ASIGNMENT #01

SUBMITTED TO: SIR ASIF SHAH

SUBJECT: ELECTRICAL POWER TRANSMISSION & DISTRIBUTION.



Q.1 what is electrical power supply system? Why higher voltages are required
to transmit electrical power? Draw a single line diagram of a typical A.C
power supply scheme?
Answer. The conveyance of electric power from a power station to consumers
premises is known as electric supply system. An electric supply system consists of
three principal components viz., the power station, the transmission lines and the
distribution system. Electric power is produced at the power stations which are
located at favorable places, generally quite away from the consumers. It is then
transmitted over large distances to load centers with the help of conductors known
as transmission lines. Finally, it is distributed to a large number of small and big
consumers through a distribution network.
The electric supply system can be broadly classified into (i) d.c. or a.c. system (ii)
overhead or underground system. Now-a-days, 3-phase, 3-wire a.c. system is
universally adopted for generation and transmission of electric power as an
economical proposition. However, distribution of electric power is done by 3-
phase, 4-wire a.c. system. The underground system is more expensive than the
overhead system. Therefore, in our country, overhead system is mostly adopted for
transmission and distribution of electric power.
The transmission of electric power is carried at high voltages due to the
following reasons :
(i) Reduces volume of conductor material.
(ii) Increases transmission efficiency.
(iii) Decreases percentage line drop.

Draw a single line diagram of a typical A.C power supply scheme?
























Q2. What do you understand by sag & tension of a power transmission line?
How sag is calculated and what factors affect it?
Answer. The difference in level between points of supports and the lowest point on
the conductor is called sag. Sag in Overhead Lines While erecting an overhead
line, it is very important that conductors are under safe tension. If the conductors
are too much stretched between supports in a bid to save conductor material, the
stress in the conductor may reach unsafe value and in certain cases the conductor
may break due to excessive tension. In order to permit safe tension in the
conductors, they are not fully stretched but are allowed to have a dip or sag.
Calculation of Sag:
In an overhead line, the sag should be so adjusted that tension in the conductors is
within safe limits. . We shall now calculate sag and tension of a conductor when (
i) supports are at equal levels and ( ii) supports are at unequal levels.
( i) When supports are at equal levels. Consider a conductor between two
equilevel supports
A and B with O as the lowest point .It can be proved that lowest point will be at
the mid-span.
Let
l = Length of span
w = Weight per unit length of conductor
T = Tension in the conductor.
Consider a point P on the conductor. Taking the lowest point O as the origin,
let the co-ordinates of point P be x and y. Assuming that the curvature is so small
that curved length is equal to its horizontal projection ( i.e., OP = x), the two
forces acting on the portion OP of the conductor are : ( a) The weight wx of
conductor. ( b) The tension T .
Equating the moments of above two forces about point O, we get,
T y =
or
y =

The maximum dip (sag) is represented by the value of y at either of the supports A
and B.
At support A,
x = l/2 and y = S
Sag, S ={w(l/2)^2}/2T.



( ii) When supports are at unequal levels.
l = Span length
h = Difference in levels between two supports
x1 = Distance of support at lower level ( i.e., A) from O
x2 = Distance of support at higher level ( i.e. B) from O
T = Tension in the conductor.
If w is the weight per unit length of the conductor, then,
Sag S1=

& S2=

Also, X1 + x2= l..eq#1
Now s1-s2= (

S1-s2 =(

) :: x1-x2=l
S1-s2= (

)
But, s2-s1=h.
h= (

)
(x2-x1)=2Th/wl..eq#2
By solving eq#1 &2 we get,
X1= (

) (

)
X2= (

) (

)
Having found x1 and x2, values of S1 and S2 can be easily calculated.


Effect of wind and ice loading. The above formulae for sag are true only in still
air and at normal temperature when the conductor is acted by its weight only.
However, in actual practice, a conductor may have ice coating and simultaneously
subjected to wind pressure. The weight of ice acts vertically downwards i.e. in the
same direction as the weight of conductor. The force due to the wind is assumed to
act horizontally i.e., at right angle to the projected surface of the conductor. Hence,
the total force on the conductor is the vector sum of horizontal and vertical forces.
Total weight of conductor per unit length is,
Wt= [(w+wi)*2+(Ww)*2]*1/2
w = weight of conductor per unit length
w= conductor material density volume per unit length.
wi = weight of ice per unit length
wi= density of ice volume of ice per unit length
wi= density of ice /4[( d + 2 t)2 d 2] 1
wi= density of ice t ( d + t)*
Ww= wind force per unit length
Ww= wind pressure per unit area projected area per unit length
Ww= wind pressure [( d + 2 t) 1]
When the conductor has wind and ice loading also, the following points may be
noted:
i) The conductor sets itself in a plane at an angle to the vertical where,
tan =Ww/w+Wi
( ii) The sag in the conductor is given by :
S =Wtl*2/2T
Hence S represents the slant sag in a direction making an angle to the vertical. If
no specific mention is made in the problem, then slant slag is calculated by using
the above formula.
( iii) The vertical sag = S cos

