Q1: What do you know about power quality?

The quality of electricity has become a strategic issue for electricity companies, the operating, maintenance and
management personnel of service sector and industrial sites, as well as for equipment manufacturers, for
the following main reasons
the economic necessity for businesses to increase their competitiveness,
the widespread use of equipment which is sensitive to voltage disturbance andor generates
disturbance itself
The opening up of the electricity market!
"eduction of costs linked to loss of supply continuity and problems of non#quality
The cost of disturbance $interruptions, voltage dips, harmonics, lightning over voltages, etc!% is substantial! These
costs must take into account losses in production and raw materials, restarting of production facilities,
non#quality of production and delivery delays! The malfunction or shutdown of vital equipment such as
computers, lighting and safety systems may put lives at risk $e!g! in hospitals, airport lighting systems,
public and high#rise buildings, etc!%!
&iscuss the following:
1! 'nterruption
(! )vervoltage
*! +nder voltage
,! -ag
.! -well
/! 0oltage imbalance
'1T2""+3T')1:
'nterruptions are a special type of voltage dip to a few percentage of +ref $typically within the range 1#14
5%! They are characteri6ed by one parameter only: the duration! -hort interruptions last less than one
minute $e7tended to three minutes depending on network operating conditions% and often result from
tripping and automatic reclosure of a circuit breaker designed to avoid long interruptions which have
longer duration! -hort and long interruptions differ in both their origins and the solutions required
preventing or reducing their occurrence! 0oltage disturbances lasting less than a half#cycle T $8T 9 T(%
are regarded as transient! &ifferent terms are used in the +-: depending on the length of the dips $sags%
and interruptions
instantaneous $T( 98T 9 *4 T%
momentary $*4 T 9 8T 9 * s%
temporary $* s 98T 9 1 min%
sustained interruption and under voltage$8T ; 1 min%
'nterruptions are mainly caused by phenomena leading to high currents, which in turn cause a voltage
drop across the network impedances with a magnitude which decreases in proportion to the electrical
distance of the observation point from the source of the disturbance! -hort interruptions have various
causes:
-hort interruptions are often the result of the operation of automated systems on the network
such as fast andor slow automatic reclosers, or changeover of transformers or lines!
<ong interruptions are the result of the definitive isolation of a permanent fault $requiring to
repair or to replace any component before re#energi6ing% by means of protective devices or by
the intentional or unintentional opening of a device!
)ver 0oltage:
Where voltage is applied to a device and the peak value e7ceeds the limits defined in a standard
or specification, this is an over voltage! )ver voltages are of three types
1! Temporary
(! -witching
*! <ightning
They can appear
'n differential mode $between live conductors: phph = phneutral%
'n common mode $between live conductors and the e7posed#conductive#part or earth%!
Temporary over voltages:
>y definition, these occur at power frequency $.4/4 ?6%! They have various origins
:n insulation fault When an insulation fault occurs between phase and earth in an isolated neutral
system or impedance earthed neutral system, the voltage of the healthy phases to earth may
reach the phase to phase voltage! )ver voltages on <0 installations may come from ?0
installations via the earth of the ?0<0 station!
@erro resonance this is a rare non#linear oscillatory phenomenon which can often be dangerous
for equipment and which is produced in a circuit containing a capacitor and a saturable
inductance! @erro resonance is often the apparent cause of malfunctions or the destruction of
devices!
>reak of the neutral conductor &evices powered by the phase with the least load witness an
increase in voltage $sometimes up to the phase to phase voltage%
@aults on alternator regulators or tap changer transformer
)vercompensation of reactive power -hunt capacitors produces an increase in voltage from the
source to their location! This voltage is especially high during periods of low load!
-witching over voltages: These are produced by rapid modifications in the network structure $opening of
protective devices etc% the following distinctions are made
1! -witching over voltages at normal load over voltages produced by the switching on and
off of low inductive currents!
