output market traders and companies have not been adequately explored.
Lessons need to be shared where local initiatives have proven successful, including those achieved in World
Vision supported projects in Malawi, Mozambique and Angola.
Limited documentation of good practices

World Vision is not taking enough advantage of learning from experiences. Frequently good practices are not
documented. Inadequate or lack of monitoring and evaluation has caused some extension approaches to be
scaled up and replicated based on assumption alone. For example, it is assumed that lead farmers participating
in the farmer-to-farmer approach will share information. However the Africa AWG states that this has not
always been the case; in practice information sharing among farmers is often limited.
Peer-to-peer learning
Following on from above, while WV does include and support peer-to-peer learning in some projects, the
method needs to be incorporated as an essential component of all projects, as discussed in the AWG-Asia
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meeting. In many instances the best person to extend new knowledge and convince fellow farmers of
improved practices and technologies is the lead farmer who understood “the why, what and how” of the new
technology and adopted it in the first place.
Limited communication and use of data

Regional programmes struggle with adequate communication and use of data and feel that networking and
communication of lessons learned among WV offices is limited. Additionally, communication outreach to
participating communities is not as strong as it could be. While WV offices in the Latin America and Caribbean
region have updated information technologies systems, the technology has not yet been used as a tool to
support agriculture or farmers.
Fiscal sustainability for free inputs and services

Presently, some of WV’s ADPs function as charitable establishments, providing transfer of agricultural inputs
and services for free. While input transfers play a legitimate role in social protection, the fiscal sustainability of
ongoing free provision of inputs and services is difficult to achieve and additionally runs the risk of creating
heavy dependence. In addition, if services or inputs do not address farmers’ needs or are ineffective in their
local context, farmers will not pay for them. Programmes need to be sensitive to the fact that at many
occasions demand and consumer-driven services can/should replace free provision of inputs and services. At
the very least, care should be taken to ensure that an a priori assessment of the intervention includes an
evaluation of the economic viability of the practice from the perspective of the farmer –regardless of the
manner of provision of the initial input
3.2 Staff Capacity for Impact

Perhaps as a result of the lack of priority given to agriculture, there are relatively few agricultural specialists
who are actually involved in developing sectoral programmes. A number of qualified agriculturalists within WV
are involved in general programme management work or in another field not related to agriculture. At the
same time, generalists are often charged with helping to design and implement agriculture-related interventions
leading to programmes that are not particularly innovative or effective over the long-term.
3.3 Programme Interventions

The following list provides a summary of agriculture-related interventions promoted by WV in each of the four
regions:
Natural resource management (NRM)
World Vision has undertaken NRM interventions including water conservation, soil management, organic
agriculture, agro-forestry, aforestation / reforestation, sloping agriculture land technology (SALT), construction
of fish ponds and small weirs in locations prone to soil erosion, etc, generally with variable success. Some
projects have shown promising practices in NRM interventions but there have been insufficient opportunities
for internal and external collaboration to enable scaling up or building organisational competence.
Alternatively, the AWG review found that a number of previous WV interventions have, in fact, contributed to
environmental degradation e.g., cutting trees for brick-making and fencing. This highlights the need to identify
and promote income-generating activities and sources of energy with less impact on the environment, as well
as the need to promote NRM activities that provide these opportunities.
Irrigation
World Vision has engaged in both micro and large scale irrigation projects. Unfortunately, these activities are
often comparatively expensive and can typically benefit relatively few individuals. Experience has also shown
that in irrigation projects —regardless of scale—it is extremely important to promote appropriate technology
and community-based management structures to ensure sustainability of investments in infrastructure and the
longevity of the infrastructure itself. 41
Crop husbandry, weeding, pest and disease control

Although efforts have been made, reviews acknowledge that to date WV has not been particularly effective in
the areas of crop husbandry, weeding, pest and disease control. Part of this weakness is attributed to a
41
It is also important to consider the larger spatial and temporal context of the intervention as there are examples (not
necessarily WV) of situations where conversion of low-lying grasslands to irrigated agricultural production has eliminated critical
dry season grazing areas and made pastoralist livelihoods less viable .
Page 23 of 41
reluctance of WV regional leadership to acknowledge the economic and humanitarian importance of
agriculture to livelihoods. Another reason that agriculture has not be as successful as it could be is because the
regions and NOs have not been able to attract sufficient experienced agronomists and field technicians who
are willing to work in the communities; there is also a general reluctance of agricultural communities to adopt
practices promoted by young, inexperienced extension agents. Another issue is that government extension
agents’ training and recommendations are at times inappropriate and/or out-of-date. A further concern is the
limited understanding of WV of the circumstances when the promotion of the use of inorganic chemical
products is appropriate; in some instances it may be appropriate to promote inorganic inputs, e.g. where they
are readily available and where the value of increased production will pay for the initial investment as well as
give a profit, and where it is not detrimental to human or environmental health. Intentional capacity building on
the appropriate use and consequences of abuse of inorganic inputs must be made clear.
Crop diversification and improved crop varieties

Small scale farmers are often driven to produce the food crop most likely to contribute towards meeting the
basic food needs of their households. This essential priority of many farmers often results in the adoption of a
largely mono-crop system even when many farmers recognise that a mixed rotation of crops is beneficial, e.g.
cereal-legume rotation. Sometimes this mono-cropping has been encouraged by extension agents as being
more “productive”. On the other hand, there are many areas in east Africa, Kenya in particular, where a
maize-bean intercrop is the norm.
World Vision offices in Africa and Asia have had some success promoting the collective multiplication of seed,
but it is not currently viewed as a sustainable practice. This is, according the WV Africa report, in part because
the agency has supported an ‘artificial market’ where WV is the only customer for these chosen growers of
improved seed. Farmers do select and keep their own seed. They also exchange/barter it with their
neighbours. However, many do not feel that they can afford to purchase improved seed from commercial
suppliers (which do exist in parts of Africa). This is particularly true where the emphasis is on production for
household needs since the output is not sold to generate cash to pay for inputs. However, there is room for
further efforts to link seed multiplication to the private sector. WV has also made attempts to introduce
adapted but previously untried crops, but success has been limited in the short-term.
Distribution of seeds, tools, and livestock

Like many other NGOs, WV has at times engaged in distribution of seeds and tools, particularly as part of
relief interventions. This approach has had limited success due to a variety of factors including the
appropriateness of seeds (e.g. the inability of farmers to purchase expensive hybrid seeds after initial
distribution), adverse weather conditions, etc. WV has also engaged in livestock distribution/transfers with
limited success. One key reason is that these stocking schemes are often initiated and managed by WV staff
and not the targeted communities. In especially food insecure areas, households often do not have sufficient
crop surplus for animal feed or access to grazing lands.
Post harvest storage and processing