03. Explain various types of insulators used in over-head transmission lines
for power transmission?
Answer. The successful operation of an overhead line depends to a considerable
extent upon the proper selection of insulators. There are several types of insulators
but the most commonly used are pin type, suspension type, strain insulator and
shackle insulator.
1. Pin type insulators. As the name suggests, the pin type insulator is secured to
the cross-arm on the pole. There is a groove on the upper end of the insulator for
housing the conductor. The conductor passes through this groove and is bound by
the annealed wire of the same material as the conductor. Pin type insulators are
used for transmission and distribution of electric power at voltages up to 33 kV.
Beyond operating voltage of 33 kV, the pin type insulators become too bulky and
hence uneconomical.




2. Suspension type insulators. The cost of pin type insulator increases rapidly as
the working voltage is increased. Therefore, this type of insulator is not
economical beyond 33 kV. For high voltages (>33 kV), it is a usual practice to use
suspension type insulators. They consist of a number of porcelain discs connected
in series by metal links in the form of a string. The conductor is suspended at the
bottom end of this string while the other end of the string is secured to the cross-
arm of the tower. Each unit or disc is designed for low voltage, say 11 kV. The
number of discs in series would obviously depend upon the working voltage. For
instance, if the working voltage is 66 kV, then six discs in series will be provided
on the string.

Advantages
(i) Suspension type insulators are cheaper than pin type insulators for voltages
beyond 33 kV.
(ii) Each unit or disc of suspension type insulator is designed for low
voltage,usually 11 kV.
Depending upon the working voltage, the desired number of discs can be
connected in series.
(iii) If any one disc is damaged, the whole string does not become useless because
the damaged disc can be replaced by the sound one.
(iv) The suspension arrangement provides greater flexibility to the line. The
connection at the cross arm is such that insulator string is free to swing in any
direction and can take up the position where mechanical stresses are minimum.
(v) In case of increased demand on the transmission line, it is found more
satisfactory to supply the greater demand by raising the line voltage than to provide
another set of conductors.
The additional insulation required for the raised voltage can be easily
obtained in the suspension arrangement by adding the desired number of discs.
(vi)The suspension type insulators are generally used with steel towers. As the
conductors run below the earthed cross-arm of the tower, therefore, this
arrangement provides partial protection from lightning.


3. Strain insulators. When there is a dead end of the line or there is corner or
sharp curve, the line is subjected to greater tension. In order to relieve the line of
excessive tension, strain insulators are used. For low voltage lines (< 11 kV),
shackle insulators are used as strain insulators. However, for high voltage
transmission lines, strain insulator consists of an assembly of suspension
insulators. The discs of strain insulators are used in the vertical plane. When the
tension in lines is exceedingly high, as at long river spans, two or more strings are
used in parallel.


4.Shackle insulators. In early days, the shackle insulators were used as strain
insulators. But now a days, they are frequently used for low voltage distribution
lines. Such insulators can be used either in a horizontal position or in a vertical
position. They can be directly fixed to the pole with a bolt or to the cross arm. The
conductor in the groove is fixed with a soft binding wire. These are mostly applied
to support line strain (tension), such as at changes of transmission line direction.
1.To support conductors and attach them to structures
2.To electrically isolate conductors from other components on a transmission line
The second purpose is very important to operation since without some form of
insulating material, electrical circuit cannot operate.
To be able to isolate conductors, insulators must be made of materials that offer a
great deal of resistance to the flow of electricity. Porcelain is one of the most
highly used insulator type along with glass and other synthetic materials.




04.(a) Draw and explain the types and constructional details of underground
cables used for electrical power transmission?
Answer. An underground cable essentially consists of one or more conductors
covered with suitable insulation and surrounded by a protecting cover. Although
several types of cables are available, the type of cable to be used will depend upon
the working voltage and service requirements
Constructional detail:

Conductor
A cable may have one or more than one core depending upon the type of
service for which it is intended. The conductor could be of aluminum or copper
and is stranded in order to provide flexibility to the cable.
Insulation
The core is provided with suitable thickness of insulation, depending upon
the voltage to be withstood by the cable.