(! )ver voltages produced by the switching of capacitive circuits $no#load lines or cables,
capacitor banks%! @or e7ample, the energi6ation of a capacitor bank produces a transient
over voltage in which the first peak may reach (rtimes the rms value of the nominal voltage
and a transient over current with a peak value of up to144 times the rated current of the
capacitor
lightning over voltages: lightning is a natural phenomenon occurring during storms! : distinction is made
between direct lightning strike $on a line or structure% and the indirect effects of lightning $induced over
voltages and increase in earth potential
voltage sag $in :merican% or voltage dip $in >ritish%:
: voltage sag is a sudden reduction of the voltage at a point in an electrical power system followed by
voltage recovery after a short period of time from a few cycles to a few seconds $'2A /14.4#1/1 %! :
voltage dip is normally detected and characteri6ed by the calculation of the root mean square value Brms
$1(%B over one cycle every half#cycle #each period overlaps the prior period by one half#cycle# $see fig!
1%!There is a dip to 7 5 if the rms $1(% value falls below the dip threshold 7 5 of the reference value +ref!
The threshold 7 is typically set below C4 $A212<2A 21 .41/4, '222 11.C%! The reference voltage +ref
is generally the nominal voltage for <0 power systems and the declared voltage for D0 and ?0 power
systems! : sliding reference voltage, equal to the voltage before the beginning of the disturbance is useful
to study transference factor between different voltage systems! : voltage dip is characteri6ed by two
parameters$see fig! 1b for 7 equal to C4%
1! depth: 8+ $or its magnitude +%
(! duration 8T
0oltage -well:
't is defined by '222 11.C as the increase in the "D- voltage level to 1145 # 1E45 of nominal, at the
power frequency for durations of F cycle to one $1% minute! 't is classified as a short duration voltage
variation phenomena, swell is basically the opposite of voltage sag or dip!
The disturbance is also described as G: momentary increase in the power#frequency voltage delivered by
the mains, outside of the normal tolerances, with a duration of more than one cycle and less than a few
secondsH!
0oltage imbalance:
2lectrical equipmentI especially motors and their controllersI will not operate reliably on unbalanced
voltages in a *#phase system! Jenerally, the difference between the highest and the lowest voltages
should not e7ceed ,5 of the lowest voltage! Jreater imbalances may cause overheating of componentsI
especially motorsI and intermittent shutdown of motor controllers! Dotors operated on unbalanced
voltages will overheat, and many overload relays canKt sense the overheating! 'n addition, many solid#
state motor controllers and inverters include components that are especially sensitive to voltage
imbalances!
+ndervoltage:
+ndervoltageB occurs when the nominal voltage drops below C45 for more than 1 minute! The term
BbrownoutB is an apt description for voltage drops somewhere between full power $bright lights% and a
blackout $no power = no light%! 't comes from the noticeable to significant dimming of regular incandescent
lights, during system faults or overloading etc!, when insufficient power is available to achieve full
brightness in $usually% domestic lighting! This term is in common usage has no formal definition but is
commonly used to describe a reduction in system voltage by the utility or system operator to decrease
demand or to increase system operating margins!
Q (: &efine power system ?armonics, what are the type of
harmonics, discuss T?& L draw equivalent circuit of nonlinear
load?
The consequences of harmonics are linked to the increase in peak
values $dielectric breakdown%, rms values $e7cessive overheating% and to the frequency spectrum $vibration
and mechanical stress% of voltages and currents! The effects always have an economic impact resulting
from the additional costs linked to
&egradation in the energy efficiency of the installation $energy loss%
)ver si6ing of equipment
<oss of productivity $accelerated ageing of equipment, unwanted tripping%!
Dalfunctions are probable with a harmonic distortion factor of greater than E 5 of the voltage! >etween .
and E 5, malfunctions are possible!
'nstantaneous or short term effects
+nwanted operation of protective devices:
?armonics have a harmful influence mainly on thermal control devices! 'ndeed, when protective
devices of this type calculate the rms value of the current from the peak value, there is a risk of
the loss of equipment functions depend in particular on the restart conditions when voltage is
restored! Aertain equipment, for e7ample, has its own voltage dip detection devices which enable
data to be backed up and ensure safety by interrupting calculation processes and any incorrect
commands!
Types of harmonics:
There are two types of harmonics:
1! even harmonics
(! odd harmonics
Total harmonics distortion:
Total harmonic distortion is a comple7 and often confusing concept to grasp! ?owever, when broken down
into the basic definitions of harmonics and distortion, it becomes much easier to understand!
'magine a power system with an :A source and an electrical load $@igure 1%!