In Africa, WV has undertaken interventions in cereal banks with improved granary designs, vegetable and tuber
drying, and other low cost methods of preservation that can be adopted by poor farmers. However, these
interventions have generally met with limited success as they have been restricted to project demonstrations
and rarely implemented for an extended duration. Another reason for the lack of success is that the
technologies promoted have often not taken into account socio-economic factors. Approaches that focus on a
household storage model have shown better outcomes in some localities in Africa including in some WV
supported projects. 42 As with many other interventions, there is a need to improve sustainability and promote
the scale-up of effective activities.
Aquaculture
World Vision has had considerable success in this area where conditions are appropriate. It has proven to be a
simple, affordable means of supporting both household food security and income generation, requiring little
technical capacity and relatively minimal investment. However, as with other moderately successful practices,
fish farming has not been effectively promoted as an agricultural intervention throughout the wider
organisation.
Home, communal and school gardens

The popularity of home, communal and school gardens to enhance food production is gathering pace, in part
due to recently-arrived urban dwellers that have farming experience. The relatively limited support by WV for
42
E.g. Malawi smallholder food security project, Chiradzulu 2001-2006 and Tete input supply and crop storage project,
Mozambique 1999-2002
Page 24 of 41
home gardening in the past is due in part to concentration on field cropping programmes, and possibly a lack
of appreciation of the contribution that home gardens can make to household food supplies throughout the
year. School gardens have enjoyed mixed success. Communal gardens have an important role to play in an
urban setting as the percentage of people in urban areas has surpassed 50 percent globally. 43
3.4 Targeting
Community households are not at all uniform. Some are destitute, other very poor, others poor yet with
some potential. Each of the regional reviews suggested that targeting of agricultural programmes must be
appropriate for the local context and the specific type of activity being promoted. Targeting only households
that are vulnerable to food insecurity could lead to ineffective use of limited resources. Targeting also those
with potential may mean a possible improvement in their agricultural production leading to a higher labour
requirement thereby becoming a source of employment for those who are landless and destitute. Working
group reviews cited the following problems relevant to targeting:
 The impoverished consume or sell distributed seeds
 The most vulnerable cannot afford to take risks, adopt innovative approaches, or invest in new
technologies
 Poor urban residents are not pursuing agriculture as a principal livelihood activity
Working groups also cited the importance of considering different farmer types and the varied opportunities
and constraints that need to be considered when determining the most appropriate agricultural activity. Some
of the following differences were noted:
 Many subsistence farmers are older, less well educated and not as interested in trying new
approaches
 Entrepreneurial farmers are few, but have the vision and the capacity to expand production
 Pre-existing commercial farmers can be more profit-oriented but in some cases need assistance.
43
UNDP. 2008
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4. STRATEGIC CONTEXT - STRENGTHS, WEAKNESSES,

OPPORTUNITIES AND RISKS (SWOR)
SWOR analysis is undertaken in order to transform data on Landscape and Performance into information that
enables strategic decision-making. A thorough SWOR analysis ensures WV makes accurate decisions when
developing the goals, objectives and targets for a specific programme. This exercise was undertaken at the
National office level and subsequently at the Regional office level; the following points were collated from the
various regional analyses:
4.1 Strengths
 Community-based grass roots approach
o Good community structures provide good entry points
o Proven capacity in community mobilisation / facilitation
 Long-term engagement with communities
o Demonstrated commitment to issues involving social justice, child protection and community
empowerment
o Emphasis on a Transformational Development Approach
o Good relations with farming communities
 Global reach/scale of organisation allows WV to respond decisively
o Currently positioned in areas of need
o Already targeting small holders
o Highly resourced organisation with flexibility in sponsorship funding
o Ability to access non-cash resources
 Strong potential for cross-sectoral integration and co-ordination in place at various levels (global, regional
and national)
 Good relations with governments and international partners
 Existence of staff with capacity
 Experience and expertise in:
o agricultural livelihoods programming
o vocational education and youth development
o HIV and AIDS programming
o microfinance that can be directed toward improved access to credit among small-scale farmers
 Some recorded best practices from previous agricultural programmes
4.2 Weaknesses
 Lack of common approach to agricultural interventions; no mainstreaming strategies
 Sometimes national, regional and ADP level agricultural activities not synchronised or working at cross
purposes to each other.
o Technical focus vs. institutional focus; focus on inputs vs. practices
 Limited youth focus in agriculture
 An incomplete understanding of gender roles in agricultural production
 Inadequacy of budget for agriculture interventions
o Insufficient investment
o Funding cycle is not matched to agriculture seasons and often is of relatively short-term duration
o Requirement to spend budgets within the financial year is not matched to risk prone agricultural
realities (flood, drought, insect attack may set back projects, but budgets still have to be spent)
 Limited co-ordination with government-sponsored agricultural initiatives, other WV sectors (sector silos,
WASH, nutrition, economic development, etc.), international and national agricultural research
institutions, universities, and private sector
 Low prioritisation of agriculture as an advocacy issue
o Weak WV agriculture-related advocacy as a result of lack of priority support
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o National advocacy tends to focus on international trade rather than local, national and regional
trade (a case of ‘running before one can walk’)
 Lack of agricultural specialists on staff; lack of trained staff in some countries
 Knowledge management
o Failure to document and learn fully and widely from previously successful agricultural activities
o Lack of effective monitoring and evaluation on a formal or informal level
o Lack of evidence-based results
 Lack of national level strategy to scale up (within WV operational area), and scale out (to government and
other NGOs) successful activities that have been documented
 Inappropriate delivery models
o Inaccurate targeting of agricultural interventions
o Minimal use of local expertise
o Limited provision of technical guidance
o Unfounded expansion of successful interventions; cookie-cutter approach for scaling up
 Limited experience in:
o promoting the technologies upon which many small-farmers depend
o strengthening access to agricultural markets among the rural poor
o assessing the needs of small-farmers
o understanding the root causes (rather than symptoms) of food insecurity and low agricultural
productivity
o assessing the impact of unfavourable agricultural policy on smallholder farmers and child well-
being
o developing market-oriented projects that are economically, socially and environmentally
sustainable
 Not enough peer-to-peer farmer led development
 Poor understanding of the function that RPOs (Regional Producer Organisations) play in agriculture
development
4.3 Opportunities
 Partnership with government, private sector, research organisations, NGOs
 National and local government appreciative of the support in agriculture
 Developing relationships with national agricultural policy makers and policy development working groups
 Focusing on key issues which can have impact (sustainable agriculture, environmental protection, basic
right to food for all, proper regional and land use planning, land tenure, implementation of Environment
Impact Assessment (EIA), marketing.
 Developing organisational standards to build capacity in sustainable agriculture interventions
 Linkages with other sectors (health, economic development, MFI, nutrition)
 Programming in different ecological and emergency contexts
 State of the art research and technology available to incorporate into programming (water harvesting,
biofuels, etc.)
 Improved and increased access to information and communication technology (ICT) and technical
databases on specific agricultural subjects
 New funding opportunities (e.g. grants); availability of funds for agroforestry
 Environment is ripe for agricultural focus - increasing attention paid to agriculture as a result of food price
increases and climate change
 Farmers ready to improve practices and additionally engage in ecologically appropriate practices that
address climate change issues
 Small-holder farmers are becoming better organised
 Emerging market opportunities for small holder farmers and potential for value added approaches; growth
of urban market for diverse range of farm products
 Strengthening general capacity in marketing and advocacy/lobbying related to agriculture marketing (local
+ global)
Page 27 of 41
 Large numbers of young people capable of pursuing agricultural livelihoods; collaboration with others to
involve youth in agriculture
 Leverage the role of women in agriculture to advocate for more equitable participation of women in
political processes
 Local advocacy to improve RPO leadership and management
 Improved peer-to-peer farmer support
World Vision’s comparative advantage in strengthening the livelihood security of young people
WV’s key focus on the well-being of children combined with the burgeoning youth populations that exist in
WV’s areas of implementation provide the agency with a comparative advantage for strengthening the future
food and livelihood security of young people. The proviso is that if WV maximises on its strong experience in
vocational education and youth development by developing an intentional strategy for collaboration with other
players to involve youth in agriculture and its derivatives and to support inter-generational knowledge transfer,
youth populations could become large economically productive populations. By educating and developing
specialised work with children, adolescents, and youth today, WV can contribute to the creation of future
jobs, which will in turn transform families and communities.
World Vision’s comparative advantage in Natural Resource Management

