The Chemical Nature of Cells

Prokaryotic cells (unicellular)

Prokaryotic cells lack distinct, a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles
Eg: Bacteria
Eukaryotic cells (unicellular / multi-cellular)
Eukaryotic cells have distinct, membrane-bound organelles.
All multi-cellular organisms are eukaryotic.
ome unicellular organisms are eukaryotic. Eg: amoeba, !ungi, algae
Chemical Bonds
Covalent bonding (sharing)
haring o! electrons bet"een electrically neutral atoms
#ery strong (takes a lot o! energy to break)
Ionic bonding (donation)
$onation o! electrons !orming electrically charged ions
%&&ositely charged ions attract
Hydrogen bonding
'eak electrostatic attraction bet"een slightly &ositive region and slightly negative region
a) (ydrogen to %)ygen
b) (ydrogen to *itrogen
$es&ite being com&aratively "eak, they create cohesion bet"een "ater molecules
Biologically important inorganic molecules
Water (
+
%
olvent
Polar
(ydrogen bonds
(igh heat ca&acity
(igh heat o! va&orisation
,ohesion
ur!ace tension
&( (-. / acid, 0. / alkaline)1 most biological systems re2uire 3.4 5 ..+
All biochemical reactions occur in "ater
%)ygen (%
+
) is not very soluble in "ater (di!!usion issues !or marine organisms)
,arbon dio)ide (,%
+
) is #ery soluble in "ater
!"#NIC $%EC&%E'
,ontain ,arbon (,), (ydrogen (() and %)ygen (%)
6ay also contain Phos&horus (P), *itrogen (*) and ul&hur ()
7 main grou&s
o ,arbohydrates (,, (, %)
o 8i&ids (,, (, %)
o Proteins (,, (, %, *)
o *ucleic acids (,, (, %, *, P)
rganic $acromolecules
C#!BH()!#TE'
,ontain ,arbon (,), (ydrogen (() and %)ygen (%)
,arbohydrates are the most abundant organic com&ounds
ource o! chemical energy
Energy storage com&ounds (tarch, 9lycogen)
tructural com&ounds (,ellulose, ,hitin)
Essential com&onents o! other macromolecules (eg $*A, :*A)
,ombine "ith other macromolecules. Eg: glyco&roteins, glycoli&ids
;"o monosaccharides can combine to !orm a disaccharide.
6onosaccharides can also combine (polymerize) to !orm chains, or polysaccharides.
'hen t"o or more monomers combine "ater is &roduced, this is called a ,ondensation :eaction.
;he bond bet"een the t"o monomers is a 9lycosidic Bond 5 ,arbon, %)ygen, ,arbon
6onosaccharide 9eneral !ormula: ,
n
((
+
<)
n
%IPI)'
,ontain ,arbon, (ydrogen and %)ygen
8i&ids include fats, waxes and oils
=ats and "a)es are solid at room tem&erature1 oils are li2uid
8i&ids are much more energy dense because the lack o! "ater in the molecule means they carry
much more energy &er molecule. 8i&ids are also !ar less o)idised.
,om&osed o! !atty acids attached to a glycerol backbone
;hree !atty acids combine "ith a glycerol molecule to !orm a triglyceride. 'ater ((
+
%) is &roduced,
so again this is a condensation reaction
'aturated and unsaturated fats
>! every carbon atom in the !atty acid chain has as many hydrogen atoms attached as &ossible, the
molecule is called saturated
>! t"o or more carbon atoms are double bonded to each other, and hence can only carry one
hydrogen atom, the molecule is called unsaturated
;here are + !orms o! unsaturated !ats: Cis and trans isomers.
>n the cis !orm, the hydrogens each side o! the double bond are on the same side o! the !atty
acid molecule, hence &roducing the bend in the molecule.
>n the trans !orm, these t"o hydrogens are on o&&osite sides. ;his allo"s the molecule to
remain straight, and !orm !irm de&osits such as &la2ues "ithin arteries.
?nsaturated triglycerides can@t grou& as closely as saturated triglycerides because o! the kink in
the !atty acids. Because o! this, they tend to be more li2uid.
ubstances that can dissolve readily in "ater are termed hydrophilic ("ater-loving) &olar
6onosaccharide(s) $isaccharide
9lucose 9lucose 6altose
9lucose 9alactose 8actose
9lucose =ructose ucrose
ubstances that have lo" "ater solubility or don@t dissolve in "ater are termed hydrophobic
P!TEIN' and #$IN #CI)'
;here are t"enty di!!erent amino acids, "hich can be incor&orated into &roteins
;he di!!erence bet"een the +< amino acids is in their R group (or side grou&)
Proteins are polymers1 large molecules made u& o! numbers o! re&eated amino acids subunits.
;he di!!erence bet"een di!!erent &roteins is in the number and order o! amino acids
Protein !unction is determined by its sha&e "hich is determined by the se2uence o! amino acids
Amino acids share a common structure:
A change in Aust B amino acid can mean the di!!erence bet"een a !unctional and a non-!unctional
&rotein.
'hen amino acids Aoin, they !orm a peptide bond
'hen multi&le amino acids combine, the resulting molecule is a polypeptide
'hen B<< or more amino acids combine, the polypeptide is called a protein.
Proteins are a grou& o! macromolecules "ith a "ide variety o! !unctions:
Type of protein *unction E+ample
structural !ibrous su&&ort tissue in skin, bone, tendons,
blood vessels etc.
collagen, keratin
enCyme catalyse reactions amylase, $*A &olymerase,
&ero)idase
contractile muscle contraction actin, myosin
immunoglobulin immune system 5 de!ence against !oreign
organisms and disease
antibodies
hormone carry chemical messages !rom cell to cell insulin, thyroid hormone
cell rece&tor res&ond to stimulus hormone rece&tors
trans&ort carry other molecules haemoglobin
;here are 7 levels o! organisation, or structure, "ithin &roteins:
o ;he Primary structure is the se2uence o! amino acids that make u& the &oly&e&tide chain
o ;he Secondary structure is the "ay the chain o! amino acids is t"isted and !olded into curves,
helixes and pleated sheets
o ;he Tertiary structure is the "ay the &oly&e&tide chain is !olded into a large, com&le) D-
dimensional structure.
o Quaternary structure occurs "hen + or more &oly&e&tide chains are grou&ed together to !orm
a &rotein. Eg: haemoglobin:
;he se2uence o! amino acids in the &oly&e&tide chain is controlled by the code carried in $*A
N&C%EIC #CI)'
*ucleic acids are large &olymers, made u& !rom nucleotide monomers
;here are + ty&es o! *ucleic acid: $eo)yribose *ucleic Acid ($*A), :ibose *ucleic Acid (:*A)
$*A is built u& !rom combinations o! 7 basic nucleotide monomer units, identi!ied by the
nitrogenous base they carry:
:*A is also built u& !rom 7 monomer units:
;he nucleotide monomers o! $*A have D com&onents
B. A pentose sugar
+. A phosphate group
D. A nitrogenous base
;he di!!erence bet"een nucleotides lies in the structure o! the base
)ifference bet,een )N# - !N#
)N# !N#
$ouble stranded molecule ingle stranded molecule
Adenine, 9uanine, ,ytosine, Thymine Adenine, 9uanine, ,ytosine,
Uracil
$eo)yribose sugar :ibose sugar
,arries genetic in!ormation !rom
&arents to o!!s&ring
>nvolved in &rotein synthesis
=ound in nucleus =ound in nucleus and cyto&lasm
9uanine
,ytosine
Adenine
;hymine
9uanine
,ytosine
Adenine
?racil
Attracted by
hydrogen bonds