Metallic Sheath
A metallic sheath of lead or aluminum is provided over the insulation to
protect the cable from moisture, gases or other damaging liquids.

Bedding
Bedding is provided to protect the metallic sheath from corrosion and from
mechanical damage due to armoring. It is a fibrous material like jute or hessian
tape.


Armoring
Its purpose is to protect the cable from mechanical injury while laying it or during
the course of handling. It consists of one or two layers of galvanized steel wire or
steel tape.
Serving
To protect armoring from atmospheric conditions, a layer of fibrous material is
provided.
Types:
1. Low Tension or Voltage (L.T.) Cable.
(Operating Voltage up to 1 kV).
2. High Tension or Voltage (H.T) Cable.
(Operating voltage up to 11 kV).
3. Super Tension or Voltage (S.T) Cable.
(Operating voltage Up to 33 kV).
4. Extra High Tension or Voltage (E.H.T.) Cable.
(Operating Voltage up to 66kV).
5. Extra Super Tension or Voltage Cable.
(Operating voltage up to 132 kV).
* Oil filled cables
(a) Single core oil filled cables used up to 132 kV.
(b) Three core oil filled cables used up to 66 kV.
* Gas pressure cables
(a) External pressure cables.
(b) Internal pressure cable.
(i) High pressure gas filled cable.
(ii) Gas cushion cable.
(iii) Impregnated pressure cable.


Q.4(B) Sketch and explain Direct (Solid) and Draw-in methods of laying
underground cables?
Answer.
1. Direct laying. This method of laying underground cables is simple and cheap
and is much favoured in modern practice. In this method, a trench of about 1 5
metres deep and 45 cm wide is dug. The trench is covered with a layer of fine sand
(of about 10cm thickness) and the cable is laid over this sand bed. The sand
prevents the entry of moisture from the ground and thus protects the cable from
decay. After the cable has been laid in the trench, it is covered with another layer
of sand of about 10 cm thickness. The trench is then covered with bricks and other
materials in order to protect the cable from mechanical injury. When more than
one cable is to be laid in the same trench, a horizontal or vertical inter-axial
spacing of atleast 30 cm is provided in order to reduce the effect of mutual heating
and also to ensure that a fault occurring on one cable does not damage the adjacent
cable. Cables to be laid in this way must have serving of bituminised paper and
hessian tape so as to provide protection against corrosion and electorlysis.
Advantages
( i) It is a simple and less costly method.
( ii) It gives the best conditions for dissipating the heat generated in the cables.
( iii) It is a clean and safe method as the cable is invisible and free from external
disturbances.

Disadvantages
( i) The extension of load is possible only by a completely new excavation which
may cost as much as the original work.
( ii) The alterations in the cable netwok cannot be made easily.
( iii) The maintenance cost is very high.
( iv) Localisation of fault is difficult.
( v) It cannot be used in congested areas where excavation is expensive and
inconvenient.
Note: This method of laying cables is used in open areas where excavation can be
done conveniently and at low cost.

2.Draw-in system. In this method, conduit or duct of glazed stone or cast iron or
concrete are laid in the ground with manholes at suitable positions along the cable
route. The cables are then pulled into position from manholes. Through four-way
underground duct line, three of the ducts carry transmission cables and the fourth
duct carries relay protection connection, pilot wires. Care must be taken that where
the duct line changes direction; depths, dips and offsets be made with a very long
radius or it will be difficult to pull a large cable between the manholes. The
distance between the manholes should not be too long so as to simplify the pulling
in of the cables. The cables to be laid in this way need not be armoured but must be
provided with serving of hessian and jute in order to protect them when being
pulled into the ducts.






Advantages
(i) Repairs, alterations or additions to the cable network can be made without
opening the ground.
(ii) As the cables are not armoured, therefore, joints become simpler and
maintenance cost is reduced considerably.
(iii) There are very less chances of fault occurrence due to strong mechanical
protection provided by the system.
Disadvantages
(i) The initial cost is very high.
(ii) The current carrying capacity of the cables is reduced due to the close
grouping of cables and unfavourable conditions for dissipation of heat. This
method of cable laying is suitable for congested areas where excavation is
expensive and inconvenient, for once the conduits have been laid, repairs or
alterations can be made without opening the ground. This method is generally used
for short length cable routes such as in workshops, road crossings where frequent
digging is costlier or impossible.
3.Solid system. In this method of laying, the cable is laid in open pipes or troughs
dug out in earth along the cable route. The troughing is of cast iron, stoneware,
asphalt or treated wood. After the cable is laid in position, the troughing is filled
with a bituminous or asphaltic compound and covered over. Cables laid in this
manner are usually plain lead covered because troughing affords good mechanical
protection.