WV has a comparative advantage for tackling long-term Natural Resource Management (NRM). While project
cycles are often short, WV enters long-term engagements with communities through the ADP model,
providing the ministry with the opportunity to design and implement project interventions that will establish
environmentally sustainable productive systems.
Strategic partnerships
Common ground among partners provides fertile opportunity to initiate actions that allow the sustainable
management of resources, avoid degradation and improve current conditions. For example, there are high
levels of public awareness of natural resource degradation in LACR and governments are committed to
addressing this issue. One strategic partnership opportunity is for WV to work with governments and other
stakeholders to establish norms of proper extraction (harvesting and replenishment) to prevent the
unsustainable exploitation of natural resources.
Other strategic partnerships may combine efforts to provide credit, leading to the development of credit lines
that are adapted to the needs of farmers. For example in LACR, microfinance institutions share common
objectives with WV NOs and are capable of supplying financial resources for development.
4.4 Risks
 Limited government investment in agriculture; bias towards large scale commercialised agriculture and
trans-national investment in agriculture
 Land tenure systems not supportive of production maximisation; government land use policies vs. small
holder access
 Lack of participation of the private sector
 Failure of WV leadership to understand the nature of agriculture as a sector
 Impact of trade agreements; transnational agricultural interests manipulate national agricultural policy to
the exclusion of the rural poor
 Short-term memory of food crisis price fluctuations always affects agriculture production
 Climate change and not taking climate change sufficiently seriously
 Limited knowledge of the effects of climatic phenomena e.g. El Niño and La Niña, Inter-Tropical
Convergence Front in eastern & southern Africa
 Increased frequency, scale and severity of natural disasters
 Environmental refugees
 Loss of bio-diversity due to environmental degradation
 Urbanisation encroaching on agricultural land
 Inappropriate agricultural interventions increasing vulnerability in the long term
 Continuing modernisation of commercial agriculture further diminishes the competitiveness of smallholder
farmers
 Reliance on a limited range of proven practices to the detriment of crop system diversity
 Biofuel interventions competing for land for food crop production
Page 28 of 41
 High dependence on rain-fed agriculture combined with growing a narrow range of vulnerable crops e.g.
over-reliance on maize in arid and semi-arid regions.
 Population growth
 Food aid dependency
 Reduction in agricultural labour due to urban migration and HIV and AIDS
 Inequitable access to, and low quality of agricultural extension services
 Exclusion of women, ethnic minorities and other groups from development processes
 Reduced focus on child well-being outcomes
 Corruption/ lack of transparency among rural producer organisations
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5. GLOBAL AGRICULTURAL STRATEGY

By understanding our strategic context, the response of other actors and World Vision’s strengths and
weaknesses, we have identified a broad goal for World Vision’s Agricultural sector as well as six specific
objectives to support this goal. The overall goal is:
To promote ecologically-sound, socially and economically viable

and just smallholder agriculture and Natural Resource
Management (NRM) practices that contribute to the well-being
of children.
Objective 1: Promote more productive and sustainable agricultural systems

Given that gains in agricultural productivity have barely exceeded population growth rates since the latter
half of the twentieth century and that in some cases, such as the Africa region, population growth is faster
than agricultural production growth, it is essential that productivity be a key focus of WV’s agriculture
strategy 44 . Equally essential is the assurance that increased production not only generates plentiful high
quality food and economic growth, but also balances this growth with considerations for the environment
and for social acceptability and justice.
Objective 2: Protect and/or restore healthy agro-ecosystems and adjacent landscapes through
appropriate natural resource management.
All geographic regions are experiencing increasing rates of soil depletion, deforestation and the
deterioration of biodiversity. Continued decline of both natural areas and agro-ecological systems is likely
to further compromise resilience to natural disasters like floods and drought and lead to more severe and
frequent pest and disease outbreaks. Further complicating this situation is the impact of climate change.
Access to food in all regions may be severely compromised by climate variability and change due to
reductions in the land area suitable for agriculture, the length of growing seasons, and potential yields,
especially in semi-arid and arid regions.
Productive agricultural systems rely on functioning ecosystems, hence it is essential that WV protect and
restore agro-ecological systems and adjacent landscapes. Appropriate soil and water conservation
practices will additionally facilitate adaptation to climate change and reduce vulnerability to climate
extremes.
Objective 3: Support viable markets and smallholder agricultural enterprises