1ow imagine that this load is going to take on one of two basic types: linear or nonlinear! The type of load
is going to affect the power quality of the system! This is due to the current draw of each type of load!
<inear loads draw current that is sinusoidal in nature so they generally do not distort the waveform $@igure
(%! Dost household
:ppliances are categori6ed as linear loads! 1on#linear loads, however, can draw current that is not
perfectly sinusoidal $@igure *%! -ince the current waveform deviates from a sine wave, voltage waveform
distortions are created!
:s can be observed from the waveform in @igure *, waveform distortions can drastically alter the shape of
the sinusoid! ?owever, no matter the level of comple7ity of the fundamental wave, it is actually Must a
composite of multiple waveforms called harmonics!
?armonics have frequencies that are integer multiples of the waveformNs fundamental frequency! @or
e7ample, given a /4?6 fundamental waveform, the (nd, *rd, ,th and .
th
harmonic components will be at
1(4?6, 1E4?6, (,4?6 and *44?6 respectively! Thus,harmonic distortion is the degree to which a
waveform deviates from its pure sinusoidal values as a result of the summation of all these harmonic
elements! The ideal sine wave has 6ero harmonic components! 'n that case, there is nothing to distort this
perfect wave! Total harmonic distortion, or T?&, is the summation of all harmonic components of the
voltage or current waveform compared against the fundamental component of the voltage or current wave
2quivalent circuit of non linear load:
&iscuss inter harmonics and harmonics sources with industrial
loads:
'nter harmonics:
'nter harmonics can be thought of as the inter#modulation of the fundamental and harmonic components
of the system with any other frequency components and can be observed in an increasing number of
loads! These loads include static frequency converters, cyclo converters, sub#synchronous converter
cascades, induction motors, arc furnaces and all loads not pulsating synchronously with the fundamental
power system frequency
G>etween the harmonics of the power frequency voltage
and current, further frequencies can be observed which are
not an integer of the fundamental! They can appear as
discrete frequencies or as a wide#band spectrum!H
?armonics sources with industrial loads:
'n general, harmonic sources are given below:
Aonverters
&evices which includes semi#conductor elements
Jenerators
Dotors
Transformers
<ightening equipments working by gas discharge principle
@otovoltaic systems
Aomputers
2lectronic ballasts
+ninterruptable power supplies
-witching power supplies
Welding machines
Aontrol circuits
@requency converters
-tatic 0:r compensators
:rc furnaces
?0&A transmission systems
2lectrical Aommunication systems
The table in above summaries the main effects of harmonics and the normal permitted levels, inter
harmonics affect remotely#controlled devices and produce a phenomenon known as flicker!
&efine triplen harmonics and adverse effect of harmonics?
The triplen harmonics are defined as the odd multiples of the *rd
harmonic $e7! *rd, Cth, 1.th, (1st etc!%! Triplen harmonics are of particular concern because they are 6ero
sequence harmonics, unlike the fundamental, which is positive sequence! The consequence of this fact is
that the magnitude of these currents on the * phases are additive in the neutral! This can lead to very
large currents circulating in the neutral, and unless the neutral is sufficiently oversi6ed this can present a
fire ha6ard! These currents can also circulate in the transformer causing significant overheating there too!
-ingle#phase power supplies for equipment such as electronic ballasts and 3As are the most significant
source of Triplen harmonics!
2ffects of harmonics:
&istortion of main supply voltage, unwanted currents flowing in the supply
network generate additional energy losses!
Dalfunction of ripple control and other mains signaling
systems,protective relays and, possibly, other of control systems!
:dditional losses in capacitors and rotating
machines!
:dditional acoustic noise from motors and other apparatus, reducing the
efficiency of motors!
?igh harmonic amplitudes may not only cause malfunctions, additional
losses and overheating, but also overload the power distribution network and
overheat the neutral conductor and cause it to burn out!
&efective operation of regulating devices, disturbed operation of florescent lamps,
television receivers or other equipment!
&raw flow chart of harmonics evaluation procedure?
3AA: 3oint of Aommon Aoupling is defined in this te7t as such a point of utility supply which may be
common to the equipment in question and other equipment! There are several definitions of 3AA in
different standards and even more interpretations of these definitions in literature! The definition chosen
here is seen as technically most sound!