Disadvantages
(i) It is more expensive than direct laid system.
(ii) It requires skilled labour and favourable weather conditions.
(iii) Due to poor heat dissipation facilities, the current carrying capacity of the
cable is reduced.
In view of these disadvantages, this method of laying underground cables is rarely
used nowadays.

Q.5 A 20-km single-phase transmission line having 0.823 cm diameter has two
line conductors separated by 1.5 metre. The conductor has a resistance of 0.311
ohm per kilometer. Find the loop impedance of this line at 50 Hz.
Answer.
Data: loop length=20km=

D=1.5m:
r=0.823/2=0.412cm=

m
loop impedance=?
Solution.
A
Let, Ur=1 for copper and air => i=

H/m

Total loop inductance is =L;
L=
(

)


L=

L=

L=

H
Now reactance X=

Loop resistance =
Here, loop impedance=

Loop impedance= 154.75+238.39
Loop impedance= 19.82ohm. (Ans.)
Q.6 A single-phase line has an impedance of 5 60 and supplies a load of 120
A,3,300 V at 0.8 p.f. lagging. Calculate the sending-end voltage and draw a vector
diagram?
Answer.
Data: Er=3300<0*
I=120A
Es=? & P.f=?
Solution;
As we know, I=I< R
Where; R=

36*52
Voltage drop=Iz= 120x5<60*-36*52
Iz= 600<23*8
Iz=600(0.9196+j0.392)
Iz= 551.8+j235.7
Now sending voltage =>Es =Er+Iz
Es=[(3300+j)+(551.8+235.7)]
Es= 3851.8+j235.7
Es=

Es= 3860v. (Ans)
Vector Diagram:




Q.7 An overhead, single-phase transmission line delivers 1100 kW at 33 kV at 0.8
p.f. lagging. The total resistance of the line is 10 Ohms and total inductive
reactance is 15 Ohms. Determine (i) sending-end voltage (ii) sending-end p.f. and
(iii) transmission efficiency?
Answer.
Data;
cosR= 0.8 lagging,
Z=10+j15
Vr=33kv=33000v

Solution;
Line current, I=

I=

I= 41.67A
As cos R=0.8 so, sin R=0.6,



Taking receiving end voltage Vr as reference phasor,
Vr=Vr+j0 = 33000v
Now I= I(cos R-jsin R)
I = 41.67(0.8-j0.6)
I = 33.33-j25
Sending end voltage,
Vs=Vr+ I Z
Vs= 33000+(33.33-j25)(10+j15)
Vs =33708.3+j250
Magnitude of Vs= 33709.2v
Angle b/w Vs & Vr is,
=

)
= 0.42*
now sending end power factor is;
s=R+
s= 36.87*+0.42*
s= 37.29*
coss= cos(37.29)= 0.7956 lag.
Transmission efficiency; e=output/output+losses.
Losses =

Losses =

Losses =17364w= 17.364kw
Now efficiency =

Efficiency = 98.44 (Ans)



Q.8 A 3-phase, 50-Hz, 220-kV transmission line consists of conductors of 1.2 cm
radius spaced 2 meters at the corners of an equilateral triangle. Calculate the
corona power loss per km of the line at a temperature of 20C and barometric
pressure of 72.2 cm. Take the surface factors of the conductor as 0.96?
Answer.
Solution, as we know that corona loss = p;
P= (

eq#1
Also, = (

) = 0.965..#2
Now, Vc=

)
Vc= (

)
Vc= 120.66kv/phase...eq#3
And v=

V= 127kv/phase..eq#4
Place values from eq#2,3,4 into eq#1 we get,
P= (

P=

. (Ans)







Q.9 In a 33 kV overhead line, there are three units in the string of insulators. If the
capacitance between each insulator pin and earth is 11% of self-capacitance of
each insulator, find (i) the distribution of voltage over 3 insulators and (ii) string
efficiency?
Answer.
Data; V= 33kv
K= 0.11
Voltage across string, = 33/3 = 19.05kv
Solution;
At junction A;
V2wC=v1wC+v1kwC
V2= V1(1+K) = V1(1+0.11)
V2= 1.11V1.