Smallholder farmers can greatly benefit by organising themselves into groups, associations, cooperatives,
etc. (as is locally appropriate), allowing them to bulk their production, benefit from economies of scale and
increase their negotiating power in both input and output markets. This can lead to significant increases in
sales and profitability. Better organised and trained smallholders can increase household income and
reduce the weather risks that impact farming through improved access to viable markets and through
small value-adding enterprises all along the value chain (bulking, processing, packaging, quality control,
trading, transporting, etc.) to make agriculture more profitable and sustainable. This will enable farmers to
diversify cropping activities, improve returns and reduce risk in the long run. Collective bargaining through
farmer organisations strengthens individual farmer’s purchasing and selling power, contributing to
improved returns.
Objective 4: Build smallholder household resilience and capacity to manage risk in the face of
shocks
In the face of poor soil conditions, climate change and food price inflation, managing risk will be a key
attribute of sustainable smallholder agriculture. Therefore, it is important to focus on building the
resilience of the agricultural ecosystem and the adaptive capacity of the households and communities that
44
By the same token, ADP interventions in the health sector need to seriously take into account the addressing of population
growth in the health strategy.
Page 30 of 41
depend on it for all or part of their livelihood strategies. This community-based adaption approach is
particularly important in the highly variable (and therefore risky) contexts or environments where many
poor live (i.e. the ecological 45 , economic and social environments/contexts).
Objective 5: Advocate at all levels for policies and legal / regulatory environments supportive of
smallholder agricultural development.
World Vision needs to be a strong advocate for smallholders at all levels of the political spectrum 46 .
World Vision must ensure that its own policies and budget allocation provide for adequate investment in
agriculture in order to create an enabling environment for attaining food security. WV will be on a more
credible footing when promoting policy change and appropriate legislation at government and international
levels. There should also be active advocacy to counteract past policies that promoted models of
agriculture that were biased toward large-scale enterprises and dependent upon very high levels of
external inputs and promotion of technologies in inappropriate contexts, (e.g. hybrid seeds in countries
not likely to be currently able to create and sustain a viable hybrid seed industry). This type of advocacy
reinforces the Models of Ministry focus on just systems and structures.
Objective 6: Promote understanding by youth that agriculture and related activities are
potentially profitable, honourable and exciting career options.
The future of agriculture is intimately linked to the youth. Given World Vision’s strategic child focus,
orientation must be given at senior, middle management and field levels so that WV staff can convince
rural youth of the advantages of making an honourable living from agriculture. This can be done through
providing appropriate agricultural syllabi to schools, forming young farmers clubs, facilitating parent and
youth dialogue, and assistance with succession planning.
5.1 Alignment with existing World Vision models, strategies and partners
A foundational building block of WV’s focus is integration. Table 1 shows the primary areas of alignment and
contribution to the Models of Ministry (MoM). Table 2 highlights how the Global Agricultural Strategy aligns
with the strategies and policies of the partnership, other WV sectors, host governments and communities.
Table 1 Alignment with and contributions to World Vision’s Models of Ministry
MoM Global Agriculture Strategy

Alignment
Alignment Contribution
Integrated focus
Community-based  Promotes ownership by community  A bottom-up participatory approach–

members; effectively involving community
 Creates transparent and mutually members in the process of analysis,
accountable relationships design and action
 Gender equity
 Local inputs and products
Child-focused  Promotes productive and sustainable  The strategy focuses on linking
agricultural systems capable of improving the agriculture productivity, nutrition, and
nutrition and well-being of children food security to child well-being
Christian  Curriculum -Bible-related examples and  A transformational environment that
business ethics are included in training empowers farmers/communities
Ministry
Objectives
45
This includes aspects of climatology – i.e., both climate variability and change.
46
For example: WV needs to be ready to advocate for the rights of smallholders against the economic and political forces that
may tend to render them increasingly landless as pressure for access to agricultural land increases and for adoption of a model
of agriculture that tends to the large scale and a dependence on purchased inputs
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Children’s Well-being  Promotes productive and sustainable  Child well-being is enhanced by returns
agricultural systems that will contribute to to labour opportunities created,
improved nutrition, food security, health and appropriate know-how applied, and
overall well-being of children and their increased capacity of farmers to sustain
families productive systems
Community  Community-based social protection and  Smallholder household resilience and
Resilience safety nets capacity to manage risk is increased
Child Participation  Promotes an understanding by youth that  Future generations know how to
agriculture is a viable vocation; feeding appropriately produce food
people is honourable, fulfilling, and it can be
good business
 Youth may become active participants in

family business as they become old enough
to contribute to the work force  Agricultural production is a good means
to achieve sustained livelihoods
Caring Relationships  Promotes family participation and collective  Focus on gender equity may enable
ownership of the benefits of small-scale children to better realise their potential
agriculture
Changed Values and  Reinforces the significance of agriculture  Children, parents and communities
Lifestyles among young generations know how to keep themselves food
secure and healthy, and how to keep
 Sensitises and educates communities about their environments healthy
the necessity of protecting and restoring
healthy agro-ecosystems  “Do No Harm” ethics
Access to conservation information
Just Systems and  Advocates for policies supportive of  Land tenure

Structures smallholder agriculture development  No eviction or forced sale of land
 No appropriation of land to engage in
large scale mono-cropping farming that
reduces food security of households
Principle Level
Choices
Causes of Poverty  Constraints to the four ecosystem processes  Response carefully aligns with the
are assessed and means of enhancing them underlying causes of food insecurity
are factored into programme activities
Empowerment  Advocacy through both practices and  Responses engage in policy change and
policies influence as well as community
education and mobilisation
Multiple Ministry  Linkages to strategies of other WV sectors:  Local, regional and national agricultural
Economic Development, Health, WASH, departments are involved and informed
HEA, Gender, Education, TD, Advocacy of progress
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Table 2 Alignment with WV (and Partner) strategies and policies
Strategies and policies Requirements for alignment
Food Security Strategy  Analyse programme framework agreed from the DADD
principles and develop guideline for project models
Economic Development Strategy  Analyse, cross reference and link to enterprise development
and market access strategy
Health Strategy  Link to increased agricultural production for better health
and nutrition as well as improved livelihood for children
Education Strategy Sector  Children’s role as a change agent on natural resource

Ministry Policy (TD, HEA, Advocacy) conservation and life skills
 Agriculture recognised as a contributing factor through the
entire line ministry
Gender Policy  Link gender equity issue in agriculture
WASH strategy  Linkages on irrigation, soil and watershed management and
water harvesting, storage and utilisation and other aspects
of WASH
Regional/NO strategy  Analyse the regional/national strategy to identify where
agriculture is a priority issue
 Respect and align with regional/national programme strategy
Host Government Agriculture Strategy  Alignment and respect of host government agriculture
strategy for operationalisation and where necessary,
advocacy for the interests of smallholder farmers (external
to WV) (i.e. what if government strategy is not pro small
farmer?)
Communities of Practice  Analyse and separate communities of practice on agriculture
with linkage to relevant community of practice (external to
WV)
5.2 Smallholder Agriculture 47 DADDs (Do-Assure-Don’t Do)

The DADDs serves to state WV’s core focus within the agriculture sector and includes direction within five
categories; Do, Assure, Additions, Exceptions, and Don’t Do.
DO
Promote productive and sustainable agricultural systems and supportive social networks.
 Empower farmers and communities through a transformational environment
 Build capacity of farmers and communities in appropriate technologies and practices
 Include a bottom-up participatory approach involving community members in the process of analysis,
design and action
 Include a focus on the facilitation and capacity building of community members in agricultural methods,
leadership, problem solving, and working together
 Work towards agricultural systems which are adapted and resilient to climate variability and change
 Create farmers clubs (for women, men, and youth) which facilitate learning, exchange of information,
experimentation, pooling and/or sharing of resources and labour.
 Build into project structure formal and informal information feedback systems for trouble-shooting and
47
Agriculture includes crop and livestock production, natural resource management practices, agro-forestry and forestry
systems and artisanal fisheries (FAO definition)
Page 33 of 41
for early response to inevitable changes in conditions or farmer response.

 Promote and demonstrate:
o efficient/effective production technologies and systems (returns to labour/investment)
o best practices
o creative traditional and new storage and conservation technologies
o home gardens
Protect and/or restore healthy agro-ecosystems by
 Sensitisation
 Internal NRM education
 Promoting indigenous species and varieties
 Promoting Integrated Pest Management practices
 “Do No Harm” assessments
 Organic (non-chemical) farming where feasible and practical
 Facilitation of access to carbon credit opportunities
Support viable markets and smallholder agricultural enterprises
 Market assessments
 Value chain analysis
 Smallholder access to equipment, inputs and assets, information
 Value added products, niche markets
 Market linkages
 Collective bargaining power
 Development of MFI products appropriate and strategic for farmers
 Basic marketing and financial/business training
 Supporting RPO capacity
Build smallholder household resilience and capacity to manage risk
 Risk assessment
 Risk management capacity building
 Mainstreaming of DRM
 Disaster sensitisation
 Drought cycle management
 Farm diversification
 Preparedness planning
Advocate for policies supportive of smallholder agricultural development
 Evidence-based advocacy
 Advocate for marginalised groups in order to restore their ability to plant and produce.
 Look at behavioural change to engage structures and systems that promote and perpetuate smallholder
farmer
 Fair trade advocacy
 “Do No Harm” ethics
Promote an understanding by youth that agriculture is a viable vocation
 Youth promotion and capacity building
Build Partnerships
 At various levels with relevant stakeholders
Evaluate the sustainability of agricultural activities
 An ex ante (prior) assessment of economic viability, social acceptability and ecological sustainability
Build organisational and community understanding of the link between smallholder agriculture
 resilience and child well-being
Page 34 of 41
ASSURE
 A bottom-up participatory approach effectively involving community members in the process of
analysis, design and action
 Create labour opportunities
 Gender equity
 Availability of local inputs and products
 Linkage of agriculture productivity, nutrition and food security with child well being
 Appropriate inclusion of Bible-related examples and business ethics in training
 Stakeholder involvement and networking in the agricultural development process
 Appropriate research
 Appropriate interventions in conflict, displacement, landless labourers
 Access to information about conservation agriculture
 Just regulatory frameworks
 Environmental impact studies per national and internationally accepted guidelines
 A material base and soft base when introducing agriculture products
ADDITIONS TO THE AGRICULTURE CORE FOCUS
 Food for assets – are appropriate when they are targeted at helping to overcome labour constraints to
adoption of improved agricultural practices at the household or community level
 Biofuels – consider pilot projects related to smallholder (at the household level) agroforestry systems
for food and fuel production leading to alternative energy use independence and security
 Crop insurance schemes
 Community-based social protection and safety nets
 Early warning systems
PHASE DOWN AND TRANSITION “DON’T DO”

AND EXCEPTION ONLY ACTIVITIES
Exception Only Criteria for Exception
 Free distribution of agricultural inputs and assets (when  Loss due to disaster
not a small component of an integrated project)
 Minor roads, bridges where these
 Food-for-Work improve economic and social access
to isolated communities
 Infrastructure development (roads, bridges, electric
power)
 Cash transfers
DON’T DO
 Provide direct remunerations to farmers
 Use paternal approaches that foster dependence
Page 35 of 41
 Promote child labour

 Free provision of goods / Free donations
 Utilisation of banned chemicals, or of toxic chemicals (especially Category I and II pesticides) without
appropriate health and environmental safeguards
 ADPs do not to provide loans or revolving funds
 Create dependency through poorly programmed activities and / or service delivery
5.3 Programming Principles