At junction B; I3= I2+i2,
V3wC=
V3=V2+(V1+V2)K
V3=1.342V1


(i) Voltage across whole string is;
v= v1+v2+v3
::v=v1+1.11v1+1.342v1
:: 19.05=3.452v1
:: v1= 5.52kv & v2= 1.11v1 = 6.13kv & v3 =1.342v1 = 7.4kv
(ii) String efficiency;= (

)
String efficiency = (

) = 85.8% (Ans)



Q.10 An insulator string consists of three units, each having a safe working voltage
of 15 kV. The ratio of self-capacitance to shunt capacitance of each unit is 8:1.
Find the maximum safe working voltage of the string. Also find the string
efficiency?
Answer.
Data; v3= 15kv
K= 1/8= 0.125

Applying kcl ai junction A, we get ;
V2= v1(1+k)
From this v1 = v2/(1+k) = 0.89v2
Now at junction B ;
V3= v2+(v1+v2)k
V3= v2+(0.89v2+v2)*0.125
V3= 1.236v2
:: voltage across middle unit is; v2= v3/1.236
:: v2= 15/1.236 = 12.13kv
:: v1 = 0.89v2 = 10.79kv
:: v3= 15kv (given)
(i) Voltage across string = v1+v2+v3 = 37.92kv
(ii) String efficiency =

String efficiency = 84.26% (Ans)






Q.11 A 132 kV line with 1 956 cm dia. conductors is built so that corona takes
place if the line voltage exceeds 210 kV (r.m.s.). If the value of potential gradient
at which ionization occurs can be taken as 30 kV per cm, find the spacing between
the conductors?
Answer.
Solution;
Assume the line is 3-phase.
Conductor radius, r = 1 956/2 = 0 978 cm
Dielectric strength of air, g=

= 2012kv/cm
Disruptive voltage/phase, Vc=

=121.25kv
Assume smooth conductors ( i.e., irregularity factor m = 1) and standard pressure
and temperature for which air density factor = 1. Let d cm be the spacing
between the conductors.
Disruptive voltage ( r.m.s. ) per phase is,
Vc= (

)
121.25= (

)
(

)=(

) = 5.848
Or
2.3 (

) =5.848
Or
=5.848/3 = 2.5426
Or
d/r=antilog2.5426 = 348.8
Conductor spacing,
d = 348 8 r = 3488 0978 = 341 cm ()



Q.12 A 132 kV transmission line has the following data:
Wt. of conductor = 680 kg/km;
Length of span = 260 m
Ultimate strength = 3100 kg;
Safety factor = 2

Calculate the height above ground at which the conductor should be supported.
Ground clearance required is 10 meters?
Answer.
Solution ;
Weight of conductor = w;
W= 680/1000 = 0.68kg
Working tension =T;
T= ultimate strength/safety factor
::T= 3100/2 = 1550kg
Now; sag =

Sag =

Sag = 3.7m
:: conductor should be supported at 13.7m (Ans)


Q.13 A transmission line has a span of 150 m between level supports. The
conductor has a cross-sectional area of 2 cm2. The tension in the conductor is 2000
kg. If the specific gravity of the conductor material is 9 9 gm/cm3 and wind
pressure is 15 kg/m length, calculate the sag. What is the vertical sag?
Answer.
Data ;
l= 150m
T= 2000kg
Ww= 1.5kg,
Solution;
Weight of conductor = w;
W=
W=9.9*2*100
W=1980gm = 1.98kg
Now total weight; Wt=

Wt=

Wt= 2.48kg
Now; sag =s;
S=

S= 3.48m


The value of is given by;
tan = (

)
tan = 1.5/1.98
tan = 0.76
now =

= 37.23*
here vertical sag= Scos ;
scos = 3.48*cos(37.23)
Scos = 2.77m (Ans.)






Q.14 A transmission tower on a level ground gives a minimum clearance of 8
meters for its lowest conductor with a sag of 10 m for a span of 300 m. If the same
tower is to be used over a slope of 1 in 15, find the minimum ground clearance
obtained for the same span, same conductor and same weather conditions?
Answer.
Solution; on ground level,
S=

NOW; height = S+C
Height = 10+8 = 18m
:: on ground slope;

Now vertical distance b/w towers;
h= EC = DEsin
h= 300/15 = 20m
now; x1+x2 = 300m1
also; h= (

) (

)
h=

:: X2-X1=

X2-X1=150m2
By solving eq# 1 & 2, we get;
X1= 75m & X2 =225m
Now sag;
S1=

= 2.5m
S2 =

= 22.5m
:: clearance of point o from ground is;
OG= BC-S2-GF
OG=38-22.5-5
OG=10.5m :: GF=X1tan = 75/15 =5m
Now equation for slope of ground;
Y=mx+A
Here, m=1/15 & A=OG= -10.5
NOW Y= (

)
:: clearance c= equation of curve-Y
C= (

) (

)
C=

)
C=

C will be clear if dc/dx=o;

]
=0

=0
From here: x=

=75m

Now min: clearance from o;
Min:clearance =

Minimum clearance= 8m (Ans.)