When identifying appropriate responses to the current global food situation, it is important to keep in mind
the underlying issues as well as both the immediate and longer term needs of affected populations. Often it is
the case that an appropriate action in the present can have positive (or negative) impact on longer term
outcomes. To this end, lessons learned across the Partnership in relation to agriculture programming have
been translated into a series of guiding principles of good programming practice. Agriculture programmes
aimed at improving child well-being and household food security should include the key programming
principles listed below:
1) Rigorous ex ante assessment of the programme’s potential to address the Global Agriculture
Strategy’s goal of ecological soundness, economical viability and social acceptability. For the smallholder
sector, this assessment must include a realistic evaluation of available household labour, particularly
additional labour that may be required by women, who are often already over-taxed. It also needs to
include institutional analysis of the socio-cultural context, which may facilitate or constrain behavioural
change and the adoption of improved agricultural practices at either the household or community level.
2) Addressing the root causes of vulnerability and food insecurity: WV’s agricultural response needs
to carefully align with the underlying causes of vulnerability and food insecurity. Constraints affecting the
four ecosystem processes (energy flows, nutrient and water cycles and population dynamics) need to be
assessed and means of enhancing them must be factored into programme activities. Therefore, it is
important to focus on building the resilience of the agricultural ecosystem and the adaptive capacity of
households and communities that depend on it for all or part of their livelihood strategies. This
community-based adaptive approach is particularly important in the highly variable (and therefore risky)
contexts or environments in which many poor live (i.e. the ecological 48 , economic and social
environments/contexts).
3) Organisational framework: According to local social norms, appropriate measures are established for
social structures for community participation or involvement in the design and management of agricultural
programmes. Priority will be given to community-led institutions and norms that facilitate community-level
decision making around agriculture; an example of this approach is community initiatives to widen
traditional activities to include savings and credit groups. Build regular, structured community/World
Vision sessions into the programme structure; for feedback, new and mutual learning opportunities,
adjustments to plans, etc.
4) Flexibility and acknowledgement of agriculture’s long-term nature: The SO and NO realise that
agricultural programmes are long term by nature and because of adverse climatic or other events, are
more likely to not follow logframe time lines and targets. Flexibility and long-term commitment are
required and need to be reflected in expenditure deadlines.
5) Multi-sectoral integration: While there is no guaranteed method of integration when promoting
sustainable agriculture, experience within WV has shown that if a programme deals with only a single
sector or issue, or if a programme does not take into account the different dimensions of poverty in an
area, outcomes are unlikely to affect root causes of poverty and therefore development impacts are
unlikely to be sustainable. However if multi-component or multi-sector programmes become very
complex there is the danger that these could be difficult to implement, thus a sensible balance is
necessary. Interventions in this strategy framework and accompanying matrix should almost never be
considered stand-alone or mutually exclusive.
6) Aligning advocacy and programme responses: WV needs to respond through both activities and
policies. All components of its strategy need to include both technology/practice and policy /advocacy
48
This includes aspects of climatology – i.e., both climate variability and change.
Page 36 of 41
aspects. Advocacy responses should lead to policy change and influence as well as community education
and mobilisation. WV policies and organisational structures should facilitate the promotion, monitoring,
evaluation and spread of promising practices in its ADPs and to the wider NGO, government and private
sector communities.
7) Targeting the most vulnerable: Effective programming requires appropriate targeting of beneficiaries,
while being mindful that some activities such as watershed management, and forest and grazing
management on common land, require targeting the whole community. Additionally, the most vulnerable
segments of society are, with good reason, usually the most risk averse and least likely to adopt change.
Programming will need to reflect this through, for example, indicator-based targeting, community-based
targeting and self-targeting.
8) Gender sensitivity and inclusiveness: Programmes should be inclusive of both women and men,
promoting equal access, decision-making, power, and control over allocation of services. Given historical
and on-going inequities, and the importance of the disproportionate contribution of women to
smallholder agriculture in many parts of the developing world, it is important when responding to the
needs of the smallholder sector, to make women a key focus group. 49 To the extent possible, and as
appropriate, programmes should aim to have at least 50 percent female staff.
9) Special focus on youth: Projects and programmes should recognise the importance of making
agriculture an attractive and profitable occupation for future generations. This can be communicated
through education packages in schools, 4-H 50 and other young farmers’ organisations, apprenticeships, and
other modes of knowledge transfer and peer group reinforcing. Dialogue of parents with children on the
importance of agriculture should be encouraged, along with practical opportunities for the young to
implement what they have learned.
10) Partnerships: The scale of the food insecurity crisis is such that no one country, institution or
organisation can solve it in isolation. Every component of WV’s response needs to include detailed
partnering plans to increase the impact of activities. Sustainability is more likely when local, regional and
even national agricultural departments are involved and informed of progress.
11) Balance of food security and cash income needs: Where relevant, projects should strike a balance
between meeting direct household nutritional needs and producing income that may not necessarily lead
directly to better household nutrition levels. The balance can include home gardens, effective storage and
preservation of crops, preparation of nutritious meals, and the particular nutritional needs of children and
of pregnant and lactating women. Projects promoting crop and livestock enterprises specifically for income
generation should include both a well-researched marketing component and thorough assessment and/or
facilitation of market opportunities, as well as an economic analysis of the smallholder enterprise itself.
12) Empowerment and capacity-building: Unconditional provision of assistance can foster dependence
and reduce the incentive to innovate and become self-reliant. Conditional assistance on the other hand
can be leveraged to address some of the underlying reasons for vulnerability. WV programmes must place
focus on facilitation and capacity building of community members, as well as on leadership, testing new
innovations, problem solving, and working together
13) Evidence-based interventions: Programmes should clearly articulate what agricultural options are
available to mitigate root causes, their pros and cons, why particular options are chosen over others and
expected impact. This will require project designers to study previous relevant agricultural interventions
by WV and others in-country and from similar contexts outside the country, and to articulate the
argument for the intervention’s likely impact.
14) Community participation and ownership: Community ownership, as indicated by commitment of
time, resources and funds is established at the outset of the intervention. Community involvement must
49
IFPRI. 2008. ‘Helping Women Respond to the Global Food Crisis’.
50
4H is a youth organisation with the mission of "engaging youth to reach their fullest potential while advancing the field of
[1]
youth development." The name represents four personal development areas of focus for the organisation: head, heart, hands,
and health. The 4-H motto is "To make the best better," while its slogan is "Learn by doing" (often also written as "Learn to do
by doing"). This is taken from a compilation of early correspondence and publications related to Boys' and Girls' Club Work
produced by the United States Department of Agriculture
Page 37 of 41
15) Activities promoted are adequate incentive for community involvement: Gaining community
acceptance and implementation without the use of incentives is a primary goal. Considerations for initial
activities include the ability to give quick and early results, which has the potential of further encouraging
participation. The number of new innovations introduced should be initially limited to two or three. Too
many activities all at once may confuse and overwork communities and can result in little to nothing being
adopted. Incentive programmes such as Food For Work (FFW), Food For Peace (FFP), Cash for Assets
(CFA) and Cash for Work (CFW) will be avoided as much as is possible in most non-emergency times and
contexts. An exception is when certain activities such as soil and water conservation are context-specific.
In these instances, labour may be a binding constraint to adoption.
16) Clear sustainability and phase-out/transition plans: If proposed interventions cannot be continued
by farmers once a project ends, they must be modified to better meet the farmers’ needs and abilities to
continue independently. Free distribution of inputs, or even sale of inputs to community members, should
be avoided where there is little to no likelihood that those inputs will be available through normal market
or government channels. Where possible, ex ante analysis of the sustainability of proposed interventions
should be undertaken with stakeholders.
17) Strategic use of emergency relief: Emergency relief, when required, is used to enhance pre-existing
agricultural programmes and efforts. This approach ensures that relief does not undermine existing
programmes. Projects are prepared to gear up to use food or cash aid during famine through targeted
FFW, CFW or FFA programmes.
18) Managing by results through strong monitoring and evaluation systems: Apart from the normal
DME process outlined by LEAP a project goes through, there have been few documented impacts for
agricultural interventions. A baseline should always be established before project interventions, and
regular measurements toward progress must be made during the project’s life and following phase-out.
Measurements need to be done with the community, and as soon as feasible should become the
responsibility of the community.
19) Replication plan in place: WV and the community have a plan for documenting lessons learned, key
features of the programme and its impact with a view to hosting and/or participating in local and national
forums to promote and replicate the work in and beyond WV.
20) Staffing: Agricultural projects have staff with a clear mandate to meet the set targets and who are
facilitated with adequate support (transport, communications, authority, salary, recognition, prospects for
advancement within the sector, etc.) to do so through the project or ADP budget. To the greatest extent
possible, agricultural staff will not be moved during the project lifespan, except for short periods when
necessary to meet other pressing needs such as filling in for ADP manager, sponsorship activities or relief
activities.
5.4 Targeted Groups
Objective(s) Activities Targeted Groups
1. Productive and Appropriate agricultural Smallholder farmers; Local leaders

sustainable systems (also practices
objectives 2 below plus
4. Build resilience
1, 2 & 4. Build resilience Household food Smallholder farmers; Women and women’s groups;
& 6. Promote youth) production and Youth; Local leaders; Vulnerable groups
utilisation
1. Productive and Post harvest Smallholder farmers; Women and women’s groups;
sustainable systems (also management and Youth; Local leaders; Vulnerable groups
objective 3) processing practices
Page 38 of 41
2. Protect and restore Soil and Water Smallholder farmers; Local leaders; Local government
agro-systems (also Conservation officials; Ministry of Agriculture; Youth; men and women
objective 1)
3. Support viable Market and community- Women and women’s groups

markets based input access Smallholder farmers
Youth
Traders
3. Support viable Efficient functioning of Local traders
markets marketing and Smallholder farmers
marketing channels Local leaders and local government
Cooperatives and farmers’ associations
5. Advocate for policies Tenure security and Local institutions - formal and informal
access to land Local and national government
Communities
Landless and other vulnerable groups
Global advocacy
5.5 Core Interventions Related to Objectives

The priority list of core interventions outlined in the following paragraphs is globally applicable, though should
be adapted as necessary to local contexts. The proposed interventions encompass technical, social, financial,
economic and political aspects of agricultural development. Note that some interventions can fit under more
than one objective. Microfinance for purchase of inputs, for example, could fit under Objective 3 as well as
under Objective 1, and diversification of farming systems could fit under Objective 1 as well as under
Objective 2, and so on.
Objective 1: Promote more productive and sustainable agricultural systems
The first objective is to be realised through the use of context-specific technologies, practices, and delivery
mechanisms. Examples follow:
1. Support for agricultural inputs such as, for example, locally-adapted improved seed, fertilizers, tools,
or livestock – either as in-kind (i.e. provision of the goods themselves), as cash through microfinance, or
through market channels through use of vouchers. The intent is to rapidly increase access to productive
inputs and expand local food production. However, these inputs should not generally be introduced as
stand-alone interventions since they are not likely to bring about a transition to a sustainable, resilient
agricultural system on their own. Also, provision of subsidies for inputs should be limited as much as
possible to cases where recapitalisation of assets is needed and markets are not functioning properly, as in
relief or post-emergency settings. In any event, provisions or subsidies that distort markets or suppress
their development should be avoided.
2. Support non-chemical or integrated pest management - These are pest management approaches
which build on a variety of complementary strategies including mechanical and physical devices (e.g. traps),
biological, cultural and only in exceptional cases, chemical management. These are ecological approaches
that aim to significantly reduce or eliminate the use of pesticides while at the same time managing pest
infestation.
3. Support high-value crops where marketing links are favourable and with partner support for
intensification of production and marketing (e.g., vegetables, fruits, spices, herbs, medicinal plants)
4. Support post-harvest handling, storage and marketing – Improve post harvest handling, storage
practices, value-added processing and infrastructure. Such interventions aim to make more food available
for consumption and/or for sale to generate income.
5. Build capacity of farmers and promote best practices - Provide small and medium scale farmers
with technical training on context-specific technologies that increase their abilities to farm sustainably.
Promote learning from experience—of WV and others—by documenting best practices.
6. Establishing strategic links to help all stakeholders meet these objectives will increase the likelihood of
sustainable solutions. Collaboration will go beyond training to include aspects such as participation in and
adoption of government agricultural plans at national and district levels; creation of complementary budget
allocations for agricultural initiatives; and linkages to research institutions and extension services.
Page 39 of 41
Objective 2: Protect and/or restore healthy agro-ecosystems and adjacent landscapes

This objective will be realized through appropriate natural resource management at the community and
watershed levels. These are critical for reducing vulnerability and increasing resilience of agricultural systems at
all scales. Examples follow:
1. Diversification of farming systems – Integration of crops, livestock and trees in the farming system.
Integrated crop/livestock systems are intended to maximise on-farm nutrient cycling. Examples include
improved multiple or inter-cropping systems, agroforestry and silvopastoral systems and various
integrated crop-livestock systems. They help provide households and communities with a more stable
supply of staple food crops as well as nutrient-dense animal foods. Appropriate diversification of farming
systems promotes adaptation to climate change and reduced vulnerability to climate extremes.
2. Soil and water conservation/management – This groups two closely related areas for action. Good
stewardship of soil and water resources contributes to reduced vulnerability to external shocks and
increased resilience of the agricultural ecosystem – especially, but not exclusively, in light of concerns
about adaptation to climate change and variability.
 Soil and soil fertility management includes many practices that maintain and/or improve the
quality or health of the soil resource, such as enhanced rotations with leguminous cover crops;
enhanced residue management; mulching, green manures; return of manure and compost to the land;
contour planting, progressive terracing to increase water infiltration and reduce rainwater run-off;
facilitating community selection of crops and crop varieties adapted to the expected range of climatic
conditions; timely crop husbandry, including tillage and seeding/planting; minimum/no tillage and other
“conservation farming” practices
 Water and watershed management includes:
o Improved surface water management for agriculture. Emphasis is placed on improved, affordable
water management and increased agricultural water use efficiency through the use of water
harvesting systems, human-powered pumps, drip irrigation, and permaculture practices
including digging swales/filter drains and use of mulch.
o Improved groundwater recharge through management of surface water, crop residues, trees
and ground cover as well as educational and protection efforts to maintain and restore
agriculturally important water, soil and biodiversity resources.
o Support of water user associations that manage water catchment areas, regulate the fair
distribution of available water resources and organise management issues in a participative
and transparent manner.
Objective 3: Support viable markets and smallholder agricultural enterprises

This objective will be realised through:
1. Market assessments - Market assessments will help WV to better support high value crops that
increase household income. Monitoring of input and commodity price fluctuations will assess the potential
impact of prices on the food security of the various groups at different economic levels.
2. Value chain analysis and development - The potential for agro-processing and value adding forms
part of the rationale for the design of agricultural support and cluster promotion These measures
encourage smallholders and the informal and formal private sectors to establish associated enterprises and
thereby increase the number of jobs and household income. Examples include washing of vegetables and
putting them into packets, and the production of packaged chili and paprika powders through the
establishment of drying and milling facilities. Equally important will be increased technical assistance for
farmers’ associations and agricultural marketing groups to strengthen the bargaining positions of small-
scale producers in the value chain. Support will identify the potential for, create and/or build upon
competitive advantage without creating dependencies on WV.
3. Improved savings, credit and market access - Marketing services are essential to the expansion of
rural micro-enterprises. The provision of savings and credit must be closely integrated with agricultural
services.
4. Strengthening urban/ rural linkages - The growing urban market provides considerable prospects for
a diverse range of farm products. Rural programming responses that assist market functioning through
improving productivity, establishing storage facilities and market/transportation infrastructure, and
advocating for trade policy changes and food price volatility reduction measures will improve the
availability of food in urban contexts.
Page 40 of 41
5. Rural Producer Organisations (RPOs) – an improved understanding of the role RPOs play in
agricultural development.
Objective 4: Build smallholder household resilience and capacity to manage risk in the face
of shocks
This objective will be realised through:
1. Improved information infrastructure: This includes market prices and climate conditions which will
help farmers manage risk. Training farmers on access and productive use of information and
communication technologies that are already installed within their territory will strengthen these risk
management efforts.
2. Crop and livestock diversification: Promote agricultural system diversity which is essential to making
smallholder production systems more resilient and thus more sustainable, as well as making rural
households more food secure over time. However the number of different agriculture enterprises that
any one farm household adopts must be kept to manageable levels.
3. Environmental restoration: Ensure that communities have access to wild foods, forages and forest
resources and that soil fertility and water sources are maintained. These measures also enhance resilience
to shocks.
4. Food and grain banks: Strengthen local food crop reserves to improve and ensure food security at
household and community level.
5. Crop and weather insurance - Promote development of insurance products against extreme weather
conditions that can severely depress yields or cause total crop failure, e.g., drought, hail, cyclones, etc.
6. Improved MFI-for-agriculture linkages – Link agricultural interventions that require substantial initial
and/or recurrent investment to microfinance interventions.
Objective 5: Advocate at all levels (local, national, regional, international and World Vision-
internal) for policies and legal / regulatory environments supportive of smallholder
agricultural development
World Vision’s focus in advocacy will include the rights of youth, women, marginal/vulnerable groups, land
tenure, subsidies and tariffs, conflict resolution, and fair trade policies. Also included will be the counteraction
of policies that undervalue and undermine the small-scale farming sector (e.g. policies that promote a model of
agriculture that favours large-scale commercial farming at the expense of smallholder farmers).
Encourage self-regulation of target groups by facilitating capacity building for stakeholder organisations
Collaborate with other relevant stakeholders to strengthen the people’s voice and to coordinate the
implementation of new strategies.
Support farmer organisations that play a key role in empowering farmers and in negotiating with
government on their members’ behalf for services and support. Farmer organisations are key partners with the
government in achieving national targets and ensuring that development activities fulfill local needs.
Objective 6: Promote understanding by youth that agriculture and related activities are
potentially profitable, honourable and exciting career options
The opportunities for youth involvement in agriculture will be emphasised through education and capacity
building. Examples include:
 Formal agricultural training in school,
 4-H or young farmers clubs,
 Mass media campaigns,
 Extension campaigns targeting youth
 Engaging youth in special and relevant hands-on Income Generating Activities (IGA)
 Engaging parents in discussions on the value of agriculture
Page 41 of 41

WV Global Agricultural Strategy v2.4

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World Vision

Global Agricultural Strategy

The Global Agricultural Working Groups

DRAFT - Not for circulation

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...................................................................................................................... 4

1.1 The Global Agri-Food System and Its Sustainability ............................................................................ 9

2. AGRICULTURAL LANDSCAPE ................................................................................................... 13

2.1 Demographic Issues ....................................................................................................................... 13

3. WORLD VISION PERFORMANCE............................................................................................... 21

3.1 Programming ................................................................................................................................. 21

4. STRATEGIC CONTEXT - STRENGTHS, WEAKNESSES, OPPORTUNITIES AND RISKS

5. GLOBAL AGRICULTURAL STRATEGY ..................................................................................... 30

ADP Area Development Programme

To promote ecologically-sound, socially and economically viable and just

1. Promote more productive and sustainable agricultural systems

2. Protect and/or restore healthy agro-ecosystems and adjacent landscapes through

3. Support viable markets and smallholder agricultural enterprises

Core Interventions Related to Objectives

ADDITIONS TO THE AGRICULTURE CORE FOCUS

PHASE DOWN AND TRANSITION “DON’T DO”

1.1 The Global Agri-Food System and Its Sustainability

1.2 Agriculture, Food Security and Child Well-being

1.3 A Truly Sustainable Agriculture

1.4 Ecological sustainability 9 10

1.5 Economic viability 11

1.6 Social justice and acceptability 12

 Inclusiveness : Intentionally targeting marginal, minority and vulnerable population groups.

2.1 Demographic Issues

2.1.1 Gender and youth

2.1.2 Women and female-headed households

2.1.4 Rural / Urban population trends

2.1.5 Declines in the agricultural sector

2.1.6 Populations with HIV and AIDS

2.2 Agricultural Productivity

2.2.1 Natural resource management

2.2.2 Climate change 27

2.2.3 Soil depletion and deforestation

2.2.4 Decreasing social capital

2.3 Access to Infrastructure and Improved Technology

2.3.1 Limited investment by governments

2.4 Markets - Information, Linkages, Value Chains

2.4.1 Access to financial services

2.5 The Environment Policy

2.6 Conflict and Emergency Settings

2.7 Spiritual Context

3. WORLD VISION PERFORMANCE

World Vision investment in agriculture

Value chain / urban rural linkages

Limited documentation of good practices

Limited communication and use of data

Fiscal sustainability for free inputs and services

3.2 Staff Capacity for Impact

3.3 Programme Interventions

Crop husbandry, weeding, pest and disease control

Crop diversification and improved crop varieties

Distribution of seeds, tools, and livestock

Post harvest storage and processing

Home, communal and school gardens

4. STRATEGIC CONTEXT - STRENGTHS, WEAKNESSES,

World Vision’s comparative advantage in Natural Resource Management

5. GLOBAL AGRICULTURAL STRATEGY

To promote ecologically-sound, socially and economically viable

Objective 1: Promote more productive and sustainable agricultural systems